RHEOLOGY – co m e s f ro m G re e k wo rd R h e o s m e a n i n g

“ to f l ow ” a n d l o go s “ to st u d y ”

*Scientific study of the deformation a n d flow

properties of matter

Viscosity – is the opposite of fluidity

1. Resistance to flow
2. Re ciproc a l of fluid ity; ɳ = 1/ɸ (fluidity)
3. Ratio of the shear stress (F; is the amount of force
applied parallel to the area of contact) to the shear rate
(G; refers to the rate at w/c fluid layer move past
each other)
Types of viscosity:

1. Absolute viscosity – measurement of the fluid’s

internal resistance to flow. Other name = Dynamic
viscosity
Units: poise (dyne sec/cm2 or g / c m sec) or centipoises
2.Kinematic viscosity – it refers to the ration of
absolute or dynamic viscosity to the density.
Computation = divide the absolute viscosity/density
units: stokes(s); centistokes(cs)
3. Relative viscosity (ɳrel) = 𝒏𝟏/𝒏𝟐 – just the
comparison of the viscosity of one liquid to another
liquid. This is unit less
Methods of determining viscosity

1. Capillary Viscometer (Ostwald)

2. Falling Sphere (Hoeppler)
3 . C u p & Bob (Coutte, M a c Michael, Searle
‘ Brookefield – rotating spindle/ B o b ’ )
4. Plug Flow
5 . C o n e & Plate (Ferranti-Shirley)
Flow System

1. Newtonian Flow – type of flow that is independent on

the shear flow.
*Has linear relationship between shear rate a n d shear stress
▶ Constant viscosity with increasing rate
▶ Eg: ethanol, water, acetone, glycerin, benzene

2.Non-Newtonian Flow – the flow is dependent on the

shear force applied on the liquid.
-Shear-Dependent Viscosity
Non-Newtonian flow: (Shear – dependent)

1. Plastic flow - Simplest type of non-Newtonian behavior in

which the curve is linear only at values off beyond its yield
value.
Yield value (threshold for the plastic value; if the force
applied is less than the yield value the fluid will not
have changes in viscosity and won’t flow but if the force
applied is greater it will lead to changes in the viscosity
of the liquid and start to flow with dec. in viscosity) is
the force that should b e e x c e e d e d for a bingham b o d y
(plastic; fluids or substances that exhibit plastic flow) to
flow - Eg: gels, ointments, margarine
Non-Newtonian flow: (Shear- dependent)

2. Pseudoplastic flow - Non-linear; “shear-thinning”

– in crease shear stress/ shear force = decre ase viscosity
Eg: catsup a n d toothpastes

3. Dilata nt flow – opposite of pseudoplastic flow Non-linear;

“shear-thickening”
▶ - increase in shear stress/ shear force = increase in viscosity
▶ Eg: paint, starch paste
 Non-Newtonian flow (Time- dependent)
-this are dependent on the duration of time that is shear
stress or shear force being applied to a liquid

1. Thixotropy
- decreased viscosity w/ increased time of shear
- gel-sol transformation; example: bentonite magma has gel like or semi
solid like consistency it becomes less viscous with increase time of shear
stress/shear force.
2. Rheopexy
-increased viscosity w/ increased time of shear; opposite of thixotropy
- Antithixotropy sol-gel transformation; example : Gypsum (calcium sulfate)
SOLIDS
▶ Characterized of having fixed shapes, nearly
incompressible
▶ Have strong intermolecular forces, very little kinetic
energy
▶ Their atoms vibrate in fixed positions about an
equilibrium position, there is very little translational motion

▶ Types – crystalline or amorphous

CRYSTALS

*the molecules or atoms are arranged in repetitious three-

dimensional lattice units
▶ have definite geometric froms w/ 6 c o m m o n crystalline
structures

1. C u b i c (sodium chloride) 4. Rhombic (iodine)

2. Tetragonal (urea) 5. Monoclinic (sucrose)
3. Hexagonal (iodoform) 6. Triclinic (boric Acid )
 CRYSTALS

Types based on forces of attraction

1. C o v alent crystals – c o valent b o n d; examp le: d iamo nd,
g rap hi te an d q u arts
2. Ionic crystals – ionic bond ; examp le: NaCl
3. Molecular crystals – Va n der Wa a ls & H-bonding ; examp le:
su cro se an d i ce
4. M e t a llic crystals – metallic bond solid in their elemental forms ;
examp l e: si l ver, g o ld, co p p er, iro n an d alu minum
AMORPHOUS

- a k a “Glasses” or “Supercooled Liquids”; have tendency

to flow
- non-crystalline; no definite order have no definite &
sharp melting points
- Examples: C o c o a , Tannins
Crystals vs Amorphous
Amorphous Crystalline
Solubility inc dec
Reactivity inc dec
Stability dec inc
Melting Point dec inc
X-ray Diffraction Noise (no def. peaks) Definite
peaks
POLYMORPHISM
Polymorphism- ability of a solid t o exist in more than one
crystalline form
- h ave different physical properties including different melting
points, x-ray diffraction & solubilities
Example:
theobroma, c o c o a butter (used as suppository base) more
examples are: Chloramphenicol and Carbamazepine
Form Melting Point (in °C)
G a m m a (most unstable) 18
Alpha 22
Beta’ prime 28
Beta stable (most stable) 34.5
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
1. Enantiotropic - reversible c h a n g e from one polymorphic form to
another example: sulfur -> there are two enantiotropic sulfur rhombic
sulfur (can be converted to monoclinic sulfur) and monoclinic sulfur
(can be converted to rhombic sulfur) all considered thermodynamically
stable
2 . Monotropic - transition in o n e direction only example: Theobroma cacao
(beta stable can be only converted to beta prime its not reversible) they
have only one stable polymorphs
3. Isotropic - properties are identical in all direction example:
amorphous solids and one type of crystal cubic crystal
4. Anisotropic - properties are different in all direction example: all
crystals except cubic crystals
MICROMERETICS
Micromeritics
- study of small particles
--*micro (small) *meritics (measure)
-Types of Properties of Particles:
(1) Fundamental - inherent in all individual particles
Examples: Particles Size, Shape, Density, Volume
(2)Derived - combination of fundamental properties
Examples: Bulk density, Granule volume and Porosity;
computed by using the values of fundamental properties.
PARTICLE SIZE

Particle Sizes:
▶ Coarse >1000 μm
▶ C o n ventional 50-1000 μm
▶ Fine 1-50 μm
▶ Very Fine 0.1-1 μm
▶ Ultra-Fine <0.1 μm
Methods of Determining Particle Size

1. Optical microscopy
- Use of microscope to measure individual particle
- Adv: individual particles c a n b e seen
-Disadv: very tedious, 2D-image only

3 measurements
Ferret diam eter – 2 tangents separate d by the longest distant
Martin Diameter – distance what will bisect the particle into equal halves
Proje c ted Area of the C ircle – diameter of the c ircle that will enclose the
particle
Methods of Determining Particle Size
2. Sieve analysis
-USP method
- Sieve # (Mesh #) - number of openings per linear inch
- Disadv: attrition of particles into smaller w/c can lead to uneven
reading o the particles.

3. Sedimentation method
-Sedimentation rate or free fall velocity of particles
-Apparatus: Andreasen Apparatus / Pipet
-Principle: Stoke’s Law -> law w/c is concerned with the sedimentation
process
Methods of Determining Particle Size

4. Automatic Particle Counter

a. Coulter Counter
- Principle: measures electric resistance (↑ER ↑PS)
b. HIAC/Royco Instrument
-Principle: measures Light b lo ck ad e (↓light ↑PS)
c. Gelman Counter
- Principle: Faraday – Tyndall Effect