Table of content

- INTRODUCTION
- History of hydraulic motors
- Hydraulic motor systems…

- components of hydraulic system

- Hydraulic Pumps
- Classification of pumps
- Measuring pump performance
- Hydraulic Actuators
- Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator System
- Reservoir
- Filter
- Where are hydraulic filters used
- Pressure Control Valves in Hydraulic Systems.
- Directional Control Valves.
-Fields of application of hydraulic systems motor
-Conclusions of hydraulic systems motor
  INTRODUCTION

Fluid power is used in a vast range of applications, often with fast response times
and for power levels that can be up to several MW and where no other form of
actuation is feasible. Fluid power control systems may be placed in
environmentally-difficult applications and increasingly with alternative fluids to
pure mineral oil.
Force and motion control systems of varying degrees of sophistication have
shaped the lives of all individuals living in industrialized countries all over the
world, and together with communication technology are largely responsible for
the high standard of living prevalent in many communities. The brains of the vast
majority of current control systems are electronic, in the shape of computers,
microprocessors or programmable logic controllers (PLC), the nerves are
provided by sensors, mainly electromechanical transducers, and the muscle
comprises the drive system, in most cases either electric, pneumatic or hydraulic.

The factors governing the choice of the most suitable drive are the nature
of the application, the performance specification, size, weight, environmental and
safety constraints, with higher power levels favouring hydraulic drives. Past
experience, especially in the machine tool sector, has clearly shown that, in the
face of competition from electric drives, it is difficult to make a convincing case
for hydraulic drives at the bottom end of the power range, specifically at fractional
horsepower level. A further, and frequently overriding factor in the choice of drive
is the familiarity of the system designer with a particular discipline, which can
inhibit the selection of the optimum and most cost-effective solution for a given
application. One of the objectives of this book is to help the electrical engineer
overcome his natural reluctance to apply any other than electric drives. Another
difficulty often encountered among all types of engineers is the unwillingness or
inability to tackle the dynamics of hydraulic control systems in view of their
relative complexity as compared with electric drives. Owing to the compressibility
of the working fluid and the non-linear characteristics of hydraulic control devices,
dynamic system modelling involves the manipulation of non-linear, high order
differential equations. This fact can have a daunting effect on all but the more
analytically inclined engineers, and has contributed to the wide gap that exists
between the control engineer and the average hydraulic application engineer
All control systems can be reduced to a few basic groups of elements, the
elements of each group performing a specific function in the system. The division
into groups of elements can be carried out in a number of different ways, but
selecting the following four groups forms a convenient structure for the definition
of hydraulic and electro-hydraulic control systems.

(1) The power source.

(2) The control elements.
(3) The actuators.
(4) The data transmission elements.

The power source consists invariably of a pump or combination of pumps and

ancillary equipment, e.g. accumulators, relief valves, producing hydraulic energy
which is processed by the control elements to achieve the required operation of
the actuator.
The control elements can be valves of one type or another, variable
displacement pumps or variable displacement motors. Some control systems
contain a combination of all or some of these control elements.
The actuator converts the hydraulic energy generated by the power source and
processed by the control elements into useful mechanical work. An actuator
producing linear output is referred to as a cylinder, jack or ram, whilst an actuator
giving continuous rotation is a hydraulic motor and an actuator giving non-
continuous rotation is usually called a rotary actuator.

The control elements act on information received from the data transmission
elements; in a 'simple' hydraulic control system the data transmission elements
are mechanical linkages or gears, but in 'complex' systems data transmission
can take many forms, i.e. electrical, electronic, pneumatic and optical, or
combinations of these types of data transmission. Although 'simple' or
mechanical-hydraulic control systems are still in use, they are being
progressively replaced by the more versatile and flexible electro-hydraulic control
system, using electronic data transmission. Control systems can be subdivided
into two basic types: on-off, or 'bangbang', and proportional. A typical example of
the former is an electrohydraulic system controlled by solenoid-operated
directional valves, where actuator velocity is pre-set but not controlled, whereas
an example of the latter would be a velocity control system controlled by a
solenoid-operated proportional valve controlling the flow to the actuator and
hence its velocity. This book will confine itself to proportional systems, i.e. to
control systems where a· functional relationship exists between the controlled
output quantity and the demand signal.
  Hydraulic motor systems

A
hydraulic motor is a mechanical actuator that converts hydraulic pressure and flow
into torque and angular displacement (rotation). The hydraulic motor is the rotary
counterpart of the hydraulic cylinder as a linear actuator. Most broadly, the category of
devices called hydraulic motors has sometimes included those that run on hydropower
(namely, water engines and water motors) but in today's terminology the name usually
refers more specifically to motors that use hydraulic fluid as part of closed hydraulic
circuits in modern hydraulic machinery.
Conceptually, a hydraulic motor should be interchangeable with a hydraulic pump
because it performs the opposite function - similar to the way a DC electric motor is
theoretically interchangeable with a DC electrical generator. However, many hydraulic
pumps cannot be used as hydraulic motors because they cannot be backdriven. Also, a
hydraulic motor is usually designed for working pressure at both sides of the motor,
whereas most hydraulic pumps rely on low pressure provided from the reservoir at the
input side and would leak fluid when abused as a motor

 History of hydraulic motors

One of the first rotary hydraulic motors to be developed was that constructed by William
Armstrong for his Swing Bridge over the River Tyne. Two motors were provided, for
reliability. Each one was a three-cylinder single-acting oscillating engine. Armstrong
developed a wide range of hydraulic motors, linear and rotary, that were used for a wide
range of industrial and civil engineering tasks, particularly for docks and moving bridges.
The first simple fixed-stroke hydraulic motors had the disadvantage that they used the
same volume of water whatever the load and so were wasteful at part-power Unlike
steam engines, as water is incompressible, they could not be throttled or their valve cut-
off controlled. To overcome this, motors with variable stroke were developed. Adjusting
the stroke, rather than controlling admission valves, now controlled the engine power
and water consumption. One of the first of these was Arthur Rigg's patent engine of
1886. This used a double eccentric mechanism, as used on variable stroke power
presses, to control the stroke length of a three cylinders radial engine. Later, the
swashplate engine with an adjustable swashplate angle would become a popular way to
make variable stroke hydraulic motors.

 Hydraulic motor types

Hydraulic motors divide into two fundamental classes:

 Vane motors and gear motors are simple rotating systems. Their benefits include
low initial cost and high rpm.
 Plunger & piston motors in axial or radial configuration are more complex and made
for high quality rotating drive systems. Some axial plunger & piston motors provide
adjustable transfer ratio. For an explanation of plunger & piston

Many designs are possible. The following types of hydraulic motors are available:

 Vane motors
A vane motor consists of a housing with an eccentric bore, in which runs
a rotor with vanes in it that slide in and out. The force differential created
by the unbalanced force of the pressurized fluid on the vanes causes
the rotor to spin in one direction. A critical element in vane motor design
is how the vane tips are machined at the contact point between vane tip
and motor housing. Several types of "lip" designs are used, and the
main objective is to provide a tight seal between the inside of the motor
housing and the vane, and at the same time to minimize wear and
metal-to-metal contact.

 Gear motors

A gear motor (external gear) consists of two gears, the driven gear
(attached to the output shaft by way of a key, etc.) and the idler
gear. High pressure oil is ported into one side of the gears, where it
flows around the periphery of the gears, between the gear tips and
the wall housings in which it resides, to the outlet port. The gears
then mesh, not allowing the oil from the outlet side to flow back to
the inlet side. For lubrication, the gear motor uses a small amount
of oil from the pressurized side of the gears, bleeds this through the (typically)
hydrodynamic bearings, and vents the same oil either to the low pressure side of the
gears, or through a dedicated drain port on the motor housing, which is usually
connected to a line that vents the motor's case pressure to the system's reservoir. An
especially positive attribute of the gear motor is that catastrophic breakdown is less
common than in most other types of hydraulic motors. This is because the gears
gradually wear down the housing and/or main bushings, reducing the volumetric
efficiency of the motor gradually until it is all but useless. This often happens long before
wear causes the unit to seize or break down.

 Gerotor motors
The gerotor motor is in essence a rotor with N-1 teeth, rotating
off center in a rotor/stator with N teeth. Pressurized fluid is
guided into the assembly using a (usually) axially placed plate-
type distributor valve. Several different designs exist, such as
the Geroller (internal or external rollers) and Nichols motors.
Typically, the Gerotor motors are low-to-medium speed and
medium-to-high torque.

 What are the basic components of hydraulic system?

BASIC COMPONENTS INCLUDE

1. STRAINER
2. RESERVOIR
3. SUCTION LINE
4. PUMP
5. MOTOR (electrically operated)
6. PRESSURE LINE
7. PRESSURE GUAGE
8. COOLER
9. RETURN LINE FILTER
10. RETURN LINE
11. PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
12. FLOW CONTROL VALVE
13. DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE ( DC VALVE)
14. HYD CYLINDER
15. HYD MOTOR
Some of basic components of hydraulic system

 Hydraulic Pumps
A hydraulic pump is a mechanical device that converts mechanical power into hydraulic
energy. It generates flow with enough power to overcome pressure induced by the
load.
When a hydraulic pump operates, it performs two functions. First, its mechanical action
creates a vacuum at the pump inlet which allows atmospheric pressure to force liquid
from the reservoir into the inlet line to the pump. Second, its mechanical action delivers
this liquid to the pump outlet and forces it into the hydraulic system.
A pump produces liquid movement or flow: it does not generate pressure. It produces
the flow necessary for the development of pressure which is a function of resistance to
fluid flow in the system. For example, the pressure of the fluid at the pump outlet is zero
for a pump not connected to a system (load). Further, for a pump delivering into a
system, the pressure will rise only to the level necessary to overcome the resistance of
the load.

 Classification of pumps
All pumps may be classified as either positive-displacement or non-positive-
displacement. Most pumps used in hydraulic systems are positive-displacement.
A non-positive-displacement pump produces a continuous flow. However, because it
does not provide a positive internal seal against slippage, its output varies considerably
as pressure varies. Centrifugal and propeller pumps are examples of non-positive-
displacement pumps.
If the output port of a non-positive-displacement pump were blocked off, the pressure
would rise, and output would decrease to zero. Although the pumping element would
continue moving, flow would stop because of slippage inside the pump.
In a positive-displacement pump, slippage is negligible compared to the pump's
volumetric output flow. If the output port were plugged, pressure would increase
instantaneously to the point that the pump's pumping element or its case would fail
(probably explode, if the drive shaft did not break first), or the pump's prime mover
would stall.

 Positive-displacement principle
A positive-displacement pump is one that displaces (delivers) the same amount of liquid
for each rotating cycle of the pumping element. Constant delivery during each cycle is
possible because of the close-tolerance fit between the pumping element and the pump
case. That is, the amount of liquid that slips past the pumping element in a positive-
displacement pump is minimal and negligible compared to the theoretical maximum
possible delivery. The delivery per cycle remains almost constant, regardless of
changes in pressure against which the pump is working. Note that if fluid slippage is
substantial, the pump is not operating properly and should be repaired or replaced.
Positive-displacement pumps can be of either fixed or variable displacement. The
output of a fixed displacement pump remains constant during each pumping cycle and
at a given pump speed. The output of a variable displacement pump can be changed by
altering the geometry of the displacement chamber.
Other names to describe these pumps are hydrostatic for positive-displacement and
hydrodynamic pumps for non-positive-displacement. Hydrostatic means that the pump
converts mechanical energy to hydraulic energy with comparatively small quantity and
velocity of liquid. In a hydrodynamic pump, liquid velocity and movement are large;
output pressure actually depends on the velocity at which the liquid is made to flow.

 Reciprocating pumps

The positive-displacement principle is well illustrated in the reciprocating-type pump, the

most elementary positive-displacement pump, Figure 1. As the piston extends, the
partial vacuum created in the pump chamber draws liquid from the reservoir through the
inlet check valve into the chamber. The partial vacuum helps seat firmly the outlet check
valve. The volume of liquid drawn into the chamber is known because of the geometry
of the pump case, in this example, a
cylinder.
As the piston retracts, the inlet check
valve reseats, closing the valve, and
the force of the piston unseats the
outlet check valve, forcing liquid out of
the pump and into the system. The
same amount of liquid is forced out of
the pump during each reciprocating
cycle.
All positive-displacement pumps deliver
the same volume of liquid each cycle
(regardless of whether they are
reciprocating or rotating). It is a physical characteristic of the pump and does not
depend on driving speed. However, the faster a pump is driven, the more total volume
of liquid it will deliver

 Rotary pumps
In a rotary-type pump, rotary motion carries the liquid from the pump inlet to the pump
outlet. Rotary pumps are usually classified according to the type of element that
transmits the liquid, so that we speak of a gear-, lobe-, vane-, or piston-type rotary
pump.
External-gear pumps can be divided into external and
internal-gear types. A typical external-gear pump is shown in
Figure 2. These pumps come with a straight spur, helical, or
herringbone gears. Straight spur gears are easiest to cut and
are the most widely used. Helical and herringbone gears run
more quietly, but cost more.
A gear pump produces flow by carrying fluid in between the
teeth of two meshing gears. One gear is driven by the drive
shaft and turns the idler gear. The chambers formed between
adjacent gear teeth are enclosed by the pump housing and
side plates (also called wear or pressure plates).
A partial vacuum is created at the pump inlet as the gear teeth unmesh. Fluid flows in to fill the
space and is carried around the outside of the gears. As the teeth mesh again at the outlet end,
the fluid is forced out.
Volumetric efficiencies of gear pumps run as high as 93% under optimum conditions. Running
clearances between gear faces, gear tooth crests and the housing create an almost constant
loss in any pumped volume at a fixed pressure. This means that volumetric efficiency at low
speeds and flows is poor, so that gear pumps should be run close to their maximum rated
speeds.
Although the loss through the running clearances, or "slip," increases with pressure, this loss is
nearly constant as speed and output change. For one pump the loss increases by about 1.5
gpm from zero to 2,000 psi regardless of speed. Change in slip with pressure change has little
effect on performance when operated at higher speeds and outputs. External-gear pumps are
comparatively immune to contaminants in the oil, which will increase wear rates and lower
efficiency, but sudden seizure and failure are not likely to occur.

The lobe pump is a rotary, external-gear pump, Figure 3. It

differs from the conventional external-gear pump in the way
the "gears" are driven. In a gear pump, one gear drive the
other; in a lobe pump, both lobes are driven through suitable drives gears outside of the
pump casing chamber.

A screw pump is an axial-flow gear pump, similar in operation to a rotary screw

compressor. Three types of screw pumps are the single-screw, two-screw, and three-
screw. In the single-screw pump, a spiraled rotor rotates eccentrically in an internal
stator. The two-screw pump consists of two parallel intermeshing rotors rotating in a
housing machined to close
tolerances. The three-screw
pump consists of a central-drive
rotor with two meshing idler
rotors; the rotors turn inside of a
housing machined to close
tolerances.
Flow through a screw pump is
axial and in the direction of the
power rotor. The inlet hydraulic
fluid that surrounds the rotors is
trapped as the rotors rotate. This fluid is pushed uniformly with the rotation of the rotors
along the axis and is forced out the other end.
The fluid delivered by a screw pump does not rotate, but moves linearly. The rotors
work like endless pistons, which continuously move forward. There are no pulsations
even at higher speed. The absence of pulsations and the fact that there is no metal-to-
metal contact results in very quiet operation.
Larger pumps are used as low-pressure, large-volume prefill pumps on large presses.
Other applications include hydraulic systems on submarines and other uses where
noise must be controlled.

Internal-gear pumps, Figure 4, have an internal gear and an external gear. Because
these pumps have one or two less teeth in the inner gear than the outer, relative speeds
of the inner and outer gears in these designs
are low. For example, if the number of teeth in
the inner and outer gears were 10 and 11
respectively, the inner gear would turn 11
revolutions, while the outer would turn 10. This
low relative speed means a low wear rate.
These pumps are small, compact units.
The crescent seal internal-gear pump consists of an inner and outer gear separated by
a crescent-shaped seal. The two gears rotate in the same direction, with the inner gear
rotating faster than the outer. The hydraulic oil is drawn into the pump at the point where
the gear teeth begin to separate and is carried to the outlet in the space between the
crescent and the teeth of both tears. The contact point of the gear teeth forms a seal, as
does the small tip clearance at the crescent. Although in the past this pump was
generally used for low outputs, with pressures below 1,000 psi, a 2-stage, 4,000-psi
model has recently become available.

The gerotor internal-gear pump consists of a pair of gears which are always in sliding
contact. The internal gear has one more tooth than the gerotor gear. Both gears rotate
in the same direction. Oil is drawn into the chamber where the teeth are separating, and
is ejected when the teeth start to mesh again. The seal is provided by the sliding
contact. Generally, the internal-gear pump with toothcrest pressure sealing has higher
volumetric efficiency at low speeds than the crescent type. Volumetric and overall
efficiencies of these pumps are in the same general range as those of external-gear
pumps. However, their sensitivity to dirt is somewhat higher.

In vane pumps, a number of vanes slide in slots in a

rotor which rotates in a housing or ring. The housing may
be eccentric with the center of the rotor, or its shape may
be oval, Figure 5. In some designs, centrifugal force
holds the vanes in contact with the housing, while the
vanes are forced in and out of the slots by the
eccentricity of the housing. In one vane pump, light
springs hold the vanes against the housing; in another
pump design, pressurized pins urge the vanes outward.
During rotation, as the space or chamber enclosed by vanes, rotor, and housing
increases, a vacuum is created, and atmospheric pressure forces oil into this space,
which is the inlet side of the pump. As the space or volume enclosed reduces, the liquid
is forced out through the discharge ports.

Balanced and unbalanced vane pumps — The pump illustrated in Figure 5 is

unbalanced, because all of the pumping action occurs in the chambers on one side of the rotor
and shaft. This design imposes a side load on the rotor and drive shaft. This type vane pump
has a circular inner casing. Unbalanced vane pumps can have fixed or variable displacements.
Some vane pumps provide a balanced construction in which an elliptical casing forms two
separate pumping areas on opposite sides of the rotor, so that the side loads cancel out, Figure
6. Balanced vane pumps come only in fixed displacement designs.
In a variable-volume unbalanced design, Figure 7, the displacement can be changed through an
external control such as a handwheel or a pressure compensator. The control moves the cam
ring to change the eccentricity between the ring and rotor, thereby changing the size of the
pumping chamber and thus varying the displacement per revolution.

When pressure is high enough to overcome the compensator spring force, the cam ring shifts to
decrease the eccentricity. Adjustment of the compensator spring determines the pressure at
which the ring shifts.
Because centrifugal force is required to hold the vanes against the housing and maintain a tight
seal at those points, these pumps are not suited for low-speed service. Operation at speeds
below 600 rpm is not recommended. If springs or other means are used to hold vanes out
against the ring, efficient operation at speeds of 100 to 200 rpm is possible.

Vane pumps maintain their high efficiency for a long time, because compensation for wear of
the vane ends and the housing is automatic. As these surfaces wear, the vanes move further
out in their slots to maintain contact with the housing.

Vane pumps, like other types, come in double units. A double pump consists of two pumping
units in the same housing. They may be of the same or different sizes. Although they are
mounted and driven like single pumps, hydraulically, they are independent. Another variation is
the series unit: two pumps of equal capacity are connected in series, so that the output of one
feeds the other. This arrangement gives twice the pressure normally available from this pump.
Vane pumps have relatively high efficiencies. Their size is small relative to output. Dirt tolerance
is relatively good.

Piston pumps
The piston pump is a rotary unit which uses the principle of the reciprocating pump to
produce fluid flow. Instead of using a single piston, these pumps have many piston-
cylinder combinations. Part of the pump mechanism rotates about a drive shaft to
generate the reciprocating motions, which draw fluid into each cylinder and then expels
it, producing flow. There are two basic
types, axial and radial piston; both area
available as fixed and variable
displacement pumps. The second variety
often is capable of variable reversible
(overcenter) displacement.
Most axial and radial piston pumps lend
themselves to variable as well as fixed
displacement designs. Variable
displacement pumps tend to be somewhat larger and heavier, because they have
added internal controls, such as handwheel, electric motor, hydraulic cylinder, servo,
and mechanical stem.
Axial-piston pumps — The pistons in an axial piston pump reciprocate parallel to the
centerline of the drive shaft of the piston block. That is, rotary shaft motion is converted
into axial reciprocating motion. Most axial piston pumps are multi-piston and use check
valves or port plates to direct liquid flow from inlet to discharge.

Measuring pump performance

Volume of fluid pumped per revolution is calculated from the geometry of the oil-carrying
chambers. A pump never quite delivers the calculated, or theoretical, amount of fluid.
How close it comes is called volumetric efficiency. Volumetric efficiency is found by
comparing the calculated delivery with actual delivery. Volumetric efficiency varies with
speed, pressure, and the construction of the pump. A pump's mechanical efficiency is
also less than perfect, because some of the input energy is wasted in friction. Overall
efficiency of a hydraulic pump is the product of its volumetric and mechanical
efficiencies. Pumps are generally rated by their maximum operating pressure capability
and their output, in gpm or lpm, at a given drive speed, in rpm.
Matching pump power with the load

Pressure compensation and load sensing are terms often used to describe pump
features that improve the efficiency of pump operation. Sometimes these terms are
used interchangeably, a misconception that is cleared up once you understand the
differences in how the two enhancements operate.
To investigate these differences, consider a simple circuit using a fixed-displacement
pump running at constant speed. This circuit is efficient only when the load demands
maximum power because the pump puts out full pressure and flow regardless of load
demand. A relief valve prevents excessive pressure buildup by routing high-pressure
fluid to tank when the system reaches the relief setting. As Figure 10 shows, power is
wasted whenever the load requires less than full flow or full pressure. The unused fluid
energy produced by the pump becomes heat that must be dissipated. Overall system
efficiency may be 25% or lower.
Variable displacement pumps, equipped with displacement controls, Figure 11, can
save most of this wasted hydraulic horsepower when moving a single load. Control
variations include hand wheel, lever, cylinder, stem servo, and electrohydraulic servo
controls. Examples of displacement control applications are the lever-controlled
hydrostatic transmissions used to propel windrowers, skid-steer loaders, and road
rollers.
While matching the exact flow and pressure needs of a single load, these controls have
no inherent pressure or power-limiting capabilities. And so, other provisions must be
made to limit maximum system pressure, and the prime mover still must have corner
horsepower capability. Moreover, when a pump supplies a circuit with multiple loads,
the flow and pressure-matching characteristics are compromised.
A design approach to the system in which one pump powers multiple loads is to use a
pump equipped with a proportional pressure compensator, Figure 12. A yoke spring
biases the pump swashplate toward full displacement. When load pressure exceeds the
compensator setting, pressure force acts on the compensator spool to overcome the
force exerted by the spring.
The spool then shifts toward the compensator-spring chamber, ports pump output fluid
to the stroking piston, and decreases pump displacement. The compensator spool
returns to neutral when pump pressure matches the compensator spring setting. If a
load blocks the actuators, pump flow drops to zero.
Using a variable-displacement, pressure-compensated pump rather than a fixed-
displacement pump reduces circuit horsepower requirements dramatically, Figure 13.
Output flow of this type of pump varies according to a predetermined discharge
pressure as sensed by an orifice in the pump's compensator. Because the compensator
itself operates from pressurized fluid, the discharge pressure must be set higher - say,
200 psi higher - than the maximum load-pressure setting. So if the load-pressure setting
of a pressure-compensated pump is 1,100 psi, the pump will increase or decrease its
displacement (and output flow) based on a 1,300-psi discharge pressure.

Superior dynamically
  Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic Actuators, as used in industrial process control, employ hydraulic pressure to drive an
output member. These are used where high speed and large forces are required. The fluid used
in hydraulic actuator is highly incompressible so that pressure applied can be transmitted
instantaneously to the member attached to it. It was not, however, until the 17th century that
the branch of hydraulics with which we are to be concerned first came into use. Based upon a
principle discovered by the French scientist Pascal, it relates to the use of confined fluids in
transmitting power, multiplying force and modifying motions. Then, in the early stages of the
industrial revolution, a British mechanic named Joseph Bramah utilized Pascal’s discovery in
developing a hydraulic press. Bramah decided that, if a small force on a small area would create
a proportionally larger force on a larger area, the only limit to the force a machine can exert is
the area to which the pressure is applied.

Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator System

Pascal’s Law Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished
and equally throughout the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining
vessel at right angles to its interior surfaces.

Amplification of Force
Since pressure P applied on an area A gives rise to a force F, given as, F = P×A Thus, if a force is
applied over a small area to cause a pressure P in a confined fluid, the force generated on a
larger area can be made many times larger than the applied force that crated the pressure. This
principle is used in various hydraulic devices to such hydraulic press to generate very high
forces.

Components of Hydraulic Actuation Systems

Hydraulic fluid must be essentially non-compressible to be able to transmit power
instantaneously from one part of the system to another. At the same time, it should lubricate
the moving parts to reduce friction loss and cool the components so that the heat generated
does not lead to fire hazards. It also helps in removing the contaminants to filter. The most
common liquid used in hydraulic systems is petroleum oil because it is only very slightly
compressible. The other desirable property of oil is its lubricating ability. Finally, often, the fluid
also acts as a seal against leakage inside a hydraulic component. The degree of closeness of the
mechanical fit and the oil viscosity determines leakage rate. Figure 26.2 below shows the role
played by hydraulic fluid films in lubrication and sealing.

The Fluid Delivery Subsystem

It consists of the components that hold and carry the fluid from the pump to the actuator. It is
made up of the following components.

 Reservoir
It holds the hydraulic fluid to be circulated and allows air entrapped in the fluid to escape. This
is an important feature as the bulk modulus of the oil, which determines the stiffness of
hydraulic system, deteriorates considerably in the presence of entrapped air bubbles. It also
helps in dissipating heat.

 Filter
The hydraulic fluid is kept clean in the system with the help of filters and strainers. It removes
minute particles from the fluid, which can cause blocking of the orifices of servo-valves or cause
jamming of spools.

WHAT IS HYDRAULIC FILTRATION AND WHY DO YOU NEED IT?

Hydraulic filters protect your hydraulic system components from damage due to
contamination of oils or other hydraulic fluid in use caused by particles. Every minute,
approximately one million particles larger than 1 micron (0.001 mm or 1 μm) enter a
hydraulic system. These particles can cause damage to hydraulic system components
because hydraulic oil is easily contaminated. Thus maintaining a good hydraulic
filtration system will increase hydraulic component lifetime.
How Filter Locations on Hydraulic Systems Can Make All the
Difference?
It’s no secret that removing particle contamination can greatly increase the life of the components in
any hydraulic system. The truth is, is that there are always some particles present, even in brand
new hydraulic fluid. How much contamination can be accepted is going to vary depending on the
hydraulic system being used.
So how do you go about removing particles in a hydraulic system? If the system is large, then it’s
recommended to add filters wherever you feel it’s going to give you the most advantage.
The strange thing about hydraulic system filters is that although they are there to help keep your
machine running well, they can sometimes cause damage and shorten the life of your system.
Hydraulic filters run on a rating system that defers to the micron size of the particles being removed.
To get the best results, take a sample of your hydraulic fluid so that you have some idea of where
you’re starting from and which filters you’ll need. Ideally you’ll flush the fluid before adding new
filters so that their main job will be to maintain its cleanliness rather than to clean it up.
No matter where you start from, it’s important to keep in mind that the filters that you use will
affect pressure and it could drop it by providing restriction. If this occurs, then it’s possible that the
bypass valve on the filter will open and therefore filtering will not be implemented.
If you’re an engineer who has the responsibility of deciding where to put the filters, it’s critical to do
this with a mind to prevent any harm from occurring. There’s no point in delivering cure that is
worse than the disease.
Here’s our take on what you need to know about where to fit filters on hydraulic systems:
Pressure line. Many components that are located downstream will benefit from positioning the filter
in the pressure line. It’s possible to capture as small as 2 microns or less as the pressure will help as
it forces the fluid through the filter. However, it’s possible that the filter will be reduced by the high
flow velocities which can loosen up trapped particles. In the long term its pressure filtration that
costs the most to maintain and the most to get going with.
Return line. The most effective principle to apply to this is that if you start out with a reservoir full
of clean fluid, then keeping fluid clean by filtering it will keep it that way. Another benefit of using
the return line to add a filter is that you’ll gain advantage from the higher pressure. It’s possible to
gain good filtering results at a relatively low cost as there won’t be filter or housing design
complications with a pressure of that measure. In actual fact, the lower flow will deliver a filtration
that is efficient and low cost. The only disadvantage of this method is that there is a chance of the
back pressure causing some issues.
Off line. Filtering your fluid using the off-line method will provide you with a continuous filtration
that is multi-pass. The results are excellent filtering efficiency where you can pull out particles that
are 2 microns or less in size. It’s also possible to extract water and even heat in order to give your
fluid total conditioning. However, there is a cost disadvantage when starting out with this method,
but this can usually be reclaimed over the life of the machine.
Suction. Positioning a filter next to the pump intake can provide advantages gained by not being in
a high pressure area, however, it does have potential to cause some issues with regards to pump
life.

Where are hydraulic filters used?

Hydraulic filters are used anywhere in a hydraulic system particle contamination is to be
removed. Particle contamination can be ingested through the reservoir, created during
the manufacture of system components, or generated internally from the hydraulic
components themselves (especially pumps and motors). Particle contamination is the
primary cause of hydraulic component failure.

Hydraulic filters are used in three key

locations of a hydraulic system,
depending on the required degree of
fluid cleanliness. Nearly every hydraulic
system has a return line filter, which
traps particles ingested or generated
our in the hydraulic circuit. The return
line filter traps particles as they enter
the reservoir, providing clean fluid for
reintroduction into the system.

Although less common, hydraulic filters are used in the pressure line, after the pump.
These pressure filters are more robust, as they are submitted to full system pressure. If
your hydraulic system as sensitive components, such as servo or proportional valves,
pressure filters add a buffer of protection should contamination be introduced into the
reservoir, or if the pump fails.

The third place hydraulic filters are use is in a kidney loop circuit. An offline pump/motor
group circulates fluid from the reservoir through a high-efficiency filter (and usually
through a cooler as well). The advantage to offline filtration is it can be very fine, while
creating no backpressure in the primary hydraulic circuit. Also, the filter can be changed
while the machine is operational.

 Pressure Control Valves in Hydraulic Systems

The article looks at the basics

of pressure control valves for

educational use and is

presented here to refresh your

memory. Hope you are able to

recall the functions, circuits, and

applications of pressure control

valves.
Pressure control valves are used in hydraulic systems for obtaining pressure-related

control functions. The control tasks include reducing the pressure in some part of a

hydraulic circuit, unloading of pumps, establishing the sequence movements of

actuators, the counterbalancing of overrunning loads, and the braking of hydraulic

motors while running on inertia. Accordingly, pressure control valves can be categorized

into: (1) pressure reducing valves, (2) unloading valves, (3) sequence valves, (4)

counterbalance valves, and (5) brake valves. It may be noted that a pressure relief

valve is treated as a pressure regulating valve rather than a pressure control valve as its

function in a hydraulic system is to modulate the supply pressure and limit the maximum

operating pressure in the system

Symbolic Representation of a Basic Pressure Control Valve

 Pressure Reducing Valve

The primary role of the pressure
reducing valve in a hydraulic system is to
limit the pressure in some part of the
system to a value lower than that
required for the rest of the system. The
reduced pressure can be set by using a
control spring. The valve consists of an
inlet port ‘A’, an outlet port ‘B’, a spring-
loaded spool, and a pressure adjusting
screw. The valve is provided with an internal control passage to evaluate the outlet
pressure (at port B). When the outlet pressure remains below the valve setting, the
fluid flows freely from the inlet to the outlet (that is, from A to B). When the
pressure at the outlet exceeds the valve setting, the spool shifts to block the outlet
port, thus maintaining a reduced pressure in the regulated line.
For example, an excess force (pressure) applied to the clamping operation by the
cylinder A2 may damage the workpiece being clamped. In such a situation, a
pressure reducing valve can be used to limit only the clamping pressure. You may
observe the pressure values in parts of the circuit below.

 Unloading Valve
An unloading valve consists of an inlet port ‘A’, a tank port ‘T’, a pilot port ‘X’, and a
spring-biased spool. The unloading
pressure can be varied by adjusting
the spring tension. The pilot port is
provided to accept the external
pressure signal, which acts on one
end of the spring-biased valve spool.
In the normal position, the valve remains closed by the spring force. When a
sufficient signal is applied to the pilot spool, the spool shifts, and the pump delivery
is diverted to the reservoir through the tank port (that is, from A to T) at a low-
pressure. The primary function of the unloading valve is to regulate the pressure by
bypassing the fluid to the system reservoir at a low energy level in response to the
external pressure signal received from the load section of the system. Unloading
valves can be used in accumulator circuits, hydraulic motor circuits, and two-pump
‘hi-lo’ circuits.

 Directional Control Valves

What Are Directional Control Valves, And Why Do You Need One?
Directional control valves are used to control the direction and movement of hydraulic fluid
through a system. They are often referred to as switching valves, and come in three main
 categories: hydraulic check valves, directional spool valves and poppet valves that make up the
different types of control valves.

Things to Consider When Choosing Directional Control Valves

There are five major points to consider when it comes to analysing the performance and
suitability of directional control valves:

 Dynamic Power Limits

 Static Power Limits
 Resistance To Flow
 Switching Time
 Leakage

What Is A Hydraulic Check Valve And How Can They Be Used?

Check valves are the simplest and most common form of directional control valve which are
regularly used in hydraulic systems. These valves can be used to stop the flow of liquid in one
direction, whilst still allowing the free flow of fluid in the opposite direction. These models are also
commonly known as non-return valves.

Hydraulic check valves can also fulfil a range of other roles within a hydraulic system,
including:

 Prefill-valves for anti-cavitation;

 Bypass valves or return-line filters;
 Denying flow in one direction;
 Pre-tensioning by creating backpressure within the system;
 Protect hydraulic components against surges in pressures;
Most check valves are spring-loaded, and rely on a ball or plate to seal the flow in a
single direction. Check valves are designed to be able to reliably isolate circuits without
running the risk of leakage. A range of different elements, including poppets with soft
seals can also be used within these valves to isolate circuits.

What Is A Directional Spool Valve& How Can They Be Used?

These kinds of directional control valves are composed of a moving spool which is
situated inside the housing of a valve. An actuating force then moves the control spool,
which allows the channels within the housing to be connected or separated. These
types of directional control valves have a range of unique features which makes them
suitable for different conditions, including:

 Their simplicity makes them cheap to produce;

 A low actuating force;
 A high switching power;
 Low-level losses, despite consistent oil leakage;
 A wide range of control functions for operator ease;
These types of control valves can be either directly-operated or pilot-operated. These
valves can be connected with solenoids or mechanically controlled via levers and
rollers, or via hydraulic or pneumatic systems.

 Fields of application of hydraulic systems motor

Hydraulic motors are used in any application requiring

rotational force, also known as torque. A hydraulic
motor converts hydrostatic energy into mechanical
energy by pushing vanes, gears or pistons attached to
a crankshaft. The power capacity of a hydraulic motor
is dictated by its displacement, and the speed in which
is rotates.

Hydraulic motors are used in industrial applications

such as augers, conveyors, and mixers, as well as
rolling mills, where their robust nature and resistance
to heat make them a perfect solution. Hydraulic motors can be used in any application
an electric motor can, but require no electricity, and can withstand more environmental
extremes, such as submersion and extreme heat. Motors can be sized small enough for
high-speed drills, or large enough for injection molding machines.

Hydraulic motors are especially well suited to mobile machinery, where they are the
primary drive for most off-highway equipment. Hydrostatic drive systems act to transmit
engine power to the drive wheels, with exceptional versatility and reliability. Hydraulic
wheel motors are used on wheeled loaders, skid-steer loaders, articulating loaders and
backhoe loaders, where the motor’s quick and smooth reversibility make them perfect
for the application.

Motors are also used in tracked vehicles, such as excavators of all sizes, bulldozers,
and specialty machines, such as bridge-layers or drill rigs. The high power density of
hydraulic motors allow them to achieve earth-moving torque in a relatively small
package. Hydraulic motors can also be used in hybrid hydraulic vehicle drive systems,
where the motor can also absorb energy from the drive wheels to pump fluid into an
accumulator, which can subsequently send flow back to that motor for a burst of
acceleration from low speed.

 Conclusions of hydraulic systems motor

A hydraulic motor is a mechanical actuator that converts hydraulic pressure and
flow into torque and angular displacement (rotation). The hydraulic motor is the
rotary counterpart of the hydraulic cylinder as a linear actuator. Most broadly, the
category of devices called hydraulic motors has sometimes included those that
run on hydropower (namely, water engines and water motors) but in today's
terminology the name usually refers more specifically to motors that
use hydraulic fluid as part of closed hydraulic circuits in modern hydraulic
machinery.

Conceptually, a hydraulic motor should be interchangeable with a hydraulic

pump because it performs the opposite function - similar to the way a DC electric
motor is theoretically interchangeable with a DC electrical generator. However,
many hydraulic pumps cannot be used as hydraulic motors because they cannot
be back driven. Also, a hydraulic motor is usually designed for working pressure
at both sides of the motor, whereas most hydraulic pumps rely on low pressure
provided from the reservoir at the input side and would leak fluid when abused as
a motor.

 References

https://www.hydraulicspneumatics.com/technologies/hydraulic-pumps-
motors/article/21884401/fundamentals-of-hydraulic-motors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_motor#History_of_hydraulic_motors
https://abe.ufl.edu/faculty/tburks/Presentations/ABE4171/Hydraulic%20Systems
_2.pdf
https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-basic-components-of-hydraulic-system
https://www.hydraulicspneumatics.com/fluid-power-
basics/article/21884136/engineering-essentials-fundamentals-of-hydraulic-
pumps
https://www.cjplantmaintenance.com/different-types-of-hydraulic-pumps-and-
motors/
https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-basic-components-of-hydraulic-system
https://www.mobilehydraulictips.com/hydraulic-filters-used/
https://www.hydraproducts.co.uk/Blog/how-filter-locations-on-hydraulic-
systems-can-make-all-the-difference
https://fluidsys.org/2017/08/21/pressure-control-valves-in-hydraulic-systems/
https://www.flowfitonline.com/blog/flowfit-hydraulics/what-are-directional-
control-valves-and-why-do-you-need-one
https://www.mobilehydraulictips.com/hydraulic-motors-used/