Origins:
According to the United Nations  2/3 countries now call themselves
‘liberal democracies’(x7 since 1945)
Pervasive ideology: Associated with both right + left Oldest of the
three core ideologies -
Origins in Reformation, Enlightenment.
Belief in reason over faith, promoted debate + inquiry, individuals have
free will and best judge of own interests. Move away from ‘divine right
of kings’ and acceptance of the governed towards logic + rational
thinking.
Core Ideas of Liberalism:
Human Nature
John Locke and refined by later thinkers
(John Stuart Mill)
Rejected Medieval notion of mankind as
flawed (and only God can forgive.)
Liberal thinkers had a more optimistic view
of Human Nature, huge capacity to bring
about progress, ability to forge human
happiness.
Guided by reason + rationalism(through
debate + discussion of ideas + opinions)
Individuals have capacity to ‘plan’ own
future + effect their outcome. Human nature
allows us to shape our own destiny’.
Problems are merely challenges awaiting
reasoned solutions & reasoned discussion
leads to consensus.
For liberals the natural condition of human
nature is one of self-aware individuals, living
in peace, harmony + mutual understanding.
Core ideas of liberalism – state structures:
Liberal state should be democratic Liberalism Core ideas KO
Laws based on natural rights – life, liberty, property
Limited government – entrenched constitution and
constrained by strong laws
Separation of powers with 3 branches that should control Core Ideas of Liberalism:
each others powers: legislature, executive and judiciary State methods:
Foundational equality – everyone born with same natural
rights.  Rejection of ‘traditional’ state
 Government by consent (of the governed)
Locke: “Gov should always be the servant, not
Core Ideas of Liberalism: Core Ideas of Liberalism: the master of the people”.  Social contract
Society Economy  Promotion of natural rights  ensuring they
would be more safely + easily exercised than in a
As well as shaping its view of society Liberalism’s state of native.
Locke believed ‘natural society’ with
devotion to private property informs approach
natural laws + natural rights precedes the  Promotion of tolerance. Voltaire: “I detest
to the economy.
state.
 what you say but will defend unto the death your
“Right to life, liberty + the pursuit of right to say it”. John Stuart Mill: State should
happiness” Property ‘natural right’  inevitable that liberals tolerate all actions + opinions unless shown to
should support capitalism
violate the harm principle
Emphasis on the individual
Mid C19th thinker John Stuart Mill Liberal economist Adam Smith (Wealth of Meritocracy – Political power should be exercised
only by those who show themselves worthy of it.
believed main purpose of civilised society Nations 1776)  Liberalism strongly associated
is to facilitate individualism. Individuals are with private enterprise + private ownership of
Equality of opportunity  All individuals are born
rational in their pursuit of self-interest  the economy (Capitalism = Economic
equal (Foundational equality)
seeks freedom from dependency on Liberalisation)
All individuals have equal opportunity to develop
others. 
their potential + achieve control of their own
Linked with positive view of human nature:
lives. If an individual fails to achieve their
Liberals believe the default setting of any
Free market economics  invisible hand of potential  must assume total responsibility for
society is the focus on individual freedom
market forces  wealth ‘trickled down’ to this failure.
 any society, which seeks to deny this is
everyone.
dysfunctional - The right to property is an Justice (linked to above) State should embody justice
important, tangible, expression of an Reflects optimistic tone of Liberalism’s core + treat individuals fairly.
individual within society. values.
Classic liberalism
Four distinctive features
1. Revolutionary potential
GovT by consent of people  new revolutionary
thinking / associated with Glorious Revolution (1688) +
American War of Independence+ Constitution (1787)
Rationalism (reason + logic) – Mary Wollstonecraft
(1759-97) argued that the treatment of women was an
affront to reason  argued individuals (men + women)
required a formal education to realize powers of
reason.
2. Negative Liberty
Freedom involves individuals being left alone to pursue
their destiny. (absence of restraint)
Individuals are naturally free until something or
someone put a brake on their actions.
Potentially autonomous + self-reliant  this idea
would have consequences for both size of state +
economics.
3. Minimal State
Governments should be limited in terms of both how
they could act + what they could do.
Linked with core belief of the dispersal of political
power (checks + balances.)
4. Laissez-Faire Capitalism (‘Let it happen’)
Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations (1776)  Capitalism,
via ‘invisible hand’ of market forces had limitless
capacity to enrich society+ those within it state should
pursue a ‘free-trade’ economy by ending
protectionism via duties and tariffs. These ideas were
radical in 1776 but became widespread in following
century.
Modern/New liberalism
Mill  Left Q’s unanswered  esp. what is the precise nature of liberty? In order to liberate an
individual’s potential was it REALLY enough to just leave them alone? (negative freedom)
Led modern liberal thinkers to produce a new + radical interpretation of what liberty involved which in turn
led to very different form of liberalism with a number of distinguishing characteristics.
Positive Freedom/ Social Justice
 Individuals increasingly subject to social – economic forces beyond their control. So social justice as well as
legal justice now required if individuals were to fulfil their potential.
- Positive Freedom  More cooperative + altruistic concept – “Help other to help themselves”.

New Liberals assessed that individuals had to be enabled in order for them to be free from socio-economic
Strands of problems (e.g. poor health care, unemployment, lack of education) + for social justice to be secured. 
Liberalism Enlarged + Enabling State - Modern Liberalism has no qualms about justifying a substantial extension of
the state in the name of individual liberty (strongly linked to collectivism)
Modern Liberals (such as John Rawls) argued only an enlarged state could guarantee the equality of
You MUST opportunity to enable individual freedom.

interweave Want to improve the lot of society least fortunate  remained indifferent to inequality of outcome. (see it as
with the an inevitable side effect of individual freedom  Key difference with socialism)
key Most important
thinkers! Completing the link between liberal core values and universal adult suffrage. Liberal PM oversaw the
Representation of the Act (1918) giving votes to the working class and (most) women. Since 1945 they have
championed the lowering of the voting age. (First to 18 in 19169 and more recently to 16)
Social Liberalism.
Attempt to update classical liberalism stress on tolerance (esp. of minorities)
Mid C20th onwards – modern liberalism strongly linked with calls for greater racial + sexual toleration).Belief
that too many individuals held back due to innate factors (ethnicity/gender)

Solution  further legislation, sometimes ‘positive discrimination’ e.g. Race Relations Act/ Sex Discrimination
Act. (1970’s)
Betty Friedan (1921-2006)  Insisted such reforms consistent with Liberal tradition.
 Classical- Freedom is the Absence of Rules
State The role of the state is
security, fragmented power,
constitutionalism, minimal
state, little regulation, some
representational democracy.
Society Collection of individuals,
atomistic, self reliant, self
determination, no government
intervention except harm
principle. Belief in equality of
opportunity.
Economy Private property, free trade,
capitalism, Laissez – faire, no
Economy
state intervention.
Modern- Freedom is achieving self
realisation.
Neo Liberalism:
State Enabling state, state
This is an important
intervention to support
weaker groups, welfare,
development which developed
large government,
democratic.
in the late 20th century and
Society Society needs support to be
sought to reconnect liberalism
fulfilled, individuals need
support from a community to
with its classical past. Hayek is
flourish, self reliant to an
extent. Belief in equality of
the key economic thinker of this
opportunity but also period arguing for free markets,
supporting weaker groups to
achieve. small government, and self
Private property, free trade,
capitalism, regulated by the
reliance. Neo liberalism
government, managed responded to the large
economy to support
employment, international governments of the social
trade agreements.

Human Rational, Intelligent, Human Nature Rational, Intelligent,

democratic consensus in the
Nature Prioritise happiness, self Prioritise happiness, self 1950s-70s which saw the
reliant, respectful, self reliant, respectful, self
seeking. These features are seeking. These features are government grow, and follow
innate. potentially that needs to be
developed. Keynesian economics.
Key Thinkers: Locke Key Thinkers: Rawls

Wollstonecraft Friedan

Mill Mill

Liberalism Timeline:
Modern Neo
Classical Liberalism Liberalism Liberalism

Created by the rejection

of the traditional
Classical Lib was then Following the growth of
society. Expressed in
challenged by the state, welfare, and
the French Revolution
industrialisation, Keynesian economics
and the US declaration
increasing class the economy was
of independence.
pressures, and reduction shrinking. Neo liberals
Inspired by
in individual liberty sought to reconnect
Enlightenment values.
among the working with classical principles
classes. Freedom was especially in economics.
redefined as self
realisation.
Origins: Core ideas of conservatism
Main aim is to Conserve the status quo Tradition
Triggered by the Enlightenment and response to new ideologies (Liberalism Human Imperfection Conservatism Core ideas KO
and the danger is posed). Initially created for those who had most to loose – Organic Society
The landed gentry Hierarchy and Authority
Change was not blindly resisted. ‘Change in order to Conserve’. Burke. Property
Pragmatism is key. Pragmatism Key terms:
In the UK the ‘tory’ party stood against the whigs to protect the monarchy
and the ruling classes. Core Ideas of Conservatism: Hierarchy -The Conservative belief that society is
Key term – pragmatism – unemotional, straight forward way of dealing with naturally organised in fixed tiers, where one’s
Society
things and solving problems. Often based on tried and tested. Not into position is not based on individual ability.
Trad. And One-Nation Tories – Society emerges
theory, very practical
organically (Burke) (Like a plant)
Atomism - That society is made up of self-interested
Core Ideas of Conservatism: Core Ideas of Conservatism: Empiricism – practical. (Oakeshott, ‘stay afloat’ and self-sufficient individuals (also known as
Human Nature State rather than sail towards a specific destination) egoistical individualism).

Human frailty and fallibility
Human nature is fixed and constant
Hobbes ‘nasty, brutish and short’ But he
does allow for a cold rationalism which puts
him close to Liberalism
Thus Burke is father of conservatism – man
cannot plan a near-perfect society
Burke does not think humans are as ‘brutish’
as Hobbes alleged; fallible yes, terrible no.
Plus Burke thinks humans are capable of
kindness and altruism (selfless concern for
the welfare of others). And he thinks
humans are naturally communal (Hobbes
says they are ruthlessly individualistic.)
Oakeshott – life without laws would be
‘noisy, foolish and flawed’
Rand/Nozick highlighted Human nature’s
yearning for freedom ‘freedom loving pack
animals’ (Nozick) So state still needed – not
Anarchists
Hobbes and New Right = Human nature
driven by self-interest but must be
constrained to provide peace and stability
Disciplinary role – provide order, security
and authority (Whereas Lib and Soc see
state as serving ‘progressive’ roles)
Without order no liberty (Hobbes)
The State precedes Society (Libs see it the
other way)
Organic origins of the State (Not pro-
written constitution)
Hierarchical structure (Burke)
Nation states
New Right paradox – to strengthen the
Nation state by ‘rolling back its frontiers’.
Explained by Rand (‘when the state
becomes flabby, it also becomes feeble’)
and Nozick – if state is burdened by
Nationalisation and welfare it is harder for
it to focus on its ‘true’ function of order
and security
Tradition – Oakeshott – ‘Just as a plant’s new
leaves are connected to, and dependent on and
explained by the plants roots, so a society’s
present stems from its past’
Property – Those with property have a stake in
society and a link to its roots. New Right Tories
more zealous about property.
Neo-Liberals reject hierarchy and paternalism
(interfering in lives even if for good e.g seatbelts
Core ideas of conservatism
Economy
Conservative defend inequality. Burke supported
Adam Smith – Laissez-Faire.
BUT One-Nation Tories support some
intervention as this will lead to order and
stability. Free markets are tempered by state
intervention (Keynesian)
New Right – Free markets –Thatcherism,
Friedman and Hayek
Noblesse oblige - The duty of the wealthy and
privileged to look after those less fortunate
Anti-permissiveness - A rejection of permissiveness,
which is the belief that people should make their
own moral choices, suggesting there is no objective
right and wrong
Laissez-faire- A preference towards minimal
government intervention in business and the state
Empiricism -The idea that knowledge comes from
real experience and not from abstract theories
Human imperfection – belief that humans are
morally, intellectually and psychologically flawed and
not to be trusted
Change to conserve – adapt as society changes to
avoid revolution. Don’t change for something new
Authoritarian – those in higher positions of society
best placed to make decisions on society's behalf

Traditional conservatism
Very authoritarian. Purpose was to protect
social order (Burke)
Organic
Noblese Oblige – nobility and privilege
bring with them social responsibilities ,
mostly the duty and obligation to care for
those less fortunate
Soft paternalism
One nation conservatism
Paternalistic conservativism. (Disraeli)
Cameron’s Big Society
Bring together individualism and
collectivism and respond to capitalism
Organic society and a rejection of laissez-
faire economics for Keynesianism
Paternalism (Noblesse Oblige)
Patriotism and tradition
Cameron (Compassionate conservative)
and May (shared society)
What type do we
have today??!!!
Neo liberalism
Economics – Laissez-Faire. Adam Smith,
Strands of Conservatism
Friedman, Hayek, Nozick, Thatcher
Privatisation
Friedman (Monetarism) control inflation by You MUST interweave
controlling money supply – cuts in public with the key thinkers!
spending
Welfare state created ‘dependency culture’
Nozick – welfare itself was a violation of
property rights
Cut taxes (Tax Payers’ Alliance!)
‘Trickle-down’ economics Neo-conservatism
Atomistic individualism
Against Councils – pro localism and interest Reaction to social changes (1960s 1970s.)
groups (Academies) Anti-permissiveness as this challenges
authority and breaks down morality and
New right structure and order
Social Authoritarians – limited but strong
A mix of reactionary and radical state in relation to law and order
Roll back the state but also (Neo-Cons) Tax breaks for ‘families’
importance of order and hierarchy Oppose multiculturalism and immigration
New Right Cons believe that individual as it weakens national unity and patriotism
must be free from state interference but Thatcher’s ‘Victorian values’
humans behaviour must be restricted by
family, nation and morality
New Right thinking 1970s and 1980s.
Profoundly different from other forms of
conservativism as it is clearly ideological
One Nation Conservatism –The state must
support the working classes.
State Support idea of those “born to
rule” hierarchy, paternalism,
strong military, strong police,
order is key, grow the state if
it’s pragmatic. Tradition is
important. Royalist
Society Society is organic, naturally a
class system, built of small
communities such as families,
importance on tradition, and
continuity, paternalism,
importance of nation state.
Judeo Christian beliefs
Economy ONC are suspicious of free
market economics which they
see as unpredictable and
unstable, globalisation is a
threat to the nation state; free
market economics can create
too much inequality and
breakdown the social fabric.
Higher taxes, more
redistribution, more regulation.
Human
Nature
Human nature is fixed and
imperfect. It is negative and
people without regulation will
act aggressively, violently, and
selfishly. Socialism and
liberalism over estimate human
potential.
Key Hobbes
Thinkers
Burke
Oakeshott
New Right Conservatism- everyone must
stand on their own two feet.
State Strong police, strong military,
Burke defined traditional
meritocratic, hostile to conservatism in response to the
aristocratic rule, reject
hierarchy. Property owning liberal challenge of the French
key. Republican
Revolution.
Society Atomistic, individualistic,
meritocracy, no welfare,
individual responsibility,
selfish approach, reject
inherited class systems in
favour of disruptive social In response to industrialisation and the rise of
mobility.
socialism and the extension of the franchise
Economy The new right see the free
market as a positive, wealth
conservatives moved to ONC to bring the
generating, and problem working classes on board. This meant an appeal
solving economy. Low
taxation, low regulation, no to nationalism and to supporting the poor more.
protectionism or tariffs. Hayek
and Adam smith approach.
Human
Nature
The new right see human
nature as more positive, that if
Following a period of strong state growth under
“unleashed” individuals will the socialist government during the 1950s and
achieve their aims, be self
reliant, and selfish in a 70s conservatism reconnected with its past and
positive wealth acquiring way.
with classical liberalism to usher in a more
Key Thinkers Rand
economically dynamic policy keeping a strong
focus on family values.
Nozick
Oakeshott
Core Ideas of Socialism:
Economy
Key socialist thinkers from Marx/Engels onwards argued that social
class is determined by economic system underpinning society.
Recognise the problems of economic system based on private property
and capitalism, rather than common ownership.
Free market capitalism encourages competitiveness and ruthless
egotism and generates huge inequalities of outcome so…. They seek to
rectify the problems caused by capitalism
Greater workers’ control in employment
‘Redistribution doctrine’ → Politics of Robin Hood – taking from the
rich giving to the poor
Rejection of laissez faire capitalism Demand greater collectivism
Economic Collectivism
Progressive taxation so rich contribute much more than poor
•Progressive public spending  state uses economic resources to
enhance the less fortunate elements e.g. state benefits for
unemployed or elderly
•Extensive public services e.g. healthcare and education
•Extensive state regulation of capitalism e.g. legal minimum wage,
equal pay legislation
•State/Common ownership recommended when private enterprise is
seen to fail parts of the economy e.g. post war nationalisation of
industries – coal, iron and steel.
Primary Aim is redistribution of a society’s wealth and resources
Other benefits is society seen as more co-operative society, with
greater social justice
Core ideas of Socialism:
State
Socialists believe that without a strong state it will be
impossible to bring about a fairer and more equal society (in
short term at least)
Some socialists (Marxists and Orthodox Communists) see this
a temporary and that the state will eventually ‘wither away’
(Marx – ‘the end of history’)
BUT for the foreseeable future a strong state is essential-
However they reject the idea of a monarchical state ,a
theocratic state or an aristocratic state.
Socialists advocate a state where political power and
economic power has been redistributed and decision making
reflects the principle of equality and empowerment of the
people i.e. democracy?
However between socialists there are still significant
differences about the structure of ideal state, its extent and
how it emerges
Core Ideas of Socialism:
Human Nature
Optimistic view (as with Liberalism)
Liberals believe individuals are self -reliant and self sufficient
Socialists believe individuals are naturally co-operative, generous
and altruistic
↓ similar individual born into a higher class
Naturally seek solidarity, fraternity and comradeship – John Donne
(1571 – 1631) ‘no man is an island’
See human nature as malleable rather than fixed at birth → believe
human nature can be adjusted → ensuring that men and women
fulfil their true potential whilst contributing to a more co-operative
community
Socialism Core ideas KO
Core Ideas of Socialism:
Society
For socialists, individuals are the product of the
society into which they were born
Socialist argue that if society can be improved there
will be a corresponding improvement in the
prospects of its individuals
Argue that an individual’s status and prospects are
shaped by the social class into which they are born.
→ Many key thinkers (Marx, Antony Crossland)
noted that society’s classes tend to be profoundly
unequal in terms of power and influence
Certain sections of society will have more
opportunities to exploit their potential than others.
Seek a narrowing of the gap between Society’s
poorer and richer classes
Socialists contest that to have equality of
opportunity there must first be greater equality of
outcome. irrespective of character, ability and
intelligence an individual born into working class
background will have fewer opportunities than a
background.
until a society has greater equality of outcomes
society will continue to lack fraternity, co-operation
and solidarity and instead foster greed, envy,
resentment and division.
 Revolutionary/classic:

Origins of: Marx and Engels - capitalism must disappear before socialism and then
Similarities with Liberalism
communism could be established.
Optimistic view of human nature
Belief in reason over faith Revolutionary Socialism - Belief in Revolution. Agreed when capitalism
Progressive - challenge Status Quo became unsustainable it was necessary to ‘smash’ capitalism via revolutionary
Desire to liberate human being from oppression violence. Strands of Socialism
Belief in fundamental equality and equality of opportunity
Reject ‘traditional state’ (Divine Right of Kings Insisted that new economy, new stage must be forged by revolution - lead to
Reject anarchism (state important to secure freedom and equality) ‘Dictatorship of the Proletariat’ which would pave way for stateless communist You MUST interweave
HOWEVER they do not share the Liberal belief in private property society based on common ownership  represent the peak of human with the key thinkers!
as a natural right. achievement and ‘the end of history’

Democratic centralism - revolutionary elite would plan, organise and

Social democracy: undertake revolution - then consolidate power through ‘dictatorship of the
Most influential form of fundamentalist socialism in UK proletariat’ directing all aspects of the post- revolutionary society.
(evolutionary socialism)
Led to totalitarian regimes in Russia (Stalin) and China (Mao Tse Tung) and
Early Democratic Socialism Fidel Castro in Cuba.

Associated with Fabian Society & bourgeois intellectuals - GB Shaw, Therefore for most fundamental socialists today, Rosa Luxemburg’s ideas are a
Sidney and Beatrice Webb. more compelling brand of revolutionary socialism.
Vital to the development of the Labour Party – Clause IV of 1918
constitution – need to secure “common ownership of the means of
Third way:
production”
Associated with ‘New Labour’ governments of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown in the UK – emerged in the 1990s
Rejection of ‘big bang’ revolutionary change - For Fabians the
mayhem associated with revolutions did not seem the ideal starting
Anthony Giddens - widely credited as the main author of Third Way socialism
point for a bright and orderly future - believed the extension of
- desire to ‘triangulate’ social democracy’s wish for more equality within capitalist economy which was less Keynesian and more
suffrage in late 19th Century had facilitated a more orderly, election
neo-liberal
based progression towards a post-capitalist society.
-Aimed to reconcile task of socialist parties seeking office (Labour in the UK) with an electorate which was increasingly propertied,
suburban and individualist.
“Inevitability of gradualism” - Belief that democratically elected
- Urged modern ‘leftist’ to go with the flow by encouraging further privatisation and deregulations – best way to boost economic
socialist governments would steadily transform society via existing
growth and therefore tax revenue – which could increase government spending in the name of greater equality.
parliamentary system, gradually replacing a society based on
private ownership with one based on common ownership and
Most important (and controversial) aspect was revised attitude to equality of outcome
public control.
• Belief – greater equality of opportunity probably required more, not less, inequality of outcome
Fundamental Socialism (Capitalism must be
destroyed)
Marxism, Leninism, Stalinism, Democratic
centrism, democratic socialism.
State The state is authoritarian,
focusing on dictatorship of the
proletariat, capitalist state
should be destroyed. New
collectivised state.
Society Society is the core determiner
of our personality and human
nature, society should be
revolutionary, requiring a
dictatorship of the proletariat to
force through change, equality
of outcome
Economy Reject capitalism completely as
a corrupting, exploitative
system. Reject private property
in favour of collectivisation.
High levels of redistribution,
state ownership, trade unions.
Human HN is plastic a malleable by
Nature society, it is therefore
changeable. HN is social,
altruistic, selfless, and co-
operative. HN can be easily
corrupted by capitalism and
lead to false conscious.
Key Marx and Engels
Thinkers
Rosa Luxemburg
Lenin and Stalin (not official)
Revisionist Socialism (Capitalism must be
reformed)
Socialism was developed in response to the dire working conditions of the industrial revolution. At
Social Democracy, Third way that time it seemed that there was no legitimate way for the workers to change their condition
because the franchise had not been extended. This led the thinkers to adopt a more radial
State State should intervene to
support weaker groups, work revolutionarily approach.
with capitalist systems,
democratic, and change the
constitution not revolution.
Society Society needs to be changed In 1917 The Russian Revolution took place which brought Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
slowly through democracy and
evolution. Equality can be
They believed in accelerated socialism and set about rapid and forced changes in Russia. Lenin was
achieved by slowly through very dictatorial. In 1924 Stalin took over brining in socialist nationalism and further entrenching the
redistribution and sharing
wealth more equally. Equality authoritarian nature of socialism.
of outcome to some extent.
Economy Capitalism must be tamed and
worked with. High levels of
Increasingly socialism was seen to be oppressive, restrictive, and not able to generate wealth. This
welfare, do believe in private led many socialists to adopt an evolutionary approach. Some felt that evolutionary tactics could still
property, some nationalisation
but not collective ownership,
bring around radical change (democratic socialism) others felt that socialism should accept
Keynesian approach, high democracy and capitalism and just seek to improve it (social democracy).
redistribution, high tax, and
regulation.
Human Everything as fundamental, With the fall of the USSR in 1991 socialism in its more radical form had been totally
Nature expect they believe human
nature can flourish in a
discredited. Socialists now sought to embrace the free market economy as the only way to create
capitalistic society and is not enough money to run public services. This was called the third way under Tony Blair. Increasingly
corrupted by it, but can adapt
capitalism.
with Corbyn democratic socialist ideas are returning to mainstream politics.
Key Thinkers Beatrice Webb
Antony Crosland
Antony Giddens
 Key Thinkers and Key Concepts:
Simone de Beauvoir (LIBERAL)
Key ideas:
 Otherness
 Existentialism
Most important work:
 The Second Sex (1949)
Significant quotes (with explanation):
‘One is not born, but rather becomes a woman.’
 What it means to be a woman is not
determined at birth, but rather occurs
through conditioning as one progresses
through society.
Charlotte Perkins Gillman (LIBERAL AND
SOCIALIST)
Key ideas:
 Politics of sameness
 Economic independence
 Sex slavery
Most important work:
 Women in Economics (1897)
Significant quotes (with explanation):
‘Women are economic factors in society. But so
are horses.’
 Women contribute to the economy
indirectly by fulfilling their domestic roles,
but are not given an opportunity to
contribute to the economy directly and be
economically independent.
‘There is no female mind.’
 Similar to Wollstonecraft’s original quote,
suggesting that women are just as capable
as men, and their roles in society should
not be given to them at birth.
Sheila Rowbotham (SOCIALIST)
Key ideas:
 Critique of Marxism
 Economic determination
Other Important Thinkers and Key Concepts:
Mary Wollstonecraft (LIBERAL)
Key ideas:
 Formal, political and legal equality
 Rationalism
Betty Friedan (LIBERAL)
 The problem with no name
 Women’s liberation
J.S Mill (LIBERAL)
 Foundational equality
 Women’s suffrage
 Revolution within a revolution
Most important work:
 Women’s Consciousness, Men’s World
(1973)
Significant quotes (with explanation):
‘There is a difference between having your own
movement and cutting yourself off from other
movements.
In order to have equality in both class and
gender, one needs to embrace both the socialist
and feminist movements.
Kate Millett (RADICAL)
Key ideas:
 Heterosexualism
 Personal is political
 Sexual revolution
Most important work:
 Sexual Politics (1969)
Significant quotes (with explanation):
‘The lesbian is the archetypical feminist’
 As all heterosexual relationships are built
on an imbalance of power, and reinforce
the patriarchy, the perfect feminist would
engage in lesbian relationships.
bell hooks (POST-MODERN)
Key ideas:
 Intersectionality
 Power of love
 Self-hatred
Most important work:
 Feminism is for Everybody (2000)
Significant quotes (with explanation):
‘Feminism is for everybody’
 The feminist movement should not be
limited to specific groups, but rather it
should be a movement which involves all
women and men as well.
Friedrich Engels (SOCIALIST)
 Reserve army of labour
 Nuclear family and the reinforcement of
capitalism
Judith Butler (POST-MODERN)
 Post-structuralism (language)
 Human nature State
AGREEMENT LIBERAL SOCIALIST RADICAL FEMINISM POST-MODERN AGREEMENT LIBERAL FEMINISM SOCIALIST RADICAL FEMINISM POST-
FEMINISM FEMINISM FEMINISM FEMINISM MODERN
Most believe that Women are rational Human nature has Some radical feminists Women have FEMINISM
gender beings. They should been corrupted by believe that women multiple Most view the The state reinforces The state is Some radical feminists The state is
characteristics are be given the same both capitalism and are capable of freeing identities, and state as the a culture that dominated by believe that the state dominated by
not innate, but opportunities to the patriarchy. themselves from male thus experience vessel through prevents women middle class men, should intervene in white males
rather imposed upon have their voices oppression by multiple forms of which the from expressing and therefore eradicating patriarchal and therefore
women by a heard through legal engaging in lesbian oppression. patriarchy is their true freedom reflects the values in both the reflects their
patriarchal society. and political relationships (political
equality. reinforced in and identify. imbalance of public and private dominant
lesbianism)
society. power between spheres by outlawing position in
Most argue that the Cultural attitudes Human nature is Some radical feminists Words such as the wealthy and pornography and society.
status of women are so powerful and malleable. If the would argue that all ‘woman’ and the working class ensuring harsher
should not be persuasive that patriarchy and men psychologically ‘feminine’ and as well as men punishment for
affected by their women and men capitalist state is and physically are ‘masculine’ have and women. violence against
biological status and thought of them as abolished then men predisposed to no inherent
women.
artificial gender normal rather than and women will oppress women. meaning, and
differences. artificial (Friedan) naturally become instead humans Most believe The state has been The state is a tool Some radical feminists There is a
more cooperative exist amongst a that the state an instrument to of both capitalism view the state as a tool complexity to
and equal. spectrum of can have a role reinforce the and the of the patriarchy, and state
qualities. in ensuring patriarchy BUT this patriarchy, and it thus it needs to be oppression
Most believe that Women are Women’s Some radical feminists Embraces idea of equality. can change and the needs to be dismantled in order to that other
there is nothing naturally free, and consciousness is believe that fluid gender state can be used to abolished in order overthrow the feminists miss.
innate in men that as such should be created by men as sisterhood should be identities. reform laws to have equality. patriarchy.
makes them given the same part of the capitalist embraced, while discriminating
superior, and liberty as men in machine. others believe that against women.
women should thus determining their gender differences
role within society. The state can be Some radical feminists
have social, political need to be removed
and economic entirely.
used to liberate believed that the state
equality. women from could help abolish the
domestic work, traditional nuclear
Most believe that Supposed Challenge the notion
inferiority is through increased family structure
human nature is that men naturally
actually learned use of communal (communal living /
androgynous. inhabit the public
behaviour, rather sphere, and women kitchens and child rearing)
than being natural. naturally inhabit the childcare (Gilman)
private sphere. There needs to be Believe that the state
Difference vs. Equality Feminism clear limits on the needs to go beyond
• All liberal, socialist, post-modern and most radical feminists are equality feminists, and believe that state’s power. It simply providing an
biological differences are inconsequential (biology is NOT destiny) should not limit equal, legal framework.
• Some radical, difference feminists believe in essentialism, and argue that biological differences are individual freedom
consequential and determine gender differences and choice in the
• Difference feminists argue that men and women are fundamentally different private sphere.
• Difference feminists (and cultural feminism) argue that women should embrace their distinctiveness The state can be
• Difference feminists would argue that women may be naturally more passive, nurturing, empathetic and used to promote
caring than men legal and political
• Some radical, difference feminists would argue that all men are physically and psychologically predisposed equality, as well as
to oppress women. equality of
opportunity
between the sexes.
 Society Economy
AGREEMENT LIBERAL SOCIALIST RADICAL FEMINISM POST-MODERN
FEMINISM FEMINISM FEMINISM AGREEMENT LIBERAL FEMINISM SOCIALIST FEMINISM RADICAL POST-
Most would argue Women have not There is both class Patriarchal society is Society is too multi- FEMINISM MODERN
that the patriarchy been given equal and gender-based too pervasive to be faceted to be FEMINISM
has been opportunities in oppression in reformed, and there determined by just
artificially society, and reform society. Society needs to be a one variable. Most feminists Men’s domination of The economy is the Most radical Women
constructed by is needed in order reflects the revolutionary change would agree that the economic life restricts key determinant of feminists living in
men to oppress to ensure formal dominant position in discourse between
economic world the life choices open female oppression. support more poverty
women in society. equality. of both capitalists men and women
and men. discriminates against to women. socialist have
Most think that Society confines Nature of society is The patriarchy goes Society is full of women. economic problems
the patriarchy women to narrow economically beyond simply the complex policy, but this that middle-
exists in all areas roles of housewife determined. public sphere in relationships
of society (religion, and mother, which society, and also between different
is secondary to class
culture, education, alienates and transcends into the minorities. dismantling the women do
media etc.) oppresses women private sphere. patriarchy. not face.
(Friedan).
Most think that Social constraints Some socialist Needs to be a sexual Society should re-
Most feminists Women lack Capitalism has The
the patriarchy is prevent individuals feminists reject the revolution in society, in examine the would argue that economic women play a liberation of
the cause of from attaining self- idea of a which women are language that is discrimination independence as men subservient role in the poor is
women’s realisation (de ‘patriarchy’ all given more freedom used and move
inequality in Beauvoir). together and look and all people do not away from a gender includes unpaid dominate the outside the economy as the an economic
society. exclusively at feel confined to binary to include labour in the home. economic world and reserve army of as well as a
gender inequality as traditional, more fluid gender are forced to sell their labour. social issue.
a result of the class heterosexual expression.
system. relationships with clear sex for economic
power imbalances. protection. (Gilman)
All believe that There is an under- Link women’s roles Some radical feminists Emphasis on post- Economy is the key
women are not representation of within the believe that a utopian structuralism in
Most feminists
treated equally in women in senior conventional family society would consist society, would argue that the determinant of
society positions in politics to the maintenance only of women, where emphasising that all patriarchy female oppression,
and business as a of a capitalist lesbian relationships ideas and concepts rather than the
result of patriarchal society. can be practiced in language are
contributes to the
society. without the patriarchal intertwined with economic patriarchy.
influence of men. relations of power subordination of
in society.
women.
All relationships b/w In order to resolve
men and women are social conflict, love
built on power between different Capitalism forces
dynamics, and because minority cultures
of this, the personal is must be established women to play a
also political in society. (hooks) subservient role in
Sexual revolution is the economy as a
required in order to reserve army of
change perceptions in
society. labour.
Liberal
Takes the liberal values of individualism and equality and applies them
to women
If all humans are of equal worth, women are entitled to the same
rights as men
Wollstonecraft = an early liberal voice calling for rights for women in A
Vindication of the Rights of Women
BUT; women’s rights remained unconsidered
Liberal feminism, in its early form, was primarily associated with
women's suffrage
It also concerns legal and political equality
In the 20th Century liberal feminists campaigned for legal and political
equality, abortion, reform to divorce laws, freely available
contraception
Liberal feminists support an equality of opportunity
Liberal feminism is reformist – gender imbalance can be overturned
by democratic pressure
Once barriers are removed, it is argued women will compete with
men and enter all spheres
The more young girls see women in all types of jobs, the sooner
gender stereotypes will disappear
Liberal feminism does not aim to challenge the private and domestic
sphere – it is up to men and women to choose what to do
Therefore, no restructuring of society is required
Intersectionality
Intersectionality arose in the 1980s and is associated with Third Wave
Feminism
It criticised other forms of feminism for ignoring black and working
class women
The term was coined by Kimberle Crenshaw; watch her TED talk – can
you define intersectionality?
Crenshaw’s claim was that black women were often marginalised by
feminist and anti-racism movements
Feminists began to examine how class, race and religion also impacted
Intersectionality aimed at widening the previously narrow focus
feminism had
Radical
Radical feminists are called radical feminists, because
they believe radical changes are necessary
Many call for a ‘sexual revolution’, which will
fundamentally restructure society
This came to prominence in the Second Wave
Radical feminists describe society as being totally
patriarchal
It is closely linked to the idea ‘the personal is the
political’; politics – or ‘power relationships’ can be
found in all relationships between men and women
They seek to challenge patriarchy by raising awareness
of its existence
Millet’s main focus was a critique of patriarchy, in
particular within the family, and the way women are
portrayed in art and literature
She referred to the family as ‘patriarchy’s key
institution’ where young girls are ‘taught their place’
Post modern
This started in the 1990s and is associated with
‘difference’ feminism
The argument was for a more fluid understanding of
being a ‘woman’, which cannot be generalised
Equally, if there is no fixed definition of a ‘woman’ then
there is no fixed definition of feminism
Therefore, each generation of women will rediscover
and redefine what feminism is
Post-modern feminism challenges the notion gender
alone was the primary factor affecting women in
society
Placing gender alongside race, religion or class is a
more precise way of examining it
It criticises feminism for being too ‘white; and too
‘middle class’; it examines intersectionality
Strands of Feminism
You MUST interweave
with the key thinkers!
Socialist
Socialist feminists argue gender inequality stems from
economics – or more specifically, capitalism
Engels argued in The Origin of the Family, Private
Property and the State, that the move from
matriarchal to patriarchal society coincided with the
arrival of capitalism
Thus, women were oppressed by capitalism!
Engels argument was that women serve capitalism in a
number of ways:
Workers are supported by unpaid helpers; this enables
them to carry out a full days work
The role in the home is to socialise children into being
the next generation or workers and carers –
‘reproducing the labour force’
They act as a reserve army of labour; they can be used
and sent home when they are no longer needed
Charlotte Perkins Gilman was an early utopian/socialist
feminist thinker, writing at the turn of the 20th
Century. Gilman believed in communal living, with
couples living amongst other couples and single
people, so that housework could be shared.
Capitalism creates patriarchy, so men and women
should join to destroy capitalism, which would in turn
destroy patriarchy
Only a socialist revolution can destroy patriarchy