CV6501 Water Treatment & Process Design

Part I

Dr. Katherine Dongqing Zhang

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Nanyang Technological University

dqzhang@ntu.edu.sg
 Course Outline

Week 1 Introduction and water characteristics

Week 2 Water standards and treatment processes

Week 3 Coagulation and flocculation

Week 4 Sedimentation
Week 5 Filtration
Week 6 Disinfection
Week 7 Disinfection & Quiz
Introduction and Water Characteristics

(WEEK 1)

Today’s Lecture
 1. INTRODUCTION

 Earth is called the “water planet”......

 97 % of it is in the oceans

The majority, ~ 69% of freshwater is

locked up in glaciers and icecaps….

www.nebo.edu/misc/learning_resources/ppt/k-5/water.ppt
 Total Water

Clean Fresh Water is Scarce

Fresh
water
Salt water 2.5%
97.5%
Fresh Water

Ground
water Permafrost
31% 0.8%

Surface
and
Glaciers atmosph.
68% water
0.4%
Surface and atmospheric water
Wetlands Rivers Biota
8.5% 1.6%
0.8%

Atmosphere

 1.4 billion people lack access to 9.5%

Soil
safe water moisture
12.2%
 >5 million people die/yr from Freshwater
lakes
water-related diseases 67.4%
66% of the human body is made
up of water.
At just 2% dehydration your
performance decreases by
around 20%.
We should drink at least 1½ litres
of water a day.
The UN estimates that by 2025,
75% of the world population
won’t have reliable, clean water.
80% of all illness in
developing countries is
caused by water related
diseases.
90% of wastewater in
developing countries is
discharged directly into
rivers and streams without
treatment.
WATER CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

7
WATER CONSUMPTION RATES

Ref: State of the Environment 2005 Report 8

FACTORS AFFECTING WATER
CONSUMPTION

 Population size
 Climate

9
 Income
 Industrial demand
 Water rates and metering
 Others: quality of water, pressure in the CV3
system, system maintenance, conservation 501
(2008
programs, living standards -09)
Lect
ure 1:
Intro
ducti
on to
Wate
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

precipitation
Evaporation
Observation well

recharge

Stream

Unconfined aquifer
Water level (head) in well Ground water
flow direction

Confining unit

Confined aquifer
GROUND-WATER FLOW PATHS
INTERACTION OF GROUND WATER
AND STREAMS
WATER POLLUTION
 Point source water pollution: contamination from
a single and identifiable source;
 Non-point source water pollution: diffuse
contamination does not originate from a discrete
source, rather over a wide range of area.
SURFACE WATER QUALITY
Water acquires its characteristics from:
 living things/human activities that contact and
influence the water

14
 surroundings it contacts – soils, rocks, minerals,
and air
 Changes along its journey

www.british-filipino.com
http://www.daylife.com/photo/0faIaSJcxp93T
GROUNDWATER QUALITY
 Infiltration of surface water
Landfills and hazardous waste

15


 Urban stormwater runoff

 Agricultural pest, nutrient and manure
 Petroleum stored in underground storage systems
CV3
501
(2008
-09)
Lect
ure 1:
Intro
ducti
on to
Wate
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

 Surface water e.g. lakes and reservoirs

 Groundwater

Global water distribution

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY IN SINGAPORE
 SUPPLY PROVIDED BY WATER CATCHMENT AREAS

 Potable water is supplied

to all parts of Singapore

 Two-third of the land area

is rainwater catchment;

 9 treatment plants; 19
reservoirs; a network of
8000 km water mains
SUPPLY PROVIDED BY WATER CATCHMENT AREAS
Without natural freshwater lakes, the primary domestic source
of water in Singapore is rainfall, collected in reservoirs or water
catchment areas;
The remainder is imported from Malaysia, recycled from
waste water (producing NEWater) and produced via desalination.
This "four tap" strategy aims to reduce reliance on foreign
supply and to diversify Singapore's water sources.

MacRitchie Reservoir Kranji Reservoir Bedok Pond

ABC WATERS PROGRAMME
 Bioretention swale
 Bioretention basin
 Constructed wetlands
REMOVAL PROCESS IN NATURAL SYSTEMS
NEWATER IN SINGAPORE

22
Ulu Pandan NEWater Plant Changi NEWater Plant
KRANJI NEWATER PRODUCTION PROCESS

23
NEWATER QUALITY
Water Quality Parameters NEWater USEPA /WHO Standards
A) Physical
Turbidity (NTU) <5 5-May
Colour (Hazen units) <5 15 / 15
Conductivity (μS/cm) <200 Not Specified (- / -)
pH Value 7.0-8.5 6.5-8.5 / -
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) <100 500 / 1000

24
Total Organic Carbon (mg/L) <0.5 -/-
Total Alkalinity (CaCO3) (mg/L) <20 -/-
Total Hardness (CaCO3) (mg/L) <20 Not available
B) Chemical (mg/L)
Ammoniacal nitrogen (as N) <0.1 - /1.2
Chloride (Cl) <20 250 / 250
Fluoride (F) <0.5 4 / 1.5
Nitrate (NO3) <15 10-Nov
Silica (SiO2) <3 -/-
Sulphate (SO4) <5 250 / 250
Residual Chlorine (Cl, Total) <2 4-May
Total Trihalomethanes (as mg/L) <0.08 0.08 / -
C) Metals (mg/L)
Aluminium <0.1 0.05-0.2 / 0.2
Barium (Ba) <0.1 2 / 0.7
Boron (B) <0.5 - / 0.5
Calcium (Ca) <20 -/-
Copper (Cu) <0.05 1.3 / 2
Iron (Fe) <0.04 0.3 / 0.3
Manganese (Mn) <0.05 0.05 / 0.4
Sodium (Na) <20 - / 200
Strontium (Sr) <0.1 -/-
Zinc (Zn) <0.1 5-Mar
D) Bacteriological
Toatal Coliform Bacteria (Counts/100 ml) Not detectable Not detectable
Heterotrophic Plate Count (CFU/ml, 35C, 48 h) <300 <500 / -
DESALINATION PLANT

SingSpring Desalination Plant in Tuas

FUTURE TARGET ON WATER SUPPLY
IN SINGAPORE
2. WATER CHARACTERISTICS

 Physical characteristics
 Chemical characteristics
 Microbiological characteristics
WHAT IS MEASURED TO DEFINE WATER QUALITY?
 pH
 Dissolved oxygen
 Temperature
 Conductivity
 Total suspended/dissolved solids; turbidity
 Nutrients and organic matter
 Chemical constituents (major cations, anions,
trace metals, radioactive elements, etc.).
 Pathogenic bacteria
 Hardness
 Alkalinity
 Organic pollutants, pesticides, hydrocarbons
 Bioassessments
2.1 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

 Turbidity
 Particles
 Solids: TSS/TDS
 Colour
 Temperature
 Taste and odour
Spectrophotometer for measuring
absorbance and turbidity
(Crittenden et al., 2005)
 TURBIDITY
 Caused by the presence of suspended particles that reduce the
clarity of water;
 Causes light to be scattered and absorbed by suspended
particles rather than transmitted;
 Turbidity increases as intensity of scattered light increases;
 Expressed in nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU)
 Typical values
-- Lakes and reservoirs: 1 – 20 NTU
-- Rivers: 10 to 4000 NTU
-- Finished water: < 0.3 NTU

Turbidimeter
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
CORRELATION BETWEEN TURBIDITY AND
PATHOGEN REMOVAL
 PARTICLES
 Solids that are larger than molecules but not distinguishable by
unaided eye
 Affect treatment processes and potential health impacts of
pathogen-related particles
 Classified according to their origin, chemical structure, charge
characteristics, and water-solid interface characteristics

Origins of particles Size classification

􀂾 􀂾 Giardia lamblia cysts ≈10 μm
Soil-weathering processes – clays and
silts Cryptosporidium oocysts ≈ 6 μm
􀂾

Biological activity – algae, bacteria and  Silt particles >1 μm

other higher microorganisms Clay particles 0.1 – 1μm
􀂾
􀂾
Industrial, agricultural, and other
 Colloidal particles 0.001 – 1μm
human activities
 Molecules < 0.001 μm
SOLIDS

 Total suspended solids (TSS)

 Total dissolved solids (TDS)
 Volatile suspended solids (VSS)
 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

 The inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter

present in solution in water;
 Measurement by gravimetry: by filtering out suspended
material, evaporating the filtrate/liquid solvent, and
weighing the mass of remaining residue;
 Measurement by conductivity: directly related to the
concentration of dissolved ionized solids in the water.
 Typically 500 – 1000 mg/L for surface waters; seawater:
30,000 – 40,000 mg/L.
 COLOUR
 Due to the presence of organic
content, e.g., humic and fulvic acid,
and metallic ions;
 Caused by decomposition of
vegetable matter, presence of
sewage effluent, artificial dyes;
 Highly coloured waters may be
more corrosive; may contain
precursors of trihalomethanes;
Colour Spectrometer
 Apparent colour (unfiltered
samples); true colour (filtered
samples through 0.45 μm filters).
 ODOR
 Many organic and some inorganic chemicals are odorous, including
algae and decaying organisms;
 Hydrogen sulphide present in groundwater is malodorous;
 Offensive odors: Amines (fishy), Ammonia (ammoniacal), Diamines
(decayed flesh), Hydrogen Sulfide (rotten egg), Mercaptans (skunk
secretion), Organic Sulfides (rotten cabbage), Skatole (fecal).
TEMPERATURE

 Affect properties of water – density, viscosity,

solubility, saturation of gases dissolved in water, rates
of chemical and biological activity;
 Chemicals dissolve more easily in warm water;
Particles settle out more easily in warm water;
 Lower temperature increases the viscosity of water;
 Affect the efficiency of water treatment process (e.g.,
coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection).
 2.2 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER:
2.2.1 INORGANIC CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

• Sodium • Iron • pH
• Sulfate • Lead • Alkalinity
• Fluoride • Copper • Conductivity
• Chloride • Arsenic • Hardness
• Phosphorus • Manganese • Dissolved
• Nitrogen oxygen
• Magnesium • Redox
potential
 MAJOR INORGANIC CATIONS IN WATER

Ca2+ Primary constituent of water hardness when combined with HCO3-,

CO32-; cause scaling in boilers; <15 mg/L;

Fe2+, 3+ Common types: ferric oxides (Fe2O3) and hydroxides (Fe(OH)3); 0.05-
0.2 mg/L in surface water; 1.0-10 mg/L in ground water.
Mg2+ More soluble than Ca2+ but less abundant; 10-20 mg/L in surface water;
30-40 mg/L in groundwater. Ca2+ & Mg2+: cause hardness.
Mn2+ Aesthetic effect (taste, color and odour); 0.5 mg/L in environment.

Cu2+ From corrosion of pipes made of copper or copper alloys; cause green
stains on fittings (Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) = 1.3 mg/L);

Zn2+ Trace levels in unpolluted water; can give milky colour;

Na+ Highly soluble, often associated with pollution; several complexes:

Na2CO3; NaHCO3 ; NaSO4-; NaCl.
K+ Properties are similar to sodium; concentration is lower than sodium.
 MAJOR INORGANIC ANIONS IN WATER

HCO3- 25-400 mg/L; provide important function in acid-base chemistry,

buffer capacity, and metal complexation;
CO32- Provide important function in acid-base chemistry, buffer capacity,
metal complexation; <10 mg/L in fresh water;
Cl- Exclusively as chloride ion (Cl-1); hydrolysis products of chlorine
(HOCl and OCl-), added as disinfectant; <10 mg/L in surface water;
NO3- Acute toxicity at high concentration; MCL=10.0 mg/L; can lead
methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome; subject to
denitrification;

SO42- Give objectionable taste; 2-80 mg/L

NITROGEN
 Nitrogen gas (N2);
 An essential nutrient required for formation of amino acid;
 N must be “fixed” (combined) in the form of ammonia (NH3) or
nitrate (NO3) to be used for the growth of bacteria;
 Ammonia gas (NH3): extremely toxic;
 Ammonium (NH4-);
 MCL for nitrite (NO2-): 1 mg/L; for nitrate (NO3-): 10 mg/L;
 Excessive nitrate (NO3-) can cause blue baby syndrome;
 Excessive nitrate (NO3-) pose serious health threat and cause
eutrophication.
PHOSPHATES
 Essential nutrient for algae growth; little effect on
health;
 From sewage, detergent , agricultural runoff
containing fertilizers and animal wastes;
 Excessive concentrations can lead to eutrophication;
 EPA Drinking Water Standard: <0.05 mg/L in streams.
TOXIC SUBSTANCES

 Cd, Pb, Hg, and As can cause death at low

concentrations;
 Cd (MCL = 0.005 mg/L)
 Se (MCL = 0.01 mg/L)
 Pb (MCL = 0.015 mg/L)
 Hg (MCL = 0.002 mg/L)
PH
o The most common analysis in soil and water;
o Determine the solubility and biological availability;
o Affect many water treatment processes;
o EPA Guideline for drinking water: 6.5-8.5;
CONDUCTIVITY
A measure of the ability of a solution to conduct an
electrical current;
Affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids;
Organic compounds have lower conductivity in water;
Affected by temperature; reported at 25 ºC;
The higher conductivity, the higher ion concentration;
Unit: μS/cm (= μmho/cm), S = Siemens
In the stream, the value ranges from 150-500 μmho/cm.
REDOX POTENTIAL
 Redox = Oxidation + Reduction;
 Oxidation: substance lose or donates electrons;
Reduction: substance gains or accepts electrons;
 Oxidizer: chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, bromine,
ozone, and chlorine dioxide; Reducer: sodium
sulfite, sodium bisulfate, and hydrogen sulfide;
 Positive voltage: oxidizing agent; negative
voltage: reducing agent;
 High pH: reducing agent (-ORP); low pH:
oxidizing agent (+ORP).
MOLAR CONCENTRATION (MOLARITY)
ALKALINITY

 A measure of the quantitative capacity of an

aqueous solution to neutralize an acid;
 Source of alkalinity: primarily bicarbonate (HCO3-),
and carbonate (CO32-); occasionally hydroxide (OH-);
 Expressed in concentrations of milli-equivalence/liter
(meq/L); or as mass concentration of calcium
carbonate (mg/L as CaCO3);
 Chemicals applied to raise alkalinity:
 Lime—Ca(OH)2 accompanies alum or iron salt
 Caustic Soda—NaOH
 Sodium bicarbonate- NaHCO3
 Soda Ash—Na2CO3
Equivalent weight = MW (g/mol) ÷ valence (eq/mol)
Conc. in meq/L = Mass Conc. (mg/L) ÷ EW (mg/meq)
Exercise:
Conversion of other Species to mg/L as CaCO3
Example: Convert 366 mg/L of HCO3- as CaCO3

EW of HCO3- = 1 + 12 + 3x 16 = 61 (Z = 1)

EW of CaCO3 = MW/Z = 100/2 = 50 g/eq (Z=2)

Meq/L = mg/L /EW

mg/L as CaCO3 = 366 x 50/61 = 300 mg/L

EQUIVALENCE
Charge equivalence
Step 1) Convert mass conc. (mg/L) to mole conc. (mmole/L)
Step 2) Multiply mmole/L by the charge to give meq/L

Conc. MW Conc.
Component (mg/L) (g/mol) (mmol/L) Conc. (meq/L)
Ca2+ 35.8 40 0.895 1.790
Mg2+ 9.9 24 0.413 0.825
Na+ 4.6 23 0.200 0.200
K+ 3.9 39 0.100 0.100

S (Cations) 2.915

HCO3- 131.2 61 2.151 2.151

Cl- 7.1 35.5 0.200 0.200
SO42- 26.4 96 0.275 0.550
55
S (Anions) 2.901
EQUIVALENCE
Step 1) Equivalent weight = MW (g/mol) ÷ valence (eq/mol)
Step 2) Conc. in meq/L = Mass Conc. (in mg/L) ÷ EW (mg/meq)

CV3501 (2008-09) Lecture 3: Water Quality

Conc. MW EW Conc.
Component (mg/L) (g/mol) (g/eq) (meq/L)
Ca2+ 35.8 40 20 1.790
Mg2+ 9.9 24 12 0.825
Na+ 4.6 23 23 0.200
K+ 3.9 39 39 0.100

S (Cations) 2.915
HCO3- 131.2 61 61 2.151
Cl- 7.1 35.5 35.5 0.200
SO42- 26.4 96 48 0.550
56
S (Anions) 2.901
EXAMPLE
 Given a typical groundwater analysis:

Σ=6.5 Σ=6.5
HARDNESS
 An indicator of potential precipitation; caused by
multivalent positive metallic ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+;
 Hardness (meq/L) = [Ca2+] + [Mg2+]
 Carbonate hardness – due to carbonate and bicarbonate of
Ca2+ and Mg2+

 Non-carbonate hardness – due to sulfates, chlorides, and

nitrates of Ca2+ and Mg2+
 Combination of both is total hardness, expressed as mg/L as
CaCO3 of water
HARDNESS

59
CV3
501
(2008
-09)
Lect
ure 3:
Wate
r
Quali
EXAMPLE:
DETERMINE THE VARIOUS HARDNESS OF THE FOLLOWING WATER
SAMPLE

* as CaCO3
** 60 x 50/20 = 150 mg/L

Hardness (mg/L) as CaCO3 = (conc. mg/L ÷ EW) x 50

Total hardness = 150 + 120 = 270 mg/L as CaCO3

Alkalinity = 300 mg/L as CaCO3

Carbonate hardness = 270 mg/L as CaCO3; Non-carbonate hardness = 0

 SCALING/CORROSION – SATURATION
INDEX

 Water that is unstable will either deposit scale or corrode

pipings;
 Langelier saturation index (LSI): LSI = pH – pHs
 Provides an indicator of the degree of saturation of water
with respect to calcium carbonate.
 pH=Actual pH value measured in the water;
 pHs = pH of water in equilibrium with solid CaCO3 =
(9.3 + A + B) – (C + D)
 LSI = pH – pHs
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) – ( C + D)

log10[TDS in mg/L]-1
A=
10
B = –13.12 x log10 (oC + 273) + 34.55
C = log10 [Ca2+ as mg/L CaCO3] – 0.4
D = log10 [alkalinity as mg/L CaCO3]

 LSI > 0, water is super saturated and tends to precipitate a scale

layer of CaCO3, scaling tendency
 LSI = 0, water is saturated (in equilibrium) with CaCO3 . A scale
layer of CaCO3 is neither precipitated nor dissolved
 LSI < 0, water is under saturated and tends to dissolve solid CaCO3,
corrosive tendency
 RYZNAR SATURATION INDEX
RI = 2(pHs) – pH
 Substantial modification of Langelier index;
 Better estimate the severity of scaling tendency;
 RI uses a database of scale thickness measurements in
municipal water systems;
 RI was developed from empirical observations of corrosion
rates and film formation.
 Example : Calculate Langelier Index and Ryznar Index for the
following water sample:
• Temperature = 10oC • pH = 8.0
• TDS = 280 mg/L • Ca2+ concentration = 60 mg/L as Ca2+
• Total alkalinity = 91 mg/L as CaCO3

log10[TDS in mg/L]-1
A= = 0.145
10
B = –13.12 x log10 (10 + 273) + 34.55 = 2.382
C = log10 [60 x (50/20)] – 0.4 = 1.776
D = log10 (91) = 1.959
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) – ( C + D) = 8.09
LI = pH – pHs = - 0.09 (slightly corrosion tendency)
RI = 2 pHs – pH = 8.18 (corrosive)
2.2.2 ORGANIC CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
 Can cause tastes and odours in drinking water; many are
carcinogenic;
 Organics refer to chemicals composed of carbon (C) and
one or more of H, N, and O;
 Synthesized chemicals also contain fluorine (F), chlorine
(Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I);
 Major sources from which organics may be introduced to
drinking water:
• Natural organic material
• Compounds from human activities
• Compounds formed through chemical reactions occurring
during disinfection
• Compounds added or formed during treatment and
transmission of water
 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS FROM HUMAN
ACTIVITIES
Synthesised organic compounds (SOCs) from
 industry – benzene (MCL = 0.005), toluene, PCE, TCE, etc.

 agricultural – various pesticides and herbicides

 municipal effluents – various human antibiotics, drugs, industrial

and households wastewater products

A toxic benzene slick resulting from an explosion at a

chemical plant contaminated the Songhua River in China
 NATURAL ORGANIC MATTER
(NOM)
 From natural sources e.g. biological activities;
 Precursors for disinfection byproducts (DBPs);
 Measured by total organic carbon (TOC) and Dissolved
organic carbon (DOC);
 Measured by Specific UV absorbance (SUVA) = UV254 /
DOC × 100
 TOC in groundwater: 0.1 – 2 mg/L; surface waters: 1 – 20
mg/L;
 Elemental composition: 45 – 60% C; 4 – 5% H; 35 –40% O;
1% N.
TOC AND DOC
 NOM EFFECTS ON WATER TREATMENT
PROCESSES
 Disinfection: reacts with chlorine to form disinfection by-
products (DBP);
 Coagulation: reacts with and consumes coagulants;
 Adsorption: adsorbs to activated carbon depleting its
adsorption capacity;
 Membranes: adsorb to and clogs membrane pores causing
fouling of surface;
 Distribution: biodegradable, leading to slime growth and
corrosion in distribution systems.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS FORMED DURING
WATER DISINFECTION
 NOM in water with chlorine – trihalomethanes (THM)
(THM limit = 0.08 mg/L)
Trihalomethanes are suspected to damage the liver, kidneys and
central nervous system. They are also considered carcinogenic.
 Bromide in water with ozone – bromate (BrO3-)
(Bromate limit = 0.01 mg/L)
Research linked bromate to kidney cancer.
 Chlorites (ClO2-) and Chlorate (ClO3- ) from chlorine
dioxide (ClO2 ) (limits: Chlorite = 1.0 mg/L; Chlorate = 0.8
mg/L)
Chlorite is suspected to cause anaemia in young children and can
cause nervous system disorders.
 N-NITROSODIMETHYLAMINE (NDMA)
 Water treatment via chlorination or chloramination of
organic nitrogen-containing wastewater can lead to the
production of NDMA at potentially harmful levels;
 Carcinogenic and cancer potencies higher than THM;
 No MCL for NDMA; actual level = 1.4 ng/L in drinking
water; detection limit from 0.5 – 2 ng/L;
 NDMA is soluble in water (3,978 mg/L) and is not likely to
bioaccumulate, biodegrade, adsorb to particulate matter or
volatilize.
2.2.3 EMERGING CONTAMINANTS
 Not routinely monitored in the environment;
 Candidates for future regulation;
 Identified based on information: widespread uses,

72
persistence, bioaccumulation & toxicity etc;
 No international regulation and standard available.
 The characteristics: low levels, multiple sources, long-
term and accumulative effect;
 The environment fate and transport information is
lacking;
 Possible health and other effects on both wildlife and
human beings.
 EXAMPLES OF EMERGING CONTAMINANTS

 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products:

 Pharmaceuticals: antibiotics, hormones, statins, anti-cancer drugs,
veterinary drugs.

73
 Personal care products: sunscreens, colognes, antibacterial soap,
hair spray.

 Endocrine disruptors.
 Disinfection by-products.
 Brighteners in detergents.
 Nnano materials.
MICROPOLLUTANTS IN WWTPS
MICROPOLLUTANTS IN SURFACE WATER
MICROPOLLUTANTS IN GROUNDWATER
MICROPOLLUTANTS IN DRINKING WATER
REMOVAL OF MICROPOLLUTANTS IN
WWTP
 DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBPS)

 DBPs are formed at trace concentrations when chlorine

is added in disinfection treatment processes;
 Specific coonhounds of DBPs:
 Trihalomethanes (THMs), including chloroform (CHCl3),
bromodichloromethane (ChCl2Br), dibromochloromethane
(CHClBr2) and promoform (CHBr3);
 Haloacetic acids (HAAs);
 Haloacetonitriles (HANs).
 Possible human carcinogents or cancer-suspected
agents;
 Removal of DBP precusor by enhanced-coagulation
processes.
 ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE WHY A BIG DEAL
 Acinetobacter baumanni—also called Iraqibacter
because of its high incidence in American soldiers
wounded in Iraq.

80
 Chemical pollution caused by large number of
antibiotics input;
 Accelerate the development of antibiotic resistance
gens;
 Antibiotic resistant genes (ARG) can be horizontally
transferred to other bacterial.
TRICLOSAN
 Annual production of 1500 tonnes in 1998;
 High levels in urine, plasma and breast milk of
humans;
 Frequently released into domestic wastewater and
ending up in WWTP;
 Poor solubility and high adsorption onto settled
sewage sludge, which may adversely affect
agricultural soils;
 Possesses a broad range of antimicrobial activity;

 Contained in a large number of products.

PRODUCTS THAT CONTAIN TRICLOSAN
 Liquid Soaps
 Dial® Liquid Soap

82
 Deodorants
 Right Guard Sport
 Dental Care Products
 Colgate Total® Tooth Paste
 Reach® Antibacterial Tooth Brush
 Colgate Breeze™ Mouthwash
 Kitchenware Products
 Faberware® Microban Steak Knife Set and Cutting Boards
 Franklin Machine Products FMP Ice Cream Scoop with
Microban SZ 20
 PLAYSKOOL® Children’sToys
TRICLOSAN LEVELS IN THE AQUATIC
ENVIRONMENT
ANTI-BACTERIAL NANOPARTICLES (NPS)

o NPs can be released into

water bodies;
o NPs are bound to reach
wastewater sludge;
o Negative impact on
agricultural as biosolids;
o Inhibit the growth of
microorganisms;
o Adversely affect beneficial
bacterial in environment.
NANOPARTICLES IN THE CELL
Cell

Organelle
 ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS
Substances that mimic a hormone in the endocrine system
and disrupt the function of the hormone.
o May turn on, shut off, or modify signals that

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hormones carry;
o May affect the normal functions of tissues and organs;
o May stimulate growth or cause underproduction of
hormones;
o Persistence of biological effects;
o Concern: low-level exposure, long-term and
accumulative effect.
 POTENTIAL ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS
 Pesticide DDT.
 Bisphenol A (BPA) – plastic water bottles, white
vegetable can liners.
 Estrogenic substances - birth control pills.

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 Dioxins.
 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) – electrical
equipment;
 Fire retardants.