Presented by Ashna Sisodia

As a Thinker, He is unique.
Uniqueness : He belongs to a time
when everyone was praising Science,
Rationality and Modernity. Slogans of Liberty,
• He emerged as a critic of Modernity. Equality and Fraternity
comes from him.
Greatest contribution of
him : Theory of
Known as Thinker of If he is inspiration for General Will or
Paradoxes supporters of Democracy, he Popular Sovereignty
also provides fodder for
His language was paradoxical, his
thoughts also gave rise to Paradoxical totalitarians.
School of Thoughts. If he is an Inspiration for
Liberals, he is also
inspiration for Socialists.
§ What was his concern ?
§ He represents the psychology of a person who is troubled with the
changes happening during his time (Industrialization, Modernization
and urbanization)

• The purpose of life is

Happiness.
• The source of
First Person to tell : Man is not Happiness is
bad, Society is bad.
Freedom to do what
No need to study ethics but
we want to do.
System must be proper.
• In modern times,
there is no freedom,
it is just an illusion
He wants to go back to nature (life of freedom.
before modernity and capitalism)
How to give his happiness / Freedom back to man.

The opening statement of social

contract is : “ Man is born free but
Everywhere in Chains”.
§ Human Nature : Man is Essentially good. He has the feeling of Self-love
as well as Sympathy for others.
§ State of Nature : life of man before the beginning of modern age or so
called civilization.
§ According to him, State of nature is the State of Bliss.
§ It was a state of perfect freedom and perfect happiness.
Rousseau
§ Man was happy because he was acting according to his wish.

§ Origin of Civilization – It symbolizes the origin of Reason. Man became

Rational.
§ In words of Rousseau : “Man was noble Savage” and “Thinking Man is a
depraved animal”.
§ When man was savage, uncivilized – He was good and happy.
§ When he became rational / civilized – he reduced to the level of depraved
animal (the animal which is never satisfied nor happy).
§ Earlier man was happy in happiness of others. But reason developed the
feeling of Mine and Thine.
§ Thus, the modern civilization has actually reduced freedom and happiness
of man.
State of Nature – Desire was natural
Modern Times – Desire was Artificial
Gandhi – Live Naturally

Why Contract ? Since the present life is not the life of happiness,
Rousseau suggests that Man will enter into a contract. According to
Rousseau, There are 2 options :
1. Go back to Nature – it is not practical
2. Make changes in Present system – In present system, we can
be free – subject to the condition – that we are able to live
according to “Real will”.
• Man is free when governed by Laws where man has participated in
making of such laws, subject to the condition it is based on his Real Will
(Participatory Democracy)

§ Rousseau was from France but he spent many of
his years in Geneva (where the institution of
Direct Democracy was existent.)
§ Features of The Contract :
1. All people enter in the contract and decide to
act according to their real will.
2. Concept of will in Rousseau : He categorized
human will into 2 types :
§ Real Will
§ Actual Will

Real Will Actual Will

Original Influenced by Society
Man is Good Man is Selfish
We want to act We actually act
Instinctive Artificial
§ All persons, in order to be free and happy will
agree on 2 conditions :
§ To be free, we are supposed to be ruled by laws
made by ourselves.
§ To be free in real sense, we will be participating
in law with our Real Will.
§ The sum of Real will of all will become General
Will. Why ??
§ To be free and happy
§ To reconcile liberty and authority
§ Since, we cannot go back to the state of nature,
we have to find a system of authority which
ensures liberty. § How man will be free in the presence of state?
§ When man is under self-made laws.
§ How man will be truly free ?
§ When man has participated in the formulation
of laws with Real Will.
§ It is a highly abstract and philosophical
concept.
§ Though it is a sum of Real wills, yet it is more
than real will of all.
§ It is always Good, Right, Universalist and
Indivisible.
§ When all will combine è result into Body
Politic or State.
§ According to Rousseau, “Man should be
forced to be free”.
§ It means è State can force a person to
follow the laws made by state,
representing general will.
§ In case a person does not follow è State
can punish
§ Therefore, He comes near to HOBBES.
§ Example of General Will : In context of
India, the concept of general will can be
seen in Preamble : “We the people”.
§ General Will can be considered as NOBLE LIE.
§ It suggests è that the present constitution has been
given to us by ourselves, when we were acting with
our Real Will.
§ It means è we are really free when we act
according to the constitution.
§ It is alright if state punishes any person who
violates the constitution.

§ Rousseau as a thinker of Paradoxes :

§ Rousseau as a Liberal – The concern for
liberty. Rousseau believes that property is
necessary for good life. (Karl Marx calls him
Bourgeoise thinker).
§ Rousseau as an inspiration for socialists :
§ Private property is the cause of social
inequality.
§ He inspires socialists because he told that
society needs to be changed.
§ Rousseau as a supporter of democracy : he
supports DIRECT DEMOCRACY. Man is free
only when Man is under the law made by himself.
§ Rousseau as an inspiration for Totalitarians :
State represents the general will, General will is
always right. It means the laws made by the state
are always right and man can be forced to be free.
§ Rousseau as Idealist : His conception of real will
is a Meta-physical concept. He gives importance § Hannah Ardent – “Politics belong to public
to the Collectivity (whole is prior to part) sphere”
§ Opinion Polls – Democratic
§ Public opinion to understand my opinion
better
§ Cannot be banned but be regulated
§ Rousseau’s General Will is Hobbes/Leviathan with it’s head chopped
off.
§ Rousseau is known as thinker of Paradoxes. His ideas give rise to
contradictory thoughts.
§ On one hand è He is seen as the champion of liberty
§ On other hand è his theory provide basis for justification of State
Totalitarianism (Absolutism)
§ Some scholars believe that there is no difference between Hobbes
Leviathan and Rousseau’s General Will.
§ If Hobbes suggests that “Covenants without swords are nothing but
swords” “Man should be forced to be free”.

Rousseau’s Ideas were manipulated by Totalitarian leaders like Hitler and

Mussolini to justify absolute power of state.
However, it could be injustice to Rousseau, if we call him as Totalitarian.
When Rousseau gives the concept of General Will, He also gives The
Prerequiste that people should be participating in the formulation of laws
acting with their REAL WILL.
This concept is similar to Gandhian Swaraj. Though his thoughts have
been manipulated by Totalitarian leaders, it is wrong to call him Totalitarian.
§ John Locke supports è Majoritarian Democracy (Representative)
§ Rousseau è Participatory, Deliberative and Direct and Consociational
(Laws with consensus)