2. Why are switches generally preferred to bridges except for the smallest networks?

Ans : I don’t agree with the assertion that bridges are for the smallest networks. The most
common use I see of bridges is connecting different physical media to the same layer2
Ethernet segment. The most common bridge in the world has to be the wifi access point,
followed by the fiber media converter. There are plenty of more exotic examples.
In general I might prefer a switch because the switch will have higher performance and more
useful features. I’d use a bridge because the bridge connects the two media types I need to
use. I don’t know why there would be any correlation between bridges and small networks. I
might even argue that a larger network is more likely to have a more exotic physical media
where a bridge is desirable.

4. Difference between Distance vector routing and Link State routing

Distance Vector Routing –
It is a dynamic routing algorithm in which each router computes distance between itself and
each possible destination i.e. its immediate neighbors.
The router share its knowledge about the whole network to its neighbors and accordingly
updates table based on its neighbors.
The sharing of information with the neighbors takes place at regular intervals.
It makes use of Bellman Ford Algorithm for making routing tables.
Problems – Count to infinity problem which can be solved by splitting horizon.
– Good news spread fast and bad news spread slowly.
– Persistent looping problem i.e. loop will be there forever.
Link State Routing –
It is a dynamic routing algorithm in which each router shares knowledge of its neighbors with
every other router in the network.
A router sends its information about its neighbors only to all the routers through flooding.
Information sharing takes place only whenever there is a change.
It makes use of Dijkastra’s Algorithm for making routing tables.
Problems – Heavy traffic due to flooding of packets.
– Flooding can result in infinite looping which can be solved by using Time to live (TTL) field.
Comparison between Distance Vector Routing and Link State Routing:

6.ATM and ATM Networks

ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It is a switching technique that uses time division
multiplexing (TDM) for data communications.
ATM networks are connection oriented networks for cell relay that supports voice, video and
data communications. It encodes data into small fixed - size cells so that they are suitable for
TDM and transmits them over a physical medium.
The size of an ATM cell is 53 bytes: 5 byte header and 48 byte payload. There are two different
cell formats - user-network interface (UNI) and network-network interface (NNI). The below
image represents the Functional Reference Model of the Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
Benefits of ATM Networks are
It provides the dynamic bandwidth that is particularly suited for bursty traffic.
Since all data are encoded into identical cells, data transmission is simple, uniform and
predictable.
Uniform packet size ensures that mixed traffic is handled efficiently.
Small sized header reduces packet overload, thus ensuring effective bandwidth usage.
ATM networks are scalable both in size and speed.
ATM reference model comprises of three layers
Physical Layer − This layer corresponds to physical layer of OSI model. At this layer, the cells
are converted into bit streams and transmitted over the physical medium. This layer has two
sub layers: PMD sub layer (Physical Medium Dependent) and TC (Transmission Convergence)
sub layer.
ATM Layer −This layer is comparable to data link layer of OSI model. It accepts the 48 byte
segments from the upper layer, adds a 5 byte header to each segment and converts into 53
byte cells. This layer is responsible for routing of each cell, traffic management, multiplexing
and switching.
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) −This layer corresponds to network layer of OSI model. It
provides facilities to the existing packet switched networks to connect to ATM network and use
its services. It accepts the data and converts them into fixed sized segments. The transmissions
can be of fixed or variable data rate. This layer has two sub layers − Convergence sub layer and
Segmentation and Reassembly sub layer.
ATM endpoints − It contains ATM network interface adaptor. Examples of endpoints are
workstations, routers, CODECs, LAN switches, etc.
ATM switch −It transmits cells through the ATM networks. It accepts the incoming cells from
ATM endpoints (UNI) or another switch (NNI), updates cell header and retransmits cell towards
destination.
9 . (a)X.25
X.25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for packet switched communications over WAN (Wide
Area Network). It was originally designed for use in the 1970s and became very popular in
1980s. Presently, it is used for networks for ATMs and credit card verification. It allows multiple
logical channels to use the same physical line. It also permits data exchange between terminals
with different communication speeds.
X.25 has three protocol layers
Physical Layer: It lays out the physical, electrical and functional characteristics that interface
between the computer terminal and the link to the packet switched node. X.21 physical
implementer is commonly used for the linking.
Data Link Layer: It comprises the link access procedures for exchanging data over the link.
Here, control information for transmission over the link is attached to the packets from the
packet layer to form the LAPB frame (Link Access Procedure Balanced). This service ensures a
bit-oriented, error-free, and ordered delivery of frames.
Packet Layer: This layer defines the format of data packets and the procedures for control and
transmission of the data packets. It provides external virtual circuit service. Virtual circuits may
be of two types: virtual call and permanent virtual circuit. The virtual call is established
dynamically when needed through call set up procedure, and the circuit is relinquished
through call clearing procedure. Permanent virtual circuit, on the other hand, is fixed and
network assigned.
9(b) NIC
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a
dedicated network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller,
network adapter or LAN adapter.
Purpose
NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.
NIC allows communications between computers connected via local area network (LAN) as well
as communications over large-scale network through Internet Protocol (IP).
NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it provides the necessary hardware
circuitry so that the physical layer processes and some data link layer processes can run on it.
Types of NIC Cards
NIC cards are of two types −
Internal Network Cards
In internal networks cards, motherboard has a slot for the network card where it can be
inserted. It requires network cables to provide network access. Internal network cards are of
two types. The first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the
second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).
External Network Cards
In desktops and laptops that do not have an internal NIC, external NICs are used. External
network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network card needs to be
inserted into the motherboard, however no network cable is required to connect to the
network. They are useful while traveling or accessing a wireless signal.
9(c) What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single
medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware
used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines
to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one
output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the
receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs).
Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?
The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium can
only have one signal at a time.
If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such a
way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If there
are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
Transmission services are very expensive.
9.(d) Modem
Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable
lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can
transmit only analog data.
Analog-Digital Waveform
The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa. Modem
is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator. The modulator converts digital
data into analog data when the data is being sent by the computer. The demodulator converts
analog data signals into digital data when it is being received by the computer.
Types of Modem
Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit data, type of
connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.
Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types −
Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direc on, from digital device to
network (modulator) or network to digital device (demodulator).
Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the directions but
only one at a time.
Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the direc ons simultaneously.