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Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234

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Experimental investigations into the interactions between moisture,

rock surface temperatures and an epilithic lichen cover in the
bioprotection of limestone
N.E.A. Carter∗ , H.A. Viles
School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Manseld Road, Oxford, OX1 3TB, UK

Abstract

This paper examines the links between moisture, epilithic lichens, rock surface temperatures and weathering. Field and laboratory
experiments were conducted in order to investigate the combined e.ect of surface wetness and Verrucaria nigrescens (an epilithic
lichen) on limestone temperature /uctuations. Exposure blocks with and without a lichen cover were subjected to short-term temperature
/uctuations and two types of moisture events: arti3cial showers (8 ml rainfall) and larger storms (40 ml rainfall). The experiments showed
that larger storms are more likely to dampen temperature /uctuations at the rock surface, especially in the presence of an epilithic lichen
cover, providing evidence for a mechanism of bioprotection. The conclusion is that the epilithic lichen retains moisture, which reduces
thermal stress in the surface of the limestone.
? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Surface wetness; Short-term temperature /uctuations; Field and laboratory experiments; Lichens; Verrucaria nigrescens; Limestone
weathering; Bioprotection

1. Introduction This study focuses in particular on the combined e.ects

A great body of research has been carried out into the
links between moisture and rock weathering. There are stud-
ies that concentrate on the e.ects of fog moisture and salt
in desert areas [1,2]; moisture in cold environments [3–8],
in built environments [9–13] and in river catchments [14–
17]; and on techniques for determining rock moisture
content [18].
However, fewer studies have attempted to identify
the complex interactions between moisture, lithobiontic
(rock-dwelling) organisms and rock weathering, with the
exception of [19,20]. Indeed, according to [20], it has often
been assumed that organic weathering replaces inorganic
processes when a bio3lm, biorind or biocrust is present.
In reality, it is likely that other scenarios also exist and
that certain lithobionts such as lichens act to retard the ac-
tion of inorganic weathering processes [21,22], and that in
certain circumstances biological and inorganic weathering
processes reinforce one another.
∗ Corresponding author. Fax: +44-1865-271-929.
E-mail address: nicholas.carter@geography.ox.ac.uk (N.E.A. Carter).
of surface wetness and an epilithic lichen cover on lime-
stone surface and internal temperatures both in the 3eld and
in the laboratory. Temperatures experienced in the top few
centimetres of rock are considered to be of signi3cance for
weathering [23,24]. The hypothesis being tested in this pa-
per is that the degree of surface wetness determines the
degree to which rock surface temperature /uctuations and
thermal gradients are dampened. The response is expected
to be greater for the blocks with a lichen cover, the idea
here being that the spongy lichen cover will retain moisture
more readily and so prolong the temperature dampening ef-
fect more e.ectively than the bare rock surface.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Nature of the test blocks
The blocks used in the experimental work consisted of
Saint Quentin French limestone, which was provided by the
Building Research Establishment, Department of the Envi-
ronment, Watford, UK. The Saint-Quentin stone is believed

0360-1323/03/$ - see front matter ? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0360-1323(03)00079-9
1226 N.E.A. Carter, H.A. Viles / Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234
to be similar to Noyant stone of the LutGetian stage of the
Eocene series, a soft foraminaferal limestone bearing only
a few small or medium-sized pockets. It is of cream colour
and medium rounded texture. Two types of surfaces were
studied: those primarily covered with the epilithic lichen
(V. nigrescens), labelled VnigA, VnigB and VnigC, and
those with no lichen cover, labelled NocovD, NocovE, No-
covF (Fig. 1). Three replicates of each type were used in the
experiments. The blocks were cut to a size of 4:5×4:5×4 cm,
which were the maximum dimensions possible to obtain
three replicate blocks of each surface from the available
limestone. Fig. 2 compares SEM micrographs of thin sec-
tions through each of the surface types.
Holes were drilled to a depth of 2:5 cm from the surface of
the test block to allow placement of an internal temperature
probe. Two diagonal lines were drawn on the base side of
each block so as to provide a centre spot for drilling. A 3 mm
masonry drill bit was used to drill the holes. Throughout all
the experiments, blocks were packed into polystyrene cases
of identical design so that just one side of the block was
V. nigrescens No lichen cover
(blocks VnigA, VnigB (blocks NocovD, NocovE
and VnigC) and NocovF)
Fig. 1. The two di.erent types of surface used in the 3eld and laboratory
studies.
V. nigrescens on surface
of Saint Quentin
limestone
100 µm
Fig. 2. SEM photos of thin sections taken through the di.erent surface types.
exposed, as shown in Fig. 3. The surface probe was attached
to the surface using a wooden stick and a rubber band.
2.2. Temperature recording equipment
The surface temperatures for each test block were mea-
sured using Gemini PB4770 rubber surface probes, which
were attached to the surface using rubber bands and a
wooden stick. These probes were attached to Gemini Tiny-
tag Plus TG12-0020 dataloggers, which were programmed
using Gemini GLM version 2.0 software on a laptop com-
puter. A piece of silver foil was placed over the surface
probe so as to cut out direct heating of the probe by a light
source and the atmosphere.
The internal temperatures of the stone were measured at
2:5 cm depth from the surface, the same depth measured
by [24] and considered to be the zone most susceptible to
thermal stress, using Gemini PB4730 internal ‘pencil point’
probes which were inserted through the base of the case and
the block and tightly packed using rock powder obtained
during the drilling of the holes. These probes were kept
in place using multi-purpose 3xing tack at the base of the
polystyrene case where the probe entered the case.
The relative humidity was measured using a Gemini RH
TGP-0304 data logger and the ambient air temperature was
measured using a Digitron SF12 logger and thermistor probe
at 3rst and then in later experiments (when better equipment
became available) using a Gemini Tinytag Plus TG12-0020
data logger and a Gemini PB4730 ‘pencil point’ probe which
was covered with a silver foil sleeve to prevent direct heating
by the sun or lamp. The thermistor probe was protected
from direct heating by the light source using a silver foil
shield.
2.3. Experimental methodology
For the purpose of this research it was necessary to sub-
ject the test blocks to short-term heating and cooling cycles
smooth surface of
uncolonised Saint
Quentin limestone
500 µm
 N.E.A. Carter, H.A. Viles / Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234
Fig. 3. Side view of an exposure block to illustrate probe attachment and
casing.
in the 3eld and laboratory. Rapid rock surface temperature
/uctuations can occur as a result of short-term insolation in-
terruptions, for example by the passage of cloud, rain storms
and winds during a hot summer period.
2.3.1. Field experiments
One block of each surface type was exposed simulta-
neously on the roof at the School of Geography and the
Environment in Oxford during hot summer weather. The
blocks were mounted in the polystyrene jackets on a table
(Fig. 4). The table was 67 cm high and the platform on
which the air temperature probe, humidity recorder and log-
gers were placed was 24 cm above the ground. Each block
was sprayed 10 times with distilled water 3rst at 30 min in-
tervals (to represent short showers) and then at 5 intervals of
1 min, totalling 50 sprays in 5 min, every 30 min (to repre-
sent larger storms). The timings of the treatments are given
in Table 1. Initial tests showed that it took 10 sprays to sat-
urate the surface of the blocks (until glistening). 10 sprays
was equivalent to 8 ml of water on average and 50 sprays
to approximately 40 ml.
2.3.2. Environmental chamber simulations
Environmental chamber simulations took place in the
Sediment Laboratory at the School of Geography and the
Environment. The test blocks were connected to the probes
and data loggers, and then placed in a Sanyo Gallenkamp
MTH series environmental chamber as shown in Fig. 5.
Short-term temperature /uctuations were created within
1227
Fig. 4. Field exposure blocks located on a table on the roof of the School
of Geography and Environment, Oxford. A third block is seen, which
was used in an additional experiment.
the cabinet by using a lamp attached to a timer (on for
30 min, o. for 15 min). It was deemed more repeatable to
experiment with one block at a time in a constant location.
50 sprays (40 ml) of distilled water were applied to each
block at the end of each 30 min illumination period, fol-
lowing an initial ‘warm-up equilibration period’ of 24 h
of heating and cooling. This process was repeated 5 times
during the experiment.
3. Results
3.1. Field experiments
3.1.1. Single moisture treatments of 8 ml (10 sprays)
every 0:5 h
In order to compare the surface and internal temperatures
of blocks VnigA, VnigB and VnigC and blocks NocovD,
NocovE and NocovF when treated with a single moisture
event every 0:5 h, graphs were drawn to compare the sur-
face and internal temperature changes for pairs of blocks
exposed at the same time: VnigA–NocovD, VnigB–NocovE
and VnigC–NocovF. Trendlines were added to each temper-
ature pattern observed, so as to o.er comparison between
the di.erent patterns obtained.
Figs. 6–8 compare the surface and internal temperature
changes occurring for blocks VnigA and NocovD; VnigB
and NocovE; and blocks VnigC and NocovF for the short
shower simulations and Table 2 compares the trendlines.
Table 2 shows that the trendlines for the surface and inter-
nal temperatures for the comparative surfaces all converge,
except for blocks VnigA and NocovD. The trendlines also
show divergence occurring between surface and internal
1228 N.E.A. Carter, H.A. Viles / Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234

Table 1
Summary of the 3eld experiments

Dates of exposure Timing of moisture treatments Blocks used Measurements taken

19 July 2000 Showers (8 ml): VnigA and NocovD Surface and internal
2:00, 2:30, 3:00, 3:30 temperatures of each
Storms (40 ml): block. Air temperature
4:00, 4:01, 4:02, 4:03, 4:04 and relative humidity
4:30, 4:31, 4:32, 4:33, 4:34 over the entire exposure
5.01, 5.02, 5.03, 5.04, 5.05 period. All measurements
5.30, 5.31, 5.32, 5.33, 5.34 at 1-min intervals

21 July 2000 Showers (8 ml): VnigB and NocovE

2:00, 2:30, 3:04, 3:30
Storms (40 ml):
4:00, 4:01, 4:02, 4:03, 4:04
4:30, 4:31, 4:32, 4:33, 4:34
5.00, 5.01, 5.02, 5.03, 5.04
5.30, 5.31, 5.32, 5.33, 5.34

18 July 2000 Showers (8 ml): VnigC and NocovF

2:00, 2:30, 3:00, 3:34
Storms (40 ml):
4:00, 4:01, 4:02, 4:03, 4:04
4:30, 4:31, 4:32, 4:33, 4:34
5:00, 5:01, 5:02, 5:03, 5:04
5:30, 5:31, 5:32, 5:33, 5:34

lamp

Digitron data logger with

probe shielded with silver
foil

test block in case with

probes attached

Gemini relative
humidity probe

Gemini data loggers

Fig. 5. The position of the block, loggers and lamp within the environmental cabinet in the laboratory.

temperatures for each of the blocks taken separately. Clearly
the single moisture treatments do not appear to be dampen-
ing thermal gradients in each of the blocks exposed.
3.1.2. Five moisture treatments of 8 ml (40 ml total)
every 0:5 h
Figs. 9–11 illustrate the surface and internal temperatures
recorded for these larger moisture events. This time all the
trendlines in Table 3 comparing the surface and internal tem-
peratures can be seen to converge and with a greater degree
of convergence than was experienced for the single mois-
ture treatments. Furthermore, trendline convergence was ob-
served for the surface and internal temperatures of each of
the blocks with a V. nigrescens covering, but not for the
blocks with no lichen cover (except for block NocovD).
The larger moisture treatments appear to be having a more
 N.E.A. Carter, H.A. Viles / Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234 1229

Fig. 6. Temperature data recorded for blocks VnigA (epilithic) and No-
covD (no lichen cover) for single moisture treatments (8 ml) every 0:5 h:
(a) Surface temperatures of blocks VnigA (VnigAsu) and NocovD (No-
covDsu); (b) Surface and internal temperatures of block VnigA (VnigAsu
and VnigAin respectively); (c) Surface and internal temperatures of block
NocovD (NocovDsu and NocovDin respectively); (d) Internal tempera-
tures of blocks VnigA (VnigAin) and NocovD (NocovDin); (e) Surface
and internal temperature di.erences of blocks VnigA and NocovD.
Fig. 7. Temperature data recorded for blocks VnigB (epilithic) and No-
covE (no lichen cover) single moisture treatments (8 ml) every 0:5 h:
(a) Surface temperatures of blocks VnigB (VnigBsu) and NocovE (No-
covEsu); (b) Surface and internal temperature of block VnigB (VnigBsu
and VnigBin respectively); (c) Surface and internal temperatures of block
NocovE (NocovEsu and NocovEin respectively); (d) Internal tempera-
tures of blocks VnigB (VnigBin) and NocovE (NocovEin); (e) Surface
and internal temperature di.erences of block VnigB and block NocovE.
1230 N.E.A. Carter, H.A. Viles / Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234
Fig. 8. Temperature data recorded for blocks VnigC (epilithic) and No-
covF (no lichen cover) for single moisture treatments (8 ml) every 0:5 h:
(a) Surface temperatures of blocks VnigC (VnigCsu) and NocovF (No-
covFsu); (b) Surface and internal temperatures of blocks VnigC (VnigCsu
and VnigCin respectively); (c) Surface and internal temperatures of blocks
NocovF (NocovFsu and NocovFin respectively); (d) Internal tempera-
tures of blocks VnigC (VnigCin) and NocovF (NocovFin); (e) Surface
and internal temperature di.erences of blocks VnigC and NocovF.
Table 2
Comparison of trendlines for the surface and internal temperatures of
each of the blocks exposed during the ‘shower’ moisture treatments
Surfaces VnigA–NocovD VnigB–NocovE VnigC–NocovF
Trend-
lines Diverging Converging Diverging Converging Diverging Converging
Surface # # #
Internal # # #
Surface- VnigA, VnigB, VnigC,
internal NocovD NocovE NocovF
signi3cant e.ect on thermal gradients within the blocks than
the single moisture treatments, especially for the blocks with
a V. nigrescens cover.
3.2. Laboratory experiments
Blocks VnigB, VnigC, NocovD and NocovE were used
in this part of the experiment (block VnigA had been drilled
to examine temperature di.erences at its surface and just
beneath the V. nigrescens thallus and so was removed from
the experiment). Fig. 12 illustrates the surface and internal
temperatures of each of the blocks exposed over a 48 h
period.
A number of general observations can be drawn from the
graphs in Fig. 12. Firstly, the surface and internal tempera-
tures of each of the blocks can be seen to fall following each
period of 3ve moisture treatments and settle at a lower level
than before the moisture treatments. Also, the amplitude of
the surface and internal temperature /uctuations for each of
the blocks can be seen to be smaller after each period of
moisture treatment compared with pre-treatment amplitudes.
The e.ect of the moisture on temperature variations appears
to be one of dampening the surface and internal temperature
/uctuations.
Tables 4–5 give the descriptive statistics of the surface and
internal temperatures of all the blocks sprayed, before and
after treatment, as well as the di.erence between surface and
internal temperatures for each of the blocks. The maximum
thermal gradients for all the blocks can be seen to reduce
after each period of spraying. This suggests that moisture
acts to reduce thermal gradients at the surface of the blocks
and so reduces thermal stress.
4. The combined eect of surface wetness and
V. nigrescens on rock surface and internal rock
temperatures
The 3eld experiments showed that the degree of damp-
ening of thermal gradients by rainfall/moisture depends on
the moisture regime and the surface type. In the experi-
ments conducted, ‘small’ single episodes (8 ml) had little
e.ect, whereas ‘larger’, multiple episodes (40 ml) led to a
decrease in thermal gradients for all V. nigrescens covered
blocks, but only one of the bare blocks experienced a thermal
gradient decrease.
 N.E.A. Carter, H.A. Viles / Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234
Fig. 9. Temperature data recorded for blocks VnigA (epilithic) and No-
covD (no lichen cover) for 3ve moisture treatments of 8 ml for 5 min
(40 ml total) every 0:5 h: (a) Surface temperatures recorded for blocks
VnigA (VnigAsu) and NocovD (NocovDsu); (b) Surface and internal
temperatures of block VnigA (VnigAsu and VnigAin respectively); (c)
Surface and internal temperatures of block NocovD (NocovDsu and No-
covDin respectively); (d) Internal temperatures of blocks VnigA (Vni-
gAin) and NocovD (NocovDin); (e) Surface and internal temperature
di.erences of blocks VnigA and NocovD.
1231
Fig. 10. Temperature data recorded for blocks VnigB (epilithic) and No-
covE (no lichen cover) for 3ve moisture treatments of 8 ml for 5 min
(40 ml total) every 0:5 h: (a) Surface temperatures of blocks VnigB
(VnigBsu) and NocovE (NocovEsu); (b) Surface and internal tempera-
tures of block VnigB (VnigBsu and VnigBin respectively); (c) Surface
and internal temperatures of block NocovE (NocovEsu and NocovEin);
(d) Internal temperatures of blocks VnigB (VnigBin) and NocovE (No-
covEin); (e) Surface and internal temperature di.erences of blocks VnigB
and NocovE.
1232 N.E.A. Carter, H.A. Viles / Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234

Table 3
Comparison of trendlines for the surface and internal temperatures of
each of the blocks exposed during the 3ve ‘storm’ moisture treatments
Surfaces VnigA–NocovD VnigB–NocovE VnigC–NocovF
Trend-
lines Diverging Converging Diverging Converging Diverging Converging
Surface # # #
Internal # # #
Surface- VnigA, NocovE VnigB NocovF VnigC
internal NocovD

The storage of moisture in the V. nigrescens thallus ap-

pears to increase the surface-internal cooling. Furthermore,
the laboratory experiments showed that, under controlled
conditions, the moisture episodes reduced the amplitude
of surface and internal temperature /uctuations for all the
blocks exposed and thermal gradients. The results suggest
a process of bioprotection, whereby in moist hot environ-
ments, an epilithic lichen can act protectively by absorbing
moisture into its thallus and bu.ering the surface from ther-
mal stress causing temperature /uctuations.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the two anonymous ref-

erees who commented on an earlier draft of the paper and
the Building Research Establishment, Watford, UK for pro-
viding the experimental limestone.

References

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 N.E.A. Carter, H.A. Viles / Building and Environment 38 (2003) 1225 – 1234 1233

45 45

Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
40 40

35 35

30 5 moisture 30
treatments surface surface
25 25
(40ml/0.75hr) internal internal
i
20 20

1081

1441

1801

2161

2521

1081

1441

1801

2161

2521
361

721

361

721
1

1
(a) Time (minutes) (b) Time (minutes)

45
45

Temperature (°C)
40
Temperature (°C)

40

35 35

30 30
surface surface
25 25
internal internal
20 20
1081

1441

1801

2161

2521
361

721

1081

1441

1801

2161

2521
1

361

721
1
(c) Time (minutes) (d) Time (minutes)

Fig. 12. Surface and internal temperatures of each of the blocks (exposed to the lamp and 5 treatments of 40 ml water at 0:75 h intervals after 12 h)
over a 48 h period: (a) Surface and internal temperatures of block VnigB; (b) Surface and internal temperatures of block VnigC; (c) Surface and internal
temperatures of block NocovD; (d) Surface and internal temperatures of block NocovE.

Table 4
Descriptive statistics of surface, internal and di.erences between surface and internal temperatures of blocks VnigB and VnigC (epilithic cover)

Block VnigB Block VnigC

Surface Internal Surface-internal Surface Internal Surface-internal

First period (pre-treatments) N 721 721 721 721 721 721

Max (◦ C) 43.64 42.07 1.93 41.59 40.32 1.61
Min (◦ C) 38.46 39.37 −1:42 36.86 37.7 −1:34
Median (◦ C) 41.86 40.85 1.54 39.77 38.98 1.27

Second period (post-treatments) N 721 721 721 721 721 721

Max (◦ C) 38.90 37.67 1.44 37.77 36.99 1.20
Min (◦ C) 35.47 36.05 −0:92 34.03 34.63 −0:92
Median (◦ C) 37.80 36.99 1.17 36.18 35.65 0.84

Table 5
Descriptive statistics of surface, internal and di.erences between surface and internal temperatures of blocks NocovD and NocovE (no lichen cover)

Block NocovD Block NocovE

Surface Internal Surface-internal Surface Internal Surface-internal

First period (pre-treatments) N 721 721 721 721 721 721

Max (◦ C) 39.14 37.62 1.68 39.24 38.01 1.44
Min (◦ C) 35.05 35.47 −0:76 35.13 35.63 −0:84
Median (◦ C) 37.80 36.78 1.37 37.51 36.83 1.13

Second period (post-treatments) N 721 721 721 721 721 721

Max (◦ C) 36.23 35.24 1.15 36.54 35.73 1.10
Min (◦ C) 33.48 33.95 −0:75 33.22 33.67 −0:7
Median (◦ C) 35.37 34.74 0.86 35.16 34.66 0.81
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