2013 SITE INVESTIGATION MANUAL THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF | 7 ETHIOPIA & , ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY SITE INVESTIGATION MANUAL 2013Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013, Foreword FOREWORD The road network in Ethiopia provides the dominant mode of freight and passenger transport and thus plays a vital role in the economy of the country. The network comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate standards for design, construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of service. As the length of the road network is increasing, appropriate choice of methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important. In 2002, the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) first brought out road design manuals to provide a standardized approach for the design, construction and maintenance of roads in the country. Due to technological development and change, these manuals require periodic updating. ‘This current version of the manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Ethiopia and reflects the experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last 10 years. Completion of the review and updating of the manuals was undertaken in close consultation with the federal and regional roads authorities and the stakeholders in the road sector including the contracting and consulting industry. Most importantly, in supporting the preparation of the documents, a series of thematic peer review panels were established that comprised local experts from the public and private sector who provided guidance and review for the project team. This Manual supersedes the Site Investigation Manual part of the ERA Design Manuals of 2002. The procedures set out shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by the concemed bodies within ERA. However, I should emphasize that careful consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed in the use of the manual, and under no cumstances shall the manual waive professional judgment in applied engineering. For simplification in reference this manual may be cited as ERA’s Site Investigation Manual - 2013. On behalf of the Ethiopian Roads Authority I would like to take this opportunity to thank DFID, Crown Agents and the AFCAP team for their cooperation, contribution and support in the development of the manual and supporting documents for Ethiopia, I would also like to extend my gratitude and appreciation to all of the industry stakeholders and participants who contributed their time, knowledge and effort during the development of the documents. Special thanks are extended to the members of the various Peer Review Panels ‘whose active support and involvement guided the authors of the manual and the process. It is my sincere hope that this manual will provide all users with both a standard reference and a ready source of good practice for the design of roads, and will assist in a cost effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network. 1 look forward to the practices contained in this manual being quickly adopted into our operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of our country. ‘Comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned body, group or individual as feedback during its implementation is expected and will be highly appreciated Addis Ababa, 2013 Zaid Wolde Gebriel Director General, Ethiopian Roads Authority Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iPreface Site Investigation Manual 2013. PREFACE The Ethiopian Roads Authority is the custodian of the series of technical manuals, standard specifications and bidding documents that are written for the practicing engineer in Ethiopia. The series describe current and recommended practice and set out the national standards for roads and bridges. They are based on national experience and international practice and are approved by the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads Authority. This Site Investigation Manual -2013 forms part of the Ethiopian Roads Authority series of Road and Bridge Design documents. The complete series of documents, covering all roads and bridges in Ethiopia, are contained within the series: Geomet Design Manual 1 2. Site Investigation Manual 3. Geotechnical Design Manual 4. Route Selection Manual 5. Pavement Design Manual Volume I Flexible Pavements 6. Pavement Design Manual Volume II Rigid Pavements 7. Pavement Rehabilitation and Asphalt Overlay Design Manual 8. Drainage Design Manual 9. Bridge Design Manual 10. Low Volume Roads Design Manual 11. Standard Environmental Procedures Manual, 12, Standard Technical Specifications 13. Standard Detailed Drawings 14, Standard Bidding Documents for Road Work Contracts — A series of Bidding Documents covering a full range from large scale projects unlimited in value to minor works with an upper threshold of $300,000. The higher level documents have both Local Competitive Bidding and International Competitive Bidding versions These documents are available to registered users through the ERA website: www.era.gov.et Manual Updates Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to new policies or revised laws of the land or that is mandated by the relevant Federal Government Ministry or Agency should be incorporated into the manual from their date of effectiveness. Other minor changes that will not significantly affect the whole nature of the manual may be accumulated and made periodically. When changes are made and approved, new page(s) incorporating the revision, together with the revision date, will be issued and inserted into the relevant chapter. All suggestions to improve the draft manual should be made in accordance with the following procedures: Page ii Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013, Preface 1. Users of the manual must register on the ERA website: www.era.gov.et 2. Proposed changes should be outlined on the Manual Change Form and forwarded with a covering letter of its need and purpose to the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads Authority. 3. Agreed changes will be approved by the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads Authority on recommendation from the Deputy Director General (Engineering Operations). 4, The release date be notified to all registered users and authorities. Addis Ababa, 2013 Zaid Wolde Gebriel Director General, Ethiopian Roads Authority Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iiiPreface Site Investigation Manual 2013. ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY CHANGE CONTROL DESIGN MANUAL MANUAL CHANGE ‘This area to be completed by the ERA Director of Quality Assurance Manual Title: CHANGE NO. (SECTION NO. CHANGE NO. Section Table Figure Page Explanation Suggested Modification ‘Submitted by: Name: Designation: ‘Company/Organisation Address email: Date: Manual Change Action ‘Authority Date _| Signature_| Recommended Action Approval Registration Director Quality Assurance Deputy Director General Eng.Ops Approval / Provisional Approval / Rejection of Change: Director General ERA: Date: Page iv Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Acknowledgements ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) wishes to thank the UK Government’s Department for International Development (DFID) through their Africa Community Access Programme (AFCAP) for their support in developing this Site Investigation Manual — 2013. The manual will be used by all authorities and organisations responsible for the provision of roads in Ethiopia. This Site Investigation Manual-2013 is based on a review of local and international procedures and is based largely on ERA’s Site Investigation Manual ~ 2002 but includes improvements and extensions to deal with topics that were not included in the earlier manual. This manual also contains relevant parts of ERA’s Low Volume Roads Design Manual. From the outset, the approach to the development of the manual was to include all sectors and stakeholders in Ethiopia, The input from the international team of experts was supplemented by our own extensive local experience and expertise. Local knowledge and experience was shared through review workshops to discuss and debate the contents of the draft manual. ERA wishes to thank all the individuals who gave their time to attend the workshops and provide valuable inputs to the compilation of the manual. In addition to the workshops, Peer Review Groups comprising specialists drawn from within the local industry were established to provide advice and comments in their respective areas of expertise. The contribution of the Peer Group participants is gratefully acknowledged. The final review and acceptance of the document was undertaken by an Executive Review Group. Special thanks are given to this group for their assistance in reviewing the final draft of the document. Finally, ERA would like to thank Crown Agents for their overall management of the project As with the other manuals of this series, the intent was, where possible, and in the interests of uniformity, to use those tests and specifications included in the AASHTO and/or ASTM Materials references. Where no such reference exists for tests and specifications mentioned in this document, other references are used. ‘oup No. Organization 1 Amare Assefa, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority 2 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vAcknowledgements a Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013, No. Name Organization 1 Abebe Asefa, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority Alemayehu Ayele, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority Asnake Haile, Ato OMEGA Consulting Engineers Asrat Sewit, Ato Saba Engineering Colin Gourley, Dr. ERA/DRID Ethiopian Roads Authority Efrem Degefuy, Ato BEACON Consulting Engineers Fikert Arega, W/ro Et iopian Roads Authority 2 3 4 5 6 | Daniel Nebro, Ato 7 8 9 Muse Belew, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority 10 | Shimelis ‘esfaye, Ato Spice Consult 11 _ | Tewodros Alene, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority 12 | Zerihun Nuru, Ato Gondwana Engineering Team No. Name Organization Role 1 [Bekele Negussie | ERA ‘AFCAP Coordinator for Ethiopia 2 | Abdo Mohammed | ERA Project Coordinator 3 Frew Bekele ERA Project Coordinator 4 | Lulseged Ayalew | AFCAP/Crown Agents | Lead Author 5 _| Robert Geddes AFCAP/Crown Agents | Technical Manager 6 Les Sampson AFCAP/Crown Agents Technical Director Addis Ababa, 2013 Zaid Wolde Gebriel Director General, Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vi Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013, Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreworp. 1 PREFACE ssssstnteneutintnneneneininenenennineneneneinninenenennenanentnaneneneneainnsesell ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS sssssese ‘TABLE OF CONTENT! vu List OF FiGuRe’ LIST OF TABLES ssssssseststsnsenese GLossary OF TERMS ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .. 1 INTRODUCTION sense 1.1 Background and Conte: 1.2 Objectives... 1.3 Scope .. 1.4 Stages of Site Investigation 1.5. Approach .. 1.6 Manual Structure 1.7 Types of road projects 171 New Construction. 1.7.2 Rehabilitation. 2 1.7.3 Reconstruction (including upgrading)... 1.8 The Site Investigation Team. 1.9 Other Factors . 1.9.1 Health, Safety and the Environment. 1.9.2 Site Access 1.9.3 Presence of Existing Services 1.9.4 Security. evn 1.9.5 Socio-political considerations. 1.9.6 Proximity to Existing Roads and Waterways 2. PHYSIOGRAPIHTY, CLIMATE, GEOLOGY AND SOIL DISTRIBUTIONS. 2.1 Introduction .. 2.2. Physiography and landform 23° Climate .ccnnnnn 23.1 Climatic Zones.... ae Climatic Indices 24 Geology wo — 2.5. Soil type and distribution... 2.6 Land cover and land use 3. INVESTIGATION METHODS AND TECHNIQUE! Introduction .. Topographic and them: Remote Sensing... Geophysical methods... Seismic refraction ss ic maps. BROOE Ethiopian Roads Authority Page viiTable of Contents Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013. 3.6 Electrical resistivity... 3.7. Pits and Trenches 3.8 Boring. 3.8.1 Auger boring 3.8.2 Wash type boring... 3.8.3 Rotary wash boring. 3.8.4 — Drilling in rock. .. 3.9 Pit, Trench and Boring Logs. 3.10 Sampling.. . 3.11 In-situ tests. 4 SOIL AND ROCK DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION.. 4.1. Introduction 4.2 Soil description. 4.3. Coarse grained soils 4.4 Fine grained soils .. 4.5 Soil classification 4.6 Engineering characteristics of soil 4.6.1 Coarse grained soils... 4.6.2 Fine grained soils. AT Rock... 1 Description. 2 Rock name. “3 Lithological descriptions. 4 Rock colour .... 5 6 Bedding. 6 Weathering. 4.7.7 Rock strengttt.o.o 4.7.8 — Rock discontinuity. SITE INVESTIGATION STAGES .. 5.1 Introduction 5.2. Desk study 5.2.1 Identifying sources of information 5.2.2 Reviewing available information ... 5.3 Reconnaissance survey. 5.4 Preliminary site investiga 5.5 Final site investigation 6 DESIGN DATA SURVEYS. 6.1 Introduction “6-2 6.2 Sub-grade characterization.. 1 Location and spacing of test pits and borings. nt 7] 2 Depth of test pits and boreholes 6-5 22.3 Laboratory testing snnnnrnsnnrnnnne sonnsnnnnnnnnnnns O03 2.4 — Subsurface profile . rn seernrnnnnns BoB Road Cuts and Embankments 6-9 oo 6-10 3D Road CUS orn . o . 3.2 Embankments 6-13 4 River crossings 6-16 6.4.1 Bridges oe 617 Page viii Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual — 2013. Table of Contents 6.4.2 Subsurface investigation. 6.4.3 Footings 6.4.4 Driven Piles 6.4.5 Drilled Shafts. 6.4.6 Potential scour depth... 6.4.7 Inspection of existing bridges. 6.4.8 Culverts. 6.4.9 Low water crossings. 7 SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Landslides on. 7.2.1 Types of landslides... 7.2.2 Depths of landslides 7.2.3 The role of groundwater. 7.2.4 — Landslide mapping. 7.2.5 Exploration and sampling . 7.2.6 Monitoring... 7.3. Expansive soils 7.3.1 Identification. 7.3.2 Laboratory tests. 7.4 Collapsible soils... 7.4.1 Identification. 7.4.2 Strengths 7.4.3 Collapse potential. 7.5 Dispersive soils. 7.5.1 Laboratory teSt8.000 7.5.2 Field identification... 7.6 Colluvial soils. 7.6.1 Exploration techniques. 7.6.2 Engineering characteristics..... 7.7 Lateritic soils... 7.7.1 Identification. 7.7.2 Special properties. 7.8 Saline soils. 7.9 Degradable rocks 7.10 Groundwater .. 7.11 Wetlands. 7.12. Disposal sites 8 — CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL SURVEYS.. 8.1 Introduction ....... 8.2 Investigation procedures. 8.2.1 Aerial photographs... 8.2.2 Pits and borings..... 8.3 Material types 1 Common Fill. 2 Sub-grade and capping layer. 3 Unbound granular pavement materials... esse 4 Bitumen-Bound Granular Layers and Surfacing Aggregates 8-7 50 90 D0 oe we ee Ethiopian Roads Authority Page ixTable of Contents Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013. 84 Sources of materials 88 8.4.1 Borrow pits ee o ee soo BD 8.4.2 Quarry materials 8-10 8.5 Laboratory tests.. 811 8.5.1 Basic engineering tests. on ST 8.5.2 Aggregate test. sess os oid 8.5.3 Chemical and petrographic test 817 8.6 Sampling — 8.17 8.7 _ The Geological Background 8-18 8.7.1 Sedimentary rOCKS eeone even 819 8.7.2 Volcanic rocks.. seen 7 seen 8-20 8.7.3 Plutonic rocks. 8-20 8.7.4 Pyroclastic rocks... 821 8.7.5 Metamorphic rocks. oe 821 8.8 The influence of weathering 8-22 8.9 Local sources of rocks and soi 8-25 8.10 Sources of sand 8-25 8.11. Sources of water oe B25 9 CONSTRUCTION REVIEW sve —— revemeennies 9-1 9.1 Introduction... 9-1 9.2 Subgrade conditions... oe De 9.3. Road cuts 93 9.4 Embankments.. 29-4 9.5 River crossings 9-5 9.6 Landslides. 9-6 9.7 Retaining walls...... 9-7 9.8 Construction materials. 97 9.9 Pavement condition survey... 9-9 10. REPORTS AND CHECKLISTS snnnnnnnnmmnnnnnnnnnnnnmnninnnnnnnnnsee el 10.1 Introduetion 10-1 10.2 Reports 10-1 10.2.1 The site investigation report....msvsnnnnnnnnsess 10-1 10.2.2 Soil and materials report. -. 10-5 10.3 Checklists ....ssssssssssssssssessssseses wv 10-6 T1 REFERENCES rsnssnnnnnninnnnnnnnnnininnnnnnnnnenimnmnnnnsses MeL Apreninix A THE DYNAMIC CONE PENETROMETER (DCP) TEST 1 APPENIDIXB SYSTEMS OF ROCK MATERIALS AND DISCONTINUITY DESCRIPTION .... 1 APPENIDIXC SUMMARY OF GEOTECHNICAL NEEDS AND TESTING CONSIDERATIONS 1 APPENIDIXD COMMON SOIL LABORATORY TESTS..vssststsssse Page x Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013, List of Tables LisT OF FIGURES igure 1.1: Phased Approach to Site Investigation (Geotechnical aspects) Figure 2.1: Physiographie regions of Ethiopia ure 2.2: Traditional climatic zones in Ethiopia. Figure 2.3: Rainfall distribution of Ethiopi = Figure 2.4: Generalized geological map of Ethiopia, igure 2.5: Agricultural soil map of Ethiopia. sure 2.6: Land cover and land use map of Ethiopia... Figure 3.1: Illustration of the Geophysical Seismic Refraction Method. Figure 3.2: The Basic Installation of Electrical Resistivity Apparatus Figure 4.1: The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)... Figure 6.1: Different Options of Sub-grade Location: Figure 6.2: Illustrations of Instability and Settlements Concerns in Embankments .. Figure 6.3: An example of a subsurface profile at a bridge site. Figure 7.1: Schematic Illustrations of Slope Failure - Fall and Topple. igure 7.2: Rotational (slump) and Translational (planar) Landslide jure 7.3: Examples of flow and creep. jure 7.4: Landslides Related to a Perched Water Table... ure 7.5: Illustration of Borehole Locations to Investigate a Failed Slope.. Figure 7.6: Distribution of Survey Stakes and Inclinometers in a Landslide... Figure 7.7: Red Clays with Significant Plasticity around Bako in Wellega. .. Figure 7.8: Classification Chart for Swelling Potential (after Seed et al, 1962)... Figure 7.9: Guide to Collapsibility and Expansion... igure 7.10: Collapse holes near Shashemene Figure 7.11: Erosion Gulies at Roadcuts in the Rift Valley near Arsi Negele. ... Figure 7.12: Test for the Dispersive Nature of Soil Figure 7.13: Colluvium from Basalt and Volcanoclastic Rocks - Blue Nile basin. Figure 7.14: Nodular Laterite - Assossa-Kurmuk Road Project Figure 7.15: Salt Deposits in the Dallol Depression (Northern Afar region) jure 7.16.: Degradable Shale Underlying a Sandstone Layer - Road Cut near Kulbi Figure 7.17: Illustration of the Movement and Occurrence of Groundwater Near Roadways igure 8.1: The Relative Engineering and Excavation Concerns for Different Rocks ...8-19 Figure 8.2: Schematic Illustration of a Cross Section in a Quarry . Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xiList of Tables Site Investigation Manual — 2013. LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Ethiopian Climatic Zone: Table 2.2: Thornthwaite Moisture Regions. Table 2.3: A summary of the characteristics and distribution of soils in Ethiopia.....2-11 Table 3.1: Common site investigation technique: Table 3.2: Comparison of Geophysical Methods. = Table 3.3: Comparison of Different Types of Test Pit and Trenching Methods 3-8 Table 3.4: Soils and Soft Rock Boring Methods. Table 3.5: Example of a Pit Log. .. Table 3.6: Example of a Standard Boring Log. ‘Table 3.7: Common In-Situ Tests for Foundation Investigation Table 4.1: Particle Size Definition for Gravels and Sands... Field Identification Procedures for Fine Grained Soils : A Field Method to Describe Plasticity in terms of Dry Strength... 44 Additional Tests to Identify Fine Grained Soils in the Field The AASHTO soil classification system. . : Rock groups and types... : Terminology for Layer Thickness... ‘Terminology for Rock Mass Weatherin ; Description of rock strength in the field iscontinuity Spaci 4-13 414 416 4-17 oo 4-18 Table 4 10: Basic Steps for a Typical Investigation to Design a Road. 5-2 Ethiopian Data Sources for Site Investigation 154 he Frequency and Depth of Investigation for Sub-grade Characteri 6-4 The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test 6-6 Options for Measuring Dry Density. 6-8 Information Needs During the Design of Road Cuts and Embankments.........6-9 : Suggested spacing and depth of trenches and boreholes for road cuts. svn 6-11 Investigation Needs for Embankments sen 614 Spacing and Depth of Exploration Points 6-15 Table 6.8: Information Needs for Design of Different Types of Bridge Foundations... 6-19 Table 6.9: The Minimum Number and Depth of Exploration Points for Bridge Foundations 6-23 Table 6.10: Indicators of Active or Potential Scour at or around Existing Bridges.......6-25 Table 7.1: Classification of Expansive Soils according to US Bureau of Reclamation...7-14 Table 7.2: Qualitative Assessment of Collapse Potential TIT Table 7.3: Relationship between the Degree of Dispersion and % of Exchange Sodium. 7-18 Table 7.4: Guide to Interpret of the Result of the Jar Slake Test 7-28 Table 7.5: The Characteristics of Rocks as Potential Sources of Seepage at Road Cuts.7-31 Table 8.1: Techniques that Assist the Investigation of Construction Materials. 8-2 Table 8.2: General Requirements for Fill Materials... 185 Table 8.3: General sub-grade and capping layer material requirements. seve 86 Table 8.4: The requirements for unbound granular pavement materials .. 8-7 Table 8.5: Requirements for Bitumen-Bound and Surfacing Aggregate Materials........ 8-8 Table 8.6: Borrow pitting and quarrying methods...» 8-9) Table 8.7: Types of Tests required to Analyse Materials for various purposes. 8-12 Table 8.8: Basic Engineering Tests needed for Material Analyses... 8-13 Table 8.9: Field tests useful to identify engineering properties of soils and rocks....... 14 Page xii Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manval 2013. List of Tables Table 8.10: Aggregate strength and durability tes Table 8.11: Sample sizes needed for different tests Table 8.12: Weathering Grades for Describing and Class Materials, Table 8.13: The Local Distribution and Usage of Mat Table 10.1: Site Investigation Checklist. ing Road Construction ials for Road Construction ... Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xiiiGlossary of Terms Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 GLOSSARY OF TERMS Aggregate Hard mineral elements of construction material mixtures, for example: sand, gravel (crushed or uncrushed) or crushed rock. Alluvium Loose, unconsolidated (not cemented together into a solid rock), soil or sediments, eroded, deposited, and reshaped by water in some form in a non-marine setting. Basalt A hard, dense, dark voleanie rock composed chiefly of plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine, and often having a glassy appearance. Bedrock ‘The more or less continuous body of rock that underlies the overburden Bench Step in a slope formed by a horizontal surface and a surface inclined at a steeper angle than that of the entire slope. Berm A shelf that breaks the continuity of a slope. Borrow Area ‘An area within designated boundaries approved for the purpose Borrow Material Boulder Chippings Colluvium Compressive Strength Consolidation Core Culvert Cut of obtaining borrow material. A borrow pit is the excavated pit the borrow area. Any gravel, sand, soil, rock or ash obtained from borrow areas, dumps or sources other than cut within the road prism which is used for construction of the specified work for the project. It doe not include crushed stone or sand obtained from commercial sources. ‘A rock fragment usually rounded by weathering or abrasion with an average dimension of 0.3 m or more. Stones or aggregate used for thin bituminous surface dressings (treatments), Loose bodies of sediment that have been deposited or built up at the bottom of a low-grade slope or against a barrier on that slope, transported by gravity The load per unit area at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil or rock will fail in a simple compression test. The gradual reduction in volume of a increase in compressive stress. soil mass resulting from an A cylindrical sample rock, concrete, hardened grout or grouted deposits usually obtained from core drilling, ‘A structure other than bridge that provides an oper carriageway or median for drainage or other purposes. 1g under the Cut means all excavations from the road prism including side- drains, and excavations from intersecting roads (including open drains when classified as cut). Page xiv Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual 2013. Glossary of Terms Faulting Ferrierete gravel Fill Foundation Gravel Groundwater Lacustrine deposits Laterite Massif Mountainous terrain Physiography Project, specifications Quarry Quartzite Reconstruction Rectilinear A fracture in the continuity of a rock formation caused by a shifting or dislodging of the earth's crust in which adjacent surfaces are displaced relative to one another and parallel to the plane of fracture. A mineral conglomerate consisting of surficial sand and gravel cemented into a hard mass by iron oxide derived from the oxidation of percolating solutions of iron salts. Materials from which a man-made raised structure or deposit such as an embankment is constructed. These could include soils, soil-aggregate or rock. Materials imported to replace unsuitable roadbed material are also classified as fill. Lower part of a structure that transmits the load to the soil or rock. Rounded or semi-rounded particles of rock that will pass a 75 mm sieve and be retained on a 4.75 mm sieve. ‘That part of the subsurface water that is in the saturated zone. Sedimentary deposits that is laid down in the waters of a lake. Soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. A prominent upland usually of considerable extent. Terrain that is rugged and very hilly with substantial restrictions in both vertical and horizontal alignment. The study of physical features of the earth's surface (physical geography). The specifications of a project that form part of the contract documentation and which contain supplementary and/or amending specifications to the standard specifications, An area within existing boundaries approved for the purpose of obtaining rock by sawing or blasting A rock consisting entirely of quartz; white, very hard rock that shows little or no granular structure. The process by which a new pavement is constructed, utilizing mostly new materials, to replace an existing pavement. A form of drainage pattem in which the streams flow at right angles to each other, controlled by the joint pattern of the underlying rocks. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xvGlossary of Terms Rehabilitation Rhyolite Roadbase Roadbed Roadbed Material Roadway Scarp Schist Shear Strength Stability Stabilisation Subbase Subgrade Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Work undertaken to significantly extend the service life of an existing pavement. This may include overlays and pre-overlay repairs, and may include complete removal and reconstruction of the existing pavement, or recycling of part of the existing materials. An acid igneous rock of the same mineral composition as granite, but of fine grain. The fine grain is caused by rapid chilling of a lava flow and the consequent suppression of the growth of large crystals. A layer of material of defined thickness and width constructed on top of the sub-base, or in the absence thereof, the subgrade. A roadbase may extend to outside the carriageway. The natural in situ material on which the fill, or in the absence of fill, any pavement layers, are to be constructed. The material below the subgrade extending to such depth as affects the support of the pavement structure The area normally travelled by vehicles and consisting of one or a number of contiguous traffic lanes, including auxiliary lanes and shoulders. ‘A slope formed on the exposed ends of a tilted sequence of rocks. The slope is usually associated with a dip slope, which is developed on the exposed upper bed in the sequence. Scarp slopes are usually steeper and more irregular than dip slopes. ‘A metamorphic rock characterised by a parallel arrangement of most of its constituent minerals, which are chiefly micas. Schists are usually soft, easily weathered, and easily split along the plane of weakn ‘The maximum resistance of a soil or rock to shearing stresses. The condition of a structure or a mass of material when it is able to support the applied stress for a long time without suffering any significant deformation or movement that is not reversed by the release of stress. The treatment of the materials used in the construction of the road bed material, fill or pavement layers by the addition of a cementitious binder such as lime or Portland Cement or the mechanical modification of the material through the addition of a soil binder or a bituminous binder. Concrete and asphalt shall not be considered as materials that have been stabilized. The layer of material of specified dimensions on top of the subgrade and below the roadbase. The surface upon which the pavement structure and shoulders are constructed. Page xvi Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual 2013. Glossary of Terms ‘Traps Vertisol Volcanism Wadi Wetland A common name for basaltic lava flows. A soil in which there is a high content of expansive clay known as montmorillonite that forms deep cracks in drier seasons or years. The phenomena associated with voleanic activity, A flat-floored valley with an intermittent stream, characteristic of arid and semi-arid areas. An area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or completely by shallow pools of water. Wetlands include swamps, marshes, and bogs, among others. The water found in wetlands can be saltwater, freshwater, or brackish. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xviiAbreviations Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013, ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials AAV Aggregate Abrasion Value AC Asphaltic Conerete ACV Aggregate Crushing value AFCAP Africa Community Access Programme AV Aggregate Impact value ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials CBR California Bearing Ratio cR Core recovery DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer DEM Digital Evaluation Model DFID Department for International Development, UK. DMT Dilatometer test DOSI Depth of Significant Influence E Young’s Modulus EMA Ethiopian Mapping Agency ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority 10% FACT 10% Fines Aggregate Crushing Test FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer GI Group Index GSE Geological Survey of Ethiopia HCI Hydrochloric Acid HS&E Health, Safety and the Environment I; Flakiness Index I Elongation Index ITCZ Inter-tropical Convergence Zone MDD Maximum Dry Density OMC Optimum Moisture Content LAA Los Angeles Abrasion Li Liquidity Index LL Liquid Limit Page xviii Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manval — 2013, Abbreviations and Acronyms MCV MDD MPa. omc PL PL PMS PMT PSD PSV RQD SAICE, SASW SPT TCDE, TRL uscs vsT wel 3-D Moisture Condition Value Maximum Dry Density Mega Pascal Optimum Moisture Content Plasticity Index Plastic Limit Pavement Management System Pressure Meter Test Particle Size Distribution Polished Stone Value Rock Quality Designation South African Institute of Civil Engineers Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves Standard Penetration Test Transport Construction Design Enterprise ‘Transport Research Laboratory Unified Soil Classification System Vane Shear Test Weighted Plasticity Index Three Dimensional Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xixChapter 1 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Introduction 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Context All roads, whether they are built above or below the ground surface, use naturally ‘occurring soils and rocks as the basic foundation and construction materials. Unlike man- made materials, the properties of these soils and rocks are highly variable and a function of the complex natural processes that occurred in the geologic past. As a consequence, road construction engineers are faced with the challenge of using soils and rocks available near the project site, whose properties are often unknown and of variable quality. Hence, the investigation of potential sites and alignments is a vital and integral part of the location, design and construction of a road and its associated structures. It provides essential information on the following: * Characteristics of the soils along the possible alignments; * Availability of construction materials; * Topography; © Land use; * Environmental issues; and * Socio-political considerations. Typical uses of the information are; © Selection of the route/alignment of the road; * Location of water crossings and drainage structures; * Provision of design information for the road pavements, bridges and other structures; © Identification of areas of possible geotechnical problems requiring specialist investigation; * Identification of areas of possible problem soils requiring additional investigation and treatment; * Location and assessment of suitable, locally available, borrow and construction material. From the above, it is evident that the main component of site investigations is focussed on what is generally described as ‘engineering’ or, more precisely, “geotechnical engineering’ and itis these investigations that will be the focus of this manual. It is recognised that various other types of surveys are required for the design of a road Hydrological surveys are required to determine the water flows that determine the drainage design of the road, including bridges; traffic surveys are required to estimate the numbers of vehicles that will use the road, both motorised and non-motorised; surveys are required to evaluate environmental impacts and how to control them; surveys are required in which the local communities are consulted about the road project; and so on. Guidance on conducting these surveys is provided in the respective ERA Manuals. It is important to note that the Route Selection manual and Geotechnical Design manual produced as part of the 2013 series of ERA manuals provide more comprehensive guidance on route selection and geotechnical design than was previously provided in the 2002 Site Investigation Manual and other manuals in the 2002 series. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page I-1Chapter 1 Introduction Site Investigation Manual-2013 Not all projects will require the same detailed surveys. Road projects fall into one of the following categories: ‘* A new road that follows the general alignment of an existing track or trail; ‘© Upgrading a lower class of road to a higher class; ‘© A completely new road where nothing currently exists, Some realignment, and therefore site investigation, will almost certainly be necessary when upgrading an existing road and considerably more will be required when converting a track into an all-weather route. Major site investigations are usually only needed when designing and building a completely new road. In all cases the extent and quality of any investigation has a strong influence on the selection of the most cost-effective route and road design. Roads of all standards require sufficient investigation to provide sufficient data and information to enable the engineer to optimise the design. In this respect, itis the job of the design engineer to ensure that a well-designed and organised site investigation is undertaken, The design engineer must therefore specify a site investigation programme for the site investigation teams (survey, materials, geotechnical, socio-environmental) that will provide adequate information and data to examine the feasibility of all the routes and designs under consideration. Site investigation techniques encompass a large range of methods and the amount and type of exploration that is needed for a specific road will depend on the nature of the proposed project and the environment in which it is to be built. Information is provided in the manual on the various site investigation techniques that could be used depending on the prevailing circumstances. Each site investigation technique has its own purpose and when two or more are taken together in the right combination they can provide a valuable insight into the subsurface conditions. Deciding which technique to use when, where and how, is normally made by geotechnical engineers with a good geological knowhow or engineering geologist with a background of road design. The practice can also be performed by a team comprising pavement engineers and geologists. It is also important to emphasise that without exception, it is always more cost-effective to undertake an appropriate site investigation (depending on the category and importance of the road) from the start of the project rather than trying to rescue an inadequate investigation during construction or even worse, after the construction has been completed. The preparation of this document represents the interests of the Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) to revise and upgrade the 2002 site investigation manual. It is the responsibility of the user to ensure that the use of this document conforms to the policies and engineering practices of ERA. 1.2 Objectives The main objective of this manual is to provide sufficient guidance on site investigation for road design so that the necessary input data can be developed and proper engineering principles applied to the design of new roads, or upgrading and rehabilitation of existing roads. This manual is prepared to provide project engineers with tools to assist in the Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 1 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Introduction rational development of site investigation programmes, the execution of suitable in-situ and laboratory tests and the interpretation of data obtained from these programmes and test results. 1.3. Scope The ERA (2002) site investigation manual provided the foundation for this manual. However, this edition of the manual contains a number of major additions and modifications in the contents and the structure. For example, unlike the previous manual, formation is provided on the general distribution of soils and rocks in the country. In many cases in Ethiopia the soils which form the foundation or sub-grade of the roads in any specific climatic, traffic and terrain conditions become the most critical component in the design and construction of the road. For this reason, the document attempts to addres the entire range of soil materials potentially encountered in different regions of Ethiopia so as to assist engineers in selecting appropriate investigation techniques for each landform, geological makeup and climatic region, It should however be stressed that this manual is not all encompassing in terms of explaining every technique and procedure that can be used to investigate roads during the design phase. Practitioners will need to use other references to broaden their knowledge and use diverse approaches for different conditions. In addition, this manual must be used in conjunction with other documents such as the ERA Pavement Design Manual, Geotechnical Design Manual, Bridge Design Manual, Drainage Design Manual and the Route Selection Manual. Moreover, although laboratory tests that are useful for pavement design are listed in appropriate sections and appendices, detailed procedures are not covered in this manual, The procedures given in this manual should be adhered to, unless otherwise directed by ERA. However, it should also be understood that careful consideration to geotechnical engineering practice should be observed in the use of the manual, and under no circumstances shall the manual be used as an excuse to disregard professional and expert judgment. In addition to the guidance given on site investigation requirements, the document also recommends a phased investigation approach that will be essential to all. projects irrespective of size. As a good indication, international practice suggests that expenditure of 2% of the project costs on adequate site investigation has the potential of saving the client between 10% and 100% on over-expenditure of project foundation and structural costs. 1.4 Stages of Site Investigation Some form of site investigation is required at all stages in the development of a road project. In general there are four stages leading up to and including Final Engineering Design. These are; 1 Identification and general planning; 2 Pre-feasibility study; 3. Feasibility Study or Preliminary Engineering Design; Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-3Chapter 1 Introduction Site Investigation Manual-2013 4 Final Engineering Design. More detail is presented in Chapter 5 related on the site investigations associated with each stage. It should also be noted that not all stages are required for all projects. 1.5 Approach Figure 1.1 highlights the phased approach for site investigations and moves away from the concept of a single-phased ground investigation. It is only as the investigation proceeds that one can assess the need (or otherwise) for further often more sophisticated investigation. However, this approach must not be seen as an “open cheque book” for additional costs for site investigation. Any cost variation should be dealt with up front with the Client and the additional investigation techniques agreed Without a phased approach as shown in Figure 1.1 investigations may be left incomplete and the engineer unable to draw the correct conclusions. The engineer responsible for the design of the road should not be left guessing on the required design parameters. Hence, sufficient investigation must be carried out to determine the parameters with a reasonable degree of confidence. 1.6 Manual Structure The first five chapters of the manual, including the introduction, provide general information on the physiography, climate, geology and soil distribution specific to Ethiopia; soil and rock classification; commonly used site investigation techniques; and the application of these to the various stages of site investigation highlighted in Section 1.4 and Figure 1.1, These chapters provide valuable information mainly at prefeasibility and feasibility stages as part of the desk study to understand the prevailing terrain and climate; and to plan for more detailed investigations, using the most appropriate techniques, to support the design stage. Information specific to design requirements and special investigations are covered in Chapters 6 and 7 with construction material surveys and a review of construction covered in Chapters 8 and 9. Reports and checklists are presented in Chapter 10. These are essential components of a successful site investigation programme. The reports allow geotechnical engineers to present the information obtained during the investigation of the sub-grade, fills and embankments, foundation characteristics and the behaviour of construction materials in the design phase. The checklists are important to assess the work done and for completion of the site investigations. References are given at the end of the document and provide a source of more detailed information to supplement what is presented in this manual. Page 1-4 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 1 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Introduction “Appint Geotechnical Specials Project I Start-up Iden inal ste ss, geotechnical Client brief on yplcass of rad, constant & esimate ape crwors — [&—] structures, geometry ee 7 Desk dy and walkover survey makin tutu ve of existing date local hl saree ee alighinents apt three) ith Pre- me alternative solutions for each feasibility ‘alignent ‘Ura sope ose investigation based on the possible alignments Evaluate sks and benefits of ech ste elated oan appropri os forthe Comprebesive desk say with respective investigaions (value engineering) [—P] _ limited fieldwork and lab testing inline with the cent bret Feasibility | Abandon Feasibility Report Projet Yo Detaled sits imvestgtion along chosen alignment focusing on soll characterisation, terain/slope [*] cturateistion and founding conditons of sbustares = — wo) Fectat Tnerpeve , “Additional esting ee Design 100 By 80 to 100 , By 60 t0 80 Humid By 40 t0 60. By 20 t0 40 , C 01020 Sub-humid i SAD Semicarid D ~40 10-20 ‘Arid E ~60-10 40 2.4 Geology In pavement design and construction, it is necessary to understand the geological history of the project area. In particular itis essential to: * Determine the major geological processes that led to the formation of rocks and soils in the area; Know the regional and local stratigraphy; Draw attention to important features like major faults and landslides Assess whether any construction activity, especially earthworks, will cause major changes to the existing environment; Obtain an appreciation of the regional groundwater conditions; and Form a logical basis for the location of proven sources of construction materials. Page 2-6 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution The geology of Ethiopia provides a variety of rocks and soils (Figure 2.4). The oldest rocks in the country are metamorphosed igneous and sedimentary rocks of Precambrian age. They are exposed in parts of Harar, Dire Dawa, Sidamo, Illubabor, Welega, Gojam, and Tigray. The metamorphic rocks in the south and west of the country, where granitic rocks and gneisses predominate, are more strongly metamorphosed than the Precambrian sequences in the north. After a time of intense erosion in the Paleozoic, a shallow sea spread over much of the south-eastern part of the country in Mesozoic times and then extended farther north and northwest as the land continued to subside. This process first formed an accumulation of sandstone followed by depositions of mudstone and limestone as the depth of water increased. Much of the Blue Nile basin, Tigray, and places in Dire Dawa and Harar, are covered by Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. The Blue Nile in particular provides long cliffs of sandstone, limestone, and gypsum intercalated with relatively soft units of mudstone, shale, and marl Extensive fracturing occurred in the Cenozoic, followed by major displacements along the rift system, Faulting in late Tertiary was accompanied by widespread volcanic activity. This resulted in the outpouring of vast quantities of basaltic lava known as the Trap Series over much of the country, accompanied by the eruption of large amounts of ash and tuff. Most of the highlands in the northwest, west, central and south-eastern part of the country are now covered by these rocks. More recent volcanic activity is associated with the development of the rift valley, being concentrated within the rift and along the edge of the adjoining plateau. Generalized Geology amar tee sytney Pron maa Rs Figure 2.4: Generalized geological map of Ethiopia. At present, the rift valley is covered by Cenozoic volcanies and recent sediments. The volcanics are dominantly basaltic lava flows, rhyolites and ignimbrites intercalated with voleano-clastic deposits derived from tuff and voleanie ash, Volcanism has persisted into the present time in the Afar region within small eruptive centres. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-7Chapter 2 Site Investigation Manual - 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution Many areas in the rift valley are covered by alluvial and lacustrine deposits. The youngest sediments in the country are of Quaternary age. These include conglomerates, sands and clays which are accumulated in the Afar depression and the northern end of the rift valley. Sediments are also present in dried lakes of the southern part of Afar, in the central and southern part of the rift valley, and in the lower part of the Omo River. Undifferentiated Quaternary sediments and superficial deposits occur intermittently along the border with Sudan and Kenya, 2.5 — Soil type and distribution During road design and construction, soil engineering maps are very essential, These maps show the distribution of soils, and describe their origin, physical characteristics and engineering properties. However, national or regional based soil engineering maps do not exist in Ethiopia, Consequently, maps are often only available in association with specific road construction projects. In the absence of engineering soil maps, it is common practice to use agricultural soil classification systems of the type given in Figure 2.5, y a, aoe Tile lesen Hi recente Figure 2.5: Agricultural soil map of Ethiopia. In road design, it is necessary to use maps and material categories that are useful for engineering purposes. Such maps and categories need to be comprehensive (covering all materials), meaningful in an engineering context (so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret them), and relatively descriptive. Engineering maps and categories should normally be prepared to facilitate an easy transition from field observations and descriptions made during site investigation to general classification of soil and rock properties used for design. The distribution of soils in Ethiopia is a function of climate, regional landform, local topography and the underlying parent materials. Drainage is also an important factor in the formation’ of some soils. Table 2.3 summarizes the engineering characteristics and distribution of the most common soil types in Ethiopia. Page 2-8 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution, Generally, many places in Ethiopia are covered by thick autochthonous (residual) soils. These soils, which are generally red and black in colour, are classified as oxisols and vertisols, respectively, in agricultural or pedological soil maps. Laterites are also present and the general trend of soil cover in the country is that black soils are replaced by red soils which in turn grade to lateritic soils when one goes from central areas towards the west. Transported soils in the form of lacustrine, alluvial and aeolian deposits are present in the rift valley, along major river basins, and in depressions and lowlands, The red soils normally occur on sloping ground close to local high points where there is good drainage (Dumbleton, 1967), a vegetative cover with little organic matter and high temperature and rainfall. Water removes the more soluble bases and silica, leaving the soil rich in iron (in the form of iron oxide) and aluminum (as clay minerals of the kaolin group). Deposits of these soils are present in the western part of Ethiopia (westem and north-western highlands), southern lowlands and southern rift, most part of the central highlands, and in pockets of well drained lands throughout the north-east and eastern highlands. Red soils can be formed from many kinds of rocks if the weathering conditions, climate and drainage are suitable. In Ethiopia, they have developed mainly on voleanie (basalts, ryholites, ete) and pyroclasties rocks. In the western part of the country they have also been seen on granitic terrains. The iron oxide in these soils, which accounts for their dark red colour, occurs in a hydrated (goethite) and an unhydrated form (hematite). Goethite and hydrated halloysite predominate under wetter conditions. The clay mineral is usually kaolin of the halloysite type, which occurs as hydrated and meta-halloysite, Hydrated halloysite is readily converted to meta-halloysite on drying. Kaolin in the form of halloysite has a disordered structure, which gives rise to a soil of higher potential plasticity than well-ordered kaolinites. Red clays in the wetter regions of Ethiopia often show this nature of possessing high plasticity and should be subjected to plasticity tests before they are used for road construction purposes. The black soils are formed when voleanic rocks and some sediment are weathered under humid, alkaline conditions. Because of poor drainage, these soils are rich in soluble bases and silica. Black clay soils, also called “black cotton soils”, contain montmorillonite and other smectite group clay minerals. The presence of montmorillonite allows them to absorb much water and expand upon wetting. The poor drainage pre-condition means these soils can also contain some calcite grains. The black colour is largely due to organic matter. Black soils are widely distributed in Ethiopia, especially in the highlands. Known as vertisols, they are present in the central, north-western and eastern highlands and western lowlands. They are fertile and used intensively for agriculture. It is estimated that 7.6 million hectares of vertisol area are located in the highlands with a height of greater than 1,500 m above sea level (Jutzi and Abebe, 1986). The remaining area (over five million hectares) is located at elevations below 1,500 m. The general slope range of the landscape on which vertisols occur is 0 ~ 8% (Debele, 1985). They are more frequent in 0 - 2% slope range and are usually found in landscapes of restricted drainage such as seasonally inundated depressional basins, alluvial and colluvial plains, undulated plateaus, valleys and undulating side slopes. Laterites and lateritic soils are present in the western lowlands near the border with Sudan and in some lowlands of the southern region, They are reddish highly weathered soils that contain oxides of iron and aluminium and may have also some amount of quartz and Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-9