Report on Documentation and Conservation of Simroungarh

Prepared to partially fulfil the requirement of fifth year first part of Bachelor's Degree in
Architecture under Department of Architecture, IOE Thapathali Campus, Tribhuvan
University

Literature Review and Case Study

Volume IA

2071 Batch

Department of Architecture,
IOE Thapathali Campus, Thapathali, Kathmandu,
Tribhuvan University
March 2019
Acknowledgement

This report is not the result of single effort but the combined efforts of all group members
without whom it would not have been possible to accomplish the study. It is our immense
pleasure and profuse happiness to present this report entitled “Report on the conservation of
Simroungarh".

We would like to thank our teachers Associate Prof. Deepak Pant, Ar. Sudeep Sharma Paudyal,
Dr. Sanjaya Uprety, Ar. Pradeep Adhikari and Ar. Sujata Shakya Bajracharya for the
knowledge, support, valuable suggestion and time they give us during this project. We would
like to thank Mayor Mr. Bijay Sankhar Yadav for supporting us in the site visit and also provide
thanks to Mr. Bharat Shah who has provided key information about the history of Simroungarh.
And we have to be grateful for the whole people of Simroungarh for cooperating with us.

We would like to thank all our friends of Architecture from Thapathali campus. In addition,
we are grateful to the authors and publishers of all books and reports mentioned in the reference
list. This case study report including literature review, case study, and proposal for the
conservation of Simroungarh.

We would appreciate any feedback and suggestion on the topic.

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Executive Summary

This report contains information on literature review, Case study about fort and fortified city.
In literature review, the report identifies the historical, social, cultural and architectural value
of fort and fortified city. We gathered information about architecture of fort and its design
element. We studied heritage and its conservation measure on the reference of charter and acts
of heritage conservation. This report contains theories of architectural conservation (Emmanuel
Viollet-le-Duc, John Ruskin and William Morris) and charter with different philosophical idea
on conservation of fort and its settlement. To our study we gathered information from ancient
monument Act 2013 on this report.

On the further in case study, we did research according to national, regional and international
cases for fort architecture and fortified city. National case study includes Jitighadi Killa,
Chisapani Gadhi, Makanwanpur Gadhi and hariharpur Gadhi, on other hand regional case
study was from Fort of Ramkot and Balahissar Citadel was Done. Fort of San Diego and Fort
of Bourtangle on international case study. We gathered information on geographical location,
climatic condition, present situation, historical time line, architectural attributes and
conservation approach of each case study and compared with analysis.

Fort of Simroungarh and its settlement was our conservation studio site. This report provides
geographical information, history of Simroungarh fort and sociodemographic data (which we
had performed with the help of kobo Toolbox) of Simroungarh. The present scenario of Kankali
complex, Ranibas complex and its settlement along the street of Kankali to Ranibas and their
analysis of tangible and intangible heritage are reported on this report. Through the study of
Simroungarh we prepared inventory of all heritage and did their value assessment with proper
reference and guidelines. Finally, this report contain proposal on conservation approach of
kanali complex, Ranibas Complex, Housing typology, Street Section through the result and
analysis of inventory and value assessment table we prepared. This report also maintains the
methodology of our study, data collection and necessary survey what we have done in this
process.

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Table of Contents
I. Acknowledgement
II. Executive Summary

1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.1 Background to the Study....................................................................................................... 11
1.2 Need of Study........................................................................................................................ 12
1.3 Importance of Study ............................................................................................................. 12
1.4 Methodology......................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.1 Study Approach ............................................................................................................. 12
1.4.2 Site Visit......................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.3 Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 13
1.4.4 Making of Conservation Plan ........................................................................................ 13
1.5 Limitations............................................................................................................................. 16
1.6 Expected Output ................................................................................................................... 16
1.1 Structure of the Report ......................................................................................................... 17
2 Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ............................................................................ 17
2.1 Heritage and its conservation ............................................................................................... 17
2.1.1 Heritage......................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.2 Heritage settlement ...................................................................................................... 24
2.1.2.1.1 Medieval settlement of kirtipur .................................................................................... 24
2.1.3 Fort as a heritage .......................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Charters and Acts for Heritage Conservation ....................................................................... 28
2.2.1 General Overview of Conservation ............................................................................... 28
2.2.2 Importance of Conservation ......................................................................................... 30
2.2.3 Theories of Architectural Conservation ........................................................................ 32
2.2.4 Charter .......................................................................................................................... 35
2.2.4.5 NARA DOCUMENT ON AUTHENTICITY (1994) .................................................................. 43
2.2.5 Provision of Ancient Monument Act 2013.................................................................... 46
2.3 History of Fort, Fort Architecture and Conservation ............................................................ 50
2.3.1 Introduction to Forts ..................................................................................................... 50
2.3.2 Fort Architecture: .......................................................................................................... 53
2.3.3 Evolution of International Fort Architecture ................................................................ 55
2.3.3.2.1.1 Method of construction of forts in ancient India.................................................. 67
2.4 Comparision Between International And Nepalese Fort Architecture ................................. 80
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 2.5 Comparision Between Regional And Nepalese Fort Architecture ........................................ 80
3 Case Study Of Forts, Fort Architecture And Settlements Near The Fort ...................................... 83
3.1 Case Study of forts in National context ................................................................................ 83
3.1.1 Jitgadhi Killa .................................................................................................................. 83
3.1.2 ChisapaniGadi (Fort) ..................................................................................................... 88
3.1.3 Present situation ........................................................................................................... 90
3.1.4 Conservation Approach................................................................................................. 97
3.1.5 MakawanpurGadhi........................................................................................................ 97
3.1.6 Hariharpur Gadhi ........................................................................................................ 106
3.2 Case Study of forts in Regional context .............................................................................. 111
3.2.1 Ramkot Fort ................................................................................................................ 111
3.2.2 Balahissar Citadel ........................................................................................................ 115
3.3 Case Study of Forts in International context ...................................................................... 121
3.3.1 Fort of San Diego ......................................................................................................... 121
3.3.2 Fort Bourtange ............................................................................................................ 128
3.4 Case Study of Historic Settlement ...................................................................................... 134
3.4.1 Bandipur a historical settlement................................................................................. 134
3.4.2 Jaisalmer fort............................................................................................................... 136
3.4.3 Hoi An ancient town.................................................................................................... 145
3.5 Inferences from all Case Study............................................................................................ 152
4 References .................................................................................................................................. 153

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List of Figures
Figure 1 Inventory Format ....................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2: Heritage Value Assessement of Simroungadh ......................................................... 16
Figure 3 Dido making .............................................................................................................. 23
Figure 4 Viollet Le Duc ........................................................................................................... 32
Figure 5 Plans of the cathedral: on the left, around 1230; on the right, around 1330, after
Viollet-le-Duc .................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 6 Elevations of the cathedral: on the left, before restoration; on the right, now, after
Viollet-le-Duc .................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 7 John Ruskin ............................................................................................................... 33
Figure 8 William Morris .......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 9 Timeline of Charters (i) ............................................................................................. 35
Figure 10 Timeline of Charters (ii) .......................................................................................... 35
Figure 11: Element of fort........................................................................................................ 52
Figure 12: Fortifications and enclosures from northwestern Europe....................................... 56
Figure 13:Fortifications and enclosures; wall .......................................................................... 56
Figure 14: Tower at Water Intervals ........................................................................................ 57
Figure 15: Seige Techniques .................................................................................................... 57
Figure 16: Medieval Castle ...................................................................................................... 58
Figure 17: Fortified Town, Dubrovnik. Croatia....................................................................... 58
Figure 18: 12th-century Castle, Château Gaillard, built by Richard Cœur-de-Lion in 1196. This
great castle, with ditches and escarpments cut out of the solid rock, and extensive
outworks ........................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 19: Rampart and Ditch, Wall ........................................................................................ 60
Figure 20: Counterfortrs .......................................................................................................... 61
Figure 21: Bastions .................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 22: Bastion Fort ............................................................................................................ 61
Figure 23: Vauban’s methods of bastion fortification ............................................................. 62
Figure 24: Bastian Star Fortification; Pelmanova.................................................................... 63
Figure 25: Star Fort Advantages: comparison to tanks ............................................................ 64
Figure 26: Star Fort Advantages .............................................................................................. 64
Figure 27: A 1868 plan of Fort I of the ring fortress at Magdeburg, typical of mid-19th century
polygonal forts ................................................................................................................. 65
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Figure 28: Gun emplacement in Fort Campbell, built in the 1930s......................................... 65
Figure 29:World War I: Construction of revetted trenches - the revetment here is the part
forward of the standing soldier ........................................................................................ 65
Figure 30: Cheyenne Mountain Complex -underground bunker used by North American
Aerospace Defense Command. Example of a mid-20th century fortification built deep in
a mountain........................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 31: Amber Fort, google picture accessed in 28th December 2018 ................................ 67
Figure 32: Detail on stupa at Sanchi showing evidence of crenallations and embrasures,
google picture accessed in 28th December 2018 .............................................................. 68
Figure 33: Kumbhalgarh, google picture accessed in 28th December 2018 ............................ 68
Figure 34:Mudur Janjira, google picture accessed in 28th December 2018 ............................ 68
Figure 35: Jaisalmer Fort, google picture accessed in 28th December 2018........................... 68
Figure 36: Chittorgarh fort, google picture accessed in 28th December 2018 ........................ 69
Figure 37: Lime mortar mixer on Rasalgad, google pictures accessed in 28th December 2018
.......................................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 38: Golkunda fort, google picture accessed in 28th December 2018 ........................... 70
Figure 39: St. George, Madras ................................................................................................. 71
Figure 40: William fort, Calcutta ............................................................................................. 71
Figure 41: Timeline for Historical Development of Fort Architecture in Nepal ..................... 72
Figure 42: Kagbeni settlement, Jimblock ................................................................................ 77
Figure 43: Painted by Shreejan Rajbhandari Oil on canvas 2005 of Liglig fort, accessed from
www.imgur.com in 28th December 2018 ........................................................................ 78
Figure 44: Military Attack on Kantipur by Prithvi Narayan Shah, accessed from
www.imgur.com in 28th December 2018 ......................................................................... 79
Figure 45: Lalitpur Durbar Square, google picture accessed in 28th December 2018 ............. 79
Figure 46 Jitgarh Killa ............................................................................................................. 83
Figure 47 Location of Jitgadhi ................................................................................................. 84
Figure 48 Present Condition .................................................................................................... 85
Figure 49 Gadhi wall ............................................................................................................... 86
Figure 50Undergrond Passage ................................................................................................. 87
Figure 51 Chisapanigadhi ........................................................................................................ 88
Figure 52 location of ChisapaniGadhi ..................................................................................... 89
Figure 53 Plan of Chisapani fort (Howard, 1989) ................................................................... 91

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Figure 54 Fort wall................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 55 Chisapani gadi's wall .............................................................................................. 92
Figure 56 Bells at the temple ................................................................................................... 93
Figure 57 BatukBhairab Temple of ChisapaniGadi................................................................. 93
Figure 58 Kalitop ..................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 59 Parade Ground ......................................................................................................... 95
Figure 60 Waterfall (source of water at that time) ................................................................... 96
Figure 61 A girls selling flower for livelihood ........................................................................ 97
Figure 62 Location map of MakwanpurGadhi......................................................................... 97
Figure 63 The fort remains of Durbar ...................................................................................... 98
Figure 64 Deteriorating condition of Durbar ........................................................................... 99
Figure 65 Deteriorating condition of Durbar ........................................................................... 99
Figure 66 MoolGadhi Plan..................................................................................................... 100
Figure 67 Section of deep canal ............................................................................................. 101
Figure 68 Gate to the fort ....................................................................................................... 102
Figure 69 Gypsum used Twins Palace ................................................................................... 103
Figure 70 Architecture of surrounding wall........................................................................... 104
Figure 71 Temple in fort premises ......................................................................................... 105
Figure 72: Entry Point of Hariharpur Gadhi .......................................................................... 106
Figure 73: Location map of Hariharpur Gadhi ...................................................................... 106
Figure 74: Ruins of Rani Durbar inside the fort .................................................................... 107
Figure 75: Model of Hariharpur made by Department of Archaeology ................................ 109
Figure 76: Lime concreting at the top of External Wall ........................................................ 110
Figure 77: Aerial View of Ramkot Fort ................................................................................. 111
Figure 78: Location map of Ramkot Fort .............................................................................. 112
Figure 79: Master Plan of Ramkot Fort ................................................................................. 114
Figure 80: Balahissar Citadel ................................................................................................. 115
Figure 81: Remains of Darwaza KashiView of Kabul city from upper fortress..................... 116
Figure 82: Plan of upper and lower Balahissar ...................................................................... 116
Figure 83: Remains of Darwaza Kashi .................................................................................. 116
Figure 84: Balahissar at present ............................................................................................. 116
Figure 85: Balahissar from east showing entry gates ............................................................ 117
Figure 86: View of Kabul city from upper Balahissar ........................................................... 118

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Figure 87: View of Kabul city from upper BalahissarSource: Revealing a fortress place in
Afghanistan, professional paper .................................................................................... 118
Figure 91: View from below the hill showing the fortress and houses belowSource:
https://scotfot.smugmug.com/Afghanistan/Bala-Hissar-Kabul ..................................... 118
Figure 89: View from below the hill showing the fortress and houses below ....................... 118
Figure 90: BastionsFigure 91: View from below the hill showing the fortress and houses below
........................................................................................................................................ 118
Figure 93: Bastions ................................................................................................................ 119
Figure 93: Holes remaining in the MerlonsSource: Revealing a fortress place in Afghanistan,
professional paper ......................................................................................................... 119
Figure 94: Holes remaining in the Merlons ........................................................................... 119
Figure 16: Hooded firing pointsFigure 95: Holes remaining in the Merlons ........................ 119
Figure 96:Hooded firing points.............................................................................................. 119
Figure 97: Interior of the upper fortress with casemates having angled firing loops ............ 120
Figure 98: Interior of the upper fortress with casemates having angled firing loops ............ 120
Figure 99: Aerial View of San Diego Fort............................................................................. 121
Figure 100: Range of San Diego Fort .................................................................................... 122
Figure 101: Interior of Fort as Museum ................................................................................. 123
Figure 102: Entry Point of the Museum ................................................................................ 124
Figure 103: Mexican War of Independence (1810 – 1821) ................................................... 125
Figure 104: Top View of San Diego Fort .............................................................................. 126
Figure 105: Moat and Drawbridge at entry point .................................................................. 126
Figure 106: Embrasures in the Fort ....................................................................................... 127
Figure 107: Ramp at the central Courtyard............................................................................ 127
Figure 108: Fort Bourntange locationPhoto source:http://www.holandiabeztajemnic.pl ..... 128
Figure 109: Fort Bourntange location .................................................................................... 128
Figure 110: A café-restaurant in the central plaza of fort Bourtange .................................... 129
Figure 111: Visitors observing the re-enactment of battle at fort Bourtange ........................ 129
Figure 112: Visitors observing the re-enactment of battle at fort BourtangePhoto source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpQhiTHreyM ...................................................... 129
Figure 113: Layout of the Fort BourntageSecond Gate ......................................................... 130
Figure 114: Layout of the Fort Bourntage ............................................................................. 130

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Figure 116: Glacis around the fortPhoto Source: http://www.seetheworldinmyeyes.com/wp-
content/uploads/2014/07/140713-02-Entrance-Gate-to-Bourtange-Star-Fort-Village-in-
the-Netherlands.jpg........................................................................................................ 131
Figure 115: Moat and draw bridge to access the gate to the fort ........................................... 131
Figure 117: Glacis around the fort ......................................................................................... 131
Figure 118: Plan of Fort Bourtange ....................................................................................... 132
Figure 119: SecretinPhoto Source: http://www.holandiabeztajemnic.pl ............................... 132
Figure 122: Secretin ............................................................................................................... 132
Figure 122: Windmill............................................................................................................. 132
Figure 122: Stone paved street ............................................................................................... 132
Figure 123: Canons along inner line of the glacisPhoto Source:
https://notesfromcamelidcountry.net/2018/05/29/fort-bourtange-a-journey-back-to-the-
16th-century/ .................................................................................................................. 132
Figure 124: Canons along inner line of the glacis ................................................................. 133
Figure 128: Jaisalmer Site Planhttp://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/conservation-report-
and-geo-technical-survey-for-the-walled-city-of-jaisalmer/ ......................................... 136
Figure 126: Jaisalmer Site Plan.............................................................................................. 136
Figure 127: Entrance of fortFigure 128: Jaisalmer Site Plan................................................. 136
Figure 129: Entrance of fort ................................................................................................... 137
Figure 130: Fort wall ............................................................................................................. 137
Figure 131: Fort wall ............................................................................................................. 138
Figure 132: Kalbeliya ............................................................................................................ 141
Figure 133: Turban tying ....................................................................................................... 141
Figure 134: Soil Erosion and Water Seepage ........................................................................ 142
Figure 135: New Material UseFigure .................................................................................... 142
Figure 136: Boards of shops .................................................................................................. 143
Figure 137: New Material Use............................................................................................... 143
Figure 138: Use of paintsFigure 139: New Material Use ...................................................... 143
Figure 140: Use of paints ....................................................................................................... 143
Figure 141: Boards of shopsFigure 142: Use of paints.......................................................... 143
Figure 143: Location of Hoi An............................................................................................. 145
Figure 144: Hoi An ................................................................................................................ 145
Figure 145: Street view of old city ........................................................................................ 146

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Figure 146: Vietnam, Hoi An, rice field, farmers working, fishing and pottery ................... 147
Figure 147: Min Huang ,Ancestor worship House ................................................................ 147
Figure 148: Japanese Covered bridge .................................................................................... 147
Figure 149: Performing “Bai Choi” – Hoi An folk music .................................................... 148
Figure 153: Performing “Bai Choi” – Hoi An folk music ..................................................... 149
Figure 153: Local cuisine,White rose: Banh beo (Steamed rice flour tart cups) ................... 149
Figure 153: A young copule practices Thurification - an ancient ritual of burning incense to
honour ............................................................................................................................ 149
Figure 153: Hoi An lantern festival to welcome New Year .................................................. 149
Figure 154 : Relation between Street vendors and customer ................................................. 149

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Throughout the renaissance period, preservation and restoration remained an experimental
process in which many of the tools, instruments and methods were selected at random. The
process was pursued with very little critical or historical understanding. Conservation is a way
of planning designed to conserve historic buildings, areas and monuments in an effort to
connect a place’s historical background to its population and primarily its culture. Heritage
buildings possess historical values resulting from their beautiful architecture and their
correlation with important events that occurred in the heritage area such as religious, social and
political events. Heritage buildings are subjected to processes of degradation with time, which
leads to a situation in which they became not able to fulfil the purpose for which they were
built.

Simroungarh is a Municipality with a population of 24615 in southern Bara district of Province

No. 2, Nepal. The town is situated at an air distance of 28 km. towards east from Birgunj and
about 90 km. south of Kathmandu. The town has immense archaeological importance where
various artefacts of 11th-14th century "Simroun Kingdom" or “Kingdom of Karnatas” have
been excavated, and continue to be found by people of the region. The "Simroun Kingdom"
after being plundered, fled towards hills and went on to supplement the Great Malla Dynasty
of the Kathmandu valley, under whose rule the valley rose to its prominence in the fields of
art, craft, literature and architecture. The fortified palace area of Simroungarh has a well-
defined boundary locally known as “Baahi”. The area is rectangular in shape of about 5.5 km.
long north-south, and 4 km. wide east-west. (Shah, 2019) .This study leads to conservation
approach of Simroungarh.

Those old monuments are the reflection of our history, they help us to understand and respect
people who lived in different eras with different habits and traditions. As well the existence of
old monuments will help us observe the changes in the societies for a better understanding of
the reasons that lead to the development of cities and societies and even traditions to the current
status. Old buildings are the face of cities they reflect the changes that happened in a city over
time, they reflect conflicts, wars, and the prosperity of the society, and it even reflects the
economic condition of the city over time.

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1.2 Need of Study
o Simroungarh as an ancient fortified city is rich in myths;
o It is equally important as an archaeological site;
o The Kankali temple, Raniwas temple is historically and religiously rich;
o It is a city of lake including the historic Ishara pokhari and the largest Jhorakhar
pokhari;

1.3 Importance of Study

o For the proper documentation on the history and present scenario of Simroungarh;
o To acknowledge and suggest intervention for the conservation of ancient values;
o To conceive and suggest conservation guidelines for the architecture of ordinary
of the place;
o To propose development plans for the upliftment of living standard of the citizens;
o To promote the place as a tourist’s destination.

1.4 Methodology
1.4.1 Study Approach
Our study is basically composed in four method. In first method we approached our study by
collection information regarding history, evolution and present state of forts and fortified city.
Along with this we researched on the International Charters and Monument Act for what they
have to say about the conservation of monuments. We also collected information from
Department of Archaeology and Ancient Monumental Act for further study. We also read and
researched a number of articles, books and travel journals as secondary source of data. Further
to enrich our study we did case studies of fort and fortified city on national, regional and
international level. The inferences from the case studies were then taken for our research.

1.4.2 Site Visit

Before heading to site, we had already prepared a base map and pinned the important area
including moment area, settlement area, major and minor street, agricultural area. Based on the
base map we divided our working groups and area as:

I. Measure drawing of temple complex;

II. Street section;
III. Housing typology;
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 IV. Questionnaire data collection.

1.4.3 Data Collection

For effective data collection we had prepared a set of checklists based on literature review and
case studies. To get proper direction for questionnaire we had prepared questionnaire in Kobo
toolbox (mobile app). We took data from 93 household. As per our planning we conducted the
interviews and questionnaire from the checklist and kobo toolbox. And for detailed
measurements of temple complex, street section and housing typology measuring tape of 5m/
50m were used. For the master plan of temple complex we applied triangulation method and
for detailed measurement we sketched, took dimensions measured which were only in our
reach. And for further detailing we took the pictures of each elevations with their details as
possible. We noted the detailed of materials and construction technology through observation
and interview with the local people. This completed our tangible aspect while for the intangible
part we observed. And finally, we added the details taken in the Basemap which we had
prepared earlier.

1.4.4 Making of Conservation Plan

For the making of conservation plan first we analyzed all the data and information collected
whether from Kobo Toolbox or interviews. Documentation of the measurements of temples,
houses, street sections and other important elements were done. The format of inventory was
prepared meeting the content criteria given by ICOMOS. And as defined by Queensland
Heritage Act 1992, heritage significance, of a place or feature of a place, includes its natural,
aesthetic, architectural, historical, scientific, social, archaeological or other significance, to the
present generation or past or future generations. Acknowledging and conserving aspects of our

Figure 1 Inventory Format

13
past is a measure of a strong society, one in which the past is valued for its contribution to the
present and it’s potential to contribute to future societies.

The heritage value assessment criteria were made by the student themselves for following
reasons:

• Provide clarity when places are under appeal regarding entry in or removal from the record
and analysis, on how assessments of cultural heritage significance are made.
• Detailed information on the nature and application of significance, if needed for future
interventions.
• Avoid misinterpretation of the criteria during the process of assessing cultural heritage
significance.
The following are the criteria for value assessment of Simroungarh under various sub headings
that contribute to its heritage significance:

1. Natural values of cultural landscapes

i. Conservation of natural and semi-natural systems, and of wild species of fauna and
flora
ii. Conservation of biodiversity within farming systems
iii. Sustainable land use
iv. Enhancement of scenic beauty
v. Ex-situ collections
vi. Outstanding examples of humanity's inter-relationship with nature
vii. Historically significant discoveries (Conservation, 2002)

2. Historic Values
i. The heritage material’s age
ii. Association with people or events
iii. Rarity and/or uniqueness
iv. Technological value
v. Archival/documentary potential
vi. Academic/educational value from past to present and future
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 vii. Artistic value with aesthetic detailing
3. Archaeological Values
i. Fragility/Vulnerability of Artifacts
ii. Survival/Condition of archaeological ruins and abandoned of structure
iii. Rarity and Uniqueness
iv. Period
v. Potential for documentation (Walton, 1999)
4. Social Values
i. Site for social gathering
ii. Place attachment (Memory of Place and People)
iii. Aesthetic and Art
iv. Connection between interior and exterior environment
v. Social Stratification (Ethnicity)
5. Cultural Values
i. Demonstrate rare, uncommon, or endangered aspect of local cultural heritage
ii. Potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the area’s
history
iii. Aesthetic significance to the local community
iv. Association/attachment with a particular community or cultural group
v. Association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organization of
importance in the area’s history (Protection, 2017)
6. Religious Values

i. Migration of holy practice

ii. Ethical principle
iii. Symbol of local community and identity
iv. Directing the individual's lifestyle
v. Faith and moral value
(Note: Each of the headings carry 5 marks each and the assessment is done accordingly with
more than two student analysis for each heritage for fair marking. The obtained marks
determine the ranking of the heritage and the type of intervention that is required for
conservation.)

15
 Figure 2: Heritage Value Assessement of
Simroungadh
Observing value assessment
priority of conservation is listed then final process of proposal was performed.

1.5 Limitations
There might be some limitation while doing any kind of work. As we are doing Academic
exercise there are:

1. Our study is concerned with the study of fort and fortified city only;
2. Literature reviews, national, regional and international case studies and information
were collected through secondary data (via online source);
3. Measurement of the whole site including the measurement of pond, Ishara pokhari and
Jharokhar pokhari were done using Google Earth;
4. Our study area is concerned in the street section from Ranibas to Kankali stretch;
5. Questionnaires, survey and interviews were conducted mostly in the stretch only;
6. Our conservation approach is concerned with architectural conservation only, we aren’t
concerned with archaeological parameter;
7. The detailed measurements were taken with the measuring tape only as possible, for
elevation and other dimensions away from our reach photos (2 D) were taken. Then
they are drafted using raster image in AutoCAD as possible;

1.6 Expected Output

Through this project we would be able to provide Conservation Approach of monuments of
Kankali and Raniwas. The work we are doing for the development of street with settlement
would help to promote Simraungarh as tourism destination such that the place can sustain. In

16
proposal there would be zoning as old settlement area, commercial area, monumental area,
forest area, agricultural area to promote and conserve Simroungarh as a historic place.

1.1 Structure of the Report

In our report there would be three part;

1. Volume I
a) Volume IA
b) Volume IB
2. Volume II
3. Volume III

Volume I include volume IA And Volume IB. Volume IA consist of background study,
need and importance of study, methodology, limitation, literature review, national regional
international case study and inference from case study. Then Volume IB consist study of
medieval kingdom of Simroungarh, descriptive analysis and discussion, conclusion.
Volume II consist proposal of Simroungarh and Volume III consist Annex Inventory, value
assessment and Other Drawings of Artifacts.

2 Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

2.1 Heritage and its conservation
2.1.1 Heritage
Heritages are important testimony of history which are irreplaceable and are undergoing heavy
destruction. Their authenticity is irreplaceable and thus requires conservation.

Cultural Heritage is an expression of the ways of living developed by a community and passed
on from generation to generation, including customs, practices, places, objects, artistic
expressions and values. Cultural Heritage is often expressed as either Intangible or Tangible
Cultural Heritage (ICOMOS, 2002). As part of human activity Cultural Heritage produces
tangible representations of the value systems, beliefs, traditions and lifestyles.

Having at one time referred exclusively to the monumental remains of cultures, cultural
heritage as a concept has gradually come to include new categories. Today, we find that
heritage is not only manifested through tangible forms such as artefacts, buildings or
landscapes but also through intangible forms. Intangible heritage includes voices, values,

17
traditions, oral history. Popularly this is perceived through cuisine, clothing, and forms of
shelter, traditional skills and technologies, religious ceremonies, performing arts, storytelling.
Today, we consider the tangible heritage inextricably bound up with the intangible heritage. In
conservation projects we aim to preserve both the tangible as well as the intangible heritage.

2.1.1.1 Tangible heritage

Tangible heritage refers to the physical artifacts produced, maintained & transmitted inter-
generationally in society. Tangible heritage includes buildings and historic places, monuments,
artifacts, etc., which are considered worthy of preservation for the future. These include
objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or technology of a specific culture.
Objects are important to the study of human history because they provide a concrete basis for
ideas, and can validate them. Their preservation demonstrates recognition of the necessity of
the past and of the things that tell its story. Preserved objects also validate memories; and the
actuality of the object, as opposed to a reproduction or surrogate, draws people in and gives
them a literal way of touching the past. This unfortunately poses a danger as places and things
are damaged by the hands of tourists, the light required to display them, and other risks of
making an object known and available.

Movable Heritage, which van be moved from one place to another; i.e. object

Immovable Heritage, which cannot be removed from its origin; i.e. buildings

18
2.1.1.1.1 Layout
Patterns of the street reflects its historical walkways
which leads towards some destination. The destination
may be house, ground, water reservoir, community
building, temples, etc. street layout shows the
positions of buildings and the directions of the front
façade of the ancient building which were completely Fig: Layout; World heritage site Lumbini
demolished.

Layout also reflects the character of the place whether it was cultural area or some agricultural
area. Layout is not only shows the street pattern also indicate the position and correlation of
buildings to each other.

2.1.1.1.2 Skylines
The entrance for people needs to be
located on place which provides a
proper view and should be a proper
place to rest. In Nepalese context,
we can see many temples and durbar
which listed as the national
monuments. Skylines near to the
monuments and in the surroundings
of monumental zones the height of
the buildings play vital roles. The
surroundings buildings height add
aesthetical values to the monument.

19
2.1.1.1.3 Built heritage
Built heritage describes our origins and informs our
understandings of who we are today. It helps to define
a sense of place, an identity for a community. It can
contribute to feelings of connectedness, and
community pride and confidence. Heritage can excite
curiosity about our past and enrich our daily lives.
Built heritage is not just about beautiful or significant
Fig: Carved window of Gorkha Durbar
historic buildings but also includes small, modest
vernacular buildings that reflect the social conditions of
working families. It encompasses a wide range of familiar and historical landmarks that are
important in creating and sustaining a strong sense of belonging and attachment in our society.
Built heritage includes cathedrals and cemeteries, factories and fences, houses and hotels,
museums and markets. It includes areas, precincts and streetscapes. It is the physical evidence
of our cultural development. Many heritage buildings are used for functions and services that
did not exist when they were built. The richness of places and people's attachment to them
grows from their everyday use. This heritage presents an active, living cultural resource with
social meanings invested in them by the residents. They are important ingredients of collective
sentiments, of the feeling that ‘this is our place’.

20
2.1.1.2 Intangible heritage
Intangible heritage includes immaterial heritage which cannot be physically touched. It is
tradition or living expression inherited from our ancestors or passed to our decedents.
Safeguarding intangible heritage is the protection of cultural identities and therefore the
cultural diversity of humankind. Intangible Heritage includes but not limited to traditional
festivals, oral traditions, oral epics, customs, ways of life, traditional crafts, etc.

2.1.1.2.1 Family & village relationship

Interaction of people with each other

Social organization like guthi sasthan

Sharing woks together

Fig: Paddy plantation

2.1.1.2.2 Belief & Religions
“All religions, arts and sciences are branches of the same tree. All these aspirations are
directed towards ennobling man's life, lifting it from the sphere of mere physical existence and
leading the individual towards freedom.” - Albert Einstein

Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief

systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to
spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many
religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and
sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to
life or to explain the origin of life or the universe.
They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws
Fig: Faith towards goddesses
or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos
and human nature. Religions and other belief systems in our environment have an influence on
our identity, regardless of whether we consider ourselves religious or spiritual or not. At the
same time, other parts of our identity, our history, our approach to other religions and groups
considered "different" will influence how we interpret that religion or belief system (Themes,
H 2018).

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2.1.1.2.3 Ritual & Festivals
Rituals and festivals are formed by creativity of people which have historical artist & scientific
value. Rituals are based on belief system, folk lores, myths, spiritual practices & religion. Each
community holds their unique cultures and traditions which they have been following for
centuries. People has their own set of beliefs & festivals to celebrate (Volunteer summer nepal.
2018).

Nepal is one of the unique countries in the world where different practices are still on existence.
It is taken as a museum of different live practices strange to the outer world. Some practices
are surprising and strange. Some rituals are Kumari pratha, chaupadi pratha, Deukee pratha,
Chhaiti Nawaran, Pasni, Chhewar, Bratabandha, Bibaha, Chi, Bhim, Janku, Ratharohan,
Ghewa, Mundan, Nwangi, Manghena, Garva Puja, Shuddhain, Hakika, Khatana, Janaja, etc.

Most of the people in Nepal celebrate these festivals Lhoshar, chhath, Fagu purnima, Dashain,
Tihar, Maha puja, Buddha jayanti, Bisket Jatra, Gai jatra, Indra jatra, Rato machhindranath
Jatra, Ghode Jatra etc.

Fig: women-perform-puja-in-Rishi-Panchami Fig: Rituals of crawling on Tihar

2.1.1.2.4 Games & Entertainment

Nepali street games are not limited to just the annoying wagging of fingers. Many games come
with accessories such as stones, sticks, a ball or even a bunch of rubber bands. They all have
variable rules and can be played almost everywhere. A standard requirement is open space, an

22
empty street or field (Basynat 2010). Some of the famous games in Nepal are: Dandi biyani ,
Baghchal, Seven stone, Chungi, Ghutta, Intumintu

Fig: Bamboo stick Fig: Dandi Biyano

2.1.1.2.5 Cuisine
A cuisine is specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific
culture or region. Each cuisine involves food preparation in a particular style, of food and drink
of particular types, to produce individually consumed items or distinct meals. A cuisine is
frequently named after the region or place where it originated. A cuisine is primarily influenced
by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Religious food laws can also
exercise a strong influence on such culinary practices.

Khas Cuisine Himalayan cuisine, Tibetan- influenced

cuisine, Thakali cuisine, Mid hill cuisine, Newa
cuisine, Tamang cuisine, Limbhu cuisine, Terai
cuisine, Maithali cuisine, Tharu cuisine, Bhojpuri
cuisine,Awadhi cuisine

2.1.1.3 Traditional Ornaments

Dhungri, Bulaki, Fuli, Kali, Tilahari, Naugedi, Sirbandi,
Kampani-Mala Chandra-Har, Aunthi (Ring), Nathuni,
Bicchiya, Mugamaia, Hasuli, Cheptesun etc.

2.1.1.3.1 Folk Musical Instruments

Panchai-Baja (Sahanai, Tyamko, Damaha, Nagara,
Jhyali), Sarangi, Binayo, Murchunga,Tungna, Dhol,
Jhyamta, Yalambar, Damphu, Mridang, Dhime, Ektare, Figure 3 Dido making
Majire, Bansuri, Damaru, Madal, Murali, etc

23
2.1.1.3.2 Traditional Song/Dances
Deuda, Balan, Sangini, Maruni, Kaura, Ghatu, Selo, Sakelasili, Syabru, Jhijhiya,
Samachakewa, Dhan-Nach, Dhangdhane Nach, Lakhe Nach, Jhangad Nach, Satar Nach,
Chyabrung, Bhairab Nach, Sawai, Sakhiya, Sorathi, Cha Chari, Hungkeli etc.

2.1.1.3.3 Traditional Costumes

Bhoto, Daura-Suruwal, Topi, Kachhad, Dhoti, Kamij, Gamchha, Pagari, Pangden, Anggi,
Bakkhu, Gado, Ghaiek, Tikiya, Bona, Petani, Makhali, Hakupatassi, Gaman, Klatoli, Gangar,
Lehenga, etc.

2.1.1.3.4 Traditional Products

Khukuri, Nepali Kagaj, Radi, Pakhi, Gundri, Nanglo, Dalo, Sukul, Khadiko Kapada, Dhaka
Topi, Dhaka Kapada, Dhaka Khasto etc.

2.1.1.3.5 Bastukala (Architecture)

Pagoda style (Temple of Pashupatinath, Changu Narayan, Nyatapole te), Stupa style (Maya
Devi Temple, Swayambhunath, Boudhanath), Chaitya, Shikhara style (Krishna Mandir ),
Gumbhaj, Mugal (Janaki Mandir) etc.

2.1.1.3.6 Murtikala (Sculpture)

They include Metal, Stone, and Wooden Sculpture. Birupakchya at Pashupati, Budanilkantha,
Idols of Lord Buddha and various Gods and Goddess, carved idols of Gods and Goddess in the
temples and palaces etc.

2.1.2 Heritage settlement

2.1.2.1 Settlement itself as a heritage settlement
Group of people staying together shares different cultural practices, rituals, arts and crafts,
festivals which have been continuing from ancestors. These things contribute for the
development of built heritages that are influenced by the cultural and social practices adopted
by that particular settlement. In the history of Nepal, there are some of the early settlement
which stand out on its own architecture, culture and rituals that shows some distinct features
of that settlement. Some of them are Medieval Settlement of Kirtipur.

2.1.2.1.1 Medieval settlement of kirtipur

Description

Kirtipur is a medieval settlement located along a narrow ridge towards the southwest of the
Kathmandu Valley. The medieval Newari settlement was developed with fort-like
characteristics. The victory over Kirtipur by the army from Gorkha was pivotal in the history

24
of the unification of Nepal. Kirtipur is a testimony to the medieval art and architecture of the
Newars. The classified monuments include: Chilancho Vihar, Jagat Pal Vihar, Buddha
Dharma Sangha Shikhara, Baghbhairab Temple, Vath (Layaku), Umamaheshvar Temple,
Indrayani Pith, Chitu Bahail, Lokeshwar Shikhara, Buddha Temple, Chve Bahal and Kwe
Bahal. (UNESCO, 2008)

Statements of authenticity and/or integrity

The core area of the medieval settlement of Kirtipur still retains to a large degree its authentic
character. Numerous monuments have been restored and an annual plan for restoration works
are prepared and carried out. The municipality authorities are in the process of preparing zoning
plans and corresponding building bylaws to control development. (UNESCO, 2008)

Comparison with other similar properties

The Medieval Settlement of Kirtipur is culturally and historically related to the Monument
Zones of the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site. "Medieval Settlement of Kirtipur" can
be considered as a possible future extension to the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site.
(UNESCO, 2008)

2.1.2.2 Heritages within settlement

Some of the settlements become heritage settlement due the influence of monuments, historical
temples, historical sites, archeological site, religious structures, historic gardens, tombs, funeral
sites etc. within the settlement. For example: -

 Settlement near Patan Durbar Sqaure, Kathamandu Durbar Square, Bhaktapur Durbar
Square
 Archeological sites like Lumbini, Hadigaon (Satyanarayan Temple)
 Bhandarkhal Garden of Deopatan (Lichhavi cultural remains)
 Impact of Tajmahal in Agra, Pashupatinath temple in Kathmandu

2.1.3 Fort as a heritage

Man is a social animal; he is born and bred, lives and dies in society. He has by nature at never
ending ambition. He wants to become an outstanding person in society either in prosperity,
power or wisdom but all of them cannot be achieved an unlimited way. (basnyat). These three
intangible elements (prosperity, power and wisdom) play vital role in the evolvement of fort.

25
Basically, fort is a place which act as a defensive tool for the protection of the settlement near
the fort like makawanpur gadhi was made for the protection of makawanpur kingdom.

Fort architecture is the part of military architecture. Since the beginning of time man needs
shelter. Even the caves in stone ages and houses were the forts against wild animals, opposition
groups, rain and other natural disturbances. Any cave, shelter or a house was used, from a
military point of view therefore military architecture doses not have a fixed date of starting. It
is evolved with the development of mankind. The architecture of fort changes according to the
change of military tactics, technology and weaponry system. In the early ages, army used to
have hand-to-hand fight with small weapons so forts were not so strong and troops used to
protect their body with iron armor. At that time the emphasis was on protecting the individual's
life in battle. Defenders used to build a fort on top of a mountain, which was not easily
accessible by the enemy's assault. Mostly, forts were surrounded by deep-water obstacles (ditch
obstacle). It is also against the assault of the offender and many of the attackers used to fall
inside the ditch obstacle and die during their night assault.

The selection of site and setting of a fort is very important because the place should
be dominant to the surroundings, availability of water resources, easy route for logistic
supply, weapon ammunition store, barrack buildings, good for firing of flat trajectory weapons
e.g. Rifle, Machinegun, Pistol, bows arrows, through boulders, tempus etc. Nearby very
difficult natural obstacles and having an escape route in an emergency. Every fort must have
water reserve tank or deep well for emergency use. When war breaks out, the regular drinking
water facilities may not be available so alternative arrangements are needed. In the Nepalese
context, a temple must be made inside the fort for the blessing of the god or the goddess. As
well many forts were built with large compound so that the cultivated lands, military families,
war material production, depots training camp, mini market were kept inside the fort. The
old fort of Delhi and Fatehpur Sikri of India are also the examples. Military architecture of fort
used to depend on the economic condition, impending enemy, and types of ground and
availability of local resources of the country.

26
The shape, type and size of the forts were different but the military purpose was same e.g. to
defend the area. At anytime, anywhere a military area is in danger from enemies' hostility. A
fort is vulnerable point (VP) during wartime. The enemy always tries to capture or destroy
the fort; an early warning system and tight security should be built for its physical protection.
Many sentry posts were built on top of the fort wall or far ahead of area for early warning of
enemy’s movement, which alerts the main fighting troops of the fort. It is called a ’Watch
tower’ in today’s context. The fort is changing in its facilities according to the change of war
equipment. The rich king used to have many forts in his country and that was the symbol of his
power. He used to live in very strong castle and every facility was available there. The small
and mountainous countries used to have small and few forts. The king's palaces (castle) were
built on top of mountain with every difficult feature. None of the defensive work is fully
protected from enemy offensive, as defensive battle is very difficult to sustain. Military
architecture of the fort is also changed accordingly.

We have several places with different GADHS in Nepal for defense but they are all not exactly
like a modern fort. Many of them were destroyed due to negligence, natural calamities or
human factors. Simraund Gadh, Kirtipur, Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Janakpur,
Maddhyapur are the examples. Because, they were well demarcated by strong walls, Nijgadh,
Narayangadh, Jitgadh, Tilgadh (Mahottari), Alangadh (Rautahat), Chhipagadh and Tikuligadh
(Rupandehi), Dauhawagadh (Bajhang), Rajgadh (Jhapa) are some examples. (Basnyat, Fort as
heritage and defensive tool in a country ).

27
2.2 Charters and Acts for Heritage Conservation
2.2.1 General Overview of Conservation
2.2.1.1 Introduction
Throughout the renaissance period, preservation and restoration remained an experimental
process in which many of the tools, instruments and methods were selected at random. The
process was pursued with very little critical or historical understanding.

Most of our modern principles of conservation arose from the ideas of John Ruskin and William
Morris from the mid-19th century. These ideas form the basis of modern perception of
preservation and restoration of our valued historic buildings and monuments.

2.2.1.2 What is Conservation?

Conservation is a way of planning designed to conserve historic buildings, areas and
monuments in an effort to connect a place’s historical background to its population and
primarily its culture. Conservation is means of “green building”, that is, reusing the existing
building as oppose to new construction for a modern purpose and use. The four main styles of
conservation of historic buildings are preservation, rehabilitation, reconstruction and
restoration.

2.2.1.2.1 Preservation
Preservation is the means of keeping an historic building a close as possible to its original state
by means of continued repair and maintenance. This focuses on the stabilization and repair of
the existing materials in the building and the retention of a building’s state as it has evolved
over time.

2.2.1.2.2 Restoration
Restoration of historic buildings involves reconstructing parts of the building that have fallen
into decay as imitations of the highest possible quality of the original building. This form
depicts a building at one stage in time and often removes any evidence of any other period in
which the building existed.

2.2.1.2.3 Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation sees the need to alter or extent to an historic building to meet modern demands
while still keeping the historical character of the building.

2.2.1.2.4 Reconstruction
Reconstruction re-creates vanished buildings or parts of buildings by interpretive means.

2.2.1.3 Criticisms of Conservation

Like many developments in urban design and planning, conservation has had its share of
negative perceptions. Such aspects if this criticism include;

• Cost
• Style
• Mistakes made

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2.2.1.3.1 Cost implications of Conservation
There are many costs associated with the preservation or restoration of an historic building.
Delicate elements of the building often require propping or some sort of support which can
take up valuable space on site. Many of the systems in an old building need upgrading which
can be difficult to install. And all the different costs associated with conservation adds up on a
construction project which has undesired implicated cost for both contractor and engineer.

2.2.1.3.2 Modern style construction

Due to property price rises and limitation of space in city centers our society has constructed
its buildings higher and higher to meet its purposes. This popular style of higher buildings can
often cause the older, smaller historic buildings to become dwarfed and ultimately undesirable
for its occupants.

2.2.1.3.3 Mistakes in conservation

Another criticism of conservation is that it is very susceptible to mistakes being made which
are ultimately to the determent of the building. Inappropriate renovations can cause damage to
buildings and put it worse off than it was before. According to the Tipperary county council
website some of the most common mistakes made in small scale conservation in the area are;

• Removal of old 18th or 19th century windows to be replaced with new PVC, plastic or
aluminum windows
• The removal of original slate and the replacement with imitation slate or tiles
• The removal of the render.

2.2.1.3.4 Sustainability of conservation

Historic buildings are inherently sustainable. The correct preservation can maximize the use of
the existing materials and infrastructure and in return reduces waste caused by demolition and
energy put into the production of new materials and construction. Many of the old buildings
were designed with sustainability in mind. Many features of historic buildings were built with
aspects like climate and site situation in mind to give a sustainable build. If correctly conserved,
many old buildings can serve future generations for many years to come.

2.2.1.3.5 Conservation versus New Construction

Preserving a building is often referred to as the ultimate recycling project. Although, it is
already outlined that it has its many skeptics who say that historic buildings are beyond their
use and require significant corrective measure to make them viable as a functioning structure.
However, Green and sustainable design has become ever more popular in today’s new
construction and preservation industries. Conservation of old buildings drastically cuts down
on new concrete products and their inherent transportation costs as well as the use of electricity
to operate plant that is associated with new construction.

2.2.1.3.6 Conservation versus Demolition

The conservation of old buildings is a much more sensible option than demolition in relation
to sustainability. There are many times when a building is deemed structurally unsound and
the need for demolition is unrivalled in the interest of public safety but this should not prevent
our society from conserving many of our old buildings for continued use. Conserving greatly
reduces the amount of construction material being dumped in landfill. Demolition creates vast
amount of crushed concrete and stone that is often unusable for construction again.

29
2.2.1.4 Ethics and conservation
I have decided to divide ethics and conservation into two sub-headings that I will discuss, they
are

• Ethics of conservation
• Ethics within conservation.

2.2.1.4.1 Ethics of conservation

Preservation of historic buildings and monuments plays a vital role in the growth of our
civilization. It is oftentimes easy to disregard the accomplishments of past generations as we
strive to change our societies and environments to be more suited to our present needs.

Age is a thing that is associated with wisdom and many of our historic buildings add a feeling
of intellect and enlightenment to an area. Often, historic conservation of city center can help
them become more competitive with regard to retailing and business as historic, unique
buildings give areas more prominence in comparison to the homogeneous skyscrapers that
dominate the skylines of many of our large cities.

2.2.1.4.2 Ethics within conservation

There are many ethical values within conservation itself that regulates the nature of the
industry. As one would expect it is a delicate subject whether or whether not to intervene with
the natural state of a revered building or monument. Therefore, many charters and polices have
been developed and implemented over the years.

Conservation is regarded as the work done to prevent further decay of a building and to extend
its life. Conservation can often be undertaken with the greatest of enthusiasm and best
intentions. However, the conservation process should be carried out so that no damage is done
to the building and no falsifying or destruction of historical evidence occurs. Lack of
information or the use of incorrect in inappropriate techniques can often unintentionally cause
both, aesthetic and structural damage. The main principles in these charters to help prevent
unintentional damage from occurring are;

• Retention or restoration of historical significance

• Conservation process based on research
• Minimum physical intervention
• Maintenance of visual setting

These are the basic principles outlined in the charters which help instill ethical practice of
conservation works.

2.2.2 Importance of Conservation

"Memory is the treasure house of the mind wherein the monuments thereof are kept and
preserved."

30
Innovation in architecture is with no doubt extremely important, but preserving and restoring
the old buildings is also important because those old monuments are the reflection of our
history, they help us to understand and respect people who lived in different eras with different
habits and traditions. As well the existence of old monuments will help us observe the changes
in the societies for a better understanding of the reasons that lead to the development of cities
and societies and even traditions to the current status. Old buildings are the face of cities they
reflect the changes that happened in a city over time, they reflect conflicts, wars, and the
prosperity of the society, and it even reflects the economic condition of the city over time.
Though building new buildings are simpler, and cheaper than preserving the old buildings,
there are many benefits of maintaining and keeping heritage buildings of our cities intact, of
those benefits the following:
2.2.2.1 With Respect to Tourism
With respect to tourism, maintaining and saving Architectural monuments attract tourists,
especially people who like to experience the “spirit” of the city, which is seen through
architecture. As well when old buildings attract tourists, that will definitely create more jobs
for locals, and help in improving the economic prosperity of the city, therefore maintaining
historical buildings provides workplaces for local people and experts from other counties.
2.2.2.2 With Respect to Culture
With respect to culture, old buildings help us to understand the history that occurred before we
were born and promotes the respect for those who lived in prior times and different traditions.
Preservation of old monuments plays an important cultural role in cultivating pride of our
heritage and past making us unique in the world. Cairo is known for the pyramids, and Paris is
known for the Eiffel tower, while London is known for the Big Ben and etc. Historical buildings
bring character and charm to the neighborhood that people live in.
2.2.2.3 With Respect to The Environment
With respect to the environment, despite that building new green building that save energy is
important, restoring old buildings is environmentally friendly as well, and can simply become
green. As well preserving old buildings can be considered a form of recycling, which reduces
construction waste, saves energy spent on manufacturing building materials, tools and
equipment and transporting them.
Restoring buildings require knowledge and skills more than those required to construct simple
buildings and that’s one of the incentives for holding the conference arranged by IEREK at
Cairo, Egypt.

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2.2.3 Theories of Architectural Conservation
Does conservation mean an action to secure the survival or preservation of buildings, cultural artifacts?
Does the action refer maintenance, repairing, reconstruction or restoration? Few of the old buildings
we see around us today are untouched by modern hands. The older the building the more hands it has
passed through and the more changes time will have wrought upon it. To what extent can we expect to
see their vision intact? Should we expect to see it intact? If not, then what should we expect? These and
similar questions have been discussed by architectural conservationists for over 100 years which
suggests updating of first word “action” with “management of change”.
What philosophy guides the conservation architect in his or her work in each of these and how has this
philosophy developed over time? Historically 3 major characters have influenced conservation
philosophy. These are Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-79), John Ruskin (1819-1900) and
William Morris (1894-1936). Basic intervention theories of historic preservation are framed in the
dualism of the retention of the status quo versus a “restoration” that creates something that may never
actually have existed in the past. John Ruskin was a strong proponent of the former, while Viollet-le-
Duc, argued for the latter. (Read, 2013)
2.2.3.1 Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc
Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc has had a huge influence on the
development of architectural theory through the 20th
Century and to today. Essentially, he took structure and
function of Architecture as its sole determinants of form,
completely dismissing speculative aesthetic systems. He
is known as father of stylistic restoration Viollet-le-Duc
believed restoration is a “means to re-establish a building
to a finished state, which may in fact never have actually
existed at any given time.” Viollet-le-Duc’s “restorations”
frequently combined historical fact with creative
modification. For example, under his supervision, Notre
Dame was not only cleaned and restored but also
“updated”, gaining its distinctive third tower (a type of
fleche) in addition to other smaller changes including the
gallery of chimeras and Le Stryge which have now
become iconic symbols of Notre Dame themselves.
(Nigilio, 2013)
Figure 4 Viollet Le Duc
Source: The Architecture theory of
Viollet Le Duc

32
 Figure 5 Plans of the cathedral: on the left, around 1230; on the right, around 1330, after Viollet-le-
Duc
Source:https://www.academia.edu/12163172/VIOLLET-LE
DUC_RESTORATION_OF_THE_PARIS_CATHEDRAL_1845_-_1864

Figure 6 Elevations of the cathedral: on the left, before restoration; on the right, now, after Viollet-le-
Duc
Source: https://richardnilsen.com/2017/05/18/the-cathedrals-of-northern-france-part-10-chimerae-of-notre-dame

2.2.3.2 John Ruskin

John Ruskin is the founder of romantic restoration. He
introduced the concept of integrated conservation that is to
preserve the character and style of the architecture and the
status conservation and the concept of picturesque that is the
ability to imitate the nature. He described restoration
employed by Violet- le- Duc is a false description of
architecture. The true meaning of the word restoration is not
always understood by the public or by those who have the
care of public monuments whichmeans the total destruction
that a building can suffer is related to a destruction out of
which no remnant can be gathered, a destruction
accompanied by a false description of the thing destroyed.
His "The Seven Lamps of Architecture" book introduces an
important comparison and differences between
conservation and restoration. (Read, 2013) Figure 7 John Ruskin
Source: John Ruskin Biography

33
2.2.3.3 William Morris
William Morris founded the Society for the
Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) in 1877

Retrieved from williammorris.org

based on the teachings of Ruskin. Morris was
particularly concerned about the practice of
attempting to return buildings to an idealized state
from the distant past (i.e. Viollet-le-Duc’s
approach), which often involved the removal of
elements added in their later development and
which Morris saw as contributing to their interest
as documents of the past. He saw this as lying.
Instead, he proposed that ancient buildings should
be repaired, not restored, so that their entire history
would be protected as cultural heritage. This took
Ruskin’s approach one step farther to accept work
done to the building since its origin as part of the
continuing story of the building and equally valid.
The Society is still very active and its principles are
followed by land and property owners as important
as the National Trust. (Yount, 2005) Figure 8 William Morris
The philosophical argument remains current when restoration is being considered for a building or
landscape. In removing layers of history from a building, information and age value are also removed
and lost forever. However, adding features to a building, as Viollet-le-Duc did, can be more appealing
to modern viewers. The argument as to which approach is “correct” is played out in front of us all when
we visit any ancient monument or restored building. Sometimes it looks “new” – the Viollet-le-Duc
solution. Sometimes it looks like a patchwork doll with contrasting pieces of old and new – the
Ruskin/Morris solution. Is there a definitive Right or Wrong?
Today’s conservation architect is guided by the Australia ICOMOS Burra Charter (1999), developed
under the aegis of the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) in succession to the
earlier (1964) Venice Charter. It was designed for application in Australia, but has since been seen
world-wide as the Gold Standard of Conservation philosophy. (Read, 2013)

34
2.2.4 Charter

Figure 9 Timeline of Charters (i)

A charter is a statement of intent, guidance and vision of principles. They are high level documents
which need to be synthesized for everyday application. International charters are referred while
making conservation laws and acts in any country. Charter sets a standard of practice for those who
provide advice, make decisions about, and undertake works to places of cultural significance,
including owners, managers and custodians.

Figure 10 Timeline of Charters (ii)

35
 2.2.4.1 The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments - 1931
The Athens Charter is adopted at the First International Congress of Architects and Technicians of
Historic Monuments in Athens in 1931. This defines basic principle, international debate and technical
concepts in preserving historic and artistic character of ancient monuments. At the Congress in Athens
the following seven main resolutions were made and called "Carta del Restauro":
1. International organizations for Restoration on operational and advisory levels are to be established.
2. Proposed Restoration projects are to be subjected to knowledgeable criticism to prevent mistakes which
will cause loss of character and historical values to the structures.
3. Problems of preservation of historic sites are to be solved by legislation at national level for all
countries.
4. Excavated sites which are not subject to immediate restoration should be reburied for protection.
5. Modern techniques and materials may be used in restoration work.
6. Historical sites are to be given strict custodial protection.
7. Attention should be given to the protection of areas surrounding historic sites.

2.2.4.1.1 General Conclusions of the Athens Conference

2.2.4.1.1.1 Preservation
The Conference recommends that the occupation of buildings, which ensures the continuity of their
life, should be maintained but that they should be used for a purpose which respects their historic or
artistic character. In the construction of buildings, the character and external aspect of the cities in
which they are to be erected should be respected, especially in the neighborhood of ancient monuments,
where the surroundings should be given special consideration. Even certain groupings and certain
particularly picturesque perspective treatment should be preserved. A study should also be made of the
ornamental vegetation most suited to certain monuments or groups of monuments from the point of
view of preserving their ancient character. It specially recommends the suppression of all forms of
publicity, of the erection of unsightly telegraph poles and the exclusion of all noisy factories and even
of tall shafts in the neighborhood of artistic and historic monuments.
2.2.4.1.1.2 Consolidation
The charter recommends the adoption of consolidation more particularly in cases where their use makes
it possible to avoid the dangers of dismantling and reinstating the portions to be preserved. It is specified
that this work of consolidation should whenever possible be concealed in order that the aspect and
character of the restored monument may be preserved. They approved the judicious use of all the
resources at the disposal of modern technique and more especially of reinforced concrete.
2.2.4.1.1.3 Anastolysis
In the case of ruins, scrupulous conservation is necessary, and steps should be taken to reinstate any
original fragments that may be recovered (anastylosis), whenever this is possible the new materials
used for this purpose should in all cases be recognizable. When the preservation of ruins brought to
light in the course of excavations is found to be impossible, the Conference recommends that they be
buried, accurate records being of course taken before filling-in operations are undertaken.
With regard to other monuments, the experts unanimously agreed that, before any consolidation or
partial restoration is undertaken, a thorough analysis should be made of the defects and the nature of

36
 the decay of these monuments. They recognized that each case needed to be treated individually.
(ICOMOS, The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments - 1931, 2011)
2.2.4.2 ICOMOS
2.2.4.2.1 Introduction

ICOMOS (International Council for Monuments and

Sites) is the professional association that works for the
conservation and protection of cultural heritage. It is the
only international non-governmental organization of its
kind dedicated to promoting the theory, methodology and
technology applied to the conservation, protection and
enhancement of monuments and sites. ICOMOS was
founded in 1965 in Warsaw as a result of the Venice
Charter of 1964, and offers advice to UNESCO on World
Heritage Sites.

Recording is the capture of information which describes the physical configuration, condition and use
of monuments, groups of buildings and sites, at points in time, and it is an essential part of the
conservation process. Records of monuments, groups of buildings and sites may include tangible as
well as intangible evidence, and constitute a part of the documentation that can contribute to an
understanding of the heritage and its related values.
2.2.4.2.2 CONTENT OF RECORDS
1. Any record should be identified by:
a. The name of the building, group of buildings or
b. A unique reference number;
c. The date of compilation of the record;
d. The name of the recording organization;
e. Cross-references to related building records and reports, photographic, graphic, textual or
bibliographic documentation, archaeological and environmental records.
2. The location and extent of the monument, group of buildings or site - this may be achieved by
description, maps, plans or aerial photographs. In rural areas a map reference or triangulation to known
points may be the only methods available. In urban areas an address or street reference may be
sufficient.
3. New records should note the sources of all information not obtained directly from the monument, group
of buildings or site itself.

4. Records should include some or all of the following information:

a) The type, form and dimensions of the building, monument or site;
b) The interior and exterior characteristics, as appropriate, of the monument, group of buildings or
site;
c) The nature, quality, cultural, artistic and scientific significance of the heritage and its
components and the cultural, artistic and scientific significance of:
• the materials, constituent parts and construction, decoration, ornament or inscriptions
• services, fittings and machinery,
37
 • ancillary structures, the gardens, landscape and the cultural, topographical and natural features
of the site
d) The traditional and modern technology and skills used in construction and maintenance;
e) Evidence to establish the date of origin, authorship, ownership, the original design, extent, use
and decoration;
f) Evidence to establish the subsequent history of its uses, associated events, structural or
decorative alterations, and the impact of human or natural external forces;
g) The history of management, maintenance and repairs;
h) Representative elements or samples of construction or site materials;
i) An assessment of the current condition of the heritage;
2.2.4.3 The Venice Charter
The Venice charter has been the benchmark for the principles governing
architectural conservation/ Restoration for over the thirty years. It has
provided a set of guiding principles for the protection of historic
monuments and sites since its adoption in 1964 at the Second
International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic
Monuments (ICOMOS, VENICE CHARTER , 1964). This meeting
expanded and further advanced those concepts set forth in the Athens
charter of 1931 which had, in effect, led to the development of major
institutions for international activity in the cultural field.
Historic Monuments, in Venice adopted 13 resolutions; the first one is
the international restoration charter and the second one, put forward by
UNESCO, provided for the creation of the International Council on
Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). Drafted by delegates from different Figure 9 Original
places including Peru and Mexico, Tunisia, France and Italy, the charter Document of Venice
emphasizes that each country is responsible for applying the plan within Charter
the framework of its own culture and traditions in the full richness of their
authenticity. It states that the monuments are to be conserved not only as works of art but also as
historical evidence (ICOMOS, VENICE CHARTER , 1964). The Venice charter is a remarkable
document that sets out to define the common responsibility of nations to safeguard cultural heritage for
future generations. It continues to be the most influential international conservation documents.
The charter has been inestimable value in the conservation of cultural heritage over the world. It became
the funding document of ICOMOS, and was later adopted by UNESCO. Today, it provides the
fundamental references for the conservation policy for the 191 UNESCO member states. (Sunney,
2018)
The Venice charter sets out 16 articles under 6 different headings. The five major principles that sum
up the charter are: -
The concept of historic buildings- this concept has been extended as regard both isolates buildings and
groups of buildings.

38
 Figure 10 Basantapur Figure 11 Parthenon
Durbar Square Area
Conservation- In order to secure the conservation of a building, its use is actually necessary, but no
change of layout or decoration should be permitted. The surroundings should be protected. No transfer
should be allowed nor any removal of ornaments (except in case
of emergency).

Figure 12 Part of the Figure 13 The reuse of Palazzo Grassy at Venice That has been
eastern frieze of the reused as art gallery
Parthenon
Restoration – Restoration will be undertaken only when necessary. No reconstruction should be
admitted; the structure and the authenticity of materials must be respected. Any new element should be
distinguishable. Whenever traditional techniques prove to be inadequate recourse may be made to
modern but well- tired techniques.

Figure 14 Restoration of Venice Figure 15 Original iron

clamp of the Parthenon Figure 16 New titanium clamp
for the Parthenon

Elements of value of any period should be respected. Falsification in replacing missing parts is to be
ruled out
Archeology: - excavations should be carried out only by specialists.
Rehabilitation of archeological sites should not alter the buildings to enhance understanding.
Documentation and publication: - Any action taken should be accompanied by a report to be deposited
with the public archives. Publication is recommended. (ICOMOS, VENICE CHARTER , 1964)

39
However, a number of concepts still remain unformulated such as
the concept of sites which also applies to historic landscapes and
gardens, the social and financial issues and the concept of the
restoration in reconstruction. Over the years, there have been
several attempts to revise the Venice charter, but without success,
and the charter has become a major reference both for national
administrations and at the international level. This is proven by the
translations of the charter into at least 28 different languages.
Perhaps, the best known examples that used the Venice charter as
reference are standards and guidelines for rehabilitation in the Figure 17 Archeological site of
USA and the Burra charters in Australia. The principles of the Carthage, Tunisa excavation.
Venice charters have also been recognized as the basic policy Photo source: Independent.uk
guidelines for the assessment of cultural heritage sites on
UNESCOS world heritage list.
2.2.4.4 The Burra Charter
Burra charter is the first conservation charter adopted by
Australia in 1971 under the formation of Australian
National committee of ICOMOS in 1976. The Charter got
its name from the South Australian Mining Town of Burra.
The Charter got revised several times in 1981, 1988 and
1999 and Latest October 2013. The Charter is further
supported by Practicing Notes to make the Conservation
process properly guided. The Charter have 34 articles
where the first article defines the various terms and its
meanings, second to thirteen article comprises of
conservation principles, fourteen to twenty-five article
comprises of conservation processes, and remaining on
conservation practices. The chart is even supported by
Burra Charter Flow chart.
The Burra charter applies and tries to conserve the
monument by identifying its cultural significance through
the natural, indigenous and historic places with cultural
values. The process of identifying the conservation
monument is through the process of cultural Figure 18 Burra Charter Front Page
significance where the various aspects like aesthetic, Source: Australian ICOMOS
historic, scientific, social and spiritual aspects plays an
identity role. The Aesthetic stands for the color, fabric, proportions, and hierarchy, whereas historical
aspect cover the past important events or the learning points through the past events. Scientific aspects
are also identified to know the information for the clear understand where as social aspects are very
much related to attachment of individual to the respective monument. Nevertheless, the monument is
not only physical whereas it might be connected through intangible aspects to, the monuments can have
a spiritual connection with the attachment of believes, fortunes and even the strengths.

40
2.2.4.4.1 Important Terminologies of Burra charter

2.2.4.4.1.1 Place
• Geographical define area
• Elements, objects, spaces and views
• Tangible and intangible dimensions

2.2.4.4.1.2 Cultural Significance

• Aesthetics, historical, scientific, social or spiritual value
• Fabric
• Setting, use, associations, meanings, records, related places and related objects

2.2.4.4.1.3 Cultural Landscape

• Physical material of the places
• Elements, fixtures, contents and objects

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2.2.4.4.2 Burra Charter Process

Figure 19 Conservation Process

2.2.4.4.2.1 Identify
Before the conservation is carried out, the identification of monument is foremost. The identification
of the monuments might not be as easy as it sounds because the traces of the monument has been
neglected for long period of time, or lack of documentation. The process has to be carried out by expert
and incase of lack of understanding of proper signage, the identification of the monument might not be
very important. Therefore, the identification of the sign and symbols are very important to know the
traces of monuments.

42
2.2.4.4.2.2 Research
After the proper identifying objects are found, the ample amount of supporting documents and objects
are required so that there will be very good understanding of the monument. The most important part
of the identification are validities by the means of proper research only. Research materials even helps
to clarify droughts and helps to guide in proper track of information gathering. This includes various
notes, inscriptions, symbols and photographs.
2.2.4.4.2.3 Assess Significance
The researched material helps to clarify the identified monument but it required the scientific proofs
which are not possible with the help of various manuscripts therefore, scientific test needs to be carried
out to know the actual date of the monuments and even helps to know the presented documents are
supporting the identification process. Carbon Dating are some of the leading methods of carrying out
the material age.
2.2.4.4.2.4 Statement of Significance
The supporting factors and all the test carried out needs to be properly documented and the documents
will undergo some degree of authenticity and genuine where various experts from different background
endures the discovery and shares the knowledge that have been understood by them. In this level many
works are justified through various level of discussion. Finally, if the provided documents and test are
found to be genuine, the monument is listed officially as monument and conservation is carried out by
least degree of intervention.
2.2.4.4.2.5 Other factor affecting the future of the place
Monuments are always in effect of various factors like environment, humans and living beings, and
even natural disaster. Even during the process of documentation this process can be carried out so that
the monuments identity is well preserved. It is very important in the process as in some cases, lack of
proper impact identification leads loss of information.
2.2.4.5 Nara Document on Authenticity (1994)
Shoso-in, 8th century temple pavilion at Nara, photographed 2004. “Authenticity” is a word we keep
coming back to in the world of cultural heritage conservation. Figure 20 ICOMOS Symposia, Nara, Japan, 1-
The concept of authenticity lies at the centerpiece of the 6 Nov., 1994.
international charters that have defined preservation practice
since the 1930s, and especially since the shift toward “intangible
cultural heritage” that began with the Nara document in 1994.
Authenticity is a key aspect of how visitors encounter and
experience historic sites.
The Nara Document on Authenticity (1994) was adopted by
ICOMOS Symposia, Nara, Japan, 1-6 Nov., 1994. In recent years,
authenticity has become a central concern in the conservation of
cultural heritage. The Nara Document builds on the Venice
Charter in light of an expanding scope of cultural heritage
concerns. It addresses the need for a broader understanding of
cultural diversity and cultural heritage as it relates to the
conservation. The document underscores the importance of
considering the cultural and social values of all societies. It
emphasizes respect for other cultures, other values, and the
43
tangible and intangible expressions that form part of the heritage of every culture. There are no fixed
criteria to judge value and authenticity of cultural property; rather it must be evaluated within the
cultural context to which it belongs. Though responsibility for the care and management of heritage
belongs primarily to the culture that produced it, the document calls for adherence to the principles and
responsibilities imposed by international charters.
(ICOMOS, NARA CHARTER)
2.2.4.6 ICOFORT
ICOFORT Charter on Fortifications and Related Heritage; guidelines for protection, conservation and
interpretation provides guidance for an integrated conservation of fortifications and related heritage in
its context of military cultural landscapes. ICOFORT, through its role as the advisory ICOMOS
committee related to fortifications and military heritage understands that guidelines are needed to fill
existing gaps and to support best practices for the protection, conservation, enhancement and
interpretation of fortifications and defensive heritage as well as in the interpretations of their
significance for their appreciation by the conservation of the Memory of the World Fortifications.
Objectives of the Charter
The objectives of the Charter on Fortifications and related heritage are to establish basic principles for
interventions and methods of research that are specific to the conservation, protection and value of
fortifications and surrounding military cultural landscapes. As an aim to bring clarity and ensure
authenticity and integrity to the relationship among the forms, settings and functionality of the
fortifications and related heritage which is essential for the conservation of all attributes including the
protection and enhancement of their tangible and intangible values. The Charter also contributes to the
safeguarding of the tangible and intangible values of fortifications and related heritage as “memory”
tied to facts, people, communities, and expressions of cultural identity of local history.
The intervention in fortifications should complementary consider following:

a) All intervention should initiate from a Master Conservation Plan. This Master Plan should include
at a minimum:
Historic study of the place and all the periods of its development and use, morphological development
study, topographical/planimetric surveys archaeological study assessment, structural assessment,
structural analysis, preservation diagnostics and monitoring, cultural landscape study, interpretive
study, analysis of re-use viability, utilities assessment, recommendations, risk preparedness / disaster
plan, business plan, visitors’ survey / visitors use study, protection plan, management plan.
b) All interventions will be based on the holistic integration of the values of the site in relation to the
defensive systems and surroundings. The interpretation will be common to the implementation of all
the fortifications.
c) All interventions must be compatible with the elements and characteristics of the fortifications and
related heritage in agreement with the Zimbabwe Charter and in respect Vitruvian Triade: “Firmitas,
Venustas et Utilitas”.
"The choice between “traditional” and “innovative” techniques should be weighed up on a case-by-
case basis and preference given to those that is least invasive and most compatible with heritage values,
44
considering safety and durability requirements. Functional or “Utilitas” compatibility is the survival of
the element’s characteristic of the fortification from the point of view of its function, its routes and
accesses.
The concept of “Firmitas” compatibility must be understood until the mechanical compatibility
between present historical materials and materials used for structural restoration-consolidation, always
preferring a “natural type” intervention. (Referring to minimal impact intervention).
Aesthetic or “Venustas” compatibility means that the intervention must be aesthetically compatible
with the original. However, it must guarantee the permanence of the stratigraphic reading prior to the
intervention and the stratigraphic legibility of the intervention itself.

45
2.2.4.7 Charters conclusion

To be specific, the study of charters and ICOFORT provided us the source for understanding the fort
itself, its defensive strategies. Following characters are listed in short that we hope would sum up the
characters to study for fort:

Functional character: Analyzing the routes and accesses of the fort

Forts and their built environments: Using methodologies to understand the relationship of the
communities with the specific fort, purpose of the built landscapes, and purpose of the location and
material used, conservation and rehabilitation.

Forts and their history: Analyzing the shapes, designs, heights, methods to protect themselves and
connectivity with histories of fort.

Forts and their values: Analyzing that values are “primary quantifier”, not monetary value but they
are associated with socio-economic, racial, generational, cultural value also.

Forts and their uses: Purposeful use of the fort for economic upliftment without disturbing the
character of the fort.

2.2.5 Provision of Ancient Monument Act 2013

2.2.5.1 Critical Analysis on Prevailing Ancient Monument Act, 2013

The numbers show the sections and sub-sections of the prevailing law for the ancient monuments. The
analysis is mainly focused on forts of Nepal.

*3. An Area May Be Declared as Preserved Monument Area

(1) His Majesty's Government, if wishes to declare any place or area where any monument is located
to be as preserved monument area, shall display a notice at the place where the monument is located
and also at the adjoining public place specifying the boundaries of the preserved monument area.

Declaration of monument area is one of the most important factors in conservation of monument.
As described in Ancient Monument Act 2013 ancient monument, object, and curio are equally
important. So during declaration of monument area, area should have qualitative definition for the
nearby environment and object in the monument area.

(7) If a Person has submitted to the Municipality the drawing of a house or a building to be constructed,
repaired, altered, or reconstructed within the Preserved Monument Area, the Municipality shall, before
giving its consent on the drawing under the prevailing law, have to take approval of the Department of
Archaeology on such drawing. After reviewing the drawing received from the Municipality, the
Department of Archaeology may give its approval, reject it or give its approval with amendment.
46
Prevailing law can be related to fort architecture.

**3A. Classification of Ancient Monuments:

(1) From the viewpoint of ownership, the ancient monuments shall be classified in two categories
as public ancient monuments and private ancient monuments.

In public ancient monuments the power to conserve and regulate the ancient monument can be
defined as local government, state government, central government or international body.

(2) From the view point of importance, the ancient monuments shall be classified in three categories
as of international importance, of national importance and of local importance".

In this act the definition of local, national and international monument such as monument having
local influence in their living condition, culture and society can be categorized in local and likewise.

**3B. Ownership, Conservation, Maintenance and Renovation of Public Ancient Monuments:

Ownership of the public ancient monuments shall be vested in the Department of Archaeology. The
Department of Archaeology shall conserve, maintain and renovate such public ancient monuments.

If the ownership is vested to local government and DOA local people may involve in conservation,
maintenance, and renovation of such monuments. Also local government can get more benefitted
with such monuments.

* 3 D. Conservation of Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites:

The Department of Archaeology shall conserve the ancient monuments and archaeological sites which
are important from national and international point of view.

It is a general section, but cannot define the importance of conservation of ancient monument. Why
conservation should be done and the motivation factor in conservation can be added so that people
can be aware and having feeling of conservation of such monuments. Degree of priority in
monuments according to their importance can be inserted.

*3 E. Operation of Religious Temples, Monasteries etc.:

47
(1) The person operating a religious temple, monastery etc. shall use up to fifty percent of the amount
of the donation offered to such temple or monastery for the conservation of the temple or monastery
and for bringing reformation in its surrounding environment.

A person? The operation and other activities should be done by a local community organization such
as aama samuha, guthi etc.
As referred tothe reformation of surrounding environment, the declaration of monument area
should have more precise definition.

(3) The income and expenditure of the donation offered to religious temples and monasteries and
other provisions for its operation shall be as prescribed.

Prescribed by whom? DOA? Due to centralism it was fine but the local community and local
government should also be included in that prescribed community because they have more
knowledge in their importance and working method.

*3 G. Committee May Be Formed:

(1) Various committees may be formed in order to survey and classify the ancient monuments; to give
advises to the Department of Archaeology as to the style or standard of the house or building to be
constructed in the private land within the* Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth
Amendment) Act, 2052. Protected monuments area; and to make necessary provisions with regard to
b the due conservation of the ancient monuments which have been regarded important from historical
and artistic point of view.

This section said that the committee should be formed to prescribe according to style and standard,
more precision in these topics with proper guidelines in context of material, authority, intervention
such as in ICOFORT and other international charter should be written. In second line, societal
influence point of view should also be added as in UNECSO conservation act.

2. The formation, functions, duties and powers of the committees referred to in sub- section (1) shall
be as prescribed.

2.5. Power of the Chief Archaeology Officer to cause the Owners of Ancient Monument to enter into
a deed of Responsibility on prior approval of His Majesty's Government.

48
Power of Chief Archaeology Officer along with head of committee should also be added.

6. Local Office- Chief is to give statement of the archaeological objects located within his Jurisdictional
area

Local Office- Chiefs of the capital and outside the capital of the country shall, by investigating the
archaeological objects located within their jurisdictional area, forward the details of such objects, to the
chief archaeology officer for the preservation of such objects.

This section is important for the local empowerment and decision making of the project.

** 8. Excavation not allowed for the preservation of the ancient monument.

(1) For the Preservation of the ancient monument, If His Majesty's Government deems necessary
to control the work of trenching a tunnel or blasting of land by explosives around the place of the
ancient monument, may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, restrict to trench a tunnel or
blasting of land by explosives.

(2) A person who violates sub- section (1), shall be punished with a fine up to ten thousand rupees
or with an imprisonment up to one and half year.

Excavation decreases the importance of monument but in case of fort or monument area, excavation
can explore more objects and related thing so hand or light excavation should be allowed in such
monument with proper supervision.
*** 13. Restriction on transfer, transaction, export or collection of ancient monument and
archaeological object or curio.
15. Power of the Chief Archaeology Officer to inspect and cause the preservation

The Chief Archaeology Officer shall have the power to inspect as to whether or not the statue of God
or Goddess that is being worshiped is kept properly and if found that it has not been kept properly he
may cause it to be adequately preserved.

Committee head and chief archeological officer should inspect and cause the preservation as the
committee head may be more familiar to the project.

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*16A. Special Provision Relating to Arts, Sculptures and Monuments

Notwithstanding anything contained elsewhere in this Act, the Department of Archaeology may
conserve or cause to conserve the rarest types of arts or sculptures or monuments showing the
importance of any specific time.

There is a special provision relating to arts, sculptures and monuments which generalize fort but
also it may include fort with clear definition as it has more historical importance in Nepalese history.
So, the proper guidelines can be clearly made.

21) Power to Frame Rules

His Majesty's Government may frame Rule for implementing the objectives of this Act.

After federalism system this authority may be vested to DOA but objective is not clearly defined. In
ICOFORT the objective, Mission and Aims of the charter is clearly defined. Such objective
consisting of structure, conservation and maintenance related to fort or monuments should be
inserted.
Notes;
* Amended by Some Nepal Laws (Amendment and Re- legalization) Act, 2020.
(1963)
** Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043.
(1983)
*** Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 2052.

2.3 History of Fort, Fort Architecture and Conservation

2.3.1 Introduction to Forts
2.3.1.1 Definitions:
Oxford dictionary defines fort as, a fortified building or strategic position. Collins English dictionary
defines it as, a strong building or a place with a wall or fence around it where soldiers can stay and be
50
safe from the enemy. Similarly, from Cambridge dictionary, a military building designed to be defended
from attack, consisting of an area surrounded by a strong wall, in which soldiers are based. In general,
fort is a man-made military construction used to defend a territory.

2.3.1.2 Types of Forts:

Forts are of various types constructed in different regions of the world in different time periods. They
are constructed depending upon their usage, shapes, etc. Some of them are explained below:

a. Black house

A blockhouse is a small single isolated building, usually consisting of one or more rooms with
loopholes, allowing its defenders to fire in various directions.

b. Castle

Castle is a private fort. Usually referring to a residence of King or Noble person.

c. Bunker

Bunker is a modern type of fort, usually underground, which protects from the bombs dropping
from above.

d. Bastion Fort

It is normally pentagon (or more sides) shaped, having bastions at the corners. Developed as a
technique to reduce the impact of cannon balls. Also known as star fort.

e. Flak Tower

Flake tower is a modern type of fort in the form of a single tower. The Germans constructed them
during the World War II.

Among various types, study of fort with fortification wall is appropriate for our case study. Fort with
fortification wall has various types, among which, following three are most common:

i. Fort with place for battle troops only.

ii. Fort with place for King/queen.
iii. Fort with a city/town surrounded by fortification wall.

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2.3.1.3 General components of Fort with fortification wall:
Forts with fortification wall has following general components:

Figure 11: Element of fort

a. Banquette

It is a little footpath or elevation of earth in form of a step, along a parapet, from where counter
attack is performed. - The universal dictionary of arts and sciences.

b. Bastion

A projection, often triangular, from the main walls of a fortification, presenting two faces from
which defenders could fire on enemies attacking the main wall or adjacent bastions (Petersen,
2012).

c. Gate House

Gate House is a structure attached to the entry gate, used to attack the enemies entering through
gate.

d. Ramparts

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 A wall or earthen embankment comprising the main defensive work of a permanent or field
fortification. A rampart is usually surmounted by a parapet (Petersen, 2012).

e. Keep

Keep is the tower inside the fort.

f. Barbican

Fortifications, such as a tower, guarding the approach to a castle or town, commonly paced at a gate
or drawbridge. (Petersen, 2012)

g. Moat

The depression on the ground outside of the external wall. They are usually parallel to their sides
and filled with water, used to distance the enemies from the wall.

h. Drawbridge

Drawbridge is the main entry bridge between the fort and the external land used to cross the moat.

i. Portcullis

It is a heavy gate, closing vertically.

j. Embrasure

It is a small opening passing through solid walls, used to fire weapons, while themselves being
undercover.

k. Machicolation

Machicolation is a projection opening on the outside wall, used to pour hot oil or water.

2.3.2 Fort Architecture:

Fort architecture in its simplest meaning, can be defined as, the art and science of creating forts. Fort
architecture is the product of designing and constructing the forts, having a prime objective to meet that
is strategical defence. To meet this objective, following three components should be taken into account:

53
a. Location:

Location is the prime factor that guides the design of the fort. Fort design has the influential natural
factors like, topography, climate, etc. Unlike other form of architecture, forts are not (or cannot be)
designed on just any location. Proper study of location is done, so that, the fort can be defended
easily, at the same time enemies can also be attacked.

b. Function:

Only after the selection of proper location, function of the fort is designed. Taking full advantage
of the location, planning of every space within the fort is made. It includes the placement of entry
gate, bastions, embrasure, moat, keep, ramparts, etc. so that the very little damage is conceived.

c. Form and Material:

The form of the fort is guided by the architecture style, which the designers follow. We can see
Mughal, Scottish, Italian, etc. style implemented in the forts of numerous countries. They are also
sometimes guided by the purpose of the fort or the type of the fort. The bunker type of fort was
designed to protect from the bombs dropping from sky and the star shaped fort are designed to
reduce the impact of cannon are some examples.

54
 Use of material is guided by the availability in the local context and the strength the material can
give. Mud, Stone, lime, timber, etc. are few materials that are found to be used in most of the ancient
forts all over the world. In modern times, use of concrete and steel are high.

2.3.3 Evolution of International Fort Architecture

55
From very early history to modern times, walls have often been necessary for cities to survive in an
ever-changing world of invasion and conquest. The art of the engineer who is about to fortify consists
in appreciating and harmonizing all the conditions of the problem, such as the weapons in use, nature
of the ground, materials available, temper of assailants and defenders, strategical possibilities,
expenditure to be incurred, and so forth.
2.3.3.1.1 ANCIENT METHODS (BEFORE 8TH CENTURY BC)

2.3.3.1.1.1 Protecting walls and obstacles Excavated Ditch,

surrounded by Location of
Earliest forms of fortification were protecting Embankment Stones
walls, and obstacles like a wet or dry ditch, an
entanglement, a swamp, a thorn hedge, a spiked
palisade, or some temporary expedient, such as
crows’ feet or chevaux de frise.
Materials and techniques: Timber being plentiful, the
parapets were built of alternate layers of stones,
earth and tree trunks. The latter were built in at
right angles to the length of the parapet, and were
thus very difficult to displace, while the earth
prevented their being set on fire. The bank was
often strengthened by a palisade of tree trunks or
hurdle-work. Figure 12: Fortifications and enclosures
from northwestern Europe
2.3.3.1.1.2 The Wall
(Source: Fortification and Siegecraft by Louis Charles
Most important step in advance for a nation Jackson)
progressing in the arts was the wall, of masonry,
sun-dried brick or mud. The history of the development
of the wall and of the methods of attacking it is the
history of fortification for several thousand years.
Techniques: The first necessity for the wall was height,
to give security against escalade. The second-was
thickness, so that the defenders might have a platform
on the top which would give them space to circulate
freely and to use their weapons.
The plan was early introduced of building two walls
with a filling of earth or rubble between them. The face
of the outer wall would be carried up a few feet above
the platform, and crenellated to give protection against
arrows and other projectiles.
Figure 13:Fortifications and enclosures;
wall
Source: west-slavs.tumblr.com/post

56
2.3.3.1.1.3 Towers
The next forward step for the defense was the
construction of towers at intervals along the wall. These
provided flanking fire along the front. The evolution of
the wall with towers was simple. The main requirements
were despotic power and unlimited labour. Thus the finest
examples of the system known to history are also amongst
the earliest. One of these was Nineveh, built more than
2000 years B.C. The object of its huge perimeter, more
than 50m., has been mentioned. The wall was 120 ft. high
and 30 ft. thick; and there were 1500 towers. Increasing
height of walls made escalade too difficult, other means
of attack had to be invented - ram, for battering down the Figure 14: Tower at Water Intervals
walls, and mining.

2.3.3.1.2 Classical Times (800 BC TO 5TH CENTURY AD)

2.3.3.1.2.1 Invention of Mechanical Seigecraft

The Greeks invented siegecraft which was extremely
practical. The highest development of siegecraft was attained
in the early days of the Roman empire. The attack was carried
on mainly by the use of “engines,” under which head were
included all mechanical means of attack—towers, missile
engines such as catapults and ballistae, rams of different kinds.
Mining, too, was freely resorted to, also approach trenches, the
use of which had been introduced by the Greeks. In
fortification the wall with towers was still the leading idea. The
towers were preferred circular in plan, as this form offered the
Figure 15: Seige Techniques
best resistance to the ram.
Source: yahoo.com/news/siege-towers
2.3.3.1.2.2 Materials and Techniques:
a) The wall was usually reinforced by a ditch, which had three advantages:
 it increased the height of the obstacle,
 made the bringing up of the engines of attack more difficult
 supplied material for the filling of the wall.
b) Citadels were also built on a large scale. The typical site
preferred by the Romans for a Fortified Town was on Defensive high
ground sloping to a river on one side and with steep Wall
slopes falling away on the other three sides. At the Ditch
highest point was a castle serving as citadel. The town
enclosure was designed in accordance with the
character of the surrounding country. Where the
enemy’s approach was easiest, the walls were higher,
flanking towers stronger and ditches wider and deeper. Source: structuralarchaeology.blogspot.com
Some of the towers were made high for look-out posts.
57
 If there was a bridge over the river, it was defended by a bridge-head on the far side; and stockades
defended by towers were built out from either bank above and below the bridge, between which
chains or booms could be stretched to bar the passage.
The natural features of the ground were skillfully utilized. Thus when a large town was spread over
an irregular site broken by hills, the enceinte wall would be carried over the top of the hills; and in
the intervening valleys the wall would not only be made stronger, but would be somewhat drawn
back to allow of a flanking defense from the hill tops on either side. The walls would consist of two
strong masonry faces, 20 ft. apart, the space between filled with earth and stones.

2.3.3.1.3 Middle Ages (5TH – 15TH CENTURY AD)

This age brought progress in enlarging the area of defense and in improving arrangements for
flanking. The size and height of all works were increased. Towers, walls, moats and castles are
various forms of medieval fortifications, which appear either in isolation or combined together to
hinder the action of the enemy.

Dubrovnik, Croatia
Figure 16: Medieval Castle Figure 17: Fortified Town, Dubrovnik. Croatia
Source: gmatt1508.wordpress.com Source: www.adria.travel

2.3.3.1.3.1 Castle
By this time a new departure of great importance had been made in the castle, which restored for
some centuries a definite superiority to the defense.
• Built primarily as strongholds for local magnates or for small bodies of warriors dominating a
conquered country, the conditions which called them into existence offered several marked
advantages.
• By 11th century, castle, a definite superiority to the defense.
• The site of a castle could be chosen purely for its natural strength, without regard, except as a
secondary consideration, to the protection of anything outside it; and as its area was small it
was often easy to find a natural position entirely suited for the purpose.
• The typical defensive elements include: an outer walled enclosure adapted to the ground, a
moat, and inside these two elements, or one of them, the castle itself formed by tall and narrow
walls, and flanking tower
• Reinforced with: machicolations, battlements and loopholes.

58
2.3.3.1.3.2 Material and Techniques
The effect of flanking fire was increased by giving more projection to
the towers whose sides were in some cases made at right angles to the
curtain walls. Great attention was paid to the “step by step” defense.
Flanking towers were cut off from their walls and arranged for
separate resistance. Complicated entrances with traps and many doors
were arranged. Almost all defense was from the tops of the walls and
towers, the loopholes on the lower storeys being mainly for light and
air and reconnoitering. Machicouli galleries (for vertical defense) were
protected either by stone walls built out on corbels, or by strong timber
hoardings built in war time, for which the walls were prepared
beforehand by recesses left in the masonry. Loopholes and crenelles
were protected by shutters. Already in the 12th century the engineers
of the defense had made provision for countermining, by building
chambers and galleries at the base of the towers and walls.
The castles held supremacy over the attacker until the 14th century. Figure 18: 12th-century
The discovery of gunpowder and the subsequent invention of firearms Castle, Château
opened a new page in the history of warfare. The castle, which was the Gaillard, built by
quintessential defense, almost impregnable, approached its end and Richard Cœur-de-Lion
artillery began to take its first steps. in 1196. This great
castle, with ditches and
2.3.3.1.3.3 Introduction of gunpowder: escarpments cut out of
Artillery was in use for some time before it began to have any effect the Fortification
Source: solid rock, and and
on the design of fortification. The earliest cannon threw so very light Siegecraft
extensive by Louis Charles
outworks
a projectile. later, larger pieces were made, which acted practically as
mortars, throwing stone balls with high elevation, and barrels of burning composition. Later, larger
pieces were made, which acted practically as mortars, throwing stone balls with high elevation, and
barrels of burning composition. In the middle of the 15th century the art of cannon-founding was much
developed by the brothers Bureau in France. They introduced iron cannon balls and greatly
strengthened the guns.
When artillery became strong enough to destroy masonry from a distance two results followed: it was
necessary to modify the masonry defenses so as to make them less vulnerable, and to improve the
means of employing the guns of the defense. For both these purposes the older castles with their
restricted area were little suited, and we must now trace the development of the fortified towns. The
vulnerability of the fortifications when facing artillery from the mid-fifteenth century was the cause for
a renewal in both their construction elements and their design.
The transformation suffered by fortification at the end of the Middle Ages can be attribute to three
main causes:
i. The emergence and different progress of powder artillery in the mid-fifteenth century. Because
of its excessive height and thinness, medieval walls were unable to resist the effects of enemy
artillery. In order to attend the new defensive needs was to lower the walls to provide a more
difficult target to enemy fire, and their slope was increased to make them more resistant.

59
 ii. The introduction of permanent armies. The development, construction, maintenance and
defense of such strongholds, were so high that only a strong state could afford it. In this way
there was a dependence and mutual need between power and architecture.
iii. Favorable environment for the development of the sciences related to military engineering, as
happened in other fields of knowledge.

2.3.3.1.4 16TH – 17TH CENTURY AD

The development in siege techniques with the introduction of gunpowder meant the need of
development in defense. Hence, the development of fortification was seen with the active defense by
artillery in forts rather than the improvement of the passive defense or obstacle.
2.3.3.1.4.1 Rampart
For this purpose, it was necessary to find room for the working of the guns. At the outset it was of
course a question of modifying the existing defenses at as little cost as possible. With this object the
roofs of towers were removed and platforms for guns substituted, but this only gave room for one or
two guns. Also the loopholes in the lower storeys of towers were converted into embrasures to give a
grazing fire over the ditch; this became the commonest method of strengthening old works for cannon,
but was of little use as the resulting field of fire was so small. In some cases, the towers were made
larger, with a semicircular front and side walls at right angles to the curtain.
The natural solution, however, which was soon generally adopted, was the rampart; that is, a bank of
earth thrown up behind the wall, which, while strengthening the wall as already indicated, offered
plenty of space for the disposal of the guns.

Source: Fortification and Siegecraft by Louis Charles Jackson

Figure 19: Rampart and Ditch,

i. The Wall Wall
The first lesson taught by improved artillery was that the walls
should not be set up on high as targets, but in some manner screened. One method of doing this in the
case of old works was by placing bulwarks in front of them. In other cases, the lists or outer walls,
being surrounded by moats, were already partially screened and suitable for conversion into the main
defense; and as with improved flanking defense great height was no longer essential, the tops of the
walls were in some cases cut down. In new works it was natural to sink the wall in a ditch, the earth
from which was useful for making ramparts.

60
2.3.3.1.4.2 Counterforts
The earliest counterforts were simply buttresses built inward from
the wall into the rampart instead of outward (fig.). Their effect was
to strengthen the wall and make the breaches more difficult of
ascent. An alternative arrangement for strengthening the wall was
an arched gallery built behind it under the rampart.
The best arrangement, was the “counter-arched revetment.” This
consisted of a series of arches built between the counterforts, with
their axes at right angles to the face of the wall. Their advantage
was that, while supporting the wall and taking all the weight of the
rampart, they formed an obstacle after the destruction of the wall
more difficult to surmount than the wall itself and very hard to
destroy.
Concerning the former, from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth
centuries, the stone walls of medieval fortifications, which were
weak to resist the impact of the cannon balls, were progressively replaced
Figure 20: Counterfortrs
by embankments, because they realized that slightly compacted soil
absorbed the cannon balls and counteracted its effects.
2.3.3.1.4.3 Bastion
In the field of design, the artillery threat meant that the old
medieval towers generated numerous blind spots in
defensive fire, which would result in the construction of
pentagonal towers with an apex directed outwards,
conveniently stationed to remove the adjacent dead angles Source: Fortification and Siegecraft by
and facilitate flanking fires. This would be the origin of the Louis Charles Jackson
bastion, which gave its name to a whole system of
permanent fortifications that were used from the second half
of the sixteenth century to the late eighteenth.
The term “bastion” henceforth denoted an artillery position
connected by flanks to the main wall; and the question of the
arrangement of these flanks was one of the main Figure 21: Bastions
preoccupations of engineers. Flanks retired, casemated or Source: Fortification and Siegecraft by
open, or sometimes in several tiers were proposed in infinite Louis Charles Jackson
variety.
Thus, while in the early part of the 16th century the actual
modification of existing defenses was proceeding very slowly on
account of the expense involved, the era of theoretical “systems” had
begun, based on the mutual relations of flank and face. These can be
grouped under three heads as follows: —
i. The crémaillère or indented trace: Faces and flanks succeeding
each other in regular order (fig. a).

Figure 22: Bastion Fort

Source: Fortification and

61
ii. The tenaille trace: Flanks back to back between the faces (fig. b). The development of the flanks in
this case gives us the star trace (fig. c).
iii. The bastioned trace: Flanks facing each other and connected by curtains (fig. d).
In comparing these three traces it will be observed that unless casemates are used the flanking in the
first two is incomplete. Guns on the ramparts of the faces cannot defend the flanks, and therefore there
are “dead” angles in the ditch. In the bastioned trace there is no “dead” ground, provided the flanks are
so far apart that a shot from the rampart of a flank can reach the ditch at the centre of the curtain.
2.3.3.1.4.4 Bastian Fortification and Marshal Vauban
During the 17th century, the Dutch system progressively built a complex system of defenses in depth,
which composed of multiple external works such as ravelins, hornworks, crowns and others. This
had a particular influence on the subsequent development of fortification bastion in the remaining
countries. The characteristic mark of the second half of the seventeenth century in the field of
fortifications is the figure of Marshal Vauban, not only for the large number of fortifications built under
his direction, but also on the level of perfection reached. The principles of adaptation and staging
ground ball defense were consolidated in his constructions.
Viewed from above, the “ground plan resembled a star which was made up of a series of geometrically

Source: Fortification and Siegecraft by Louis

Charles Jackson

Figure 23: Vauban’s methods of bastion fortification

Source: Fortification and Siegecraft by Louis Charles Jackson
interrelated planes, the idea being to cover all the projecting parts of the fortifications by an effective
cross fire” (Christopher Duffy, Fire and Stone). In short, there was to be no place for attackers to find
shelter from the defenders’ cannon and musket fire as they approached a fort.
This manner of fortification was first perfected in Italy and soon spread across Europe. By the 17th
century several systems of fortification were in use. The most influential was that of Sébastien Le

62
Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707) who, during the last half of the 17th century, designed and constructed
fortresses across France for King Louis XIV.

Figure 24: Bastian Star Fortification; Pelmanova

Source: Google Earth

Bastion Star Fort (Techniques):

Star-shaped fortresses were designed to deflect cannonballs. Cannonballs have the highest likely-hood
of penetrating defenses when they impact perpendicularly to the wall. Hitting the wall at an angle
transfers more force outwards, and less force into the wall. The same concept exists in tank warfare, as
shown in these graphics. Now, if you’re attacking this fort, there are fewer places where you can attack
with cannon than a square fort. The best thing to do would be to attack as the blue line shows. But then
you open yourself up to deadly crossfire from the two turrets depicted in red.
Another advantage of star-shaped forts is the covering of “dead-zones”, or areas where defenders
cannot see or shoot. This graphic does a good job of showing that defenders cannot see around circular
towers, but can see around sharply angled towers. This has an added advantage of allowing defenders
from the two towers adjacent to any given tower to fire upon people scaling the walls, ensuring that
any tower is always covered from at least three angles.

63
 Maximum damage
t ti

Figure 25: Star Fort Advantages: Figure 26: Star Fort Advantages
comparison to tanks

2.3.3.1.5 18TH – 19TH CENTURY AD:

The 18th century was not fruitful in fortification constructions in Europe. The arrival of explosive
shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification. Star forts did not fare
well against the effects of high explosive and the intricate arrangements of bastions, flanking batteries
and the carefully constructed lines of fire for the defending cannon could be rapidly disrupted by
explosive shells. The artillery had begun a new period of modernization, increasing mobility, range,
accuracy and rate of fire.
Worse, the large open ditches surrounding forts of this type were an integral part of the defensive
scheme, as was the covered way at the edge of the counter scarp. The ditch was extremely vulnerable
to bombardment with explosive shells.

2.3.3.1.5.1 Polygonal Fortification

In response, military engineers evolved the polygonal style of fortification. A polygonal fort is a type
of fortification originating in Germany in the first half of the 19th century. Unlike earlier forts,
polygonal forts had no bastions which had proved to be vulnerable, but were generally arranged in a
ring around the place they were intended to protect, a ring fortress, so that each fort could mutually
support their neighbors. The concept of the polygonal fort proved to be adaptable to improvements in
the artillery which might be used against them and they continued to built and rebuilt well into the 20th
century.

Materials and Technique

The new forts abandoned the principle of the bastion, which had also been made obsolete by advances
in arms. The outline was a much-simplified polygon, surrounded by a ditch. These forts, built in
masonry and shaped stone, were designed to shelter their garrison against bombardment. One
organizing feature of the new system involved the construction of two defensive curtains: an outer line
of forts, backed by an inner ring or line at critical points of terrain or junctions.

64
The ditch became deep and vertically sided, cut directly into the
native rock or soil, laid out as a series of straight lines creating the
central fortified area that gives this style of fortification its name.
Wide enough to be an impassable barrier for attacking troops, but
narrow enough to be a difficult target for enemy shellfire, the ditch
was swept by fire from defensive blockhouses set in the ditch as
well as firing positions cut into the outer face of the ditch itself.
The profile of the fort became very low indeed, surrounded outside
the ditch covered by caponiers by a gently sloping open area so as Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygonal_fort
to eliminate possible cover for enemy forces, while the fort itself
provided a minimal target for enemy fire. The entry point became Figure 27: A 1868 plan of Fort I of
a sunken gatehouse in the inner face of the ditch, reached by a the ring fortress at Magdeburg,
curving ramp that gave access to the gate via a rolling bridge that typical of mid-19th century
could be withdrawn into the gatehouse. polygonal forts

2.3.3.1.5.2 Underground passages and tunnel

Much of the fort moved underground. Deep passages and tunnels now connected the blockhouses and
firing points in the ditch to the fort proper, with magazines and machine rooms deep under the surface.
The guns, however, were often mounted in open emplacements and protected only by a parapet; both
in order to keep a lower profile and also because experience with guns in closed casemates had seen
them put out of action by rubble as their own casemates were collapsed around them.
Citadels surrounding towns were gone: Forts were to be moved to the outside of the cities some 12 km
to keep the enemy at a distance so their artillery could not bombard the city center. From now on a ring
of forts were to be built at a spacing that would allow them to effectively cover the intervals between
them.
2.3.3.1.6 20TH – 21ST CENTURY AD
i. Revetments were enormously strengthened, and designed so that their weight resisted overturning.
ii. Steel-and-concrete fortifications – common in 19th and early 20th centuries. However, the
advances in modern warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most
situations. In the 1930s and 1940s, some fortifications were built with designs taking into consideration
the new threat of aerial warfare, for example Fort Campbell in Malta.

Figure 29:World War I: Construction of Figure 28: Gun emplacement in Fort Campbell,
revetted trenches - the revetment here is the built in the 1930s
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revetment
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortification

65
 Despite this, only underground bunkers are still able to provide some protection in modern wars. Many
historical fortifications were demolished during the modern age, but a considerable number survive as
popular tourist destinations and prominent local landmarks today.
iii. The downfall of permanent fortifications
Field fortification rose to dominate defensive action. More temporary in nature. An advantage - since
less extensive, formed a less obvious target for enemy force to be directed against. Many historical
fortifications were demolished during the modern age, but a considerable number survive as popular
tourist destinations and prominent local landmarks today.

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortification

Figure 30: Cheyenne Mountain

Complex -underground bunker used
by North American Aerospace
Defense Command. Example of a
mid-20th century fortification built
deep in a mountain

2.3.3.2 Evolution of Regional Fort Architecture (India)

2.3.3.2.1 Forts in ancient India: (Before 5th Century)

Forts are important architectural relics of the long history of India. The capital of each Raja or King
had a fort, around which a township grew and developed. In the constant struggle for power, forts and
fortified settlements were a potent symbol of authority. Thus, in ancient India as elsewhere, forts were
the measure of Monarch's strength. Most of the forts in India are actually castles or fortresses. But when
66
the British Government in India were cataloging them in the 17th–19th century they used the word
forts as it was common in Britain then. All fortifications whether European or Indian were termed forts.
Thereafter this became the common usage in India. In local languages, the fort names are suffixed by
local word for fort thus usage of the Sanskrit word durga, or Hindi word qila or the word garh or gad in
Rajasthan,and Maharashtra is common.For example, Suvarnadurg, Mehrangarh, Sudhagad etc. The
forts were not simply inanimate buildings serving a military purpose; they housed one of the most
magnificent palaces ever built. They were alive and echoing to the sounds and cymbals of some of the
great dynasties, witness to regicides and bloody succession battles and carrying within their bastions;
harems and glitter unsurpassed. There are many references to Forts and fortifications in ancient and
medieval literature dating from the Vedic times. Some of the references from ancient India are:
• The Rigveda Samhita mentions tribes living in fortifications called Pur, meaning earthworks
strengthened by stone walls.
• The Aiteraya Brahmana refers to the three Agnis, or fires, as three forts which prevent the Asuras
(demons) from disturbing the sacrifice.
• The Ramayana and the Mahabharata also contain account of forts, and the Puranas state that the
rampart and ditch are the important elements in the fortification of a castle.
• Kautilya's Arthashstra gives a vivid account of the fortified city of Pataliputra, capital of the great
Maurya empire, 3rd century B.C., which is supported by the subsequent excavations in the modern
city of Patna.

2.3.3.2.1.1 Method of construction of forts in ancient India

Three major methods were used for the construction of ancient Indian forts.
• The first consisted of earthen ramparts. Often they were constructed of the sand which was dug
out of the ditch surrounding the fort.
• The second of rubble with earth on the outside which was sturdier. The third type of construction
was with stone and masonry work. The last was the strongest. Often materials from demolished
forts were reused in the building of new forts.
By 4 BCE, fortified cities were common in India. The largest
ones were between the city of Mathura (on the Yamuna river)
and Magadha (on the Ganges). Another series of forts in the
south, was on the Ujjain (on the Narmada) leading into the
Deccan. These are inferred by the remains of fort walls and
bastions seen on excavation at Rajagriha and at several sites
in the Gangetic plain notably Kaushambi. At the latter site
huge walls of burnt brick, which look like they have been
battered. There does not seem to be any formal planning of
these forts. Figure 31: Amber Fort, google
picture accessed in 28th
There are few descriptions of these ancient structures. The December 2018
most noted is the one by Megasthenes, an ambassador
of Seleucus I Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He
describes Pataliputra as being guarded by a ditch with wooden walls. The fort had 570 towers and 54
gates with colonnaded halls decorated with gold and silver. One such hall has been excavated and is
one of the oldest stone structures in India.

67
 One of the most crucial requirements of a fort was a regular supply
of water to ensure self-sufficiency during a siege, which could last
for months. The planner in the past gave great thought to the
availability of this life saving element by laying down guidelines
on storage and efficient reservoir systems. The source of water was
a closely guarded secret to prevent the unscrupulous enemy from
poisoning it. Varahmir states in his Brihat Samhita that arteries of
flowing water lie at various depths beneath the surface of the earth,
and these can be located by an understanding of the topography
and environment. However, where natural resources of water are
scarce, as in the case of forts in the Rajasthan desert, a common
method of storing water in the tanks was devised. Mud, Stones,
Rubbles, Red Sandstone are the major materials used in the Figure 32: Detail on stupa at Sanchi showing
construction of ancient forts. evidence of crenallations and embrasures, google
picture accessed in 28th December 2018
2.3.3.2.1.2 Characteristics of ancient fort: Indian forts have
crenellations, embrasures and sloping walls

• Crenellation means, a pattern along the top of a parapet

(fortified wall), most often in the form of multiple, regular,
rectangular spaces in the top of the wall, through which arrows
or other weaponry may be shot, especially as used in medieval
European architecture.
• Embrasures means, an opening with sides flaring outward in a
wall or parapet of a fortification usually for allowing the firing of Crenellation
Embrasures
cannon. Figure 33: Kumbhalgarh,
google picture accessed in 28th
2.3.3.2.1.3 Types of ancient fort:
Though most of the structures have been decayed and are lost, India's
legacy of ancient forts is seen mostly in the shastras (ancient Indian
treatises) and in the reliefs on stupas. On some of the early relief
work, the carvings indicate that ancient Indian forts has
crenellations, embrasures and sloping walls. The Arthashastra the
Figure 34:Mudur Janjira,
Indian treatise on military strategy describes six major types of forts
google picture accessed in
differentiated by their major mode of defense:

i. Jala-durga (Water fort)

• Antardvipa-durga (island fortress): surrounded by natural
(sea or river) water bodies. E.g. Murud-Janjira.
• Sthala-durga (plain fortress): surrounded by artificial moats
or irrigated by a river.eg Deeg Fort, Lohagarh Fort
ii. Dhanvana- or Maru-durga (Desert Fort): Surrounded by an
arid area of at least 5 yojanas (73 km). Figure 35: Jaisalmer Fort,
google picture accessed in
iii. Giri-durga (Hill fort)
• Prantara-durga: Located on a flat hill summit. E.g. medieval forts such as Chittor, Gwalior and
Ranthambore.
68
 • Giri-parshva-durga: The fortifications and civilian structures
extend down to the hill slope (not just the summit).
iv. Vana-durga (Forest fort): Surrounded by a dense forest over a
distance of at least 4 kroshas (14.6 km).
• Khanjana-durga, built on a fen surrounded by thorny
forests.
• Sthambha-durga, built in the forest among tall trees; lacks Figure 36: Chittorgarh fort,
sufficient water sources. google picture accessed in

v. Mahi-durga (Earthen fort)

• Mrid-durga: surrounded by earthen walls
• Parigha-durga: Surrounded by earthen walls, as well as stone or brick walls. The walls are at
least 5.4 m high and their width is half of their height.
• Panka-durga: Surrounded by fens or quicksand
vi. Nri-durga (Human fort)
Defended by a large number of loyal and experienced warriors. Usually a city fortress, populated by a
substantial garrison.Each of these types had its own advantages and disadvantages. For example,
according to the Manusmṛti, the forest fort suffers from monkey attacks, the earthen forts get swarmed
with rodents, the water forts were plagued by diseases etc. The Manusmṛti considers the Hill fort to be
the best defensive structure. Some Sanskrit text consider hill forts to be the abode of gods and hence
auspicious. The Mahabharata describes the Human fort as the most effective fortification.
Some names of ancient forts are: Agra fort, Red fort, Chittorgrah, Amber fort
2.3.3.2.2 Forts in medieval India: (5th-15th Century)
With the advent of the Muslims, closely followed by the introduction of artillery in the 16th century
there were several changes to the construction and design of forts. These changes were similar to the
changes that took place in Western forts with the advent of gunpowder, i.e. the lowering of walls,
thickening of walls, further pushing out of bastions etc.
The construction of a citadel in the center and putting in more area between the citadel and the walls
was characteristic of Muslim forts (influenced in turn by the Norman motte and bailey). Classic
examples of such structures are the Golkonda and the Berar fort.
The gates of medieval Indian forts were highly decorated. Two distinct styles are seen. The Hindu style
with a lintel and the Mughal style with an arch. Gates in Indian forts were often high and wide to allow
elephants to pass. Often they had rows of sharp, stout iron spikes to dissuade an attacking army from
using elephants to break down the gates. Such a gate with spikes can be seen on the Shaniwarwada fort,
Pune. The walls of the forts were often looked higher from the outside than the inside as the forts made
use of the natural rock formations on hills. This not only gave an illusion of greater height but also lead
to the lower walls of the fort to be entirely made up of natural rock providing almost a perfect defense
against the use of a battering ram or elephants to tear down the walls. The main gate to the forts was
located mostly facing north direction, this was to avoid its deterioration by the rains, winds and the sun

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2.3.3.2.2.1 Construction:
Stone was the most important material for building fortifications in medieval India. Walls were erected
by one of the following three construction methods.
• A wall could be an earthen rampart faced with stone on both sides. The rampart was built using
the earth excavated while digging the ditch, with three-quarters of it used for building a rampart
and one-quarter for levelling out the surface inside the fortress and in front of the ditch. Facing
the rampart with stone allowed for the erection of higher and steeper walls than those possible
with a purely earthen rampart. The structure had a substantial shortcoming, however: an earthen
core accumulated water, which could destroy the stone shell. Drainage channels were therefore
installed along the length of the wall from top to bottom. The main binding material for
construction was Lime mortar.
• The second method consisted of filling the space between the outer layers with earth mixed with
rubble. This core was considerably harder than simply using rammed earth. The third and most
advanced method involved the use of mortar. A rubble-built wall fastened with mortar was
strong and long lasting. Construction methods depended, however, on the materials available.
Blend of Hindu style lintel
and Mugal style arch

Figure 37: Lime mortar mixer Figure 38: Golkunda fort, google
Peculiarly shaped merlons
on Rasalgad, google pictures picture accessed in 28th With loopholes
accessed in 28th December In medieval India, several
2018 reports exist of the practice of burying humans either dead or alive
in the foundations of fort walls, to ensure their stability, being widely followed. It was believed that the
ghosts of those sacrificed as such would keep evil spirits away. During the building of the Sri Qila,
Delhi Alauddin Khalji is reported to have buried 8,000 skulls of Mughals killed by him into the
foundation. During the building of Purandar Fort one its bastions gave way several times. The king
of Berar then ordered his minister an Esaji Naik Chive to bury a first-born son and his wife into the
foundation of the bastion. This was promptly done and after a further offering of gold and bricks. When
the bastion was finished Esaji Naik was given possession of the fort and the father of the sacrificed boy
was rewarded with two villages. Along with the fortification, emphasis was also given for construction
of rock cut water cistern, ponds, wells and lakes. To avoid evaporation of water, the water bodies were
covered. At times rooms were built close to water bodies to keep the temperature low.Many Indian
fortifications have parapets with peculiarly shaped merlons and complicated systems of loopholes,
which differ substantially from similar structures in other countries. Typical Indian merlons were
semicircular and pointed at the top, although they were sometimes fake: the parapet may be solid and
the merlons shown in relief on the outside (as at Chittorgarh). What was unique is the arrangement and
direction of loopholes. Loopholes were made both in the merlons themselves, and under the crenels.
They could either look forward (to command distant approaches) or downward (to command the foot
of the wall). Sometimes a merion was pierced with two or three loopholes, but more often, one loophole
70
was divided into two or three slits by horizontal or vertical partitions.The shape of loopholes, as well
as the shape of merlons, need not have been the same everywhere in the castle.
Some names of medieval forts are: Golkunda Fort, Bidar fort, Kumbalgarh, Jaigarh

2.3.3.2.3 Forts constructed by British: (17th-19th Century)

With the advent of the East India Company, the British
established trading posts along the coast. The need for
security against local rajas as well as other European
rival nations led to the construction of forts at each post.
Mumbai fort, Fort William in Kolkata, Fort St
George in Chennai were the main bastions constructed.
These cities developed from the small townships
outside the forts. Parsimony of the East India Company,
non-availability of trained engineers and use of local
materials and artisans resulted in the simple design and
construction initially. The vulnerability of these earlier Figure 39: St. George, Madras
forts, hostilities with the French and the growing might
of the Company resulted in stronger and more complex
designs for the second round of construction, the design
of Fort St George reflecting the influences of the French
engineer Vauban with doubled walls and angular
bastions for artillery to dominate the approach. The
fortifications also took advantage of natural features like
the sea and rivers for defense. Figure 40: William fort, Calcutta
Some names of British forts are:
• Fort William
• Fort St George
2.3.3.2.4 Current state
Although no Indian forts were destroyed by sudden disasters, there are several which were abandoned
due to the ambitions of their rulers and have consequently deteriorated over time. Very few castles have
survived unchanged since the early middle Ages or even since the 14th-15th centuries: most of those
built in the 10th-15th centuries were later rebuilt and altered. Castles were still used as living quarters
until the 19th-20th centuries, and so were continually modified. Even now, some of them are private
property.

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2.3.3.3 EVOLUTION OF NATIONAL FORT ARCHITECTURE

Figure 41: Timeline for Historical Development of Fort Architecture in Nepal

2.3.3.3.1 Terminologies In Nepalese Fort Architecture
The word Durga means fort in English language. In fact, the names of the fort are different in different
languages of different communities. It is called as Gadh, Dzong, Kotta, Kwath and Kot. Basically, it
relates to its fighting purpose and is made for defensive as well as offensive battle also the word fort
implies for physical security of the nation. It has no limitation in size. It can be a small place for a
single person or many people. It may be a village, city, or army barracks too. The following are
the major forts as per the great epic Ramayana and Kautilya’s Arthashastra:

a. Audik-Jaladurga: It is a natural island surrounded by water or man-made water obstacles a island.

b. Palvat–Pahadi: It is surrounded by Rocky Mountains or very deep gorges.
c. Dhanwon–Marubhumi: The fort without water, vegetation and soil.
d. Ban Durga: It is a swampy land or difficult to find because it is surrounded by thick forest.
e. Khanitra Durga: This is man made obstacle with ditches (it has been mentioned only in Ramayan
epic).

We can find many examples of the kings who used to live inside the fort like buildings. It was called
citadel too. Ayoddhyapuri and Janakpur was surrounded by high wall. Likewise, compound walls
demarcated Simraungadh, Kirtipur, Kantipur, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur.

2.3.3.3.1.1 Gadh

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Gadh is bigger than normal fort like a village or palace or very small place too. Gadh can be very
big in size and may be equipped with weapons, ammunitions, ration and other logistic support,
which should be available there for a certain period because the defenders use it, the initiative
goes to the offenders’ hand.
Nepal abounds in fortified Gadhs in many towns or villages. Gadh itself means the obstacle (Khai),
barrier and cover from observation. Shukranti describes, "The state is the body, Gadh (fort) is the hand
and boundary is the leg. The Rajanga (the part of state) is the soul of any nation and it includes the
king, minister, friend, nation, fund, fort and soldier. So, treasuring the Gadh fort was very important
during ancient period. The AAD and water DAM are also a kind of fort. The GADH or Killa (fort)
covers the army base (Sivir), Brigade (Bahinimukh), local (Sthaniya, Drong, Sambiddha, Kolak,
Nigam and Skandhawar.
Many of them were destroyed due to negligence, natural calamities or human factors. Simraund Gadh,
Kirtipur, Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Janakpur, Maddhyapur are the examples. Because, they were
well demarcated by strong walls. Nijgadh, Narayangadh, Jitgadh, Tilgadh (Mahottari), Alangadh
(Rautahat), Chhipagadh and Tikuligadh (Rupandehi), Dauhawagadh (Bajhang), Rajgadh (Jhapa) are
some examples.

2.3.3.3.1.2 Dzong

Dzong (Fort in Tibeto- Burman Language) is the name of fort Kirat Kings. The syllables NGA and
CHON at the end of a word are mostly used in Kirati era. So, Taplejung, Morang, Dang, Bajhang,
Pahuncto, Sirhancho etc. are the last alphabets of the words (of the places). So, Dzong were used for
fort too. However, not all the Dzong was a fort. Tars, La, Gun, Ka were also related with the forts and
Kiranti people.
Dzong are fortified castles. It is used for battle and residential purposes too. According to the situation
of time and people the villagers used to be ready to repeal any type of enemies’ attack from their fort
type of villages.

2.3.3.3.1.3 Kotta & Drang

It is a Sanskrit word, which means a fort. The word Kotta was used during Lichchhavi period when
they entered from India to Nepal. Thankotta, Dumrikotta, Musikotta, Bhirkotta etc. were the fort type
of palaces.
The Lichchhavi used the world Drang also for the developed forts areas. They were Sitatika Drang
(Sitapaila) Thanturi Drang (Budhanilkhanta Area) Khopring Drang (Bhaktapur) etc. The following
were the types of Drang or Kotta or Gulma: -
a. Shaila Durga (Mountaintop fort)
b. Bana Durga (Forest Fort)
c. Man made dugout or fortified area. They used to be village/palaces/area etc.

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2.3.3.3.1.4 Kwath

It is another Sanskrit word for fort. The word Kwath was much in use during the time of the Mallas of
Nepal (Kantipur, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur) valley. Kwath was a strong fort. The Malla kings developed
PUR (City) from Kotta of Lichchhavi era. So, many forts (Kwath) were made inside the valley as well
as in other small areas. Kirtipur and Bhaktapur were very strong and fortified Kwaths.

The forts were the national property. Without capturing the fort, nobody could be a winner in battle.
The royal palace was also the main fort. Without the occupation of which a state could not be
conquered, for an example the Gorkha conquest of Kirtipur, Kantipur and Bhaktapur.

2.3.3.3.1.5 Kot

Again, Kot is derived from the word Kotta. As mentioned, Kotta was in existence during the Lichchhavi
period. The Dzong, Kotta, Kwath was started to be called Kot. It was because of change of time and
development of weapon system. Initially human being used the flat trajectory weapons and only the
high walls were enough to be protected. When high trajectory weapons developed then people needed
overhead protection as castles or Kot. However, people were aware of every term regarding forts. The
word Kot also denotes a strongly built castle.

2.3.3.3.1.6 OTHERS
According to the change of period, types of the forts are defined in details. During the time of
Mahabharat era, the civilization of the human beings was developed. The epic ’Mahabharat’ is like
the Bible of the state management and it covers the political importance of the state too. The following
are the types of the forts:

• DHANWO DURGA:
Generally built in plain area and surrounded by sand (desert).
• MAHI DURGA:
It used to be built in plain area, but not in sand or desert.
• GIRI DURGA:
It used to be built on the top of the hill and surrounded by mountains.
• MANUSYA DURGA:
It used to be man-made forts and some still are in existence. This type of fort is used to be made
in the tactically selected area. All arrangements used to be prepared prior to the commencement
of the war.
• JAL DURGA:
It is built an island large or small size and surrounded by water. Normally, it is a difficult
natural obstacle for any invader. Even in the modern age, forts are surrounded by water obstacle.
• BAN DURGA:
It used to be surrounded by forests. Actually, it was for both defensive & offensive battles.
That means for hiding into the forest while enemy makes an offensive, attack, from which
soldiers could launch the spoiling attack from hiding place e.g. forest.

74
The Shukraniti also deals with the different types of forts and its significance. It is slightly
different than those of others which are as follows:

• PARIKHA KILLA
It is a man-made fort surrounded by moat. Parikha means ditch and Killa a fort.
• PARIGHA KILLA
It is a man-made fort surrounded by strong wall.
• BAN DURGA
It is a forest fort.
• DHANWO DURGA
It is surrounded by dry (drought) lands.
• JALA DURGA
It is an island fort or a fort surrounded by deep water.
• GIRI DURGA
It is constructed on the top of the mountain and physically manned by security force.
• SAHAYA DURGA
Actually, it was diplomacy. Possible adversaries used to be contained with friendship and they
are courageous fighter.
• SAINYA DURGA
It was similar to Gir Durga and protected by a conventional army. (Basnyat, 2016)

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2.3.3.3.2 Fort Architecture In Nepal
The architecture of fort changes according to the change of military tactics, technology and
weaponry system. In the early ages, army used to have hand-to-hand fight with small weapons so forts
were not so strong and troops used to protect their body with iron armour. At that time the emphasis
was on protecting the individual’s life in battle. The iron helmet and shield were other forms of
wardresses. When, gun power was discovered, the war strategy was changed into a missile
system with gun and bullets. Initially, the flat trajectory weapons (Straight firing) were made
and most of the forts were made to protect lives against flat trajectory weapons. The forts used to have
very thick wall with few entrances and gates. There were no overhead protections against
bombardment in the fort because high trajectory weapons (Canon) were not much used at that time and
the people did not know of aerial attack. Most of the Nepalese forts were built during that period.

The selection of site and setting of a fort is very important because the place should be
dominant to the surroundings, availability of water resources, easy route for logistic supply,
weapon ammunition store, barrack buildings, good for firing of flat trajectory weapons e.g. Rifle,
Machinegun, Pistol, bows arrows, through boulders, tempus etc. and high trajectory weapons e.g.
Cannon and artillery, nearby very difficult natural obstacles and having an escape route in an
emergency. Every fort must have water reserve tank or deep well for emergency use. When war breaks
out, the regular drinking water facilities may not be available so alternative arrangements are needed.
In the Nepalese context, a temple must be made inside the fort for the blessing of the god or the
goddess. As well many forts were built with large compound so that the cultivated lands,
military families, war material production, depots training camp, mini market were kept inside
the fort.
At any time, anywhere a military area is in danger from enemies’ hostility. A fort is vulnerable point
(VP) during wartime. The enemy always tries to capture or destroy the fort; an early warning
system and tight security should be built for its physical protection. Many sentry posts were built
on top of the fort wall or far ahead of area for early warning of enemy’s movement, which alerts
the main fighting troops of the fort. It is called a ’Watch tower’ in today’s context. A fort used to have
many cannon, guns and soldiers for defensive battle so cannon point, cannon path observation
holes (bay) and cannon firing holes were made for high trajectory weapon. Most of the forts have
cannon firing facilities and as well many rifle-firing holes (bay) made in the fort or castle. The fort is
changing in its facilities according to the change of war equipment. The rich king used to have many
forts in his country and that was the symbol of his power. He used to live in very strong castle and
every facility was available there. The small and mountainous countries used to have small and few
forts. The king’s palaces (castle) were built on top of mountain with every difficult feature.
None of the defensive work is fully protected from enemy offensive, as defensive battle is very
difficult to sustain. Initially the troops were threatened from flat trajectory weapons and forts were
made accordingly but, with the scientific development, high trajectory weapons and air
bombardment system evolved. Old forts are not secure from air bombardment and high trajectory
weapon firing and gradually, people started making emphasis on very strong overhead protection
against heavy artillery firing. Military architecture of the fort is also changed accordingly. (Basnyat,
2016)
2.3.3.3.2.1 Kirat Dynasty (800 BC-300AD)

76
The Kirat dynasty ruled over Nepal for quite a long period. The Rai, Limbu and Sunuwars fall under
the Kirat tribe. The Kirat (ruler) dynasty and their people were good warriors. They had good military
strategy and had built many forts in Nepal and were very far-sighted to develop their residential areas
with good collective security, which were as follows:
• They made their houses in area safe from flooding. Likewise, they used to be in sunny places.
• The urban areas were built on a collective basis, which could bestow a collective power with
unity against impending any challenge.
• They had many forests near their town. The forest areas were for facilitating as fort in military
uses. The forest areas are called Bandurga and they provide physical protection from the wild
animals too.
• They had separate land for agriculture and forest fort. The fertile lands were used for cultivation
and other land was used for fuel wood, fodder and compost energy.
• Their arrangement of fuel wood will be made from the fallen leaves and dry wood of the forests,
which would not hamper the purpose of forest fort.
• The cultivated lands were irrigated by the local water drainages.
• The houses used to be constructed on higher ground, which could be used a fort in the time of
need.

Kagbeni, a charming and beautiful city is one of the

principal gateways to Upper Mustang. It is a
dominant hub of salt trade from Tibet before the
1850’s. The fertile river valley where two rivers
come together, Kali Gandaki being fed by smaller
Jhang Khola also houses a well-fortified Dzong

Figure 42: Kagbeni settlement, Jimblock

2.3.3.3.2.2 Licchhavi Dynasty (400 AD-750AD)

Licchhavis captured the Kirat Kugion. The Lichchhavi rulers made many forts (Kotta) against
adversaries’ attack. They did not require new forts because Kiraties had already built many foothold
forts. Later, some Lichchhavi Kings made new palaces e.g. Changunarayan, Kailashkut Bhawan etc.
In the meantime Koli, Shakya, Malla, Vrijik, Abhir, Gupta,Varman, Kirat existed at that time.
(Department)
Lichchhavi Kings Manadev, Shivadev, Narendradev and Amsuvarma were powerful rulers and they
maintained and kept well-equipped forts. Forts were of military significance during Lichchhavi era too.
• Palaces were made like the forts for the protection of the King and people.
77
• Under a Drang, there used to be many villages and Kottapal was in-charge of Kotta or Drang.
They had Mahavaladhykshya as Commander-in-chief of army force.
• Some temples for different gods were constructed inside the Kotta for worshipping the deities.
• People used to contribute money for the Kotta guards.
2.3.3.3.2.3 Sen Dynasty (10th- 16th CENTURY)

During the 14th century, a new and strong kingdom of Sen

dynasty in Palpa prospered. King Mukunda Sen built
temples, statues and palaces during his 35 years of reign
especially forts at different entrances of Palpa. In the
medieval period, the villages were constructed as forts. The
villages were protected by erecting high walls, making deep
ditches or defensive structures around them. Nuwakot and
eight other forts were built on hilltops at Belkot, Bhairabkot,
Kalikot, Malakot, Dhuwankot, Pyaskot, Simalkot and
Salyankot, forming the ‘Nawakotta’ (nine forts), from which
the name ‘Nuwakot’ was said to have derived. In the similar
way, Nuwakot was converted into a strong Gadhi. Along
with this, Makwanpur Gadhi, Jit Gadhi, Chaudandi Gadhi,
Kaathe Gadhi, etc. were constructed during the Sen regime
which show subsequent evolution of fort construction in
terms of construction materials and technology, variations
in strategies, site selection and appropriate shapes that will
be discussed in detail in the case studies. (Department)

Figure 43: Painted by Shreejan

2.3.3.3.2.4 Malla Dynasty (12th- 15th CENTURY)
Rajbhandari Oil on canvas 2005 of
Liglig fort, accessed from
www.imgur.com in 28th December Most of the Malla kings of the Kathamandu valley and even
2018 the Khasiya Mallas of Western Nepal had given much
importance to the forts. During this era, people started to
settle nearby the river and fertile land. So, forts were made in the valleys as the people settled there.
Accordingly, such held habitation areas were places called PUR e.g. Udayapur, Bharatpur,
Hariharpur, Kantipur, Laltipur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur etc. with the change of the time types of battle
and the civilization also changed. (Department)

• The strategy of warfare was made with the combination of diplomacy, terrorism, propaganda, gun
and bullets too.
• Forts were made in strategically vital places e.g., in plains, mountains, valleys, forests etc.
• Local people had to maintain their nearby forts intact and the person in-charge was called Kwath
Nayak with strict rules and regulations about the Kwaths.
• People co-operated with the government in the construction of the bridges and castles as mentioned
in the edict of King Srinivas Malla.
• People used to donate money and labour for the construction of forts voluntarily.
78
• Malla kings used to fight among themselves uselessly and people were intimidated by those battles.

Kantipur was a fortified town during the medieval period.

On the first day of Indra jatra 1768 AD (1825 B.S.) midnight,
king Prithvi Narayan Shah made invasion over Kantipur
from three sides i.e. Tundikhel, Naradevi and
Bhimsenasthan. The main group of the Gorkha army led by
Prithvi Narayan Shah entered from Naradevi. After the
conquest of Kantipur Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended the
throne and became the new king of Nepal. (Department)
Figure 44: Military Attack on Kantipur
by Prithvi Narayan Shah, accessed
from www.imgur.com in 28th December
Lamjung, became the king after capturing Liglig fort with much tactfulness on Vijaya Dasami 1616
B.S. (1559 AD) having marched from Lamjung. At that time the Uppallokot (fort in the upper part)
area and Tallokot (fort in the lower part) area of Gorkha were
ruled by Khadka and Ghale Gurung tribal chiefs respectively.
The Ghale Gurungs were the rulers of Liglig fort area also.
Thus the areas with three tribal chiefs after the conquest by
Drabya Shah was called Gorkha.
Figure 45:
Lalitpur Durbar
Square, google
picture accessed
in 28th December
2018

2.3.3.3.2.5 Shah Dynasty (1768 AD-2008 BS)

Nepal is the abode of deities, land of temples and house of forts, which means Nepal is a strong fort by
nature and it is not easy to launch offensive action against Nepal. The development of gunpowder was
the turning point in military weapons and tactics, enhancing the high trajectory weapons and long range
firing. By this time, flat trajectory and high trajectory weapons were made. So, Kot (forts) were made
stronger according to the threats. War strategies were made for the fort battle.
Accordingly, Gadhi, Gaunda, Tharpu, Kot, Killa were the words of day-to-day life. The Shah Kings,
their Prime Ministers, Commander-in-Chiefs had laid major importance to the forts. The Chiefs of
Areas (Badahakims) and administrators used to be sent to the forts or castles. The value of forts was
very high, especially during the time of King Prithvi Narayan Shah and after.
• Forts were built with big stones. Foxholes were made for firing of guns and strong shelters were
made against cannon firing.
• Forts were geopolitically important as administrative and military checkpoints.

79
In comparison to the other era, the Shah period was the culminating point in making of the forts. During
that period, many forts were built and forts modified from old forts. Lamjungkot (palace) Gorkhakot
(palace), Nuwakot, Ligligkot, Dhadingkot, Dhunwakot, Tanahukot, Dailekhakot, Dotikot, Dipayalkot,
Ajaimerukot, Jajarkot, Belkot etc. were the forts of importance.
Being much annoyed by the misbehavior of the Tibetans to the Nepalese, Nepal on the leadership of
Prime Minister Jang Bahadur Rana, although made decision to attack Tibet from four fronts i.e. Kuti,
Kerong, Olangcheng Gola, Humla-Mustang, invaded Tibet only from two fronts- Kuti and Kerung.
Seventeen thousand Nepalese army marching on March 4, 1855 AD was successful to defeat Tibet
completely. Being defeated decisively in the Battle of Gunta Garhi of Kerong area. Tibet was compelled
to sue for peace. The third war with Tibet came to an end by the Treaty of Thapathali, 1856 AD.
2.4 Comparision Between International And Nepalese Fort Architecture

2.5 Comparision Between Regional And Nepalese Fort Architecture

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Elements Influences
Types Of Forts, Design • Design of forts with defensive walls with slopes,
Strategies construction of temples as a religious significance and
fort surrounded by moats which acted like barrier and
water source during war, during Lichhavi period and
later.
• Development of artillery forts with water storage ditches
during 10th-16th century was a prominent stage in
evolution.
Material Variation • Selection based on availability of materials from rubble
masonry without mortar, dressing of stones to
transportation of bricks with gypsum mortar, bajra
mortar and lime mortar.
Evolution Of Shapes • Starting from the multi storeyed Dzong in Kirat period
where a village itself acts as a fort,
• Irregular shaped Kotta/Drang for protection of King and
public in Lichhavvi period,
• Influence of bastion fortification with semi-circular and
rounded curtain walls with loopholes and two levels of
ramparts during 14th-15th century,
• Change in shapes of semi-circular bastions to pointed
and triangulated bastions, polygonal forts with tunnels
during 16th century,
• After the development of high trajectory weapons and
gunpowder, development of foxholes, embraseurs and
overhead protections in the form of Kot during 18th
century.
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Site Selection • Most of the forts are built with defensive walls
surrounded by moat, rivers, water sources and on top of
hills with two forts near to each other as Sano Gadhi &
Thulo Gadhi.
• Forts built at major trade route entrances in N-S route
and E-W route.

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3 Case Study Of Forts, Fort Architecture And Settlements Near The Fort
3.1 Case Study of forts in National context

3.1.1 Jitgadhi Killa

3.1.1.1 Introduction
Jitgarh (Butwal Fort) is situated at the bank of Tinau river, Butwal, Nepal. It is famous by its name Jitgarh
- Fort of Victory, after the company’s army was defeated by the Nepalese army from this fort during
Anglo-Nepal war 1814 A.D. Butwal is the gateway to Lumbini and it is of great cultural, social, and

Figure 46 Jitgarh Killa

historical importance to Nepal. Right around the corner is the Jitgadi Killa where Nepalis crushed a
British invasion. Butwal is a symbol of the defeat of imperialism and is also the centre of
industrialisation and economic progress.

The fort was initially constructed by Mani Mukunda Sen, King of Palpa. It was repaired and renovated
by Colonel Ujir Singh Thapa as an artillery fort. Ujir Singh Thapa was the major commander of Jitgadhi
fort during Nepal-Company war.

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3.1.1.2 Geographical location
Butwal lies in Rupandehi district. It is located 265 km west of Kathmandu, 161 km south of Pokhara
and 22 km north of Siddharthanagar Bhairawaha, at the northern edge of the Terai plain below the
Siwalik hills. Jitgadhi lies on the bank of Tinau river of Butwal.

Figure 47 Location of Jitgadhi

3.1.1.3 Present Situation:

Jitgadhi Fort, a pride of all Nepalese for registering a victory against the British soldiers, seems to have
lost the battle of its own survival due to lack of necessary renovation and conservation. However, the
historical fort with age-old glory has now turned into a playground and its surrounded with a wall and
a park has been made. There are no remarkable efforts made in the past few years for the conservation
of the fort that carries historical and archaeological importance.

84
The municipality has taken the responsibility for the conservation of the fort. It allocates the budget
for the conservation of the fort every year, due to the lack of sufficient budget and absence of
archaeologist conducting research work and excavation, progress has not been made for the complete

Figure 48 Present Condition

study of the famous fort of historical importance.

3.1.1.4 Historical timeline

3.1.1.4.1 Anglo-Nepal War 1814 AD – 1816 AD
Border tensions and ambitious expansionism led to the inevitable Anglo-Nepal War in 1814. Nepal was
in difficulty due to shortage of war materials as the Nepalese had been fighting continuously for half a
century, ever since the unification process began. Huge amount of resources was spent on the first and
second wars against the Tibetans. And now, they had to fight the numerically superior and well
equipped British. The commanders of the Nepalese Army were hard pushed to concentrate the troops
in time because they remained over extended and scattered in many places between the Tista river in
the East to the Alakhnanda of Gadhwal in the West. Bada Kaji Amar Singh Thapa, Sardar Bhakti Thapa
and Captain Bir Balabhadra Kunwar were not in favor of war with the British at the time, but, Prime
Minister Bhimsen Thapa and his officers had calculated otherwise. Nepal had about 14,000 troops.
They had some pieces of cannons and about 4,000 rifles to fight the British.

85
The Nepal-East India Company war was a painful ordeal for Nepal. About half of the Nepalese territory
was lost in this war. But the battles also proved the fighting mettle of the Nepalese under severely
adverse conditions. The British military strategy against Nepal was to launch multiple offensives to split
reaction while primarily threatening Kathmandu directly. Their strategy was to capture the whole of
Kumaun and Gadhwal, Bushair in what is now a part of India’s Himanchal Pradesh and adjoining hill
states. The British also wanted to free other areas from Gorkha control. For this they would have to
contain the Sikhs and the Marathas through alliances. They would also need to pacify the Chinese. The
British made a detailed plan for a huge offensive thrust against Nepal, which was designed to divide
the Nepalese forces into fragments. Their armed forces not only greatly outnumbered the Nepalese
side but had far superior weapons.

3.1.1.4.2 Battle of Jitgadhi 1814 AD

With the help of an ousted Palpali king, Major General Wood planned to march on Siuraj, Jit Gadhi and
Nuwakot with a view to bypass the Butwal defences, flushing out minor opposition on the axis, and
assault Palpa from a less guarded flank.

Nepalese Colonel Ujir Singh Thapa had deployed his 1200 troops in many defensive positions including
Jit Gadhi, Nuwakot Gadhi and Kathe Gadhi. The troops under Colonel Ujir were very disciplined and he
himself was a dedicated and able commander. He was famous for exploiting advantage in men,
material, natural resources and well versed in mountain tactics. The British advance took place on 22nd
Poush 1871 BS (January 1814 AD) to Jit Gadhi. While they were advancing to this fortress, crossing the
Tinau River, the Nepalese troops opened fire from the fortress. Another of the attackers’ columns was
advancing to capture Tansen Bazar. Here too, Nepalese spoiling attacks forced the General to fall back
to Gorakhpur. About 70 Nepalese lost their lives in Nuwakot Gadhi. Meanwhile, more than 300 of the
enemy perished.

Figure 49 Gadhi wall

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3.1.1.5 Architecture Attributes
3.1.1.5.1 Physical features
The Jitgadhi Fort is about a rectangular shape fort. The length of the fort is 205 feet from east to west
while it is 55 feet wide. It looks very artistic and constructed with a very strong base. It is 4.3 feet
high made up of 10-inch bricks and shurkhi plastered wall.

3.1.1.5.2 Material Used

The Department of Archaeology had for the first time conducted a research after an excavation of the
fort area in 2055 BS with support of the municipality. The excavation has revealed the fort´s gate, and
weapons’ store house. According to the investigation, the copper Gagri, lime and concrete wall made
of shurkhi has been found. It is believed that the old structure of wall on the bank of the river was
shed. On the bottom of wall, Bajralepan is also found. There is also an underground passage inside
the fort. It is said an underground passage from the fort reaches to Nuwakot of Palpa district.

Figure 50Undergrond Passage

3.1.1.6 Conservation approach:
The Jitgadhi Killa (Fort) in Butwal where the Nepali forces had beaten Britain's East Indian Company's
army is being developed as a tourist spot with the biggest national Nepali flag and installation of Colonel
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Ujir Singh's life-size statue. The Fort currently has a bust-size statue of Colonel Singh facing the
northern direction. The installation of the life-size copper's statue facing to the north is expected to
further establish the significance of the Fort. Singh was the military commander at the Palpa-Butwal
axis during the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814-1816 and had led his force to victory.

A total of Rs 5 million was allocated in the last fiscal year for the promotion and conservation of this
historic Fort while a master plan has been made and Rs 10 million would be allocated this the current
fiscal year 2017/18 for the same. Plans were afoot to construct Jitgadhi War Museum, Information
Centre and develop Old Butwal (ward no 1) as a site of archeological significance. The national flag
would flutter at the height of 42 feet.

Furthermore, the Jitgadhi would be connected to Madi Mukunda Sen and Nuwakot Gadhi. Rabindra
Gopal Kapali, a local, was hopeful that the Jitgadhi Fort, which long has been on the backburner in lack
of proper protection and promotion, would be further highlighted with the installation of the Ujir
Singh's life-size statue and the biggest national flag.

Ward no 1's Chairman Mahendra Legal Shrestha said that the houses built by encroaching the Fort's
land would be removed after providing them the landowners compensation. The provincial
government of Province No 5 has allocated Rs 10.5 million while the federal government Rs 5 million
for the development of Jitgadhi.

3.1.2 ChisapaniGadi (Fort)

Figure 51
Chi i dhi
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3.1.2.1 Introduction
ChisapaniGadhi is one of the important fort in Nepalese history located at 1700 meters above sea
level.The ChisapaniGadhi covers a very large area. It is about 800 meters east to west and 700 meters
north to south. The fort is situated at the top of the southern hill of the mahabharat range in the
Chisapani village development committee of Makwanpur district.The pass (Bhanjyang) lies about
one kilometer north of the forts.It was an urban area where Badahakim (chief officer) used to stay
there. There is a small plateau with gentle slope in the fort area.The hill itself is strategically
important place.It is a major bottleneck and the shortest route and lifeline of the Nepalese economy. It
is the gateway of Kathmandu-Chandragiri-Kulekhani-Bhimpehdi-Hetauda, Birgunj and Raxual travel
route.

3.1.2.2 Geographical location

Figure 52 location of ChisapaniGadhi

Northern access:

Kathmandu-Thankot-Chandragiri-Kulekhani Hydro- electric Dam-ChisapaniBhanjyang and Gadhi.

Northwestern access:

Thankot - Nagdhunga -Naubise- Tistung- Kulekhani Dam – ChisapaniBhanjyang and Gadhi.

Southern access:

Hetauda - Samari - Suparitar - Bhainse - Power house- Bhimphedi-Motorable road, small Gadhi and
big Gadhi (A straight and uphill track goes to Gadhi and it is two hours walking distance in Field
Service Marching Order for armed forces) dam- ChisapaniBhanjyang - Big Gadhi and small Gadhi.

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3.1.3 Present situation
In the present scenario, the military utilized the space by applying adaptive reuse into a military space.

3.1.3.1 Climatic Condition

Nepal has large climatic variations from hot sub-tropical climate to cold tundra climate. Makwanpur(27° 42' N,
85° 22' E) is representing the warm temperate climate of Nepal that is mainly dominant in the Hilly Region.
During summer outdoor conditions are comfortable with average temperatures between 20 and 24°C. The
climate is fine. Pure and cold drinking water and the whole year pleasantly cool weather are the specialties of
the area. The Chisapani and nearby areas are covered with forest but the fort area itself is devoid of
vegetation. Very limited axis is expected due to its natural formulation.

3.1.3.2 Historic Background

Historical events show that no battle was fought in the ChisapaniGadhi. Historical conjecture shows
that it was made in the Sen Dynasty about 16thcentury by the Lohang Sen (son of Mukanada Sen) but
no true evidence was found there. No records are available about its initial establishment but we can
believe that it must be manned or physically occupied by the security personnel of
Makawanpurprincipality.The existing fort was made after the unification of Nepal. An official
document written in the name of AMALI DWARE of Dolakha in 1864 B.S. (1807 A.D.) shows clearly
and mentions that the AmaliDware or Amalidar (local officer) was ordered to construct but not to
repair the forts. This means that there was no fort in the ChisapaniGadhi before 1807 A.D. The
architectural design is quite different from those of Makawanpur, Hariharpur and UpardangGadhi. It
is similar to DugunaGadhi and RasuwaGadhi.

Colonel Ranabir Singh Thapa was the Sector Commander of this fort and others several forts of nepal
during the first defensive campaign against the British troops during the Nepal-Company war.
History shows that KajiChamu Bhandari was the Commander of Chisapani fort. It was during the
second campaign because he was appointed as the sector commander to the western front during first
campaign against British. It was the second major important fort to control the access of enemy up to
the Nepal-Company War. Makawanpur and HarharpurGadhi were the important bottlenecks. No
enemy contact was made during first defensive campaign because the British could not move forward
from the Indo-Nepalese border.

Colonel Bakhtabar SinghThapa was the Sector Commander during the second defensive campaign.
His area of responsibility was from HariharpurGadhi to SinchyangGadhi. As per the offensive plan of
Major General David Ochterlony, Major Lumely was given two infantry battalions and Lieutenant
Hewitt's artillery support to eliminate the Nepalese defensive positions of SinchyangGadhi,
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UpardangGadhi and KandrangGadhi. Likewise, Colonel Nicol was given 3 infantry battalions with
artillery support to eliminate the Nepalese defensive positions of Simbhanjyang area and
ChisapaniGadhi. Colonel Nicol's troops were able to eliminate the defensive positions of
Simbhanjyang area and now it is in Makawanpur district.

The enemy's main battle was fought in the area of Makawanpur and Hariharpur fronts. Accordingly,
Major Lumle and Colonel Nicol were forward push to achieve their goal. Historical events show that
no battle was fought in the ChisapaniGadhi itself, as the treaty was signed between the Nepal and the
East India Company. The main thing was that this fort was in a good defensive position with natural
obstacles. It has very difficult uphill going from Bhimphedi and it was the shortest route to reach
Kathmandu though the British changed their plan of attack and turned into the Makawanpur axis for a
easier passage to Kathmandu. Its tactical significance was very high.

3.1.3.3 Architectural Attributes

DITCH
Figure 53 Plan of Chisapani fort (Howard, 1989)

Picture Source: An Introduction to the Fortifications of Central Nepal, Neil Howard

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 Figure 55 Chisapani gadi's wall
Picture Source:http://sensenepal.blogspot.com/2013/04/chisapani-gadi-fort.html

The fort was irregular octagonal in shape of Length 65ft and width 36ft which is surrounded by the
20-22ft depth of ditch. The height of fort wall is 2.4m and 7-8ft width of fort wall. The fort had a
several peeping hole on the wall. The construction materials used in this fort was dressed stone and
mud mortar. The wall type of fort is ruined but the base of the fort-wall is still in existence. The large
and the small forts can be seen separately. There is a well situated between the large and the small
fort for reservation of drinking water during war time. No one has mentioned about the small fort or
large one as a whole. The small fort is situated to the southern slope (about 600 meters down) on top
of very dangerous cliff to its all directions except eastern side. It is mountainous and undulating area
and some parts of the ground are in gentle slope. The nearby Mahabharat range is covered with old
trees and it is stronger than the large one due to the natural obstacles.

3.1.3.3.1 Salient Features

3.1.3.3.1.1 BatukBhairab Temple:
This is an old temple. The BatukdalGulma (Company) of the Royal Nepalese Army was established
in the name of this temple. The temple is 11.50 X 5.70 meter. Sacrifices of goat, fowl and other
animals are made only on Tuesday but normal daily worship continues. Women are strictly forbidden
to enter the temple and only Magar cast can be the priest (Pujari) of the temple. The ex-Pujari Ambar
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Bahadur Pulami Magar died on 20th Baisakh 2056 BS. (3rd May 1999 AD). After his death, VDC
and the District Development Committee appointed no Pujari. A Magar soldier is doing that job
without Panchavali which means sacrifice of five animals and birds like buffalo, goat, sheep, duck
and cock. The god cannot be taken out from the temple and Bhairavyatra ceremony is performed
every 12 years. The temple and forts are under the authority of Bhimphedi Village Development
Office. The following are inscribed in the bells (Ghanta). The left bell is inscribed as "In the year
1949 Chaitra Sudi 8th Saturday, in revered memory of Lord Bhairav; Lieutenant Chandra
BirKhadkaChhetri of ChisapaniGadhi an inhabitant of Dhapakhel, Nepal had consecrated with
devotion the said bell.

Figure 57 BatukBhairab Temple of Figure 56 Bells at the temple

ChisapaniGadi
Pictures Source:http://sensenepal.blogspot.com/2013/04/chisapani-gadi-fort.html

Likewise the right bell bears the inscription "Obeisance to Lord BatukBhairabNath. The bell
weighing 8.91 Dharnis, consecrated to Lord BhairabNath on the year 1985, month of Magh,
Saturday 24th, having been broken with the passage of time, the replaced bell, weighing 11 Dharnis,
was consecrated in sublimation to Lord BatukBhairabNath at the shrine of Lord BhairabNath by
Bhaju Ram and his entire family including sons Bhaju Krishna and Hari Krishna, residents of Lubhu,
now in Chisapani, on the year 1996, month of Jestha, Saturday 24th "MangalChauthi". When the
Batukdal Company was moved to another place, then Nepal Police post was set-up for the security of
the forts. After that period, many valuable and historical items were lost due to negligence of the

93
authorities concerned. Thus, again the security duty was restored to Nepalese Army since 21st
Bhadra, 2034 BS (1977 AD). Unfortunately, the fort is without of security bodies, again.

3.1.3.3.1.2 Cannons
There are many cannon Kilitop (biggest) 1, medium size-one 5, small-one 2, medium Aakase -one 2
and Majheula small-one 1 (total 10) are in this forts. Some of them bear their manufacturing date and
detail of the ruler at that time. Likewise, they are inscribed "By august Command of His Highness
Maharaj Jung Bahadur Rana and executed by the Commander-in-Chief Rana Udip Singh Kunwar
Rana…. No.6 manufactured in the year …." The next one bearing inscription 16 pounder No. 140
Dharni 298.

3.1.3.3.1.3 Kalitop (Cannon)

It is a very huge cannon. Which was kept here for defense against the British during the Nepal-
Company 1814-16 A.D. war. It was fired only once and many pregnant women and animals suffered
from miscarriage due to its sound. It is worshipped daily by the army and taking photographs of the
cannon is prohibited for normal use.

Picture Source:http://sensenepal.blogspot.com/2013/04/chisapani-
Figure 58 Kalitop
gadi-fort.html
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3.1.3.3.1.4 Other broken buildings
ChisapaniGadhi was the district head quarter to control a large area and Badahakim was the chief
officer. His residence, office, barracks line, jails, customs office and check posts were there. Now all
the houses are in a dilapidated condition. Now a single barrack line exists inside the forts and it is for
the security guards. Their kitchen and Kalitop are all there but these are not the original building.

3.1.3.3.1.5 Tundikhel (Parade ground)

A small parade ground of Nepalese Army is on top of the plateau and volleyball can be played there.

Figure 59 Parade Ground

Picture Source:http://sensenepal.blogspot.com/2013/04/chisapani-gadi-fort.html

3.1.3.3.1.6 Well
One well is reserved for the drinking water and it is in between the ChisapaniGadi large and small
fort. It is round in shape and is located at the southern slope of the big fort. The local people and even
the security personnel said that the well was made for the punishment of the culprits. Even Nepal
Television especially broadcast the same views. This is incorrect as the well was made to preserve the
drinking water during war time and emergencies.

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3.1.3.3.1.7 Waterfall
There are some waterfalls with small sources of water during winter rainy season. These waterfalls
are vertical and very dangerous. One big and steep hill is situated just to the western side of the fort
and it is ten meters distant of the ditch obstacle of the forts. Likewise, a similar type of cliff also in
existence is in the eastern part of the forts. A dry riverbed is at Bhimphedi, which is an obstacle in the
rainy season. Beside the road, a track that is old and important (Bhimphedi-Kulekhani track) runs
from the very near eastern part of the fort. A few other cowboy tracks run around the area, which are
not easy for movement.

Figure 60 Waterfall (source of water at that time)

Picture Source:http://sensenepal.blogspot.com/2013/04/chisapani-gadi-fort.html

3.1.3.3.1.8 Settlement near the fort

There are few houses on the way to Chisapani pass (Bhanjyang). Bhimphedi is a town and well built
up area and there is an army barrack there. Kulekhani Hydroelectric Project main building is situated
nearby Bhimphedi. It was the district headquarters of Makwanpur, which was later shifted to
Hetauda. No cultivation is possible at the Gadhi itself. Suping, Bhimphedi, Hetauda, Kulekhani and
Chanwan are fertile agricultural areas. Food items are available for purchase in the area and piped
drinking water is facilitated to the forts. A large water source is in just 75-metres distant to its west.

Sources:

(Howard, 1989)

(Archaelogy,
2060)
96
 Figure 61 A girls selling flower for livelihood
Picture Source:http://sensenepal.blogspot.com/2013/04/chisapani-gadi-fort.html

3.1.4 Conservation Approach

Although the military have provided security to the area the conservation process has not been applied
properly.

3.1.5 MakawanpurGadhi
3.1.5.1 Introduction
Makwanpur Fort is one of most famous forts in Nepal lies about 17km north from Hetauda and it is
on the top of the beautiful mountain in the Gadi Village, ward no-3 of Makwanpur Gadi VDC,
Makwanpur district of Nepal. It is really an open challenge for modern engineering. Engineer had
cared lots of technical issues before constructing the fort.

Figure 62 Location map of MakwanpurGadhi

97
 Picture Source:www.ncthakur.itgo.com/districtmaps/makwanpur_district.htm

3.1.5.2 Geographical Location

MakwanpurGadhi consists of two fort MoolGadhi and Sano Gadhi are at altitudes of 3500ft and
3396ft above the sea level respectively. The main purpose of constructing these two forts in this land
in such a way that there is no chance of landslide since land is made up of compact soil & stones. The
main fort lies about 775m far from the small fort of western part in southern direction.

(The Makwanpur Fort, 2016)

3.1.5.3 Present Situation

At present MakawanpurGadhi is in deteriorating condition which is looked after by Nepal Army.
MakawanpurGadhi Tourism Development Committee is formed for tourism development.

Figure 63 The fort remains of Durbar

Pictures Source: www.bhijanneupane.wordpress.com/2016/12/22/the-makwanpur-fort/

98
 Figure 64 Deteriorating condition of Durbar
FigureSource:
Pictures 65 Deteriorating condition of Durbar
www.bhijanneupane.wordpress.com/2016/12/22/the-makwanpur-fort/

3.1.5.4 Historical Timeline

Makawanpur fort is built by king Tula Sen. Before 1819 BS, king Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha
kingdom was preparing to annex all scattered states to his kingdom.It was the main entrance to have
long-distance trade with India and it was a focal point for Kantipur, Tibet and India. It was also focal
point to Kantipur. So during “Unification of Nepal” in the history of Nepal Prithvi Narayan Shah
tried to establish a diplomatic relation with king of Makawanpur married with IndraKumari Sen
(Granddaughter of Hemkarna Sen). After that he knew exact ruling system and condition of
Makawanpur state. He annexed Makawanpur in 1819BS. The Makawanpur forces were defeated in
the ten-hour battle and on the war, about 67 gorkhali and more than 400 Makawanpur soldiers were
killed.The Gorkhas defeated the well-equipped army of Gurin Khan. There were just 400 Gorkhas to
fight against more than 2500 Muslim force. That was a huge loss for Mir Kasim. On that war, more

99
than 1700 Indian soldiers were killed and the Gorkhas captured rifles, cannons & other valuable
military equipment from them.

(The Makwanpur Fort, 2016)

3.1.5.5 Architectural attributes

3.1.5.5.1 Master plan
It consists of two fort MoolGadhi and SannoGadhi located at the top of the hill.

3.1.5.5.1.1 MoolGadhi

Figure 66 MoolGadhi Plan

Picture Source: www.bhijanneupane.wordpress.com/2016/12/22/the-makwanpur-fort/

There exist Twin palaces (Junge Durbar), two temples (Vansagopal, & Shiva temple) & two deep pits
inside the fort. Present state of fort is heavily damaged and many parts of it are ruined. Junge Durbar
has been renamed as “Twin Palaces” due their symmetrical structures. Present conditions of these
100
palaces are in continuously decaying state (almost 80% parts are ruined) due to lack of enough
attentions of concerned authority to preserve it. There exist 25ft. height (predicted) & 7-10ft. wide
surrounding wall with 10ft. wide (from top) & 13ft. (predicted) deep surrounding canal. Canal is
narrowing from top to bottom.

Figure 67 Section of deep canal

Picture Source: www.bhijanneupane.wordpress.com/2016/12/22/the-makwanpur-fort/

101
Surrounding canal was constructed in order to protect themselves from the enemy and most of
historians still believe that prisoner were dropped into it for a punishment. Once they fell into the
canal, they would have no option to get out from that canal without the help of ladder. There may
have some buried human skeletal inside canal so you need to wait until my next stage research for
that. Both surrounding wall, and canal have been carefully and cleverly constructed. Surprisingly,
entire upper surface of the main fort is paved by using flat stone plates.

Figure 68 Gate to the fort

Picture Source: www.youtube.com/watch?=V0hw8_KsMHU

There is only one entrance to enter fort and without using a ladder, it is almost impossible to enter
inside the main fort. (The Makwanpur Fort, 2016)

3.1.5.5.1.2 Sano Gadhi

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 Figure 7 SannoGadhi plan
Picture Source: www.bhijanneupane.wordpress.com/2016/12/22/the-makwanpur-fort/

3.1.5.6 Architectural attributes

3.1.5.6.1 Materials Used
Buildings were made out of limestone but in order to construct surrounding wall lots of field stones or
semi-worked stones were used. Limestone or granite are used to construct most parts of Twin
Palaces. Gypsum mortar was used to join blocks instead of clay or mud. Reason to choose Gypsum
mortar was to make faster setting with typically a lower firing temperature.

Figure 69 Gypsum used Twins PalaceGypsum

Gypsum
Pictures Source: www.bhijanneupane.wordpress.com/2016/12/22/the-makwanpur-fort/

103

Gypsum
3.1.5.6.2 Features in Constructing Wall
Surrounding wall has lots of stabilizing features. It makes 80° angle with ground rather than rising
straight from bottom to top. It is done in order to protect from massive earthquakes.

Figure 70 Architecture of surrounding wall

Pictures Source: www.bhijanneupane.wordpress.com/2016/12/22/the-makwanpur-fort/

104
3.1.5.6.3 Cultural Activities

Figure 71 Temple in fort premises

Picture Source: www.bhijanneupane.wordpress.com/2016/12/22/the-makwanpur-fort/

Two temples are present inside the fort, one is Vansgopal and next is the temple of Mahadev which is
also very old one, and lies in the southwest corner of the Fort. It is 3.35 X 2.25 meters in length and
breadth and 2.30 meters height. The reason to construct temple inside the fort is to balance power of
god. Huge mela occurred inside the fort during thulo Ekadashi and Krishna janmastami.

(The Makwanpur Fort, 2016)

3.1.5.7 Conservation Approach

Although the Nepal Army have provided security to the area, the conservation process has not been
applied properly.

105
3.1.6 Hariharpur Gadhi
3.1.6.1 Introduction
Hariharpur Gadhi is one of the historic and oldest Gadhi of Nepal. King Harihar Singh Dev of
Simroun Gadh constructed this Gadhi in 1388 BS and it was named Hariharpur Gadhi in honour of
King. Gadhi built in Octa-Angular Architectural Design (ci6sf]0ffTds jf:t'snf z}nL) which is
Medieval Gadhi Style and similar to the Star Fort type.

Figure 72: Entry Point of Hariharpur Gadhi

Image Source: Department of Archaeology

3.1.6.2 Geographical Location:

3.1.6.2.1 Access
Hariharpur Gadhi is located 65 Km North West to the
headquarter of Sindhuli district. (AvenuesKhabar,
2017 AD) It is elevated at the 2400 m from the mean
sea level. Gadhi is accessible from only one entrance,
which is on northeast side.

Figure 73: Location map of Hariharpur

Image Source: Google Map

106
3.1.6.2.2 Geography
Variation of topography of Nepal is with the lowest altitude of 60m on the southern part, rises up to
the world’s highest point of Mt. Everest on the northern most region. There are plain lands, hills and
then mountains, mapping from south to north respectively. Surrounded by sloppy green forest form
all sides, the fort is situated on top of a hill, which is sandwiched between Kokhajor Khola and
Marine Khola of Mahabharat Hill range. (DOA, 2013 AD)

3.1.6.3 Climatic Condition

Sindhuli district has four climatic variations; Lower Tropical (below 1000 ft.), Upper Tropical (1000-
3300 ft.), Sub-Tropical (3300-6400 ft.) and Temperate (6400-9800 ft.). It lies in Temperate Climate.
The climatic condition for the fort is Upper Tropical Climate Classification, as the fort is elevated at
2400 ft. from mean sea level. The temperature variation is between 17-25 degree in summer and 2 –
15 degree in winter.

3.1.6.4 Present Situation:

Figure 74: Ruins of Rani Durbar inside the fort

Image Source: Department of Archaeology

After earthquake of 2072, Gadhi is in ruin condition, and some material of palaces and iron door of
entrance have been theft. Hariharpur Gadhi is one of the historic and oldest Gadhi of Nepal, and its
history is directly linked with unification of Nepal. However, the condition of Hariharpur Gadhi
should not have been, as it is now. Therefore, for the conservation of this Gadhi, proper planning with

107
sufficient budget is required. Gadhi must be conserved using traditional material and technologies (as
far as possible) for the preservation of authenticity. With this, Hariharpur Gadhi can be developed as
the Tourist Attraction Centre.

3.1.6.5 Historical Timeline:

"History of Hariharpur Gadhi is directly related to the kingdom of Simroun Gadh. It was found to be
Magnificent Kingdom in Art, Culture and Physical Wealth from 10th Century. In 1387 BS, Simroun
Gadh was overthrown by the massive attack of Bangladeshi Muslim. In 1387 BS, Hitherto Ruler
Harihar Singh Dev came to hide at Hariharpur Gadhi with his Queen Deval Devi, Prince Jagat Singh
Kunwar, Minister Chandeshwor and some Scholar. In 1388 BS, Hariharpur Gadhi was assumed to be
built, and it was named as Hariharpur Gadhi in name of Harihar Singh Dev. In 1388 BS, Palpali King
Mukunda Sen, and Harihar Singh Dev runaway towards East again attacked it. In 1801 BS, Prithvi
Narayan Shah came to visit, and meeting program was managed which was mediated by famous
litterateur Gunapati Maithul. From 1801 BS, Prithvi Narayan Shah establish to put Chandra and
Surya in National Flag, which was referred from the archive writings of Sen. In 1819 BS,
Makawanpur was conquered by Gorkhali Army, then Hitherto king of Makawanpur Digbandhan Sen
with Minister Kanaksingh came to hide at Hariharpur Gadhi. However, Gorkhali Army also attacked
at Hariharpur Gadhi and they give up. In 1824 BS, Prithvi Narayan Shah send 300 nos. of Nepalese
Army to counteract against the Army of East India Company." (AvenuesKhabar, 2017 AD) "Gorkhali
troops ran 3 km away from Hariharpur Gadhi in 1824 BS due to lack of proper arms and
ammunitions. Then they start to attack using their own weapons, and they were able to beat English
Army. Legends say when British soldiers chased Gorkhali soldiers; they disguised British Soldiers by
putting their uniform on bushes and shrubs. British soldiers emptied all their bullets on those. Then
after Gorkhali soldiers fired from another cliff 3 km away from there which led them to victory. In
this process, some bullets hit nest of hornets and they started to sting British soldier, accompanied by
Stinging Nettle (Sisnu), to which they ran saying,

"g]kfnsf] emf/} j}/L, ls/f km6\ofª\u|f j}/L, dfG5] g} j}/L". All of the British soldiers killed in the battle except
Commander, who later died in Ghodaghat." (DOA, 2013 AD) Then Hariharpur Gadhi was added in
Nepal Kingdom. Hariharpur Gadhi was protected under Royal Nepal Army until 2053 BS. After the

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unification of Nepal, the social and administrative importance came to end. In addition, it started to
decay.

3.1.6.6 Architectural Attributes

3.1.6.6.1 Master Plan with Various Components
Gadhi constructed Octa-Angular Architectural Design Style is protected by 20 ft. deep moat in
surrounding. "At the middle part of Gadhi, there are palace (which is known as Rani Durbar), and
deep well. The palace is surrounded by 4 ft. high stonewall and there are some holes for the gun
firing. The palace having length 35 ft., breadth 21 ft., and height 12 ft. is built by using well-dressed
stone with the mortar of mud and bajra. At the north side of Gadhi palace, the main entrance is
constructed by using stone and mud mortar wall with erecting the post and entablature (k|:t/). The
main entrance of the Gadhi is accessible though the wooden bridge is constructed over the moat. The
land level of the Palace is lower than the land level of other part. The Gadhi is elevated at the 500m
height from the surrounding nearest settlement." (DOA, 2013 AD)

Figure 75: Model of Hariharpur made by Department of Archaeology

Image Source: Department of Archaeology

3.1.6.6.2 Material Use

The Gadhi is constructed by using Well-Dressed Stone, Mud, Bajra, Timber and Brick. There is stone
quarry, which is around 1.5 km near to the fort. In addition, the used stone is brought from that
quarry.

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3.1.6.7 Conservation Approach
The Gadhi, having historical and archaeological importance, is normally cared by local people, and
waiting for conservation approach from the government. Bushes and grasses covered the Gadhi and it
started to cause damages on the boundary wall. Therefore, in the fiscal year of 069/70, Department of
Archaeology managed some budget to remove bushes and grasses. However, this was not sufficient
for the conservation. Local people formed and registered a committee to conserve the palace
structure, and that committee cannot perform work due to the financial lacking. In last fiscal year of
073/74, Department of Archaeology again managed some budget for Repairing of surrounding wall
with lime concrete and cleaning of entrance moat. The conservation committee is planning to
reconstruct the ruined palace structure, replacement of wooden door of main entrance with proper
cleaning. The committee is also aiming to develop the Hariharpur Gadhi as Tourism Attraction.

Figure 76: Lime concreting at the top of External Wall

Image Source: Department of Archaeology

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3.2 Case Study of forts in Regional context
3.2.1 Ramkot Fort
Pakistan is a home for many amazing forts. Out of six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the country,
two are forts, which are Lahore Fort and Rohtas Fort. Pakistan also has the world’s largest fort, Ranikot
Fort, with a circumference of 26 KM (Humayun, 2015). There are around 66 forts present in Pakistan
and six are in Azad Kashmir state. Ramkot fort is one of those ancient forts, which lies in Azad Kashmir.
This ancient fort from 16th – 17th century lies in the disputed zone of India and Pakistan, besides, Mangla
Dam (Ali, 2015).

Figure 77: Aerial View of Ramkot Fort

Source: YouTube Video File-Creative Vision Tech
The fort has the appeal of a traditional Scottish castle with its amazing scenic beauty and rich
architectural value. Ramkot Fort is a major landmark of Mangla city. The fort, located on the top of a
hill and surrounded by River from three sides, presents a picturesque landscape. The fort is accessible
from Mangla Lake, which is about 20km away from Mangla city. Most of the fort was demolished
during the creation of Mangla Dam; a part remains and serving as public amusement place.

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3.2.1.1 Geographical Location
a. Access: The fort can be accessed through a boat and lies 13
KM away from Dina. It also lies at a distance of 79 KM by
road from Mirpur, Azad Kashmir through Dadyal Village
(Ali, 2015). Access into the fort is possible form only one
side through narrow and steep climb. Two of its sidewalls
have vertical extremities, making it impossible to
Figure 78: Location map of Ramkot
approach from those sides.
Fort Source: Google Maps

b. Geography: Pakistan has similar topographical as Nepal. With the lowest altitude of 0.00m on the
southern part, rises up to the world’s second tallest point of mountain K2 on the northern most
region. There are plain lands, hills and then mountains, mapping from south to north respectively.
Surrounded by river Jhelum form three sides, the fort is situated on top of a hill in Mirpur.

3.2.1.2 Climatic Condition

Pakistan has four seasons, winter, Early Summer, Late Summer and Post Monsoon. It lies in Temperate
Climate. The exact climatic condition for the fort is recorded as Humid Sub-Tropical Climate in
Koppen Climate Classification. The temperature variation is between 0oC-18oC in winter and 22oC-
higher in winter.

3.2.1.3 Present Situation

The fort structure is placed right at the top of the hill having steep slope. Currently the fort is in the
condition of ruins. The fort had lain neglected until the late '90s, when Dr Anis Ur Rehman, head of
the Islamabad-based NGO Himalayan Wildlife Foundation, first came across Ramkot on a fishing trip
to Mangla. The restoration work, which Dr Anis Ur Rehman had done, has lost a lot of its impact due
to the lack of day-to-day supervision and maintenance. The earthquake of October 2005 also seriously
damaged the fort, and the dire neglect on the part of the AJK authorities is not helping either. - (Ali,
2015)

3.2.1.4 Historical Timeline

The earlier Muslim rulers of Jammu and Kashmir built numerous forts for their protection. Among
them Ramkot fort is one of them which sits on the top of the hill that is surrounded by river Jhelum in
three side. Later, after the Dogras (Sikh) captured the fort, Sikh Maharaja made some alternation to the

112
fort. The fort was built over the site of an old Hindu temple, and during excavations, remains of one of
temple were found here. Relics of the 5th - 9th century AD also have been near the temple (Riaz, 2017).

After the conquest over the fort by the Dogra’s over Gakkhars, they made some alteration with the
addition of ramps, arrow loopholes and crenellation for cannons. The fort is said to have been used as
military barrack. Later, the fort was abandoned which put the fort into the ruins. Continuous negligence
and lack of recognition by the state further have lost its authenticity. Before late 20th century, Ramkot
fort was unknown figure to the federal government of Azad Jammu Kashmir. Though, the fort was
noticed by the Frederic Drew (the appointed geologist to the Maharaja of Kashmir) in the book The
Jummoo and Kashmir Territories: A Geographical Account published in 1875A.D. it was Dr Anis ur
Rehman, who later devoted his effort for the restoration work of this fort. He says the day he entered
the fort for the first time, in the summer of 1999 it lay in complete ruin (Riaz, 2017). Dr. Anish Ur
Rehman (head of Islamabad-based NGO Himalayan Wildlife Foundation) noticed it during his trip to
Mangla Lake for fishing in the summer of 1999; who later brought impressive remains of the fort out
of the ruins with the help of archaeologist and architects. During the period few addition ware made
for example; addition of entry door, arrangement of cannons etc. Dr Anis Ur Rehman said that he
contacted the army, which provided two old model canons brought in especially from Quetta for the
Ramkot Fort (Riaz, 2017).

The restoration work, which Dr Anis Ur Rehman had done, has lost a lot of its impact due to the lack
of day-to-day supervision and maintenance (Riaz, 2017). Further, the fort was seriously damaged due
to the massive earthquake of October 2005 and negligence from the stakeholders has further pushed
the fort to dilapidated state. Although most of the fort lies in ruins, signs pointing to its past life and
grandeur are still alive.

3.2.1.5 Architectural Attributes

a. Master Plan with Various Components

The fort reflects the traditional Muslim features in the structure. Placement of bastions towers to the
north and west side makes the fort strategically wise, since the fort had number of eyes on the accessible
points. While the rest of the boundaries are difficult to reach. Addition of narrow arrow loopholes to
the massive walls for musketry is another salient feature of the fort. Large ramp rising up to the ramparts
from the ground to carry loads and weapons is said to have been added by the Dogras.

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 Figure 79: Master Plan of Ramkot Fort

Image Source: Author

The fort also has two large reservoir for water; the archaeologist has
not yet figured out the reason behind the development of those two
large reservoir in such small fort. Many portion inside the fort are in
ruined condition and not much is known about the ruins. Meanwhile,
the fort still needs in-depth study.

3.2.1.6 Material Use

Perfectly cut stones, bricks, woods and lime mud mortar are used as
primary building material in the structure. Half-conical buttressed wall
can also be seen on the upper level of the wall portion. The assemblage
of building materials and the use of local technical skills in the fort
structure portrays the traditional building culture of the area; and
similar character can be observed on the nearby Muzaffarabad fort in
Azad Kashmir.
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3.2.1.7 Conservation Approach
Not much have been done for the conservation of the Ramkot fort. Nevertheless, it Dr. Anish Ur
Rehman whose effort really counted for the conservation of the fort. In this mission, Professor Abdul
Rehman of the Archaeology Department of Peshawar University and architects Sohail Akbar Khan and
Raja Khalid joined the efforts and after one year of continuous work, they brought up an impressive
fort out of the ruins (Riaz, 2017). During the period Clearance of vegetation, Installation of roofs and
doors to gateway and arrangement of old cannons were done. Meanwhile, after the big earthquake of
October 2005 A.D. the fort lost much of the restoration effort brought before by the effort of Dr.
Rehman. Even the governments, neither the Azad Jammu Kashmir government nor the federal
government (which operates the Mangla Dam) seem to be taking any interest in the restoration and
development of this heritage (Ali, 2015).

Dr Rehman told that few years ago, a UK-based Kashmiri expatriate had shown interest in developing
this fort as tourist spot, but he has been unable to execute the project in all this time (Riaz, 2017). Still
people are interested to develop the site as the tourist destination. Meanwhile, England-based Pakistani
expatriate has taken the fort site for lease for thirty years (Online, 2018).

3.2.2 Balahissar Citadel

Figure 80: Balahissar Citadel

Source: Revealing a fortress place in Afghanistan, professional paper

Balahissar is an ancient fortress estimated to have been built in the 5th century in the south of old city
of Kabul, Afghanistan. The name literally translates as “a fortress built on top of a hill” since Balahissar
is sited on an outcrop of a large hill, today known as koh-e-ShirDarwaza mountain. In Afghanistan,
fortress played a crucial role in the governance of the country, therefore the site is a natural place for a
citadel; high enough to dominate the Kabul city. The fortress stands on the hill guarding the south-
western approaches to Kabul.
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3.2.2.1 Geographical location
The BalaHissar is located in Kabul, Afghanistan. Kabul’s location on a strategic corridor from Central
Asia to India ensured that, even when not the primary seat of power, its fortress always had military
and political significance. The fortress sits on top of the hill 46 meters high overlooking the city.

3.2.2.2 Present Status

At present, the fortress still serves as Afghan military base for Afghan National Security forces and is
under Afghanistan defense ministry and is restricted for public. The government is undertaking
measures to renovate the area for foreign dignitaries as a government guesthouse.The fortress has been
in deteriorating state with cracks and damaged structure. The Balahissar that we see today was built in
the 19th century after the second anglo-afghan war.
Although Balahissar has long served as an active military
installation, the city and its inhabitants have molded themselves
around the fort’s borders to maximize their use of the valuable real
estate. A neighborhood of traditional homes and a cemetery
scattered with martyr flags creep up the back side of the fortress’s
hills, while an informal marketplace, dealing in everything from
livestock to car parts, buttresses the fort’s southern slopes. (Grespin,
2015)

Figure 83: Remains of Darwaza Kashi

Figure 82: Plan of upper and lower Balahissar

Source: Revealing a fortress place in Afghanistan, professional paper

Figure 84: Balahissar at present

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3.2.2.3 Historical timeline
The BalaHissar has witnessed countless of wars and events throughout the centuries. The site has
played an essential role in Afghan state affairs and was the seat of Afghan rulers for centuries, notably
under Mughal rulers of the 16th and 17th centuries.
As Kabul’s principal fortress, it was an important site for some of the major wars during the 19th
century. When Afghanistan came into conflict with the invading British during 1838AD, first Anglo-
Afghan war begun until 1842 AD. Later in 1878, the appearance of a Russian mission in Kabul caused
a crisis that led to the start of the second Anglo-Afghan till 1880 AD during which the fortress was
partially destroyed but was later rebuilt a few months before the British left Afghanistan.
The fortress served as a military college from 1939 AD. Later on 1990, the BalaHissar once again
became the geographic point of conflict between factions during the Afghan civil war. Much of the
fortress was damaged as a result.

Figure11: City gate (1880AD)

Figure 85: Balahissar from east showing entry gates

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3.2.2.4 Architectural Attributes
The citadel is built in Mughal Architectural Style. Mughal
architecture is an Indo-Islamic architectural style that
developed in India under the patronage of the Mughal
Empire. It is irregular polygonal in shape covering the area
of 800X600 meters. The layout of the fortress is such that it
is divided into two parts as lower fortress and upper fortress.
The upper fortress housed arsenal and state prison where as
the lower fortress housed comprehensive troop support Figure 86: View of Kabul city from
resources such as stables, barracks, gardens, warehouses, upper Balahissar
pavilions and palaces. Much of the construction of the upper Source: Revealing a fortress place in Afghanistan,
fortress was built atop an elaborate system of tunnels and undergroundprofessional
sto rage bunkers,
paper which until
recently housed munition stores dating back to before the British occupation.
There are total number of four gates to enter inside the fortress, the principal gate on the eastern side
of lower fort, Darwaza Shah Shahid, as it was near the shrine of a Muslim warrior martyr. The main
gatehouse was quite an elaborate design, almost certainly from the Mughal period. The gate on the west
side of the lower fort was the “City Gate “and further up that western face of the lower fort, near the
upper citadel, there was a postern gate.
Within the lower Balahissar, there lay the Kabul city with thousands of houses that can be seen from
the upper fort as shown in the picture. During the reigns of rulers, the residences in the city belonged
to courtiers, soldiers, servants, armorers and many others whose livelihood depended on the rulers.
A. Construction Technology and Materials

The most common walling material in Afghanistan, for houses as well as fortifications, was (and still
is today) mud set on a foundation of heavy stones. Mud walls could be constructed in layers or built
out of sun-dried bricks. Walls around more important areas were often built with shallow blind-
arcading. For detailed or vulnerable work, burnt bricks set in lime mortar could be used to form a lasting
wall, but such bricks were costly due to the firewood needed.

Figure 89: View from below the hill showing the fortress and houses below
Source: https://scotfot.smugmug.com/Afghanistan/Bala-Hissar-Kabul

118
Most buildings had a flat roof, with horizontal timber poles supporting a brushwood layer with a thick
coating of mud. There was often a parapet around the edge of the roof, frequently high enough to shield
families who were using the roof in hot weather. Walls within buildings were usually constructed of
mud or mud-brick, with niches set into the walls of most living rooms. The upper floors of some houses
were constructed with timber frames, with infilling of brick or timber. Timber was used for doors and
windows. Carved timber columns were used in the verandas of some palatial buildings and mosques.
These timbers were expensive, as they would have to be transported from distant forests, but in the dry
Afghan climate, timberwork was durable and was often used again in a new building.
B. Features of the Fortress
All of the bastions of the upper Balahissar were rounded or D-shaped; many of those in the walls of the
lower fort were semi octagonal, indicating a later of foundation. Much of the walling were of the
fortress are of high quality of 20 feet high and 12 feet thickness.

Figure 93: Bastions

Source: Revealing a fortress place in Afghanistan, professional paper

Figure 96:Hooded firing Figure 94: Holes remaining in the Merlons

points

Hooded firing points occur on every third merlon on the external walls that allowed defensive firing.
The hooded of the firing points have been lost due to its fragile structure, though holes behind them
remain.

119
 Figure 97: Interior of the upper fortress with casemates having angled firing
l Source: Revealing a fortress place in Afghanistan, professional paper
The figure shows a length of wall on the north side of the upper fort. This is one of the few stretches of
wall remaining that still have casemates below the parapets. These vaulted chambers were built into
the ramparts, open at the back, with firing-loops through the main wall. Their construction was a
mixture of stone and burnt-brick, on which parts of a plaster coating can be seen. These casemates were
quite sophisticated, with the firing-loops in them, and on the parapet above, being carefully angled.
3.2.2.5 Conservation Approach
The site has undergone massive changes through multiple iterations of conflict, reconstruction and
deterioration. During the 19th century after the second Anglo-afghan war, the fortress was partially
damaged. It was refortified in 1880 by adding new fortifications on the hills, existing forts were
improved and roads were constructed to ease the passage of artillery and supplies.
Tanks and other wreckage from three decades of war litter the fortress’s grounds and tunnels. Over the
past few years, great efforts have been made to rid the site of unexploded ordnance, though rusted tank
shells and other heavy wreckage remain on the grounds.(Grespin, 2015)
The fortress due to its service as Afghan military base, many parts of the fortress is in ruined condition
and is in urgent need of conservation and renovation. It is under the government authority and is
restricted for the public. The ICOMOS in cooperation with Agha Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) are
undertaking measures for preservation of the afghan heritages (Woodburn, 2009).

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3.3 Case Study of Forts in International context
3.3.1 Fort of San Diego
The Fort of San Diego was built by the Spanish Empire to protect their galleons from marauding
English and Dutch pirates. Ships from Manila in the Philippines regularly docked at Acapulco, making
it the most important Spanish port on Mexico´s Pacific coast.

The Fort of San Diego (Spanish: Fuerte de San Diego), formerly also known as the Fort of San Carlos
(Spanish: Fuerte de San Carlos) is a star fort in Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico. The Fort of San Diego is
the most relevant historic monument in Acapulco and was the most important Spanish fortification
along the pacific coast.

Figure 99: Aerial View of San Diego Fort

Image Source: San Diego Fort Museum – Tour by Van: Best tours in Acapulco

3.3.1.1 Geographical Location

The Spanish under Hernán Cortés settled Acapulco in the 1530’s. Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan
followed the trade winds West across the Pacific to the Philippines in 1521, but true trade could not
begin until Andrés de Urdaneta discovered a return route north to the California coast and thence South
to Acapulco in 1565. In Spain, Seville was given a monopoly on trade with the new world. What
evolved was a trade route from Seville, to Havana, to Veracruz, to Acapulco, then on to Manila and
back. Thus, Acapulco became the largest Spanish port on the West coast of the New World (Virago,
2011 August 12).
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 Figure 100: Range of San Diego Fort

Image Source: Viragos Log Fort Étude – Fuerte San Diego, Acapulco Mexico

After the defeat of the Spanish Armada by an English naval force under the command of Lord Charles
Howard and Sir Francis Drake in 1588, Spanish shipping was left vulnerable to English, French, and
Dutch pirates. Something had to be done--convoys and forts were the two primary measures taken,
decision was made to fortify Acapulco. It was critical that the Manila Galleons anchored in the harbour
and the warehouses for the Oriental goods awaiting overland trans-shipments to Veracruz be protected
from pirates (Virago, 2011 August 12).

3.3.1.2 Climatic Condition

Acapulco features a tropical wet and dry climate hot with distinct wet and dry seasons, with more even
temperatures, but this varies depending on altitude. The warmest areas are next to the sea where the
city is. Tropical storms and hurricanes are threats from May through November. The forested area tends
to lose leaves during the winter dry season, with evergreen pines in the highest elevations. Fauna
consists mostly of deer, small mammals, a wide variety of both land and seabirds, and marine animals
such as turtles (Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México, 2007).

3.3.1.3 Present Situation

Acapulco Historical Museum located inside the Fort of San Diego. The present structure was rebuilt
on the ruins of the former fort, which was destroyed in an earthquake 1776. Located on a hill in the
heart of downtown Acapulco, the fort is an integral part of the landscape that stands out because of its
singular geometric design in the shape of a five-point star. This important building houses Acapulco’s
History Museum. The fort’s original tiled kitchen now displays a stove, utensils, and methods of
cooking, as well as dried ingredients. The fort’s chapel has also been restored to its original look,
complete with statues and paintings (Virago’s Log, 2011 August 12).
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 Figure 101: Interior of Fort as Museum
Image Source: AlejandroLinaresGarcia [GFDL], from Wikimedia Commons
Through its 15 exhibition rooms or halls, the museum tries to show the most relevant moments in
Acapulco’s history. The museum is dedicated to the history of Acapulco, and its exhibits include
archaeological remains from the Mezcala culture and artefacts relating to the Manila galleons, piracy,
the Mexican War of Independence as well as exhibits about the fort itself (Acapulco's History Museum,
2003).

The fort preserves the distinguished part of this history. Even today, the memory of soldier and their
revolution is alive through museum. It is one of the main sources of income of Mexico through tourism.
Anyone who visits the museum can know about his or her history.

3.3.1.4 Historical Timeline

The Fort of San Diego was built in the colonial era for the protection of the Port of Acapulco from the
threat posed by pirates. Acapulco became the most important Pacific port for trade with the East, being
the point of departure and return of the Nao of China and headquarters of the market of the Parian.
Eastern products were traded, through the New Spain that arrived at Europe. It is built by order of the
Viceroy Diego Fernandez de Córdoba, Marqués de Guadalcázar, who commissioned the Dutch
engineer Adrián Boot to design and build a fortification, which was completed in 1617. It was a stone
construction, in the shape of an irregular pentagon that had five bastions joined by walls with parapets.
It was given the name of San Diego, in honour of the patron saint (Information about San Diego Fort,
2012).
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 Figure 102: Entry Point of the Museum

Image Source: Enrique Galindo [CC BY-SA 3.0], from Wikimedia Commons

In 1776, there was a great earthquake that damaged the fortification to its foundations, and it was
demolished and rebuilt to designs of Ramón Panón. The work began in 1778, progressed slowly and
after five years was completed. It was given the name of San Carlos, as a tribute to the reigning
monarch. The bastions were called: San José, San Antonio, San Luis, Santa Bárbara and La
Concepción, however it was still called "San Diego Fort" and the new name eventually fell out of use.

At the beginning of the War of Independence in 1810, José Maria Morelos, received the task of
extending the rebellion movement throughout the south of the country, and as the first and most
important mission, to take Acapulco and the Fort of San Diego.

For several months, insurgents and royalists engaged in intense artillery fire and the capture of the Fort
became a source of hardship, suffering, heat, hunger and disease. Six months later, on August 19, 1813,
the Spaniards surrendered to Morelos and Captain Pedro Antonio Velez hoisted the white flag over the
fortress (Information about San Diego Fort, 2012).

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 Figure 103: Mexican War of Independence (1810 – 1821)
Image Source: Wikia Website
The fortress continued with its primarily military use, serving the Secretariat of War and Navy at the
end of the 19th century, which later changed its name to the National Defence Secretariat. The fort also
saw use during The Second French intervention in Mexico (1861 –1867) and The Mexican Revolution
(1910 – 1920).

It was handed to the Secretaría de Bienes Nacionales e Inspección Administrativa in 1949 in order to
be converted into a military museum. It was administered by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e
Historia (INAH) until 1964, when it was handed to the Secretariat of Public Education to be used by
the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y Literatura. In 1970, it was handed to the Junta de Mejoras
Materiales Del Puerto de Acapulco and it was used for cultural and artistic purposes (Information about
San Diego Fort, 2012).
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The fort was handed back to INAH in 1980, and it was opened to the public as a museum in 1986. The
museum is dedicated to the history of Acapulco, and its exhibits include archaeological remains from
the Mezcala culture and artefacts relating to the Manila galleons, piracy, the Mexican War of
Independence as well as exhibits about the fort itself (Acapulco's History Museum, 2003).

3.3.1.5 Architectural Attributes

Master Plan (Shape and Form) with Various Components
a. Layout
The fort has been built on hill of old Acapulco, Mexico
with Classic Spanish Defensive (Military) Architecture,
is a classic bastioned star fort based upon a regular
pentagon. (Virago’s Log, 2011 August 12). The great
military engineer Vauban proposed low forts with thick
walls to withstand cannon fire that had obsoleted
medieval forts with their high thin walls. He also
perfected the star fort layout such that some of its own.
Cannons could sweep each face of the fort. Thus, there
are no blind spots out of the reach of its guns. The
regularity of the fort suggests that the designers
regarded a land-based attack as an equal threat to
seaside attack. Figure 104: Top View of San Diego
Fort
Image source: Google Earth
b. Moats & Drawbridges
Most forts have a moat even if it is just a dry ditch. There
is usually one entrance to the fort and that is supplied
with a drawbridge. The drawbridge is divided into two
parts. The Bridge is Vulnerable to Flanking Fire. One
part is constructed with stone masonry and another part
is planks of timber, which is used to connect stone
masonry bridge with fort. Generally, the timber plank
was chained with iron rope and used by pulley system to
close it. (Virago’s Log, 2011 August 12). These features
were carried over from medieval fortification practices
since their usefulness was not diminished by the advent
of cannons. Image source: Virago’s Log
Figure 105: Moat and Drawbridge at entry
point

126
c. Embrasures
Embrasures are the low openings in the fort wall allowing the
cannon to traverse an angle of fire while providing some
protection for the gun crews. It is the angle of travel (usually
about thirty degrees left or right) that dictates the angles that
the bastions can make with the main walls of the fort. Due to
that cannon ball can travel long distance. Since Fort San
Diego has cannons only on the parapet, it has only simple
embrasures that are just low spots along the walls.

d. Ramps, Doomed Rooms and Courtyard Figure 106: Embrasures in the

Source: (Virago, 2011 August 12)
During war, they had to transit heavy materials, which can
be cannon balls, gunpowder and may be foods. To carry easily they constructed wide ramps. There are
also doomed rooms inside fort, which was used by their people to stay. Now they are used as museum
element. There is also centrally placed courtyard, which consist two cisterns to store rainwater.

Material Use
Stones (8Feet Thick Wall) with Mud and lime mortar, as
primary Building Material. Timber and tile were also used for
floor finish. (Brooke, 2012, March 12)

3.3.1.6 Conservation Approach

In April 21, 1776, the fort was destroyed by earthquake. The
destroyed fort was demolished and rebuilt by Spanish Er.
Miguel Costanzo (1778-1783). The fort was rebuilt as regular Figure 107: Ramp at the
polygon, which was irregular in originally. Then after it was central Courtyard
controlled by Secretariat of National Assets and Administrative
Source: (Virago, 2011 August 12)
Inspection and used as military museum in 1949. In 1964, National
Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) used fort as national
institute of fine arts and literature. In addition, the time passes fort was used as cultural and artistic
purposes in 1970, which was controlled by Board of Materials Improvement of the Port of Acapulco.
Finally, in 1980 again it was controlled by INAH and used as public museum in 1986. Even today, it
is used as National museum with an example of Adaptive reuse (Diego, 2003 Feb 9).

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3.3.2 Fort Bourtange
Fort Bourtange was built in 1593 A.D. by William the Silent of Orange. It was built during the 80
years’ war to disrupt the Spanish supply line to Groningen. After the end of the 80 years’ war, the fort
continued to be a defense post against Germany.

Fort Bourtange is a star shaped fort. After the invention of gunpowder, the high walls of the medieval
fortresses became a liability due to their vulnerability to canon fire. The newer forts built were with
thick walls to withstand the fire and star shaped to gain unobstructed view of the outer edges fort. Star
shaped forts were adopted all over the world and many modern forts are built with the same or inspired
principles. For our case study, such a fort has been studied.

3.3.2.1 Geographical Location

Fort Bourtange is located in a small
Groning
village Bourtange in the province of
Netherlands
Groningen in Netherlands near the
border of Germany.

Photo source:http://www.holandiabeztajemnic.pl Photo source: Google Earth

Figure 109: Fort Bourntange location

3.3.2.2 Present status

The last significant battle fort fought in the fort was against German invaders in 1672 and was defended
due to the marshy surroundings acting as a natural defense for the fort. The fort was repaired between
1739 and 1742 but this was only a temporary reprieve from its long term decline as military technology
was far more advanced and new settlement of farmers drained the surrounding lands depriving the fort
of one of its strong defenses.

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The fort was finally abandoned and converted into a village in 1851. By the 1960s, the village was
largely abandoned due to unemployment reasons and once more the fort was in a state of decline. So,
the government decided to convert it into a historical museum.

The fort has been an open air historical museum since its
opening in 1964. Currently about 50 people live inside the
fort who run the museums, hotels and restaurants opened
in the buildings of the fort. Every year in June, the fort
hosts an event in which reenactment of battles fought in
the fort are done which attracts millions of tourists every
year.

(LAPOUBELLE1969, 2018) , (BOURTANGE: A LIVING

Figure 110: A café-restaurant in the
FORTRESS , 2016) central plaza of fort Bourtange

Figure 111: Visitors observing the re-enactment of battle at fort Bourtange

Photo source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpQhiTHreyM

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3.3.2.3 Architecture attributes
The star shaped fort occupies an area of 11 acre (44515.08 sq.m.). As the fort continued to be a defense
post against Germany, the army stayed and the buildings required were added. The fort was then built
with radial stone paved roads that lead to a central plaza.

The buildings used were:

a. The houses of the priest, the Captain, the Major and the Commander
b. The baracquen
c. The powder house
d. The Synagogue which was later turned into a church
e. The windmill
f. The barn and
g. The secretin which was the toilets used by the soldiers (GRIVA, 2018)
Windmill Stone Wall
The Synagogue

Secretin Second Gate

Main Gate

Photo Source: http://planetdens.com/architecture/fort-bourtange-star-castle-netherlands/

Figure 114: Layout of the Fort Bourntage

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Defenses of the Fort

a. Moats and draw bridges

The fort was surrounded by a channel of moats filled by water from a nearby lake. The gates to the fort
could be accessed only by draw brides which were closed or destroyed in any case of attack.

Figure 116: Moat and draw bridge to access the gate to the fort
Photo Source: http://www.seetheworldinmyeyes.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/140713-02-Entrance-Gate-to-
Bourtange-Star-Fort-Village-in-the-Netherlands.jpg

b. Glacis around the fort `

The glacis is an inclined wall that is thicker along the bottom.

In fort Bourtange, the glacis is made of excavated earth. The
thick earth walls were preferred instead of high stone walls as
the thick walls could take the damage caused cannon balls
fired by attacking forces.
Figure 117: Glacis around the fort
Source:http://pix.avaxnews.com/avaxnews/6d/6
a/00016a6d_medium.jpeg
c. Shape of the fort

The shape of the fort itself was a defense strategy. The pentagonal main land of the fort had five
projected parts called bastions. Bastions, in any fort are projected parts used for observation. The star
shape alone allows observation and defense from multiple angles. With the addition of bastions, the
observation and defense fire is further improved. The bastions are made triangular so that the dead
zones in case of circular bastions where the attacking forces can hide are eliminated thus giving the fort
a star shape.

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d. Marsh lands around the fort

The fort was built on marshlands which added to the defense of the fort as the attacking forces could
not stay to lay siege. This was most notably evident in 1672 when the German Prince-Bishopric of
Münster attacked and laid siege to the fort. By that point the defenses had fallen into disrepair and the
garrison consisted of only fifty men. It was repaired just in time and, thanks to the naturally marshy
surroundings, the attack failed.

Figure 118: Plan of Fort Bourtange

Photo Source: http://www.holandiabeztajemnic.pl

Construction Technology and Materials

The buildings were mostly made of bricks and mud mortar. Few buildings were made of wood. The
windmill and the secreten both made of wood can be seen in the present fort.

Figure 122: Secretin Figure 122: Figure 122: Stone paved street
Windmill
Photo Source: https://notesfromcamelidcountry.net/2018/05/29/fort-bourtange-a-journey-back-to-the-16th-century/

132
The thick inclined walls surrounding the fort called glacis was
made of excavated earth.

3.3.2.4 Conservation Approach Figure 124: Canons along inner line of the
The fort is not listed as a monument (national heritage in glacis
Photo Source: www.alamy.com
Netherlands). Rijksdienstvoorhet Cultureel Erfgoed (RCE,
Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands) looks after the national heritage in Netherlands. The
conservation and maintenance of the fort is looked after by the local government that would be the
provincial government of Groningen.

The fort has been in use since its construction with brief stages of abandonment. The fort was repaired
between 1739 and 1742 by the government. The renovation and plans for reuse as a museum was also
made by the local government in 1964.

133
3.4 Case Study of Historic Settlement
3.4.1 Bandipur a historical settlement
3.4.1.1 Geographical Setting
Bandipur is a hilltop settlement at Tanahun District at height of 1030 m from sea level. It is located at
the distance of 8km from Dumre (Prithivi Highway). Bandipur is renowned for its preserved cultural
atmosphere. It is a popular Tourist Destination as it is accessible from Kathmandu Pokhara Highway
as well as from Narayangarh. Bandipur also provides good panoramic view of mountain range from
Langtang in the East to Dhaulagiri in the West.
3.4.1.2 Growth & Diminish of Bandipur
Traditionally, Bandipur had Magar settlement but as it fell in trade route between India China. It has
seen huge migration of Newars from Banepa and now has a highly mixed settlement. There are several
beliefs about origin of Bandipur. During 13th century, Brahmins from Lamjung settled in inhabited
Bandipur. Mukunda Sen, ruler of Mankwanpur, came to Bandipur in search of place to be built as
Headquarter. Bandipur was selected as business center. After Prithivi Narayan Shah captured
Kathmandu, some Newars fled to Bandipur and started settling there.
The town reached its peak during Rana Regime and flourished during this period with special privileges
like permission for its own library, which is still functional. Newars from Bhaktapur also brought in
masons, carpenters and craftsmen from their hometown, contributing to Architecture of Bandipur. The
main reasons that Bandipur flourished were:

• Located in India-China trade route which made it a popular stop.

• The district headquarter was located in Bandipur which made it an administrative center.
• It also fell in general route of transportation from Kathmandu to Pokhara
However, this did not continue for a long period of time and various factors contributed in its diminish
which led to many people migrating out of Bandipur and its economic downfall. New trade routes were
opened which replaced traditional routes. District Headquarter was moved out of Bandipur. Bandipur
was bypassed from Prithivi Highway. Eradication of Malaria in 1950s from Tarai, led to development
of commercially important towns and downfall of Hilly towns like Bandipur.
Various attempts were made in order to bring its former glory back to Bandipur. Some of
them were:

• Establishment of Notre Dame School, 1985

• Establishment of Bandipur Tourism Development Committee (BTDC), 2003
• Promotion of Bandipur as a tourist destination during Visit Nepal 1998
• Bandipur Eco-Cultural Tourism Project (BECTP), 2003-2007
• The BECT Project has been highly successful and has brought various changes in Bandipur.

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3.4.1.3 Bandipur Eco-Cultural Tourism Project (BECT-Project)
Bandipur Eco Cultural Tourism Project (BECT-Project) was the project that with major goal
of promotion of Bandipur as a tourist destination. This project, with assistance of EuropeAid,
was part of a European Commission/Asia Urbs-funded partnership project with the two
European partner cities; Municipality of Hydra, Greece Hydra (island) and Communed
Riomaggiore, Italy Riomaggiore. Its objectives were:

• To develop and promote Bandipur as a unique tourist destination,

• Enhance, upgrade and conserve the built and natural environment of Bandipur,
• Support local enterprises to revitalize economic activities, in order to lengthen the tourist-stay in
Bandipur

The works carried out as part of this project are:

• Promotion work inside and outside Nepal

• Infrastructure development, such as: signing, stone streets in the main streets of Bandipur,
renovation of houses etc.
• Trainings for local guides, plumbing, cooking, hospitality, electricity etc
• This project has been successful in its promotion and development activities which has led
to revitalization of Bandipur and its success. Following are the impacts of increased tourist
flow in Bandipur as a part of this project:
• Conservation to preserve tourist attractions,
• Market for agro-products of the village,
• Up-liftment in economic status of locals,
• Road network development,
• More health and education facilities,
• Conservation of old buildings, temples and architectural features of settlement,
• Tourism growth in surrounding areas.

Due to success of this project, the Newari Architectural Features of Bandipur has been conserved. The
Guthi system of Bandipur, Cultural festivals and dances like Chutka nach, Banghdhure nach, Ropai
nach, Ghatu dance, Khadga Jatra and temples including Thanimai, Khadga temple and Mahalaxmi
Temple of Bandipur have been preserved.

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3.4.2 Jaisalmer fort
3.4.2.1 Geographical Setting
Jaisalmer, also known as the golden city, is located in the district
of Jaisalmer in the state of Rajasthan. The fort originally stood
in the middle of the Thar Desert surrounded by sand dunes. The
Jaisalmer fort is approximately two square mile in area and at
an elevation of 751 feet above sea level. The city of Jaisalmer
has grown over time as a tourist destination, although it is still a
relatively small town with a total population of approximately
60,000 people (in 2001 census). Four hundred families live
inside the fort, which once had over 480 structures. It is one of
the few living forts in the world and the last one in India.
Jaisalmer is known for its architectural heritage, lakes, sand Figure 126: Jaisalmer Site Plan
http://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/conservation-
dunes, desert festival, migratory birds and much more. Due to report-and-geo-technical-survey-for-the-walled-city-
its location near the border, the district is also a military base for of-jaisalmer/

the Indian army. The state of Rajasthan is known for its Rajput architecture and Jaisalmer has examples
of this architectural heritage. Due to its isolation, the fort architecture reflects very little Mughal or
European influence, although some Islamic features and carvings can be seen.
3.4.2.2 Historical Background
Jaisalmer was a Rajput kingdom, under Bhati Rajput. They ruled from eleventh century until the mid-
twentieth century when India became an independent nation and all princely states were dissolved. The
known boundaries of this kingdom varied largely with time. The original Bhati capital was at Ludhvara.
Rawal (king in regional language) Jaisal abandoned Ludvara in the mid-twelfth century, after a battle
destroyed the city. Cities in the open desert were vulnerable to enemies so he built his new fort atop a
triangular hill close to a lake, approximately ten miles from Ludhvara. He named the fort after himself
(Jaisalmer). Jaisalmer fort was first built of mud in A.D. 1156. The triangular hill (locally called trikuta)
on which the fort stands is 250 feet high and 1500 feet at its widest point. This fort was built for
protection from invaders, to withstand a siege. It truly was impregnable. This fort also served as a
trading post on the east-west trading route. It was an entry point for caravans coming from western
Muslim kingdoms into the eastern Hindu (later Mughal) empire. Trade flourished and city (fort and the
walled city) grew as a major trading post. Jaisalmer Fort was an abode for merchants and Jain monks.
Most of the merchants were Jains, hence Jainism flourished inside the fort. Twice the fort was
destroyed. Nevertheless, Bhati kings never gave up and the city was rebuilt every time it was savaged.
Sometimes rulers from Delhi attacked as caravans were stopped to collect taxes and trade goods. In
1294 A.D., Ala-ud-din Khilaji attacked and the fort was besieged. This is one of the longest known
sieges in history, which lasted nine years. In the end, Bhati lost the battle and the females performed
johar. After this battle, fort was abandoned for a long time. There was another battle in fourteenth
century and the fort was again a flourishing trading city in fifteenth century. There was a long political
stability after Bhati ruler Maharawal Bhīma Singh made an alliance with Mughals. Mughal in turn
protected the fort, as it was an easy entrance from the west into the Mughal Empire. During all these
136
battles, the fort suffered damages and was repaired and reconstructed several times. Over time, the
original mud construction was replaced with stone to make it more resistant to attacks.
In early nineteen century, Bhati kingdom had a vast area and its boundaries reached their farthest known
extent. By 1820, the kingdom was attacked by different rulers from various directions and large parts
of the kingdom were lost. Owing to this huge loss, the fort was evacuated once again. This was the
decline of Bhati rule for Jaisalmer. During the later years of the century trade declined as Mughal
Empire declined and East India Company came to power. Jaisalmer depended heavily on trade through
land. It was a major trade post on the east-west land trade route; the Europeans depended on trade
through sea. The city suffered badly with all these developments. Jaisalmer became a British state under
the same name, but the Bhati family still owned the fort. Since the city stood in middle of desert, its
location saved it from invaders. Hence, with no traders or invaders, the city remained unaltered, away
from any influence, for either good or bad. After independence, it was connected with rest of the country
with road (1958) and railways (1969). Jaisalmer became a tourist destination. Today, it is an
internationally known tourist destination.
3.4.2.3 Fort Characteristics and Identity
3.4.2.3.1 Architecture: plan, fort wall and building types
The city of Jaisalmer is divided in two parts, the fort and the taleti.
The fort is the initial settlement, sitting on top of trikuta hill
whereas taleti, or the lower town as it is sometimes called, is the
town northeast of the hill. The lower town was fortified in 1750
A.D. by Maharawal Mulraj with an outer wall, which encloses
the lower town as well as the fort. The outer wall has four
entrance gates; one of them leads to the lake Gadisar, which was
a primary source of water for the town. The lower town is more
Figure 129: Entrance of fort
organized and the streets look formally arranged. The fort with https://jonistravelling.com/sightseeing-jaisalmer-
india/
its high wall acts as a barrier against cold wind and protects the
lower town. Owing to its isolated location from other kingdoms, there is very little outside influence
seen on the building style. Although it was a trading post, the architecture is mostly Rajput with a few
Islamic features. European influence is minimal, and can only be observed in few late nineteenth
century buildings. Jaisalmer is called the golden city for the yellow brown sandstone used in all the
construction. It is locally available and still used as a building material. The fort itself was built as a
royal residence and for the people who served the royal family. There was no major planning pattern
and the city evolved over time.
There are layers of centuries of construction practices. The entrance to the fort leads directly to a city
square known as Dushera chowk, where royal complex is situated. This was developed for the ease of
trade. Dushera chowk is surrounded by palaces and merchant mansions called haveli. It is here that all
the trade happened in front of the king. The architectural practices are responsive to the harsh climate,
the desert sun and the cold winter winds. The streets are narrow and the buildings are tall. These
proportions are common in vernacular practices to take advantage of mutual shading. In addition, the
137
houses are deep and narrow, with private courtyards for outdoor living. The people who constructed
the city acknowledged the importance of keeping stone dry for its structural stability. Hence, the fort
wall was constructed in layers to drain all the water outside of the fort.
The fort and its premises were built for the royal family and people serving them. The settlement
included royal palaces, houses for the royal household, and haveli for trading merchants. The city grew
as trade flourished. The merchants became wealthy and their houses more intricate. Some of the finest
carving found in Jaisalmer fort is in these haveli. The king’s palace known as raja ka mahal was
constructed at the highest point surrounded by the royal complex. There is a cluster of royal palaces
along with haveli. In the center is the city square, known as Dushera chowk, the royal complex stands
to the north and east of the square, whereas mansions are to the south and west of the square.
Traditionally, this square was used for trading goods with caravans. This is the place where most of the
business for the town happened. All these structures are built out of yellow sandstone, without any
exception. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the royal family moved to lower city of Jaisalmer,
and the palace complex has been unoccupied since. The haveli were also abandoned and almost all of
these structures were neglected. Most of them were in poor state until the late twentieth century when
some of them collapsed. At the turn of the twenty-first century, some of these places were restored or
rebuilt. Work continues to protect these architectural marvels.
3.4.2.3.2 The fort wall
The fort wall, also constructed out of sandstone, was
designed to protect the people against invaders as
well as weather. It has approximately 150 bastions
and multiple layers of construction. Most of the texts
refer that there are 99 or 100 bastions in the wall.
Difference also lies in what one considers a bastion. Figure 131: Fort wall
The most recent survey conducted by Bombay http://indiagetaways.co.in/jaisalmer-rajasthan/
Collaborative came up with seven bastions in
pitching, 73 in outer wall and73 in inner wall. This makes the total number of bastions approximately
150. This 30 feet high wall is built completely with dry masonry. The stones sit on top of each other by
sheer gravity.
The wall was built in layers, physically as well as chronologically. The fort wall is composed of five
different elements and was incrementally constructed over the centuries. The original fort built in 1156
was constructed out of mud. The original wall was built in mud, repaired several times, and eventually
constructed in stone. The major construction of the wall happened during 1578-1624 A.D., under the
rule of Racal Bhīma Singh.19 Majority of bastions were added as gun platforms from 1633-1647. Not
only was it built in parts, it was also repaired many times after suffering damage in several wars. The
different layers of wall outwards to inwards are the pitching, earth slope, outer wall, mori, and inner
wall. The pitching is the lower most section of the fort wall,very small in height as compared to other
sections. It was built as a retaining wall to hold the earth slope in place. The outer wall runs parallel to

138
the inner fort wall. It is a secondary wall, lower in height than the inner wall. The section between outer
wall and inner wall is called the mori. This is a pathway with varying sections, ten to fifteen feet wide
and originally designed to provide for the sanitation and drainage requirements of the fort. The inner
wall encloses the city with 73 bastions. The bastions were watch towers for the city and later
accommodated families of the guards.
3.4.2.3.3 Buildings
The fort was constructed for the royal family and others serving them. Later the merchants came and
started living inside the fort. Hence, the buildings can be divided into palaces, houses, havelis, and
temples. All of the palaces are located around the Dushera chowk. This royal complex consists of king’s
palace (raja ka mahal), queen’s palace (rani ka mahal), Juna mahal (the oldest surviving structure, in
original Rajput style), Gaj Vilas, and other auxiliary structures. These buildings were all built before
the nineteenth century but at different times. Merchants were mostly Jains and had temples built inside
the fort. There were seven temples built between the fifteenth and sixteenth century. These all temples
are devoted to Jain saints. The real architectural marvel of Jaisalmer fort is the haveli. This is where
most of the original architecture can be seen in excellent condition. The small covered balconies called
jharokha are the most beautiful architectural feature. These are a signature element of the Rajput style
and are found all over the state. Patwa ki haveli (a haveli belonging to the merchant family named
patwa) have so many jharokha that it becomes difficult to see the wall behind them. Character defining
features for houses and haveli are jharokha, thresholds, otla (platform connecting house to street),
materials, and carvings. Another important feature of thesehouses is the courtyard. The houses do not
connect the interior with the street. The only connection to street is an otla, an entrance door and the
rest of the walls are solid. This monotony is broken by carvings and jharoka at upper levels of the house.
The interiors have small square courtyards. If the house is bigger, there will be multiple courtyards
providing different level of privacy to the residents. The courtyards are small to combat the extreme
desert climate. Haveli is a much bigger house with multiple courtyards, and carving that is more
intricate. The level of details in carving increased with the wealth of the merchant. There are currently
six havelis inside the fort. Patwao ki haveli is magnificent with very detailed carving in stone and
complete façade covered with jharokha, except for the street level. The Patwa family had five brothers
and each had a house built together in a cluster. Only two of the five havelis survive now. Other
examples inside the fort include Nathmal ji ki haveli, and Salim Singh ki haveli. The havelis in the fort
are now house museums or used for some other purpose. One of them was used as a primary school for
boys during the last two decades of twentieth century. None functions as a home anymore. Spaces
within Indian architecture often serve multiple functions throughout the day and this pattern occurred
in Jaisalmer as well. In the morning, residents start at top most level of the house and as the temperature
increases with the day, people move towards the lower level to escape the heat. During the night when
it gets cold, the heat stored in thick walls keep the occupants warm. Contemporary construction within
the fort does have western influences but the use of local stone has somewhat contributed to maintaining
the character of the place. This practice also helped the stone masons to survive. There are also some
examples where cement is used for new construction. (JAIN, 2012)

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3.4.2.4 The Community and Settlement
Intangible heritage
Jaisalmer People, Culture, Festivals represent the rich cultural heritage and traditional legacy of the
bygone era. The vibrant and dynamic lifestyle of the local indigenous inhabitants of Jaislamer is
reflected in the various socio-cultural and religious festivities of the place which is celebrated with
great enthusiasm and fervor. The cosmopolitan city of Jaisalmer comprises of several religions of
Hindus, Jains, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians. Most of the native population of Jaisalmer follows Hindu
religious customs and rituals. The Marwari community of the place observes the Hindu festivals with
great religious fervor and zeal. The traditional folk music and dance is an integral part of the social and
cultural life of the indigenous inhabitants of Jaisalmer. The Kalbeliya dance of the community of snake
charmers portrays the rich artistic caliber and creative imagination of the dancers.
3.4.2.4.1 Crafts
The crafts of Jaisalmer comprise of exquisite traditional jewelries of silver, delicate and fine embroidery
work, stone work, highly decorated leather products and printing work. An essential part of the
Jaisalmer people, culture, festivals, the traditional craft works reflect the rich cultural heritage and
traditional legacy of the ancient times. Most of the local indigenous inhabitants of Jaisalmer are experts
in the field of art and craft work. The beautiful art and craft products of the place have internationally
acclaimed status that helps the state of Rajasthan to earn huge revenues and thus strengthen its
economic base. Most of the tourists who visit Jaisalmer make it a point to purchase the unique craft
works as relics of the place for their near and dear ones. The goldsmiths of Jaisalmer specialize in
carving out marvelous pieces of silver jewelries. The fine and delicate design patterns on the silver
necklace, earnings and bangles display the rich artistic skill and creative imagination of the local
craftsmen who have inherited the art from their forefathers. The simple yet elegant designs of the
various silver jewelries impart an attractive look to the exclusive items. The local craftsmen of
Jaisalmer have mastered the art of embroidery. The excellent blend of attractive colors coupled with
the exclusive design patterns on the traditional attires of the state of Rajsathan imparts a royal look to
the dresses. Most of the tourists prefer to buy embroidered saris or other traditional dresses of Jaisalmer
during their visit to the beautiful place.
3.4.2.4.2 Desert Festival
The desert festival of Jaisalmer reflects the rich cultural heritage and traditional legacy of the bygone
era. The famous desert festival provides the local indigenous inhabitants and tourists with a wonderful
opportunity to experience the unique folk music and dance of Jaisalmer. An integral part of Jaisalmer
people, culture,festivals, the desert festival brings back the old glory and grandeur of the ancient times
through its unique socio- cultural programme. The traditional dance of Ghoomar and Kalbeliya fill the
air with music, joy and mirth. Dressed in traditional attires, the performers perform the dances with full
dedication and enthusiasm. The Desert Festival draws several tourists from far and wide who are
absolutely awed by the grand celebration. The Jaisalmer Fort wears a special decorative look on the
occasion. The various art and craft work of the place are put to display during the celebrations of the
Desert Festival. Amidst the picturesque landscape of golden sand dunes, Jaisalmer extends a traditional
140
welcome to the tourists during the Desert Festival of the place. The cultural evenings of the festival
provide the audience with a scope to enjoy the artistic caliber and creative imagination of the artists
which is reflected in their flawless performance. A unique feature of the Desert Festival is the camel
show. Commonly referred to as the ship of the desert, the camels are decorative with colorful pieces of
highly embroidered cloths. The best dressed camel receives an award from the organizers. The camel
dance and camel polo are some of the other attractions of the Desert Festival.
3.4.2.4.3 Music and Dance
Music & Dance in Jaisalmer is an essential part of the rich social
and cultural life of the local indigenous population of the place.
The folk songs and folk dance of Jaisalmer bears relics to the
unique cultural heritage and traditional legacy of the bygone era
that has percolated to the modern times. Any social and cultural
occasion of Jaisalmer is incomplete without the brilliant
performance of the highly talented artists of the place. Jaisalmer
boasts of several indigenous folk dance styles that enthralls and
enchants the spectators by its rhythmic steps and vibrant Figure 132: Kalbeliya
http://www.imkiran.com/culture-of-
movements. One of the prominent indigenous dance forms of the rajasthan-a-folk-dance-called-kalbeliya/
local indigenous inhabitants of Jaisalmer is the Kalbeliya dance
style. Performed primarily by the community of snake charmers
of the place, the dancers move their body in a flexible manner
with the accompaniment of traditional musical instruments of
drums. The dancers of Kalbeliya dress in the traditional attire of
long skirts that are usually black in color. The fine embroidery in
the border of the skirts makes the traditional attire very attractive
and colorful. The vibrant dance steps of the dancers of the folk
Figure 133: Turban tying
dance display the artistic creativity and zeal of the performers
http://lifeinindiaat.blogspot.com/2009/07/de
who perform with full dedication. Some of the other prominent sert-festival-turban-tying.html
dance forms of Jaislamer are:

• Ghoomar Dance-The Ghoomar dance is primarily performed by the female folk of Jaisalemr on
special festive occasions.

• Kathputli Dance- Representing the unique cultural traditions of Jaisalmer, the Kathputli dance
reflects the artistic imagination of the organizers of the show who creatively arrange a dance drama
of puppets for the entertainment of the audience.

A prominent part of Jaisalmer people, culture, festivals, the folk music and dance casts a magical spell
on the spectators.

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3.4.2.4.4 Religions
Religions in Jaisalmer comprise of a vast population of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Jains and Christians.
Jaisalmer of Rajasthan bears relics to the rich cultural heritage and traditional legacies of the Hindu
religious community of the region. Most of the local indigenous inhabitants of Jaisalmer belong to the
warrior group of the great Rajputs who follow Hindu rituals and customs. Jaisalmer has a vast
population of Marwaris who strictly adhere to the Hindu religious customs and traditions Lord Shiva,
Lord Vishnu and the Sun God occupy a prominent position in the religious prayers of the Hindu
population of the place. The Marwaris celebrate the Hindu festivals of Karva- Chauth, Diwali,
Dusshera, Navratri, Shiv Ratri, and Holi with great religious fervor and enthusiasm. The city of
Jaisalmer wears a special decorative look on the days of festive occasions. The Hindu social structure
of the city is divided and sub divided into castes and sub castes. The caste of a particular individual of
Jaisalmer can be identified by the color of his turban that is an integral part of hi daily wear. Jains form
another dominant religious community of Jaisalmer. The followers of the religion observe their
religious and social customs with equal vigor and dedication. Muslims, Sikhs and Christians form a
small population of the city. Keeping in tune with the secular identity of the place, the different religious
communities of Jaisalmer cohabit together and respect one another's customs and traditions. An integral
part of Jaisalmer people, culture, festivals, and the cosmopolitan city of Rajasthan observes the festivals
of different religious groups with much enthusiasm and vigor. (Jaisalmer Culture and Festivals, 2013)
3.4.2.5 Cause of Deterioration and Conservation Approach
3.4.2.5.1 Natural threats
As previously mentioned, the fort sits on a porous rock over sand. Adding to this is the fact that
sandstone itself is vulnerable to water seepage. Several structures have collapsed owing to an excess of
water inside the fort. Seismic instability is another natural cause adding to the deterioration of the
structures. Over the years with changes in climate, rainfall in the desert has increased fivefold. This has
contributed greatly to instability of the structures. Of the 490 structures inside the fort, approximately
80 have collapsed due to excess rains and seepage of water in the foundation. The fort wall is suffering
equally from increased rains. A record rainfall in 1999 resulted in a lot of damage. More recently,
another 40 feet section of wall collapsed in the 2011 monsoon. This section is still not repaired; with

Figure 135: New Material UseFigure Figure 134: Soil Erosion and Water
Seepage
another monsoon season setting in, it is a great concern.
The poor state of this section of the fort wall is not only regretful, but it is also a threat to human life.

142
The rock on which the fort is built, sits on a geological fault line, running from India all the way to
Afghanistan. It is causing a lot of ground activity. The rock on which the fort sits is showing differential
settlements due to water seepage over decades. The Geological Survey of India (along with other
agencies) conducted various tests on the stability of the fort and the results are worrying. The site needs
to be continuously monitored and there is a huge ground settlement in the southwest section of the
foothill. This adds to the already weakened found.
3.4.2.5.2 Human threat
Human activities are an equal threat to the stability of the fort. Although Jaisalmer fort was built several
centuries ago, and human habits and lifestyles have changed, very few alterations were made to the
fort. Not only the population inside the fort increased but also the large number of tourists adds to this
extra load on the systems. Drainage inside the fort is the biggest issue of all. It poses the highest threat
to the stability of the structure. With the changes in lifestyle and in an effort to meet with demands of
increasing number of tourists, the sources of water supply inside the fort were supplemented.
Originally, all drainage was directed outside of the fort, but the new system drained directly into the
rock on which fort stands. Given the porous properties of the rock, water seeped in and caused
catastrophic changes. This, combined with increased rainfall, worked to deteriorate many foundations.
As a result, the queen’s palace and king’s palace partially collapsed, many houses crumbled, and the
fort wall is in great danger. The streets were not designed to carry so much runoff. This extra water also
caused settlements in the soil itself.

Figure 140: Use of paints Figure 137: New Material Use Figure 136: Boards of shops

Jaisalmer residents depend heavily on tourism. To meet the demands of increasing tourism, new hotels
were constructed inside the fort walls. There is no check on the number of hotels or new constructions.
The materials and systems used in the new construction are modern and mismatch with the existing old
system. They are causing stress in the rock on which the fort sits. Today there are huge boards on
buildings, which disrupt the visual integrity of the whole city. The fort has also been subject to
inappropriate repair work using cement mortar. Cement mortar is harder than stone. When the mortar
dries, it fit so tightly that the stone cracked, so more cement was applied, which led to a vicious cycle.
Cement mortar also needs paint, compromising the yellow golden harmony of the fort. The biggest
issue of all is people who live inside the fort and take care of it on a daily basis are unaware of the
damage they are causing by their lifestyles.(JAIN, 2012)
143
3.4.2.6 Institutions Involved in Conservation of the Fort
3.4.2.6.1 The Archeological Survey of India (ASI)
Technical Details
Jaisalmer fort is under ASI’s protection from a long time and it has carried out conservation work since
1979. Repairing and maintaining several properties including the fort wall, havelis, and streets. Since
1982, ASI Jaipur circle is repairing and reconstructing the fort wall at several sections. They fixed loose
stones and the collapsed sections of wall due to bulging. This work has been going on for more than 15
years on a regular basis and always had a mention in their annual reports.39 However, no attention was
paid to the cause of bulging, millions were spent on rebuilding and repairing sections of wall but no
effort was made to treat the cause for all this damage. After the huge damage in 1999 from rain, a lot
of work was done. (Figure 2.6) ASI reports for year 2000 and 2001 are extensive in sense what work
was carried out. Due to limitations of research, original ASI reports were not available for review and
hence any further comment is avoided.
3.4.2.6.2 Indian National Trust for Arts and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) & Jaisalmer in
Jeopardy (JIJ)
INTACH has been working in Jaisalmer since 1996. In 1996, a charity trust JIJ was formed to protect
the tangible and intangible heritage of the Jaisalmer fort. The streetscape project was carried out by
INTACH and JIJ as a measure to prevent water from seeping into the fort foundations. This project was
an attempt to provide proper drainage and waterproofing and also to restore the facades and educate
the residents about how to care for their homes.
This project provided for individual lavatories to every household, fixed and concealed all the sewage
pipes running through the street, and provided new pipelines where needed. All exposed pipes on the
street were concealed with platforms. The iron manhole covers were replaced with stone covers. The
complete street was provided with concrete base and all pipelines were checked to be watertight. This
was done to make sure no more water seeps into the ground. After that, stone paving was re-laid on a
concrete base. The existing open drains were cleaned and provided with cement lining to make them
waterproof. These were also covered with matching stone pavers.
For repairing the building facades, previous repairs were under taken in cement. Local people did not
know the right material to use. Cement was easily available and much easier to use. Hence, most of the
repair work in stone was carried out with cement. Secondly, craftsmen with knowledge of traditional
stone construction are difficult to find. The financial factor also comes in play. The material properties
of cement and stone are different- cement when set is much harder than stone. If used in cracks, cement
eventually widens the crack. Residents unaware of what they were doing used more cement in widened
cracks. This created a viscous cycle of damage. INTACH held meeting with residents and educated
them about the effects of cement as compared to lime mortar. The facades were cleaned and cement
was removed where possible. When owners agreed, cement was replaced with traditional lime mortar.
When it was not feasible to reverse the process, matching color paint was employed to do the least to
maintain the visual coherence of the street.

144
3.4.3 Hoi An ancient town
3.4.3.1 Geographical Setting
Hoi An Ancient town is located in Viet Nam’s central Quang
Nam Province, on the north bank near the mouth of the Thu Bon
River. The inscribed property comprises 30 ha and it has a buffer
zone of 280 ha. It is an exceptionally well-preserved example of
a small-scale trading port active the 15th to 19th centuries which
traded widely, both with the countries of Southeast and East Asia
and with the rest of the world. Its decline in the later 19th century
ensured that it has retained its traditional urban tissue to a
remarkable degree.
The town reflects a fusion of indigenous and foreign cultures
(principally Chinese and Japanese with later European
influences) that combined to produce this unique survival. The
town comprises a well-preserved complex of 1,107 timber frame
buildings, with brick or wooden walls, which include
architectural monuments, commercial and domestic vernacular Figure 143: Location of Hoi An
structures, notably an open market and a ferry quay, and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hội_An)
religious buildings such as pagodas and family cult houses. The
houses are tiled and the wooden components are carved with
traditional motifs. They are arranged side-by-side in tight,
unbroken rows along narrow pedestrian streets. There is also Figure 144: Hoi An
the fine wooden Japanese bridge, with a pagoda on it, dating
from the 18th century. The original street plan, which
developed as the town became a port, remains. It comprises a
grid of streets with one axis parallel to the river and the other
axis of streets and alleys set at right angles to it. Typically, the
buildings front the streets for convenient customer access while
the backs of the buildings open to the river allowing easy
loading and off-loading of goods from boats. (https://everything-everywhere.com/unesco-
The surviving wooden structures and street plan are original world-heritage-site-hoi-an-ancient-town/)
and intact and together present a traditional townscape of the 17th and 18th centuries, the survival of
which is unique in the region. The town continues to this day to be occupied and function as a trading
port and center of commerce. The living heritage reflecting the diverse communities of the indigenous
inhabitants of the town, as well as foreigners, has also been preserved and continues to be passed on.
Hoi An Ancient Town remains an exceptionally well-preserved example of a Far Eastern port. (Hoi An
Ancient Town, 1999)

145
3.4.3.2 Historical Background
Hoi An Ancient Town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the Quang Nam province of
Vietnam. It was inscribed into the list in 1999. The city currently has about 120,000 in population. The
historic district is one of the best-preserved examples of the Southeast Asian trading ports from the
16th and 17th centuries. From the buildings to the street plans, the unique blend of indigenous and
foreign influences is evident in Hoi An. The Japanese Bridge in the old town district of Hoi An is one
of the most distinctive landmarks in the area. It was built in the 16th or 17th century. Today, the trading
activity had long moved elsewhere. However, the historical heritage of the Hoi An Ancient Town is
strongly preserved. (ARNDT, 2009)
3.4.3.3 The Community and Settlement
3.4.3.3.1 The old town
The Old Town in Hoi An is where the highest
concentration of preserved buildings and
structures are during the time of the city being a
major trading port. It is small enough to explore
on foot. Plus, it is not as heavily populated so
traffic is not an issue just like the bigger cities
in Vietnam. There are some streets in the Old
Town that only allow motorbikes and there are
also those dedicated only for pedestrians. For
this reason, a lot of tourists like to visit Hoi An
as it provides a nice change of pace from Saigon
or Ho Chi Minh City. Figure 145: Street view of old city

Several of the buildings and other structures within the Old Town in Hoi An were constructed more
than a century ago. They also exhibit a strong Chinese influence particularly from the provinces of
Guangzhou, Hainan, and Fujian. The buildings, especially those from merchants, bear the company
names in a carved out board that depicts Chinese characters. This is evidence of a strong Chinese
presence in Hoi An during the prosperous times of the Old Town.
As mentioned above, the Japanese Bridge is the most distinctive landmark within Hoi An Ancient
Town. But there are several other notable tourist attractions such as the Guan Yin Temple and the
Chinese assembly halls. (ARNDT, 2009)
3.4.3.3.2 Economic activities and livelihood
Hoi An has experienced high economic growth in recent years, at a rate of around 11.5 per cent per
capita per year for the period from 2004 to 2011. Tourism, commerce and services represented 59.7 per
cent of economic activity in 2010, compared to 11.8 per cent for fishery and aquaculture and 3 per cent
for agriculture. Tourism is a very important source of livelihood for the city and is a driver of the city’s
economy. In 1999, UNESCO recognized Hoi An as a World Heritage Site due to the city being home
to over 800 preserved ancient houses from the 16th and 17th century. UNESCO recognition has resulted

146
in a surge in tourism, with an average of 21 per cent annual increase in visitors for the period between
2003 and 2010. Agriculture and fisheries are also important livelihood sectors for the city, though their
share of total economic activity is declining. These areas are low-lying, close to rivers, and are prone
to river flooding and erosion. In 2010, 3.85 per cent of Hoi An’s population lived below the poverty
line, which is substantially lower than the national average of 14.5 per cent. However, the malnutrition
rate in children under two years of age is 7.48 per cent, which is higher than the national average. There
are substantial differences in socio-economic indicators between wards in the city. The less urbanised,
more agricultural wards, such as CamKim, Cam Thanh, Cam Nam, Cam An and Cua Dai, have much
higher instances of poverty and less access to basic services. People were also involved in trade,
traditional medicine, tailoring and carpentry (Tran Manh Lieu, first edition 2014).

Figure 146: Vietnam, Hoi An, rice field, farmers working, fishing and pottery
(https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-vietnam-hoi-an-rice-field-farmers-working-81391535.html)

3.4.3.4 Heritages
3.4.3.4.1 Tangible heritage
• Streets running east to west
• artistic or architectural structures including shop houses
• family chapels
• communal houses
• assembly halls, pagodas
• churches, bridges, wells, markets
• Temples and tombs.
Figure 147: Min Huang ,Ancestor
Japanese covered bridge worship House

The Japanese Covered Bridge is the most iconic landmark in

Hoi An Ancient Town. The bridge is the best example of
historical Japanese architecture in Vietnam. According to
historians, it was built for by the Japanese in order to cross the
Chinese quarters that was located on the other side of the town.
The official opening of the bridge was in 1719; three Chinese
symbols were also carved out above the door to the bridge to
commemorate this momentous occasion. Figure 148: Japanese Covered
bridge

147
Over the years, there have been restorations and renovations done to preserve the bridge. The most
recent renovation was done in 1986. The bridge currently stands as a symbol of Hoi An. (ARNDT,
2009)

3.4.3.4.2 Intangible cultural heritage

3.4.3.4.2.1 Wandering Soul Day
The 15th day of the seventh lunar month is the Buddhist version of the Christian All Soul’s Day, when
the souls of those condemned to suffer in hell for their sins are freed for a day.
The Vu Lan Day in Hoi An is an event associated with the annual wandering of the souls of ancestors;
this event has its counterpart in almost all religions across the world. The Vu Lan Day in Hoi An is
known in English as the “Wandering Souls Day”, as on this
day souls are said to wander about their mortal homes. This
event is commemorated in all the pagodas and shrines in Hoi
An.
The tradition has very old roots, but it continues unaltered to
this day, with families putting out offerings - flowers, fruits,
sticky rice cakes, boiled cassava, sweet potatoes and
sugarcane - to nurture the souls of their ancestors. The Vu
Figure 149: Performing “Bai Choi” –
Lan Day is a continuation of the tradition of seeking
Hoi An folk music
forgiveness for the sins of deceased parents, so that they may
be spared the tortures of hell and may return home. This day is also a mark of gratitude towards
deceased parents. Lights are set afloat on the river to guide the wandering souls to nirvana. Also, on
this night food is spread out on an altar within the house to appease the souls' hunger, and false money
is burnt as an offering to honor them.
The biggest festival in Vietnam after Tet, The Wandering Soul Day is considered a very sacred event.
If you are not just looking for fun and good times, but you want to know more about the Viet culture
as well, then a visit to Hoi An during this season is highly recommended. (Wandering Soul Day, 2011)
3.4.3.4.2.2 Nguyen tieu festival
The Nguyen Tieu Festival is celebrated annually by the
Chinese living in Hoi An on the 16th of the first lunar
month of January, at Guangdong and Chaozhou Assembly
Hall. Residents of the ancient city of Hoi An are always
eager to welcome the Nguyen Tieu festival. On this
occasion, people organize formal offering rituals at village
pagodas and temples to honor Emperor Shen Nong and the
tutelary Gods, and pray for bumper crops. This is a
jubilant festival that introduces cultural and artistic traditions to domestic and international visitors.
(Traditional Hoi An Festival)

148
3.4.3.4.2.3 Mid-autumn festival
Tet Trung Thu, as it is known in Vietnam, or the Mid-
Autumn Moon Festival, is a wonderful ancient festival
that revolves around children. The festival, held annually
on the 15th of Lunar August in Hoi An, helps create the
most c-harming and picturesque night of the year. It
involves the customs of moon contemplation, procession
of stars & moon using shaped lanterns, lion dance, as well
as parties with moon cakes and fruits. (Mid Auturmn
Festival, 2011)
3.4.3.4.2.4 Long Chu Festival
Like many festivals in Hoi An, the Long Chu Festival is steeped as much in cultural belief as it in
religion. Long Chu festival is celebrated on the 15th of the seventh and eighth lunar month, when the
new season is coming and the old one is leaving, and the entire climat is uncertain. It is held in the
summer months, when plagues and other types of epidemics are most likely to break out in the fishing
villages. As a result, religious ceremonies are carried out to fight the diseases. (Traditional Hoi An
Festival)

Figure 153: Local cuisine,White Figure 153: Performing “Bai Choi” – Hoi An
Figure 154 : Relation between rose: Banh beo (Steamed rice folk music
Street vendors and customer flour tart cups)

Figure 153: A young copule practices Thurification - an Figure 153: Hoi An lantern festival to welcome New Year
ancient ritual of burning incense to honour

149
3.4.3.5 Fort Characteristics and Identity
3.4.3.5.1 Integrity
Hoi An Ancient Town has retained its original form and function as an outstanding example of a well-
preserved traditional South East Asian trading port and commercial center. It remains complete as a
homogenous complex of traditional wooden buildings, with the original organically developed street
plan, within the town’s original river/seacoast setting.
These original cultural and historic features demonstrate the town’s outstanding universal value and
are present, well-preserved, and evident within the boundary of the inscribed property, even while it
continues to be occupied and function as a trading port, as well as a popular tourism destination. As a
result of this economic stagnation since the 19th century, it has not suffered from development and there
has not been pressure to replace the older wooden buildings with new ones in modern materials. This
has ensured that the town has retained its traditional urban tissue and is preserved in a remarkably intact
state. (Hoi An Ancient Town, 1999)
3.4.3.5.2 Authenticity
Hoi An Ancient Town has retained its traditional wooden architecture and townscape in terms of plot
size, materials, façade and roof line. Its original street plan, with buildings backing on to the river, with
its infrastructure of quays, canals and bridges in its original setting, also remains. The historic landscape
setting is also intact, consisting of a coastal environment of river, seashore, dunes and islands.
Because most of the buildings were constructed in wood it is necessary for them to be repaired at
intervals, and so many buildings with basic structures from the 17th and 18th centuries were renewed
in the 19th century, using traditional methods of repair. There is currently no pressure to replace older
buildings with new ones in modern materials such as concrete and corrugated iron. (Hoi An Ancient
Town, 1999)

3.4.3.6 Cause of Deterioration and Conservation Approach

Because most of the buildings were constructed in wood it is necessary for them to be repaired at intervals,
and so many buildings with basic structures from the 17th and 18th centuries were renewed in the 19th
century, using traditional methods of repair. There is currently no pressure to replace older buildings with
new ones in modern materials such as concrete and corrugated iron.

3.4.3.6.1 Restoration of Government-owned Heritage Buildings

Between 1997 and 2007, 168 government-owned heritage buildings were restored at a total cost of
US$5,864,374. The municipal government provided 45.5 percent of the total funding, while the national
and provincial governments contributed 49.5 percent. Financial support from foreign donors accounted for
5 percent of the total cost.

3.4.3.6.2 Restoration of Privately-owned and Collectively-owned Properties

Before any repair or restoration work can be initiated on a heritage building in Hoi An, the owner is required
to obtain permission from the Hoi An People’s Committee and other relevant authorities, such as the Hoi
An Centre for Monuments Management and Preservation. The restoration process can only start when the
owner has developed a plan and identified a budget. Because the cost of restoration of historic buildings is
150
high relative to the income levels of most of the owners of heritage buildings, the municipal government
provides a partial subsidy for private conservation endeavors. Financial assistance for restoration is based
on the classification of the building according to its heritage values, its location and the economic situation
of its owner.

3.4.3.7 Institutions Involved in Conservation of the Fort

Hoi An Ancient Town was classified as a National Cultural Heritage Site in 1985 and subsequently as
a Special National Cultural Heritage Site under the Cultural Heritage Law of 2001 amended in 2009.
The entire town is State property and is effectively protected by a number of relevant national laws and
governmental decisions, such as: the Cultural Heritage Law (2001, amended 2009) and the Tourism
Law (2005). The 1997 Hoi An Town Statute defines in regulations that are implemented by the Hoi An
Center for Monuments Management and Preservation, the responsible agency of the People’s
Committee for the management of the property.
Day-to-day management involves collaboration with various stakeholders, to maintain the authenticity
and integrity of the property and to monitor socio-economic activities within and adjacent to the
property. The capacity of the professional staff has been and continues to be developed by many
domestic and international training courses. Revenue from entrance tickets is invested directly in the
management, preservation and promotion of the property. Management and preservation are further
strengthened through master planning and action plans at the local level. There are also regular
restoration and conservation programs.
Multi-disciplinary research conducted by teams of international and national scholars has informed the
conservation and interpretation of the town’s heritage. This research is on-going. Within the property
boundary, the landscape, the townscape, the architecture and all material cultural artifacts are preserved.
A Management Plan was implemented at the time of nomination of the property, and is being kept up
to date and reviewed as required by UNESCO to ensure that it remains effective.
The buffer zone is managed to protect the property from external threats. The potential adverse effects
to the property caused by annual flooding and urbanization are being effectively controlled with the
active participation of all authorities and the local community.
The Master Plan for the Hoi An Ancient town conservation, restoration and promotion together with
the city and tourism development was approved by Prime Minister on 12 January 2012, covered the
period until 2025.
Long-term management should aim to promote improvement in the living conditions for local residents.
As tourism increases a strategy to manage it within the parameters of the site will be required. Strategies
to deal with adverse effects of the climate are being developed and should be included in the
Management Plan.
In the future, it is an aim to link the Hoi An Ancient Town with the adjacent UNESCO Cu Lao Cham
Biosphere Reserve and to build Hoi An into a community integrating ecology, culture and tourism.
(Hoi An Ancient Town, 1999)
151
3.5 Inferences from all Case Study
The study of historic evidence and stories of fort and historic settlement is important as it is directly
linked with the socio-cultural values of that place. The architectural style of the fort, construction
technologies and materials used were unique at that time, in which fort was constructed.

From study of these fortification , we can conclude that the heritage must be conserved, as they are
structures of the past, which brings the memory and story of past to the present.

From the international case, we can understand the significance of the forts to the present society, how
the conservation has been carried and how the society benefit from the forts (in terms of historical
evidence, carryover of knowledge, etc.). Regional context taught us that, in absence of conservation,
the heritage could crumble. Though the fort is architecturally rich, due to ignorance, fort is in the
condition of ruins.

The case study has inspired us:

• to study the strategic use of the fort and characteristics of fort,

• to study about the vegetation and plantation in and around the site,

• to document the construction technologies and how the materials are used,

• to bring the narratives behind those heritages,

152
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