Fuel 355 (2024) 129534

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Review article

Advances in biomass-based nanofibers prepared by electrospinning for

energy storage devices
Haifeng Jiang a, *, Mingfu Yao a, Jie Chen b, Mingyue Zhang c, Wenpeng Hong a
a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Northeast Electric Power University, Jilin 132012, PR China
b
Center of Analysis and Measurement, Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology, Jilin 132022, PR China
c
College of Tobacco Science, Flavors & Fragrance Engineering & Technology Research Center of Henan, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Biomass-based nanofibers prepared by electrospinning technology have the advantages of unique porous
Energy storage structure, high specific surface area, low cost and easy availability, hence they have wide applications in elec­
Electrochemical properties trochemical energy storage devices. This review describes the characteristics of electrospun nanofibers prepared
Electrospinning
from various biomass components and their derivatives and introduces their application performances in elec­
Biomass
trochemical energy storage devices. The preparation methods of electrospun nanofibers with excellent electro­
Nanofibers
chemical properties are systematically introduced, and the differences of various biomass materials and their
applications in electrochemical energy storage devices are analyzed and summarized. Some development sug­
gestions for the future application of biomass-based nanofibrous materials are given. These works provide some
important references for the application and expansion of biomass-based electrospun nanofibers in the field of
energy storage.

1. Introduction important parts of batteries and supercapacitors, and the quality of

With the extensive support and participation of the international
community, more than 130 countries and regions have proposed the
goal of carbon neutrality [1,2]. The development of green and renew­
able energy is an important way to achieve this goal, such as wind, solar
and biomass energy [3,4]. However, the intermittency and volatility of
power output seriously hinder the energy conversion efficiency [5], and
thus it is very important to develop an energy storage system that can
store electric energy. Electrochemical energy storage technology has
become one of the most effective and widely used technologies. It is
estimated that by the end of 2024, the installed capacity of China’s
electrochemical energy storage market will be close to 24GW [6].
Moreover, Fig. 1 gives the number of publications on electrochemical
energy storage, it can be seen that the number of literatures shows an
increasing trend year by year. These data indicates that energy storage
has become a research hotspot.
Batteries and supercapacitors have received extensive attention in
the field of electrochemical energy storage due to their fast charging and
discharging, good cycle life and high energy density [7–9]. Batteries and
supercapacitors are mainly composed of electrodes, separators, and
electrolyte. Among these components, electrodes and separators are
electrode materials largely determines the energy storage performance
of batteries and supercapacitors [10,11]. Nanofiber materials have been
widely used in the fabrication of electrodes and separators. The good
pore structure of nanofibers promotes the contact of electrolytes,
thereby effectively reducing the ion transport resistance [12,13]. In
addition, numerous studies have shown that electrode materials pre­
pared using nanofibers have excellent mechanical flexibility, foldability
and electrochemical performance [14,15], which greatly promotes the
development of electrochemical energy storage devices.
The preparation of nanofibers is crucial to ensure its excellent
quality. Currently, the preparation techniques of the nanofibers mainly
include chemical vapor deposition [16], template method [17], direct
carbonization method [18] and electrospinning method [19,20].
Compared with other techniques, electrospinning technology has many
significant advantages, they are summarized as follows:1) The process of
preparing nanofibers is relatively simple. Fig. 2 shows the main principle
of preparing nanofibrous materials by using electrospinning technology.
As seen from Fig. 2, the preparation of nanofibrous materials only re­
quires an electrostatic field provided by the outside. 2) Preparation
parameters of nanofibrous materials can be flexibly adjusted according
to target requirements, and the operation is convenient. During the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jianghaifeng11@126.com (H. Jiang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.129534
Received 18 June 2023; Received in revised form 5 August 2023; Accepted 14 August 2023
Available online 19 August 2023
0016-2361/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Jiang et al.
Fig. 1. The number of publications on the topic of “electrochemical energy
storage” in the last decade. Searched by Web of Science(July 2023).
preparation of electrospinning nanofibers, parameters(e.g. voltage
strength, spraying speed and the distance between the needle and the
collector) can be adjusted according to the requirements. At the same
time, the macroscopic features of the prepared fibers can also be
dynamically captured. These provide a strong guarantee for the prepa­
ration of fiber materials with novel structural features and excellent
performance. 3) In the application of electrochemical energy storage
devices, electrospinning technology can prepare nanofiber materials
with special structures that meet the characteristics of large electrolyte
contact surface area and low ion transmission resistance. For example,
some researchers [21] have prepared nanofibrous materials with a tube-
in-tube structure using electrospinning technology. The unique struc­
ture, act as an “ion-buffering reservoirs” for electrolytes, shortens the
diffusion path of electrons and ions, and it provides sufficient space to
buffer the volume change produced by high-rate insertion and extrac­
tion of electrolyte ions. As a result, it exhibits excellent electrochemical
performance.
Currently, raw materials for preparing electrospun nanofibers
generally include polyacrylonitrile(PAN) [24], asphalt [25], polyvinyl
alcohol [26–28], polyvinylidene fluoride(PVDF) [29,30], phenolic resin
[31,32], biomass and its derivatives [33,34]. In numerous precursors,
biomass and its derivatives as precursors for the preparation of nano­
fibers have received more and more attention from researchers.
Compared with existing precursors, the use of biomass and its de­
rivatives as raw materials for nanofibers has many advantages:1)
Extensive source and low cost. Biomass is one of the most abundant
renewable energy sources on the earth, and it has the characteristics of
Fig. 2. (a) Schematic of electrospinning. Reproduced with permission [22]. (b) Schematic diagram of carbon nanofiber synthesis [23].
2
Fuel 355 (2024) 129534
large reserves, various types and renewable [35]. As a large agricultural
country, China produces a large amount of agricultural solid waste every
year, including straw, branches and leaves [36]. In addition, large
amounts of biomass-based solid wastes are produced in industrial pro­
duction processes, such as the paper industry. The collection cost of
these solid wastes is low, which undoubtedly provides a favorable way
for the preparation of high-performance carbon nanofibers at low cost.
2)Process simplification. A well-dispersed precursor solution is a pre­
requisite for the preparation of electrospun nanofibers. Biomass as raw
material can shorten the processing time of stirring and heating in the
preparation process. It greatly improves production efficiency. A recent
study [37] on the preparation of electrospun fibers from a precursor
solution composed of Alcell®-lignin and ethanol at an appropriate
temperature is reported. 3)Environmental friendly and low-carbon.
Biomass is the only renewable carbon source and it is also considered
to be an “zero-carbon” resource [38]. Biomass for electrospun nano­
fibers is used as a raw material can effectively reduce the use of other
organic polymers. The preparation of electrospun nanofibers from
biomass is conducive to the realization of green, low-carbon and sus­
tainable energy development, and has an important contribution to
promoting the reduction of carbon emissions in the whole society. All in
all, it is of great significance to vigorously develop biomass-based
nanofiber materials used in electrochemical energy storage devices for
the realization of high-value conversion and utilization of biomass re­
sources and the rapid development of electrochemical energy storage
technology.
At present, biomass components and their derivatives(e.g. lignin,
cellulose, starch, protein, tar and alginate) have been used as raw ma­
terials to prepare nanofibers and applied in the electrochemical energy
storage devices. Unfortunately, the systematic introduction about the
conversion method of biomass to biomass-based nanofibers through
electrospinning technology, as well as its application in supercapacitors
and batteries, is insufficient. Therefore, this work systematically ex­
pounds the application of electrospinning technology in the synthesis of
biomass-based nanofibers, and comprehensively summarizes the latest
development trend of biomass-based nanofibers according to the
working principle and electrochemical performance. Besides, this work
gives some suggestions for the future development of biomass-based
nanofibers materials in energy storage.
2. Biomass-derived electrospun nanofiber materials for energy
storage
2.1. Advances in electrospun nanofibers prepared by raw biomass
Biomass is the only renewable carbon source in the world [39], and it
is an ideal choice to use it as a raw material to prepare nanofibers.
Electrochemical nanofiber materials prepared by electrospinning
H. Jiang et al.
technology not only provides an effective way for the utilization of
biomass resources, but also realizes the preparation of energy storage
equipment with good electrochemical performance. For example, Tao
et al. [40] used walnut shell as a raw material to synthesize an inde­
pendent carbon nanofiber mat with rich pore structure and mechanical
flexibility, and applied it in the lithium ion battery. Their results showed
that the electrodes had a specific capacity of 380 mAh g− 1 at 0.03A/g,
and the specific capacity was higher than 280 mAh g− 1 after 200 cycles
at 0.1 A/g. Chen et al. [34] carried out homogeneous esterification re­
actions of bagasse with acid anhydride. After using the esterified bagasse
as a feedstock, the structure of electrospun nanofibers became more
uniform, and the thermal stability of the nanofibers was improved. The
uniform and stable structural characteristics of the fibers are conducive
to expanding the electrochemical active area and improving the fast
ionization/electron transport path [41], so that the fibers exhibit
excellent electrochemical performance.
2.2. Advances in electrospun nanofibers prepared by biomass thermal
conversion products
In recent years, researchers have pointed out that tar produced in
thermal process(e.g. pyrolysis, gasification) can be regarded as soft
carbon with good graphitization properties [42], which can be used as a
raw material to prepare carbon nanofibers with excellent electro­
chemical properties. For instance, Li et al. [43] used biomass tar and
glucose as raw materials to prepare carbon materials with hierarchical
pores and oxygen-rich functional groups. In their work, the specific
capacitance of the capacitor reached 175F/g. Wang et al. [44] prepared
a three-dimensional porous carbon membrane from microalgae-derived
oil and used it as an electrode material for supercapacitors. They found
that when the amount of the oil was 30%, the specific surface area of the
obtained carbon nanofibers was 2.1 times that of pure PAN carbon
nanofibers. Further, the specific capacitance of 272F/g at a scanning
speed of 10 mV s− 1 was given. They sumarrized that the high charge
storage capacity of the material was mainly due to the abundant mi­
cropores on the fiber surface that provided enough space for the rapid
transport of electrolyte ions, while the mesopores on the fiber surface
improved the accessibility of electrolyte ions. Li et al. [45] prepared
nitrogen-doped carbon materials for supercapacitors using bio-oil
distillation residues as raw materials and KOH as an activator, their
work also indicated that rich pore structure was an important factor for
obtaining desired electrochemical performance.
Although some excellent work has been reported by researchers,
there are some problems that need to be further broken through in the
process of preparing nanofibers. For instance, there are many kinds of
biomass in the world, and the content of various components(e.g. lignin,
cellulose) in different biomass is not uniform. These lead to different
physicochemical properties of biomass-based nanofiber materials. For
the application of biomass tar, the composition of biomass tar is complex
and its molecular weight is low [46], which causes the viscosity of the
precursor solution to decrease. This brings difficulties to the preparation
of electrospun nanofiber materials. Currently, researchers have begun to
use biomass components as raw materials to prepare nanofibers. The
following sections systematically introduce the development status of
biomass-based nanomaterials for electrochemical energy storage
devices.
3. Lignin-derived electrospun nanofiber materials for energy
storage
3.1. Advances in electrospun nanofibers prepared by lignin
Lignin is one of the main components of biomass, accounting for
15–30% of plants [47,48]. Raw lignin is an amorphous phenolic polymer
formed from phenylpropane structural units through ether bonds and
carbon bonds [49,50]. Generally, the preparation of electrospun
3
Fuel 355 (2024) 129534
nanofibers using lignin as a raw material requires purification. This is
mainly due to the heterogeneity of lignin and its cross-linked structure,
which reduces its spinnability [51,52]. Purification of lignin can
improve its binding effect with spinning aids and enhance its spinn­
ability. Du et al. [53] proposed to remove lignin with low molecular
weight from biomass feedstock by using gradient extraction method,
their results indicated that lignin with high molecular weight had low
dispersion index and high linear structure, and the prepared lignin-
based carbon nanofibers had a specific surface area of 1052.8 m2 g− 1
and an energy density of 53.7Wh kg− 1 when the power density was 600
W kg− 1. In the work of Berenguer et al. [37], Alcell®-lignin/ethanol
solution was used to prepare sub-micron diameter carbon fibers by
electrospinning technology. The power and energy density of the
assembled supercapacitors were 61 kW kg− 1 and 10Wh kg− 1. Schlee
et al. [51] prepared high-purity eucalyptus kraft lignin by using the
solvent extraction method, dichloromethane and methanol were used as
extraction solutions. The work obtained a yield of 52.3% for electro­
spinning precursors. In addition, Du et al. [54] found that the electro­
chemical properties of lignin-based carbon nanofibers prepared from
various biomass were different. Compared with other nanofibers pre­
pared from biomass(e.g. softwood and grass), poplar lignin-based car­
bon nanofibers represented by hardwood had larger specific
capacitance. They believed that this was mainly because hardwood
lignin had more linear structures and less branched chains than other
feedstocks, which promoted the formation of graphitized carbon struc­
tures in nanofibers. Moreover, the small crystallite size of hardwood
lignin-based carbon nanofibers further enhanced its electrochemical
performance(Fig. 3).
3.2. Advances in electrospun nanofibers prepared by the modified lignin
In addition to purifying lignin, modifying lignin with solvent is one
of the most effective ways to improve the electrochemical performance
of nanofibers. Zhu et al. [55] obtained the modified lignin with large
molecular weight and low heterogeneity by reacting lignin with iso­
phorone diisocyanate(Fig. 4a). Their work indicated that this method
effectively improved the spinnability of lignin and reduced the carbon
loss of fibers. The energy storage density of the material was 442.2F/g.
Dai et al. [56] noted that the esterified lignin had a lower glass transition
temperature, and the obtained carbon nanofibers had a fiber-to-fiber
bonding structure, high heteroatom content and good wettability, thus
forming an effective electronic transport network and generating pseu­
docapacitance. The preparation process of the fibers is shown in Fig. 4b.
In another of their work [57], it reported that lignin/polyacrylonitrile-
based carbon nanofibers were prepared by modifying lignin with ni­
trogen and sulfur co-doped graphene(Fig. 4c). The specific surface area
of carbon nanofibers reached 2439 m2 g− 1, and it had a typical three-
dimensional porous network structure. After 5000 charge–discharge
cycles, the supercapacitor still retained 96.7% of the specific
capacitance.
Other techniques for preparing nanofibers have also been reported.
For example, Li et al. [58] prepared two-dimensional lignin-derived
carbon nanosheets with hierarchical porous structure by using metal-
lignin assembly method. Wang et al. [59] proposed to integrate Ag
loaded lignin nanoparticles into the hydrogel matrix of the poly­
acrylamide for solving the limitation of weak interfacial adhesion be­
tween adjacent layers of flexible supercapacitors(Fig. 5a). Beaucamp
et al. [60] proposed a method for preparing highly swollen hydrogels
using lignin and polyethylene glycol diglycidyl ether(Fig. 5b). In addi­
tion, simple template method [61], one-step solvothermal method [62]
and self-assembly method [63,64] for preparing high-performance
lignin-based electrochemical materials are also reported in many
excellent works(Fig. 5c-f). These methods can be coupled with electro­
spinning technology to prepare electrochemical energy storage mate­
rials with better performance in the future.
H. Jiang et al. Fuel 355 (2024) 129534

Fig. 3. Extraction process of lignin from different plants and electrochemical properties [54].

Fig. 4. (a) The modification principle [55]. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from {Electrospun Lignin-Based Carbon Nanofibers as Supercapacitor Electrodes}.
Copyright {2020} American Chemical Society. (b)Schematic illustration of the fiber preparation [56]. (c)The process for supercapacitor based on lignin-based carbon
nanofibers [57].

4
H. Jiang et al.
Fig. 5. (a)Design of the hydrogel matrix [59]. (b)A method for preparing highly swollen hydrogels [60]. (c)A facile template strategy for preparing porous carbon
materials [61]. (d)Schematic illustration of the composite materials [62]. (e)Preparation of lignin-based materials by self-assembly and chemical activation [63]. (f)
Preparation of nitrogen-doped hierarchical porous lignin-derived carbon materials [64].
4. Cellulose-derived electrospun nanofiber materials for energy
storage
4.1. Advances in electrospun nanofibers prepared by cellulose
Cellulose is a linear macromolecular polysaccharide formed by
connecting glucose structural units through β-1,4-glycosidic bonds
[65,66]. Cellulose contains a large amount of oxygen-containing
chemical structure, which causes high autoxidative weight loss during
the carbonization process, resulting in the collapse of the shape and
structure of carbon nanofibers [67–69]. These greatly weaken the
electrochemical performance of nanofibrous materials, and thus it is
quite difficult to directly prepare electrospun nanofibers from cellulose
to meet the needs of practical applications. In order to solve these
problems, Cao et al. [70] proposed the technical idea of using epichlo­
rohydrin to introduce covalent bonds. The work showed that the
introduction of covalent bonds not only retained the characteristics of
cellulose itself, but also increased the thermal stability of the fibers. Lalia
et al. [71] prepared composite materials by doping polyvinylidene
fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene, the work showed that the tensile
modulus of the material was increased by about 75%, and the electrolyte
retention was increased by about 63%. In addition, adding carbon
nanotubes is also considered to be an effective method. Deng et al. [72]
pointed out that the addition of carbon nanotubes promoted the
5
Fuel 355 (2024) 129534
roughening of the fiber surface, reduced the activation energy of cellu­
lose oxidation and increased the crystallite size, structural order and
electrical conductivity of nanofibers, which in turn improved the
microstructure and electrochemical capacitance of nanofibers. Their
work showed that the specific capacitance was increased by 1.38 times
than the blank sample.
4.2. Advances in electrospun nanofibers prepared by cellulose derivatives
Various investigations on the preparation of excellent electro­
chemical energy storage elements using cellulose derivatives as raw
materials are reported, including cellulose acetate [73–75], hydrox­
ypropyl methylcellulose [76] and ethyl cellulose [77,78]. As an
important cellulose derivative, cellulose acetate has good thermal sta­
bility, strong hydrophilicity and excellent biocompatibility [79,80], so it
is widely used as a raw material for preparing nanofibers. Zhang et al.
[81] prepared cellulose acetate/PVDF composite membranes(Fig. 6a-b),
the obtained results indicated that the battery using the prepared
membranes have higher electrochemical performance to that of Celgard
2500 membranes. The work of Huang et al. [82,83] showed nanofibers
which used cellulose as the core material and poly(vinylidene fluoride-
co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) as the shell material(Fig. 6c-d).
The reason that lithium-ion batteries showed excellent performance was
attributed to the good interfacial compatibility of the electrode
H. Jiang et al.
Fig. 6. (a)The preparation of cellulose acetate/PVDF composite membranes [81]. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from {Renewable and superior thermal-
resistant cellulose-based composite nonwoven as lithium-ion battery separator}. Copyright {2013} American Chemical Society. (b)SEM image of the cellulose/
PVDF-HFP composite materials [81]. (c)Thermal treatment test [82]. (d)SEM and TEM images of nanofibers [82].
materials. It was conducive to improving the cycle performance and rate
performance of the electrodes. In addition, their work indicated that the
cellulose/PVDF-HFP separator exhibited good flame retardancy, which
enhanced the safety of the battery. Moreover, Zhu et al. [84] studied the
electrochemical performance of membranes prepared by cellulose
acetate/L-polylactic acid, and pointed out that L-polylactic acid chains
improved the migration efficiency of lithium ions in energy storage
devices, while cellulose acetate enhanced its thermodynamic perfor­
mance. Their coupling effects greatly improved the electrochemical
performance of the material.
5. Electrospun nanofibers prepared by other biomass
components
Starch, protein, and other components contained in biomass are also
widely used to prepare electrochemical energy storage devices. Some
researchers [85–87] have noted that carbon nanofibers produced by
starch have high crystallinity and large specific surface area. Although
the nanofibers prepared by starch have significant advantages, the
preparation of electrospun nanofibers directly from starch still has some
problems, including poor solubility, low tensile strength and high sur­
face tension [88,89]. Some methods have been reported to improve the
characteristics of starch-based carbon nanofibers: 1)Cross-linking
modification with organic polymers, biopolymers; 2)Mixing organic
polymers with starch to prepare composite precursors for spinning.
Jackapon et al. [90] believed that polyvinyl alcohol was a desired pre­
cursor solution due to its good thermal stability, biocompatibility and
hydrophilicity. Wang et al. [87] prepared a carbon nanofiber with hi­
erarchical micro/meso porous structure using high amylose starch, their
work indicated that the specific capacitance of the electrode was 344F/g
6
Fuel 355 (2024) 129534
at 1.0A/g. Furthermore, Kebabsa et al. [91] prepared corn starch carbon
nanofibers with cross-linked Co3O4 particles, their results indicated that
the specific capacitance of supercapacitors was more than three times
that of pure carbon fiber electrodes.
Protein is often considered to make nitrogen-doped carbon fiber
materials. However, the challenges are how to form the expected ma­
terial structure and obtain high nitrogen content after carbonization. To
solve these problems, Yang et al. [92] incorporated calcium salt into the
precursors of plant protein, and they found that calcium salt could
ensure that the nanofibers maintained a good fiber structure during
carbonization, and some positive effects on the synthesis of nanofibers
with high nitrogen content were also found. The results of electro­
chemical tests showed that the specific capacitance of 64μF cm− 2 at
0.5A/g. The work of Wang et al. [93] indicated that the addition of
cellulose acetate to the solution of soybean protein isolate improved the
physicochemical properties of membranes, and the presence of hetero­
atoms enhanced the pseudo capacitance. After 50,000 cycles, the cycle
stability of electrodes still maintained 98.9%.
6. Differential analysis of various biomass materials for
electrochemical application
Biomass and its derivatives are various and complex in composition
[94]. The morphology and structure of nanofibrous materials prepared
from different biomass feedstocks are diverse, so that they exhibit
different electrochemical performances in electrochemical energy stor­
age devices. Table 1 summarizes the typical characteristics and elec­
trochemical performances of the electrospun nanofiber materials
prepared using different biomass feedstocks. Considering the properties
of the various biomass materials, lignin-based nanofibers are prone to
H. Jiang et al. Fuel 355 (2024) 129534

Table 1 produce microporous or mesoporous structures during carbonization

Application of biomass-based electrospun nanofibers in energy storage devices. due to the high oxygen content of lignin [95]. In addition, lignin-based
Raw materials Nanofibers Specific Energy Power Ref. electrospun nanofibers undergo oxidation, condensation and other re­
features capacitance density density actions to form a dense cross-linked structure during the carbonization
(F/g)/ (Wh (W process, so that the nanofiber materials have high mechanical strength
current kg− 1) kg− 1)
[96]. Like lignin, electrospun nanofibrous materials prepared from cel­
density
(A/g) lulose also have rich pore structures [97,98]. However, the morphology
and structure of cellulose-based carbon nanofibers are difficult to con­
Lignin Multi-channels 406/0.5 11.5 451 [107]
nanofibers
trol during the carbonization [99]. Hence, high-performance cellulose-
Lignin Three- 267.32 9.28 493 [57] based nanofibers are generally prepared by using solvent modification
dimensional or blending other feedstocks. Compared with lignin-based electrospun
porous network nanofibrous materials, cellulose-based carbon nanofibers have better
structures
mechanical stability, which enables the design and application of flex­
Lignin Phosphorus and 165 13 [108]
oxygen ible and bendable electrodes [100,101]. For other biomass raw mate­
enriched rials, nanofibers prepared by them, such as protein, are rich in nitrogen.
Lignin Fiber aerogels 155/0.5 5.04 125 [109] In electrochemical energy storage devices, this is able to effectively
Lignin Interconnected 47/1 10 61,000 [37] improve the specific power density and energy density by increasing
and porous
carbon fibers
pseudocapacitance [102]. This advantage is unmatched by other
Lignin Ultra-fine 289 [103] biomass feedstocks.
microporous When various biomass-based nanofibers are applied as super­
carbon capacitors or lithium-ion battery electrodes, different characteristics of
nanofibers
electrochemical performance are obtained. As mentioned above, lignin-
Lignin Independent 405.8 53.7 600 [53]
filamentous based nanofibers have a rich pore structure, which effectively promotes
morphology the adsorption of electrolyte ions, enabling these conductive active
networks materials to undergo a series of electrochemical reactions at high fre­
Lignin Free-standing 155/0.1 4 52,000 [51] quencies [103]. The abundant functional groups on cellulose-based
microporous
nanofibers endow them with good wettability in various electrolytes,
carbon fiber
mats which is beneficial to broaden the potential window [100]. In addition,
Lignin Inter-fiber 320/1 17.92 800 [56] electrodes used cellulose-based nanofibers can withstand the structural
bonding changes that occur during continuous charging and discharging
structure
[104,105], thereby ensuring their long-term stable operation. For
Lignin Independent 349.2 39.6 5000 [54]
filamentous nanofibers prepared by other biomass feedstocks, the preparation of
morphology nanofibers with nitrogen-containing groups is a notable feature. The
networks nitrogen-containing groups can serve as electrochemically active centers
Lignin N element 533.7/0.5 69.7 780 [110] to increase electronic conductivity and improve the kinetics of redox
doping and
reactions [106]. These features significant improve the electrochemical
three-
dimensional performance of energy storage devices.
network
Lignin Light-weight 139.4/0.5 41.4 3500 [111] 7. Conclusion and outlook
carbon
nanofibers
Lignocellulose Hierarchically 289.5 56.0 1260 [23] Electrospinning technology has become an effective way for pre­
porous carbon paring nanofibers with excellent electrochemical properties, and the
nanofibers preparation of electrospun nanofibers for electrochemical energy stor­
Cellulose Independent 320.3 30.2 400 [70] age devices using biomass and its derivatives as raw materials is
acetate filamentous
morphology
developing rapidly. The rich porous structure and morphological char­
Cellulose Nitrogen- 1045 51 117,000 [112] acteristics of nanofibers are important prerequisites for fast ionization
acetate functionalized and efficient electron transport performance of electrochemical energy
carbon storage devices. Moreover, the good flexibility, wide temperature range
nanofibers
and high thermal stability of biomass-based nanofibrous materials are
Cellulose Composite 145/10 [72]
acetate nanofibers important guarantees for the excellent performance of electrochemical
Nanocellulose Three- 64.83/0.25 23.05 213 [113] energy storage devices. In order to obtain nanofibrous materials with
dimensional excellent electrochemical properties, the selection of biomass raw ma­
porous structure terials and their treatment methods are particularly important. Various
Hemicellulosa Micro-meso 201.6 28 109.5 [18]
pore
pretreatment and modification methods have been reported succes­
distribution sively, but the complexity of biomass components still bring serious
Starch Porous hybrid 137 [91] obstacles to the preparation of high-performance electrospun nano­
nanofiber fibers. In addition, effective regulation of the structure of nanofibrous
Starch Mesoporous 170 [114]
materials during carbonization remains a challenge.
Cellulose Free-standing 219.3/0.2 5.6 16,800 [93]
acetate/soy N-doped carbon Future work should focus on the pretrement of biomass, the opti­
protein nanofiber mization of the electrospinning preparation process, and the improve­
isolate ment of the performance of electrospun nanofibers. In addition, actively
Chitosan P and N dual- 358.7/1 13.1 248 [115] use the molecular dynamics simulation method to reveal the intrinsic
doped 1D
porous carbon
relationship between the physical and chemical characteristics of
nanofibers nanofibers and electrochemical properties from a microscopic perspec­
tive, clarify the key factors that affect the electrochemical properties of
materials, and use the obtained advanced theory to guide

7
H. Jiang et al.
electrospinning nanofibers preparation. On this basis, actively explore
the establishment of a basic database based on the characteristics of
biomass components to provide support for convenient and efficient
screening of biomass raw materials for electrospinning.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Haifeng Jiang: Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualiza­
tion. Mingfu Yao: Resources. Jie Chen: Resources, Investigation.
Mingyue Zhang: Resources. Wenpeng Hong: Resources, Investigation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgments
The authors express appreciation for the support of the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Project No. 52206133), the Sci­
ence and Technology Development Plan of Jilin Province (Project No.
20230203117SF).
References
[1] Teng X, Zhuang W, Liu F peng, Chang T han, Chiu Y ho. China’s path of carbon
neutralization to develop green energy and improve energy efficiency. Renew
Energy 2023;206:397-408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.01.104.
[2] Liu X. The impact of China’s high-quality development of energy on carbon
neutrality. Energy Rep 2023;9:2665–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
egyr.2023.01.089.
[3] Raza S, Ghasali E, Raza M, Chen C, Li B, Orooji Y, et al. Advances in technology
and utilization of natural resources for achieving carbon neutrality and a
sustainable solution to neutral environment. Environ Res 2023;220:115135.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.115135.
[4] Chien FS, Kamran HW, Albashar G, Iqbal W. Dynamic planning, conversion, and
management strategy of different renewable energy sources: A Sustainable
Solution for Severe Energy Crises in Emerging Economies. Int J Hydrogen Energy
2021;46:7745–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.12.004.
[5] Ju L, Tan Q, Lin H, Mei S, Li N, Lu Y, et al. A two-stage optimal coordinated
scheduling strategy for micro energy grid integrating intermittent renewable
energy sources considering multi-energy flexible conversion. Energy 2020;196:
117078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117078.
[6] Zhu S, Peng Y, Min Y, Liu H, Xu Q. Research progress on materials and
technologies for electrochemical energy storage. Huagong Jinzhan/Chemical Ind
Eng Prog 2021;40:4837–52. https://doi.org/10.16085/j.issn.1000-6613.2021-
0745.
[7] Down MP, Rowley-Neale SJ, Smith GC, Banks CE. Fabrication of Graphene Oxide
Supercapacitor Devices. ACS Appl Energy Mater 2018;1:707–14. https://doi.org/
10.1021/acsaem.7b00164.
[8] Liu C, Yu Z, Neff D, Zhamu A, Jang BZ. Graphene-based supercapacitor with an
ultrahigh energy density. Nano Lett 2010;10:4863–8. https://doi.org/10.1021/
nl102661q.
[9] Kadir MFZ, Arof AK. Application of PVA-chitosan blend polymer electrolyte
membrane in electrical double layer capacitor. Mater Res Innov 2011;15:217–20.
https://doi.org/10.1179/143307511X13031890749299.
[10] Xie B, Yang C, Zhang Z, Zou P, Lin Z, Shi G, et al. Shape-Tailorable Graphene-
Based Ultra-high-Rate Supercapacitor for Wearable Electronics. ACS Nano 2015;
9:5636–45. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b00899.
[11] Yilmaz M, Krein PT. Review of battery charger topologies, charging power levels,
and infrastructure for plug-in electric and hybrid vehicles. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2013;28:2151–69. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2012.2212917.
[12] Sun Y, Sills RB, Hu X, Seh ZW, Xiao X, Xu H, et al. A Bamboo-Inspired
Nanostructure Design for Flexible, Foldable, and Twistable Energy Storage
Devices. Nano Lett 2015;15:3899–906. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
nanolett.5b00738.
[13] He S, Hou H, Chen W. 3D porous and ultralight carbon hybrid nanostructure
fabricated from carbon foam covered by monolayer of nitrogen-doped carbon
nanotubes for high performance supercapacitors. J Power Sources 2015;280:
678–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.01.159.
8
Fuel 355 (2024) 129534
[14] Butnoi P, Pangon A, Berger R, Butt HJ, Intasanta V. Electrospun nanocomposite
fibers from lignin and iron oxide as supercapacitor material. J Mater Res Technol
2021;12:2153–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.04.017.
[15] Maurya DK, Murugadoss V, Guo Z, Angaiah S. Designing Na2Zn2TeO6-Embedded
3D-Nanofibrous Poly(vinylidenefluoride)-co-hexafluoropropylene-Based
Nanohybrid Electrolyte via Electrospinning for Durable Sodium-Ion Capacitors.
ACS Appl Energy Mater 2021;4:8475–87. https://doi.org/10.1021/
acsaem.1c01682.
[16] Nordin FN, Alizadeh M, Nakajima H, Tunmee S, Chia MY, Chiu WS, et al.
Photoelectrochemical behavior of Si nanostructures grown by chemical vapor
deposition using waste-biomass sources. J Solid State Chem 2021;300:122254.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc.2021.122254.
[17] Shang Z, An X, Liu L, Yang J, Zhang W, Dai H, et al. Chitin nanofibers as versatile
bio-templates of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks for N-doped hierarchically
porous carbon electrodes for supercapacitor. Carbohydr Polym 2021;251:117107.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117107.
[18] Farma R, Apriyani I, Awitdrus A, Taer E, Apriwandi A. Hemicellulosa-derived
Arenga pinnata bunches as free-standing carbon nanofiber membranes for
electrode material supercapacitors. Sci Rep 2022;12:1–11. https://doi.org/
10.1038/s41598-022-06619-4.
[19] Amiri A, Conlee B, Tallerine I, Kennedy WJ, Naraghi M. A novel path towards
synthesis of nitrogen-rich porous carbon nanofibers for high performance
supercapacitors. Chem Eng J 2020;399:125788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cej.2020.125788.
[20] Tian D, Ao Y, Li W, Xu J, Wang C. General fabrication of metal-organic
frameworks on electrospun modified carbon nanofibers for high-performance
asymmetric supercapacitors. J Colloid Interface Sci 2021;603:199–209. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2021.05.138.
[21] Peng S, Li L, Hu Y, Srinivasan M, Cheng F, Chen J, et al. Fabrication of spinel one-
dimensional architectures by single-spinneret electrospinning for energy storage
applications. ACS Nano 2015;9:1945–54. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn506851x.
[22] Juncos Bombin AD, Dunne NJ, McCarthy HO. Electrospinning of natural
polymers for the production of nanofibres for wound healing applications. Mater
Sci Eng C 2020;114:110994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2020.110994.
[23] Chen W, Wang H, Lan W, Li D, Zhang A, Liu C. Construction of sugarcane bagasse-
derived porous and flexible carbon nanofibers by electrospinning for
supercapacitors. Ind Crops Prod 2021;170:113700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
indcrop.2021.113700.
[24] de Oliveira P, Santos R, Hao J, de Mello D, Innocentini M, Frollini E, et al.
Composite electrospun membranes based on polyacrylonitrile and cellulose
nanofibrils: Relevant properties for their use as active filter layers. Sep Purif
Technol 2023;311:123358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.123358.
[25] Zhao Q, Xie H, Ning H, Liu J, Zhang H, Wang L, et al. Intercalating petroleum
asphalt into electrospun ZnO/Carbon nanofibers as enhanced free-standing anode
for lithium-ion batteries. J Alloys Compd 2018;737:330–6. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.12.091.
[26] Wei L, Zhou D, Kang X. Electrospinning as a novel strategy for the encapsulation
of living probiotics in polyvinyl alcohol/silk fibroin. Innov Food Sci Emerg
Technol 2021;71:102726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102726.
[27] Porras-Saavedra J, Ricaurte L, Pérez-Pérez NC, Quintanilla-Carvajal MX.
Development and characterization of Sechium edule starch and polyvinyl alcohol
nanofibers obtained by electrospinning. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem Eng Asp
2022;649:129456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.129456.
[28] Wu S, Li K, Shi W, Cai J. Chitosan/polyvinylpyrrolidone/polyvinyl alcohol/
carbon nanotubes dual layers nanofibrous membrane constructed by
electrospinning-electrospray for water purification. Carbohydr Polym 2022;294:
119756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119756.
[29] Yan J, Bai T, Yue Y, Cheng W, Bai L, Wang D, et al. Nanostructured superior oil-
adsorbent nanofiber composites using one-step electrospinning of polyvinylidene
fluoride/nanocellulose. Compos Sci Technol 2022;224:109490. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.compscitech.2022.109490.
[30] Kaur GA, Shandilya M, Rana P, Thakur S, Uniyal P. Modification of structural and
magnetic properties of Co0.5Ni0.5Fe2O4 nanoparticles embedded Polyvinylidene
Fluoride nanofiber membrane via electrospinning method. Nano-Struct and
Nano-Objects 2020;22:100428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoso.2020.100428.
[31] Sharma A, Kumar R, Gupta A, Agrawal PR, Dwivedi N, Mondal DP, et al.
Enhanced electromagnetic interference shielding properties of phenolic resin
derived lightweight carbon foam decorated with electrospun zinc oxide
nanofibers. Mater Today Commun 2022;30:103055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
mtcomm.2021.103055.
[32] Wang L, Huang ZH, Yue M, Li M, Wang M, Kang F. Preparation of flexible
phenolic resin-based porous carbon fabrics by electrospinning. Chem Eng J 2013;
218:232–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.12.042.
[33] Raza ZA, Munim SA, Ayub A. Recent developments in polysaccharide-based
electrospun nanofibers for environmental applications. Carbohydr Res 2021;510:
108443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2021.108443.
[34] Chen W, Meng XT, Wang HH, Zhang XQ, Wei Y, Li ZY, et al. A feasibleway to
produce carbon nanofiber by electrospinning from sugarcane bagasse. Polymers
(Basel) 2019;11:1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11121968.
[35] Vinayagam M, Suresh Babu R, Sivasamy A, de Barros ALF. Biomass-derived
porous activated carbon nanofibers from Sapindus trifoliatus nut shells for high-
performance symmetric supercapacitor applications. Carbon Lett 2021;31:
1133–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42823-021-00235-4.
[36] Xu ZX, Song H, Li PJ, He ZX, Wang Q, Wang K, et al. Hydrothermal carbonization
of sewage sludge: Effect of aqueous phase recycling. Chem Eng J 2020;387:
123410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.123410.
H. Jiang et al.
[37] Berenguer R, García-Mateos FJ, Ruiz-Rosas R, Cazorla-Amorós D, Morallón E,
Rodríguez-Mirasol J, et al. Biomass-derived binderless fibrous carbon electrodes
for ultrafast energy storage. Green Chem 2016;18:1506–15. https://doi.org/
10.1039/c5gc02409a.
[38] Vinayagam M, Suresh Babu R, Sivasamy A, Ferreira de Barros AL. Biomass-
derived porous activated carbon from Syzygium cumini fruit shells and
Chrysopogon zizanioides roots for high-energy density symmetric
supercapacitors. Biomass Bioenergy 2020;143:105838. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.biombioe.2020.105838.
[39] Atchudan R, Jebakumar Immanuel Edison TN, Perumal S, Vinodh R, Babu RS,
Sundramoorthy AK, et al. Facile synthesis of nitrogen-doped porous carbon
materials using waste biomass for energy storage applications. Chemosphere
2022;289:133225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133225.
[40] Tao L, Huang Y, Zheng Y, Yang X, Liu C, Di M, et al. Porous carbon nanofiber
derived from a waste biomass as anode material in lithium-ion batteries. J Taiwan
Inst Chem Eng 2019;95:217–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.07.005.
[41] Zhou H, Su Y, Zhang J, Li H, Zhou L, Huang H. A novel embedded all-solid-state
composite structural supercapacitor based on activated carbon fiber electrode and
carbon fiber reinforced polymer matrix. Chem Eng J 2023;454:140222. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.140222.
[42] Xu Q, Ni X, Chen S, Ye J, Yang J, Wang H, et al. Hierarchically porous carbon
from biomass tar as sustainable electrode material for high-performance
supercapacitors. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2023;48:25635–44. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.03.171.
[43] Li D, Guo Y, Li Y, Liu Z, Chen Z. Waste-biomass tar functionalized carbon spheres
with N/P Co-doping and hierarchical pores as sustainable low-cost energy storage
materials. Renew Energy 2022;188:61–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
renene.2022.01.109.
[44] Wang T, He X, Gong W, Kou Z, Yao Y, Fulbright S, et al. Three-dimensional,
heteroatom-enriched, porous carbon nanofiber flexible paper for free-standing
supercapacitor electrode materials derived from microalgae oil. Fuel Process
Technol 2022;225:107055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2021.107055.
[45] Li K, Nan D hong, Li Z yu, Xie J heng, Ma S wei, Huang Y qin, et al. Preparation
and optimization of nitrogen-doped porous carbon derived from bio-oil
distillation residue for high-performance supercapacitors. J Energy Storage 2023;
57: 106219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.106219.
[46] Song K, Wu Q, Zhang Z, Ren S, Lei T, Dooley KM, et al. Fabricating electrospun
nanofibers with antimicrobial capability: A facile route to recycle biomass tar.
Fuel 2015;150:123–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.02.025.
[47] Liao Y, Koelewijn SF, van den Bossche G, van Aelst J, van den Bosch S, Renders T,
et al. A sustainable wood biorefinery for low-carbon footprint chemicals
production. Science 2020;367:1385–90. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.
aau1567.
[48] Kai D, Tan MJ, Chee PL, Chua YK, Yap YL, Loh XJ. Towards lignin-based
functional materials in a sustainable world. Green Chem 2016;18:1175–200.
https://doi.org/10.1039/c5gc02616d.
[49] Liu WJ, Jiang H, Yu HQ. Thermochemical conversion of lignin to functional
materials: a review and future directions. Green Chem 2015;17:4888–907.
https://doi.org/10.1039/c5gc01054c.
[50] Xie W, Hu B, Zhang W, Li H, Song G, Liu J, et al. Revelation of bimolecular
tautomerization induced by the concerted and radical interactions in lignin
pyrolysis. J Energy Chem 2023;84:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jechem.2023.05.007.
[51] Schlee P, Hosseinaei O, Baker D, Landmér A, Tomani P, Mostazo-López MJ, et al.
From Waste to Wealth: From Kraft Lignin to Free-standing Supercapacitors.
Carbon N Y 2019;145:470–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2019.01.035.
[52] Ding R, Wu H, Thunga M, Bowler N, Kessler MR. Processing and characterization
of low-cost electrospun carbon fibers from organosolv lignin/polyacrylonitrile
blends. Carbon N Y 2016;100:126–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
carbon.2015.12.078.
[53] Du B, Chai L, Zhu H, Cheng J, Wang X, Chen X, et al. Effective fractionation
strategy of sugarcane bagasse lignin to fabricate quality lignin-based carbon
nanofibers supercapacitors. Int J Biol Macromol 2021;184:604–17. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.06.061.
[54] Du B, Zhu H, Chai L, Cheng J, Wang X, Chen X, et al. Effect of lignin structure in
different biomass resources on the performance of lignin-based carbon nanofibers
as supercapacitor electrode. Ind Crops Prod 2021;170:113745. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113745.
[55] Zhu M, Liu H, Cao Q, Zheng H, Xu D, Guo H, et al. Electrospun Lignin-Based
Carbon Nanofibers as Supercapacitor Electrodes. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2020;8:
12831–41. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c03062.
[56] Dai Z, Ren PG, He W, Hou X, Ren F, Zhang Q, et al. Boosting the electrochemical
performance of nitrogen-oxygen co-doped carbon nanofibers based
supercapacitors through esterification of lignin precursor. Renew Energy 2020;
162:613–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.07.152.
[57] Dai Z, Ren PG, Jin YL, Zhang H, Ren F, Zhang Q. Nitrogen-sulphur Co-doped
graphenes modified electrospun lignin/polyacrylonitrile-based carbon nanofiber
as high performance supercapacitor. J Power Sources 2019;437:226937. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.226937.
[58] Li W, Wang G, Sui W, Ying Xu AM, Parvez CS. Novel metal-lignin assembly
strategy for one-pot fabrication of lignin-derived heteroatom-doped
hierarchically porous carbon and its application in high-performance
supercapacitor. Int J Biol Macromol 2023;234:123603. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijbiomac.2023.123603.
[59] Wang D, Yang F, Cong L, Feng W, Wang C, Chu F, et al. Lignin-containing
hydrogel matrices with enhanced adhesion and toughness for all-hydrogel
9
Fuel 355 (2024) 129534
supercapacitors. Chem Eng J 2022;450:138025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cej.2022.138025.
[60] Beaucamp A, Muddasar M, Crawford T, Collins MN, Culebras M. Sustainable
lignin precursors for tailored porous carbon-based supercapacitor electrodes. Int J
Biol Macromol 2022;221:1142–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijbiomac.2022.09.097.
[61] Liu J, Mei X, Peng F. Lignin derived porous carbon with favorable mesoporous
contributions for highly efficient ionic liquid-based supercapacitors. Chinese
Chem Lett 2023;37:108187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108187.
[62] Li J, Yang J, Wang P, Cong Z, Shi F, Wei L, et al. NiCo2S4 combined 3D
hierarchical porous carbon derived from lignin for high-performance
supercapacitors. Int J Biol Macromol 2023;232:123344. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123344.
[63] Liang Y, Zhou Y, Liu X, Qi X. Synthesis of ultra-thin graphene-like nanosheets
from lignin based on evaporation induced self-assembly for supercapacitors. Int J
Biol Macromol 2023;230:123247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijbiomac.2023.123247.
[64] Fu F, Yang D, Fan Y, Qiu X, Huang J, Li Z, et al. Nitrogen-rich accordion-like
lignin porous carbon via confined self-assembly template and in-situ mild
activation strategy for high-performance supercapacitors. J Colloid Interface Sci
2022;628:90–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2022.07.070.
[65] Abitbol T, Rivkin A, Cao Y, Nevo Y, Abraham E, Ben-Shalom T, et al.
Nanocellulose, a tiny fiber with huge applications. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2016;39:
76–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2016.01.002.
[66] Wang Z, Kang K, Wu J, Hu Q, Harper DP, Du G, et al. Comparative effects of
electrospinning ways for fabricating green, sustainable, flexible, porous,
nanofibrous cellulose/chitosan carbon mats as anode materials for lithium-ion
batteries. J Mater Res Technol 2021;11:50–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmrt.2021.01.009.
[67] Bassett AW, La Scala JJ, Stanzione JF. Richard P. Wool’s contributions to
sustainable polymers from 2000 to 2015. J Appl Polym Sci 2016; 133: 1–14.
https://doi.org/10.1002/app.43801.
[68] Cho M, Karaaslan MA, Renneckar S, Ko F. Enhancement of the mechanical
properties of electrospun lignin-based nanofibers by heat treatment. J Mater Sci
2017;52:9602–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-1160-0.
[69] Byrne N, De Silva R, Ma Y, Sixta H, Hummel M. Enhanced stabilization of
cellulose-lignin hybrid filaments for carbon fiber production. Cellul 2018;25:
723–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-017-1579-0.
[70] Cao Q, Zhang Y, Chen J, Zhu M, Yang C, Guo H, et al. Electrospun biomass based
carbon nanofibers as high-performance supercapacitors. Ind Crops Prod 2020;
148:112181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112181.
[71] Lalia BS, Samad YA, Hashaikeh R. Nanocrystalline cellulose-reinforced composite
mats for lithium-ion batteries: Electrochemical and thermomechanical
performance. J Solid State Electrochem 2013;17:575–81. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10008-012-1894-1.
[72] Deng L, Young RJ, Kinloch IA, Abdelkader AM, Holmes SM, De Haro-Del Rio DA,
et al. Supercapacitance from cellulose and carbon nanotube nanocomposite
fibers. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2013;5:9983–90. https://doi.org/10.1021/
am403622v.
[73] An Y, Yang Y, Hu Z, Guo B, Wang X, Yang X, et al. High-performance symmetric
supercapacitors based on carbon nanosheets framework with graphene hydrogel
architecture derived from cellulose acetate. J Power Sources 2017;337:45–53.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.10.112.
[74] Devarayan K, Park J, Kim HY, Kim BS. Facile green synthesis of silver
nanodendrite/cellulose acetate thin film electrodes for flexible supercapacitors.
Carbohydr Polym 2017;163:153–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
carbpol.2017.01.066.
[75] Fischer J, Pohle B, Dmitrieva E, Thümmler K, Fischer S, Mikhailova D. Symmetric
supercapacitors with cellulose-derived carbons and Na2SO4 electrolytes operating
in a wide temperature range. J Energy Storage 2022;55:105725. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.est.2022.105725.
[76] Xu G, Han Y, Li X, Tao J, Wei W, Gu Z, et al. A hydrogel electrolyte based on
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose modified polyacrylamine for efficient
electrochromic energy storage devices. Eur Polym J 2023;186:111856. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2023.111856.
[77] Kim T, Yi SH, Chun SE. Electrophoretic deposition of a supercapacitor electrode
of activated carbon onto an indium-tin-oxide substrate using ethyl cellulose as a
binder. J Mater Sci Technol 2020;58:188–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmst.2020.03.072.
[78] Shrestha M, Amatya I, Wang K, Zheng B, Gu Z, Fan QH. Electrophoretic
deposition of activated carbon YP-50 with ethyl cellulose binders for
supercapacitor electrodes. J Energy Storage 2017;13:206–10. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.est.2017.07.015.
[79] Varghese H, Hakkeem HMA, Chauhan K, Thouti E, Pillai S, Chandran A. A high-
performance flexible triboelectric nanogenerator based on cellulose acetate
nanofibers and micropatterned PDMS films as mechanical energy harvester and
self-powered vibrational sensor. Nano Energy 2022;98:107339. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107339.
[80] Han W, Xiao Y, Yin J, Gong Y, Tuo X, Cao J. Fe3O4@carbon nanofibers
synthesized from cellulose acetate and application in lithium-ion battery.
Langmuir 2020;36:11237–44. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c01399.
[81] Zhang J, Liu Z, Kong Q, Zhang C, Pang S, Yue L, et al. Renewable and superior
thermal-resistant cellulose-based composite nonwoven as lithium-ion battery
separator. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2013;5:128–34. https://doi.org/10.1021/
am302290n.
H. Jiang et al.
[82] Huang F, Xu Y, Peng B, Su Y, Jiang F, Lo HY, et al. Coaxial electrospun cellulose-
core fluoropolymer-shell fibrous membrane from recycled cigarette filter as
separator for high performance lithium-ion battery. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2015;
3:932–40. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00032.
[83] Huang F, Liu W, Li P, Ning J, Wei Q. Electrochemical properties of LLTO/
fluoropolymer-shell cellulose-core fibrous membrane for separator of high
performance lithium-ion battery. Materials (Basel) 2016;9:75. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma9020075.
[84] Zhu M, Lan J, Tan C, Sui G, Yang X. Degradable cellulose acetate/poly-l-lactic
acid/halloysite nanotube composite nanofiber membranes with outstanding
performance for gel polymer electrolytes. J Mater Chem A 2016;4:12136–43.
https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ta05207j.
[85] Sridhar R, Lakshminarayanan R, Madhaiyan K, Barathi VA, Limh KHC,
Ramakrishna S. Electrosprayed nanoparticles and electrospun nanofibers based
on natural materials: Applications in tissue regeneration, drug delivery and
pharmaceuticals. Chem Soc Rev 2015;44:790–814. https://doi.org/10.1039/
c4cs00226a.
[86] Saliu OD, Mamo M, Ndungu P, Ramontja J. Starch built TiO2 nanoarchitecture
with mixed anatase and rutile phase for high energy density supercapacitor
electrode. J Energy Storage 2022;49:104155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
est.2022.104155.
[87] Wang H, Wang H, Ruan F, Feng Q, Wei Y, Fang J. High-porosity carbon
nanofibers prepared from polyacrylonitrile blended with amylose starch for
application in supercapacitors. Mater Chem Phys 2023;293:126896. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2022.126896.
[88] Asl MA, Karbasi S, Beigi-Boroujeni S, Zamanlui Benisi S, Saeed M. Evaluation of
the effects of starch on polyhydroxybutyrate electrospun scaffolds for bone tissue
engineering applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2021;191:500–13. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.09.078.
[89] Li W, Zhang Z, Wu L, Zhu Z, Xu Z. Improving the adhesion-to-fibers and film
properties of corn starch by starch sulfo-itaconation for a better application in
warp sizing. Polym Test 2021;98:107194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
polymertesting.2021.107194.
[90] Sunthornvarabhas J, Chatakanonda P, Piyachomkwan K, Sriroth K. Electrospun
polylactic acid and cassava starch fiber by conjugated solvent technique. Mater
Lett 2011;65:985–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2010.12.038.
[91] Kebabsa L, Kim J, Lee D, Lee B. Highly porous cobalt oxide-decorated carbon
nanofibers fabricated from starch as free-standing electrodes for supercapacitors.
Appl Surf Sci 2020;511:145313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.145313.
[92] Yang J, Wang Y, Luo J, Chen L. Highly nitrogen-doped graphitic carbon fibers
from sustainable plant protein for supercapacitor. Ind Crops Prod 2018;121:
226–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.05.013.
[93] Wang Y, Qu Q, Cui J, Lu T, Li F, Zhang M, et al. Design and fabrication of cellulose
derived free-standing carbon nanofiber membranes for high performance
supercapacitors. Carbohydr Polym Technol Appl 2021;2:100117. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.carpta.2021.100117.
[94] Xu ZX, Ma XQ, Zhou J, Duan PG, Zhou WY, Ahmad A, et al. The influence of key
reactions during hydrothermal carbonization of sewage sludge on aqueous phase
properties: A review. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 2022;167:105678. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jaap.2022.105678.
[95] Yakaboylu GA, Yumak T, Jiang C, Zondlo JW, Wang J, Sabolsky EM. Preparation
of highly porous carbon through slow oxidative torrefaction, pyrolysis, and
chemical activation of lignocellulosic biomass for high-performance
supercapacitors. Energy Fuel 2019;33:9309–29. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
energyfuels.9b01260.
[96] Fang W, Yang S, Wang X-L, Yuan T-Q, Sun R-C. Manufacture and application of
lignin-based carbon fibers (LCFs) and lignin-based carbon nanofibers (LCNFs).
Green Chem 2017;19:1794–827. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6gc03206k.
[97] Zhang K, Li Z, Kang W, Deng N, Yan J, Ju J, et al. Preparation and
characterization of tree-like cellulose nanofiber membranes via the
electrospinning method. Carbohydr Polym 2018;183:62–9. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.11.032.
10
Fuel 355 (2024) 129534
[98] Yan C, Wei J, Guan J, Shao Z, Lv S. Highly foldable and free-standing
supercapacitor based on hierarchical and hollow MOF-anchored cellulose acetate
carbon nanofibers. Carbon N Y 2023;213:118187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
carbon.2023.118187.
[99] Gao K, Shen M, Duan C, Xiong C, Dai L, Zhao W, et al. Co-N-Doped Directional
Multichannel PAN/CA-Based Electrospun Carbon Nanofibers as High-Efficiency
Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalysts for Zn–Air Batteries. ACS Sustain Chem Eng
2021;9:17068–77. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c06040.
[100] Sun Z, Qu K, You Y, Huang Z, Liu S, Li J, et al. Overview of cellulose-based flexible
materials for supercapacitors. J Mater Chem A 2021;9:7278–300. https://doi.org/
10.1039/d0ta10504j.
[101] Zheng H, Cao Q, Zhu M, Xu D, Guo H, Li Y, et al. Biomass-based flexible nanoscale
carbon fibers: effects of chemical structure on energy storage properties. J Mater
Chem A 2021;9:10120–34. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ta00317h.
[102] Shan YQ, Xu ZX, Duan PG, Fan HL, Hu X, Luque R. Nitrogen and sulfur-doped
carbon obtained from direct hydrothermal carbonization of cellulose and
ammonium sulfate for supercapacitor applications. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2020;
8:15809–14. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c05520.
[103] Ma C, Wu L, Dirican M, Cheng H, Li J, Song Y, et al. ZnO-assisted synthesis of
lignin-based ultra-fine microporous carbon nanofibers for supercapacitors.
J Colloid Interface Sci 2021;586:412–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jcis.2020.10.105.
[104] Pérez-Madrigal MM, Edo MG, Alemán C. Powering the future: Application of
cellulose-based materials for supercapacitors. Green Chem 2016;18:5930–56.
https://doi.org/10.1039/c6gc02086k.
[105] Sheng J, Tong S, He Z, Yang R. Recent developments of cellulose materials for
lithium-ion battery separators. Cellul 2017;24:4103–22. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10570-017-1421-8.
[106] Yu Q, Xue Z, Li M, Qiu P, Li C, Wang S, et al. Electrochemical Activity of Nitrogen-
Containing Groups in Organic Electrode Materials and Related Improvement
Strategies. Adv Energy Mater 2021;11:1–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/
aenm.202002523.
[107] Cao M, Cheng W, Ni X, Hu Y, Han G. Lignin-based multi-channels carbon
nanofibers @ SnO2 nanocomposites for high-performance supercapacitors.
Electrochim Acta 2020;345:136172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
electacta.2020.136172.
[108] Huang C, Puziy AM, Sun T, Poddubnaya OI, Suárez-García F, Tascón JMD, et al.
Capacitive behaviours of phosphorus-rich carbons derived from lignocelluloses.
Electrochim Acta 2014;137:219–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
electacta.2014.05.101.
[109] Rong K, Wei J, Wang Y, Liu J, Qiao ZA, Fang Y, et al. Deep eutectic solvent
assisted zero-waste electrospinning of lignin fiber aerogels. Green Chem 2021;23:
6065–75. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1gc01872h.
[110] Du B, Wang X, Chai L, Wang X, Pan Z, Chen X, et al. Fabricating lignin-based
carbon nanofibers as versatile supercapacitors from food wastes. Int J Biol
Macromol 2022;194:632–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.11.107.
[111] Du B, Zhu H, Bai Y, Xu J, Pan Z, Wang Q, et al. Multifunction lignin-based carbon
nanofibers with enhanced electromagnetic wave absorption and surpercapacitive
energy storage capabilities. Int J Biol Macromol 2022;199:201–11. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.12.154.
[112] Cai J, Niu H, Li Z, Du Y, Cizek P, Xie Z, et al. High-Performance Supercapacitor
Electrode Materials from Cellulose-Derived Carbon Nanofibers. ACS Appl Mater
Interfaces 2015;7:14946–53. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b03757.
[113] Zhang Q, Chen C, Chen W, Pastel G, Guo X, Liu S, et al. Nanocellulose-Enabled,
All-Nanofiber, High-Performance Supercapacitor. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces
2019;11:5919–27. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b17414.
[114] Kim YK, Il CaS, Hong SH, Jeong YJ. A new hybrid architecture consisting of
highly mesoporous CNT/carbon nanofibers from starch. J Mater Chem 2012;22:
20554–60. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2jm32631k.
[115] Chen K, Liu J, Bian H, Wang W, Wang F, Shao Z. Dexterous and friendly
preparation of N/P co-doping hierarchical porous carbon nanofibers via
electrospun chitosan for high performance supercapacitors. J Electroanal Chem
2020;878:114473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114473.