Borneo (/ˈbɔːrnioʊ/; Indonesian: Kalimantan) is the third-largest island in the

world and the largest in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia,
in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of
Sulawesi, and east of Sumatra.

The island is politically divided among three countries: Malaysia and Brunei in the
north, and Indonesia to the south.[1] Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian
territory. In the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up
about 26% of the island. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is
situated on a small island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of
Brunei, located on the north coast, comprises about 1% of Borneo's land area. A
little more than half of the island is in the Northern Hemisphere, including Brunei
and the Malaysian portion, while the Indonesian portion spans the Northern and
Southern hemispheres.

Borneo is home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Geography
2.1 Geology
2.2 Ecology
2.3 Conservation issues
2.4 Topography
2.5 River systems
3 History
3.1 Early history
3.2 British and Dutch control
3.3 World War II
3.4 Recent history
4 Demographics
4.1 Religion
5 Administration
6 Economy
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Etymology
The island is known by many names. Internationally it is known as Borneo, derived
from European contact with the Brunei kingdom in the 16th century during the Age of
Exploration. On a map from around 1601, Brunei city is referred to as Borneo, and
the whole island is also labelled Borneo.[2][3] The name Borneo may derive from the
Sanskrit word váruṇa (वरुण), meaning either "water" or Varuna, the Hindu god of
rain.[4]

The local population called it Klemantan or Kalimantan,[5] which was derived from
the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, meaning "burning weather" possibly to describe its
hot and humid tropical weather.[6] Indonesian historian Slamet Muljana suggests
that the name Kalamanthana was derived from Sanskrit terms kala (time or season)
and manthana (churning, kindling or creating fire by friction),[7] which possibly
describes the heat of the weather.[8]

In earlier times, the island was known by other names. In 977, Chinese records
began to use the term Bo-ni to refer to Borneo. In 1225, it was also mentioned by
the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua (趙汝适).[9] The Javanese manuscript
Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned
the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, which means the island of the Tanjungpura
Kingdom.[10] Nevertheless, the same manuscript also mentioned Barune (Brunei) and
other polities on the island.[11]

Geography
Geology
See also: Geological history of Borneo

Location map of Borneo in Maritime Southeast Asia, the Red River Fault is included
in the map.
Borneo was formed through Mesozoic accretion of microcontinental fragments,
ophiolite terranes and island arc crust onto a Paleozoic continental core. At the
beginning of the Cenozoic Borneo formed a promontory of Sundaland which partly
separated from Asian mainland by the proto-South China Sea.[12] The oceanic part of
the proto-South China Sea was subducted during the Paleogene period and a large
accretionary complex formed along the northwestern of the island of Borneo. In the
early Miocene uplift of the accretionary complex occurred as a result of
underthrusting of thinned continental crust in northwest.[12] The uplift may have
also resulted from shortening due to the counter-clockwise rotation of Borneo
between 20 and 10 mega-annum (Ma) as a consequence of Australia-Southeast Asia
collision.[12] Large volumes of sediment were shed into basins, which scattered
offshore to the west, north and east of Borneo as well into·a Neogene basin which
is currently exposed in large areas of eastern and southern Sabah. In southeast
Sabah, the Miocene to recent island arc terranes of the Sulu Archipelago extend
onshore into Borneo with the older volcanic arc was the result of southeast dipping
subduction while the younger volcanics are likely resulted from northwest dipping
subduction the Celebes Sea.[12]

Mount Kinabalu in Malaysia, the highest summit of the island[13]

Before sea levels rose at the end of the last Ice Age, Borneo was part of the
mainland of Asia, forming, with Java and Sumatra, the upland regions of a peninsula
that extended east from present day Indochina. The South China Sea and Gulf of
Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula. Deeper waters
separating Borneo from neighbouring Sulawesi prevented a land connection to that
island, creating the divide known as Wallace's Line between Asian and Australia-New
Guinea biological regions.[14][15] The island today is surrounded by the South
China Sea to the north and northwest, the Sulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes
Sea and the Makassar Strait to the east, and the Java Sea and Karimata Strait to
the south. To the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south
and east are islands of Indonesia: Java and Sulawesi, respectively. To the
northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres
(287,000 sq mi), it is the third-largest island in the world, and is the largest
island of Asia (the largest continent). Its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in
Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m (13,435 ft).[13]

Kapuas River in Indonesia; at 1,000 km (620 mi) in length, it is the longest river
in Borneo.[16]
The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,000
km (620 mi).[16] Other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan (920 km
(570 mi) long),[17] the Barito, Kahayan, and Mendawai in South Kalimantan (900 km
(560 mi), 600 km (370 mi), and 800 km (500 mi) long respectively),[18] Rajang in
Sarawak (565 km (351 mi) long)[19] and Kinabatangan in Sabah (560 km (350 mi)
long).[20] Borneo has significant cave systems. In Sarawak, the Clearwater Cave has
one of the world's longest underground rivers while Deer Cave is home to over three
million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres (330 ft) deep.[21] The
Gomantong Caves in Sabah has been dubbed as the "Cockroach Cave" due to the
presence of millions of cockroaches inside the cave.[22][23] The Gunung Mulu
National Park in Sarawak and Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in East Kalimantan
which particularly a karst areas contains thousands of smaller caves.[24]

Ecology
See also: Biodiversity of Borneo, Fauna of Borneo, Flora of Borneo, List of endemic
birds of Borneo, and Mammals of Borneo

The critically endangered Bornean orangutan, a great ape endemic to Borneo

The Borneo rainforest is estimated to be around 140 million years old, making it
one of the oldest rainforests in the world.[25] It is the centre of the evolution
and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals, and the rainforest
is one of the few remaining natural habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan.
It is an important refuge for many endemic forest species, including the Borneo
elephant, the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros, the Bornean clouded leopard, the hose's
palm civet and the dayak fruit bat.[26][27]

NASA satellite image of Borneo on 19 May 2002

Peat swamp forests occupy the entire coastline of Borneo.[28] The soil of the peat
swamp is comparatively infertile, while it is known to be the home of various bird
species such as the hook-billed bulbul, helmeted hornbill and rhinoceros hornbill.
[29] There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees
(267 species are dipterocarps), 221 species of terrestrial mammals and 420 species
of resident birds in Borneo.[30] There are about 440 freshwater fish species in
Borneo (about the same as Sumatra and Java combined).[31] The Borneo river shark is
known only from the Kinabatangan River.[32] In 2010, the World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF) stated that 123 species have been discovered in Borneo since the "Heart of
Borneo" agreement was signed in 2007.[33]

The WWF has classified the island into seven distinct ecoregions. Most are lowland
regions:[34][35][36]

Borneo lowland rain forests cover most of the island, with an area of 427,500
square kilometres (165,100 sq mi);
Borneo peat swamp forests;
Kerangas or Sundaland heath forests;
Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests; and
Sunda Shelf mangroves.
The Borneo montane rain forests lie in the central highlands of the island, above
the 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) elevation.
The Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands on South
Kalimantan.
The highest elevations of Mount Kinabalu are home to the Kinabalu mountain alpine
meadow, an alpine shrubland notable for its numerous endemic species, including
many orchids.

According to analysis of data from Global Forest Watch,[37] the Indonesian portion
of Borneo lost 10.7 million hectares of tree cover between 2002 and 2019, of which
4 million hectares was primary forest, compared with Malaysian Borneo's 4.4 million
hectares of tree cover loss and 1.9 million hectares of primary forest cover loss.
As of 2020, Indonesian Borneo accounts for 72% of the island's tree cover,
Malaysian Borneo 27%, and Brunei 1%. Primary forest in Indonesia accounts for 44%
of Borneo's overall tree cover.[38]

Conservation issues
See also: Deforestation in Borneo, 1997 Indonesian forest fires, 1997 Southeast
Asian haze, 2006 Southeast Asian haze, 2013 Southeast Asian haze, 2015 Southeast
Asian haze, 2016 Southeast Asian haze, and 2019 Southeast Asian haze
Logging road in East Kalimantan, Indonesia
The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area was reduced
due to heavy logging by the Indonesian and Malaysian wood industry, especially with
the large demands of raw materials from industrial countries along with the
conversion of forest lands for large-scale agricultural purposes.[34] Half of the
annual global tropical timber acquisition comes from Borneo. Palm oil plantations
have been widely developed and are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of
primary rainforest.[39] Forest fires since 1997, started by the locals to clear the
forests for plantations were exacerbated by an exceptionally dry El Niño season,
worsening the annual shrinkage of the rainforest.[40] During these fires, hotspots
were visible on satellite images and the resulting haze frequently affected Brunei,
Indonesia and Malaysia. The haze could also reach southern Thailand, Cambodia,
Vietnam and the Philippines as evidenced on the 2015 Southeast Asian haze.[41]

The orchid Mycaranthes farinosa is specific to this island[citation needed]

Topography
List of highest peaks in Borneo by elevation.

Mount Kinabalu 13,435 ft (4,095 m)

Mount Trusmadi 8,668 ft (2,642 m)
Muruk Miau 6,837 ft (2,084 m)
Mount Wakid 6,778 ft (2,066 m)
Monkobo Hill 5,866 ft (1,788 m)
Mount Lotung 5,843 ft (1,781 m)
Mount Magdalena 4,288 ft (1,307 m)
Talibu Hill 4,144 ft (1,263 m)
River systems
List of longest river in Borneo by length.

Kapuas River 1,143 km (710 mi)

Mahakam River 980 km (610 mi)
Barito River 890 km (550 mi)
Kahayan River 800 km (500 mi)
Rajang River 760 km (470 mi)
Mendawai River 600 km (370 mi)
Kayan River 576 km (358 mi)
Kinabatangan River 560 km (350 mi)
Baram River 400 km (250 mi)
Pawan River 197 km (122 mi)
History
Early history

Dayak, the main indigenous people in the island, were feared for their headhunting
practices.
In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative
art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown
animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo.[42][43]

According to ancient Chinese (977),[44]:129 Indian and Japanese manuscripts,

western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports by the first millennium
AD.[45] In Chinese manuscripts, gold, camphor, tortoise shells, hornbill ivory,
rhinoceros horn, crane crest, beeswax, lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood
of a thick liana, Dalbergia parviflora), dragon's blood, rattan, edible bird's
nests and various spices were described as among the most valuable items from
Borneo.[46] The Indians named Borneo Suvarnabhumi (the land of gold) and also
Karpuradvipa (Camphor Island). The Javanese named Borneo Puradvipa, or Diamond
Island. Archaeological findings in the Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was
a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about
1300.[46]

Territorial loss of the thalassocracy of the Sultanate of Brunei from 1400 to 1890
due to the beginning of Western imperialism
Stone pillars bearing inscriptions in the Pallava script, found in Kutai along the
Mahakam River in East Kalimantan and dating to around the second half of the 4th
century, constitute some of the oldest evidence of Hindu influence in Southeast
Asia.[47] By the 14th century, Borneo became a vassal state of Majapahit (in
present-day Indonesia),[48][49] later changing its allegiance to the Ming dynasty
of China.[50] The religion of Islam entered the island in the 10th century,[51]
following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples
in the coastal areas.[52]

The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of
Majapahit Emperor in mid-14th century. During its golden age under Bolkiah from the
15th century to the 17th century, the Bruneian Empire ruled almost the entire
coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to the island due to its influence in the
region) and several islands in the Philippines.[53] During the 1450s, Shari'ful
Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab born in Johor,[54] arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In
1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu; he titled himself as "Paduka Maulana
Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr".[55] Following their independence in 1578
from Brunei's influence,[56] the Sulu's began to expand their thalassocracy to
parts of the northern Borneo.[57][58] Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo
had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving
Chinese junks.[59][60] Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's
interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms.[61]

British and Dutch control

Main articles: British Borneo and Dutch East Indies

British flag hoisted for the first time on the island of Labuan on 24 December 1846
Since the fall of Malacca in 1511, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with
Borneo, and especially with Brunei from 1530.[62] Having visited Brunei's capital,
the Portuguese described the place as surrounded by a stone wall.[63] While Borneo
was seen as rich, the Portuguese did not make any attempts to conquer it.[62] The
Spanish visit to Brunei led to the Castilian War in 1578. The English began to
trade with Sambas of southern Borneo in 1609, while the Dutch only began their
trade in 1644: to Banjar and Martapura, also in the southern Borneo.[64] The Dutch
tried to settle the island of Balambangan, north of Borneo, in the second half of
the 18th century, but withdrew by 1797.[65] In 1812, the sultan in southern Borneo
ceded his forts to the English East India Company. The English, led by Stamford
Raffles, then tried to establish an intervention in Sambas but failed. Although
they managed to defeat the Sultanate the next year and declared a blockade on all
ports in Borneo except Brunei, Banjarmasin and Pontianak, the project was cancelled
by the British Governor-General Lord Minto in India as it was too expensive.[65] At
the beginning of British and Dutch exploration on the island, they described the
island of Borneo as full of head hunters, with the indigenous in the interior
practising cannibalism,[66] and the waters around the island infested with pirates,
especially between the north eastern Borneo and the southern Philippines.[67][68]
The Malay and Sea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between
Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo,[69] along with the attacks by
Illanuns of the Moro Pirates from the southern Philippines, such as in the Battle
off Mukah.[70]

Map of the island divided between the British and the Dutch, 1898. The present
boundaries of Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei are largely inherited from the British
and Dutch colonial rules.
The Dutch began to intervene in the southern part of the island upon resuming
contact in 1815, posting Residents to Banjarmasin, Pontianak and Sambas and
Assistant-Residents to Landak and Mampawa.[71][72] The Sultanate of Brunei in 1842
granted large parts of land in Sarawak to the English adventurer James Brooke, as a
reward for his help in quelling a local rebellion. Brooke established the Raj of
Sarawak and was recognised as its rajah after paying a fee to the Sultanate. He
established a monarchy, and the Brooke dynasty (through his nephew and great-
nephew) ruled Sarawak for 100 years; the leaders were known as the White Rajahs.
[73] Brooke also acquired the island of Labuan for Great Britain in 1846 through
the Treaty of Labuan with the Sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddin II on 18
December 1846.[74] The region of northern Borneo came under the administration of
North Borneo Chartered Company following the acquisition of territory from the
Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu by a German businessman and adventurer named Baron
von Overbeck, before it was passed to British Dent brothers (comprising Alfred Dent
and Edward Dent).[58][75] Further expansion by the British continued into the
Borneo interior.[76] This led the 26th Sultan of Brunei, Hashim Jalilul Alam
Aqamaddin to appeal the British to halt such efforts, and as a result a Treaty of
Protection was signed in 1888, rendering Brunei a British protectorate.[77]

The Dayak tribe during an Erau ceremony in Tenggarong

Before the acquisition by the British, the Americans also managed to establish
their temporary presence in northwestern Borneo after acquiring a parcel of land
from the Sultanate of Brunei. A company known as American Trading Company of Borneo
was formed by Joseph William Torrey, Thomas Bradley Harris and several Chinese
investors, establishing a colony named "Ellena" in the Kimanis area.[78] The colony
failed and was abandoned, due to denials of financial backing, especially by the US
government, and to diseases and riots among the workers.[79] Before Torrey left, he
managed to sell the land to the German businessman, Overbeck.[80] Meanwhile, the
Germans under William Frederick Schuck were awarded a parcel of land in
northeastern Borneo of the Sandakan Bay from the Sultanate of Sulu where he
conducted business and exported large quantities of arms, opium, textiles and
tobacco to Sulu before the land was also passed to Overbeck by the Sultanate.[81]
[82]

Arab-Malay Sultan of Pontianak in 1930

Prior to the recognition of Spanish presence in the Philippine archipelago, a
protocol known as the Madrid Protocol of 1885 was signed between the governments of
the United Kingdom, Germany and Spain in Madrid to cement Spanish influence and
recognise their sovereignty over the Sultanate of Sulu—in return for Spain's
relinquishing its claim to the former possessions of the Sultanate in northern
Borneo.[83][84] The British administration then established the first railway
network in northern Borneo, known as the North Borneo Railway.[85][86] During this
time, the British sponsored a large number of Chinese workers to migrate to
northern Borneo to work in European plantation and mines,[87] and the Dutch
followed suit to increase their economic production.[88] By 1888, North Borneo,
Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo had become British protectorate.[89] The area
in southern Borneo was made Dutch protectorate in 1891.[66] The Dutch who already
claimed the whole Borneo were asked by Britain to delimit their boundaries between
the two colonial territories to avoid further conflicts.[89] The British and Dutch
governments had signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 to exchange trading ports in
Malay Peninsula and Sumatra that were under their controls and assert spheres of
influence. This resulted in indirectly establishing British- and Dutch-controlled
areas in the north (Malay Peninsula) and south (Sumatra and Riau Islands)
respectively.[90]

In 1895, Marcus Samuel received a concession in the Kutei area of east Borneo, and
based on oil seepages in the Mahakam River delta, Mark Abrahams struck oil in
February 1897. This was the discovery of the Sanga Sanga Oil Field, a refinery was
built in Balikpapan, and discovery of the Samboja Oil Field followed in 1909. In
1901, the Pamusian Oil Field was discovered on Tarakan, and the Bunyu Oil Field in
1929. Royal Dutch Shell discovered the Miri Oil Field in 1910, and the Seria Oil
Field in 1929.[91][92][93]

World War II
See also: Japanese occupation of British Borneo and Japanese occupation of the
Dutch East Indies

Japanese troops march through the streets of Labuan on 14 January 1942.

American support craft moving towards Victoria and Brown beach to assist the
landing of the members of Australian 24th Infantry Brigade on the island during
Operation Oboe Six, 10 June 1945
During World War II, Japanese forces gained control and occupied most areas of
Borneo from 1941 to 1945. In the first stage of the war, the British saw the
Japanese advance to Borneo as motivated by political and territorial ambitions
rather than economic factors.[94] The occupation drove many people in the coastal
towns to the interior, searching for food and escaping the Japanese.[95] The
Chinese residents in Borneo, especially with the Sino-Japanese War in Mainland
China mostly resisted the Japanese occupation.[96] Following the formation of
resistance movements in northern Borneo such as the Jesselton Revolt, many innocent
indigenous and Chinese people were executed by the Japanese for their alleged
involvement.[97]

In Kalimantan, the Japanese also killed many Malay intellectuals, executing all the
Malay Sultans of West Kalimantan in the Pontianak incidents, together with Chinese
people who were already against the Japanese for suspecting them to be threats.[98]
Sultan Muhammad Ibrahim Shafi ud-din II of Sambas was executed in 1944. The
Sultanate was thereafter suspended and replaced by a Japanese council.[99] The
Japanese also set-up Pusat Tenaga Rakjat (PUTERA)[100] in the Indonesian
archipelago in 1943, although it was abolished the following year when it became
too nationalistic.[101] Some of the Indonesian nationalist like Sukarno and Hatta
who had returned from Dutch exile began to co-operate with the Japanese. Shortly
after his release, Sukarno became President of the Central Advisory Council, an
advisory council for south Borneo, Celebes, and Lesser Sunda, set up in February
1945.[101]

Since the fall of Singapore, the Japanese sent several thousand of British and
Australian prisoners of war to camps in Borneo such as Batu Lintang camp. From the
Sandakan camp site, only six of some 2,500 prisoners survived after they were
forced to march in an event known as the Sandakan Death March.[102] In addition, of
the total of 17,488 Javanese labourers brought in by the Japanese during the
occupation, only 1,500 survived mainly due to starvation, harsh working conditions
and maltreatment.[95] The Dayak and other indigenous people played a role in
guerrilla warfare against the occupying forces, particularly in the Kapit Division.
They temporarily revived headhunting of Japanese toward the end of the war,[103]
with Allied Z Special Unit provided assistance to them.[104] Australia contributed
significantly to the liberation of Borneo.[105] The Australian Imperial Force was
sent to Borneo to fight off the Japanese.[106] Together with other Allies, the
island was completely liberated in 1945.

Recent history

Sukarno visiting Pontianak, West Kalimantan in 1963

In May 1945, officials in Tokyo suggested that whether northern Borneo should be
included in the proposed new country of Indonesia should be separately determined
based on the desires of its indigenous people and following the disposition of
Malaya.[107] Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin meanwhile continuously advocated for a
Greater Indonesian republic.[108] Towards the end of the war, Japan decided to give
an early independence to a new proposed country of Indonesia on 17 July 1945, with
an Independence Committee meeting scheduled for 19 August 1945.[101] However,
following the surrender of Japan to the Allied forces, the meeting was shelved.
Sukarno and Hatta continued the plan by unilaterally declaring independence,
although the Dutch tried to retake their colonial possession in Borneo.[101] The
southern part of the island achieved its independence through the Proclamation of
Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945. The southern part saw guerilla conflicts
followed by Dutch blockade to cut supplies for nationalist within the region.[109]
While nationalist guerrillas supporting the inclusion of southern Borneo in the new
Indonesian republic were active in Ketapang, and to lesser extent in Sambas where
they rallied with the red-white flag which became the flag of Indonesia, most of
the Chinese residents in southern Borneo expected to be liberate by Chinese
Nationalist troops from Mainland China and to integrate their districts as an
overseas province of China.[110] Meanwhile, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo
became separate British crown colonies in 1946.[111][112]

In 1961, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of the independent Federation of Malaya
desired to unite Malaya, the British colonies of Sarawak, North Borneo, Singapore
and the Protectorate of Brunei under the proposed Federation of Malaysia.[113] The
idea was heavily opposed by the governments in both Indonesia and the Philippines
as well from Communist sympathisers and nationalists in Borneo.[114][115] Sukarno,
as the President of the new republic, perceiving the British trying to maintain
their presence in northern Borneo and Malay Peninsula, he decided to launch a
military infiltration later known as the confrontation from 1962 to 1969.[116] As a
response to the growing opposition, the British deployed their armed forces to
guard their colonies against Indonesian and communist revolts,[117] which was also
participated by Australia and New Zealand.[118][119]

Queen's Own Highlanders 1st Battalion conduct a patrol to search for enemy
positions in the jungle of Brunei.
The Philippines opposed the newly proposed federation, claiming the eastern part of
North Borneo (today the Malaysian state of Sabah) as part of its territory as a
former possession of the Sultanate of Sulu.[120] The Philippine government mostly
based their claim on the Sultanate of Sulu's cession agreement with the British
North Borneo Company, as by now the Sultanate had come under the jurisdiction of
the Philippine republican administration, which therefore should inherit the Sulu
former territories. The Philippine government also claimed that the heirs of the
Sultanate had ceded all their territorial rights to the republic.[121]

The Sultanate of Brunei at the first welcomed the proposal of a new larger
federation.[122] Meanwhile, the Brunei People's Party led by A.M. Azahari desired
to reunify Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo into one federation known as the North
Borneo Federation (Malay: Kesatuan Negara Kalimantan Utara), where the Sultan of
Brunei would be the head of state for the federation—though Azahari had his own
intention to abolish the Brunei Monarchy, to make Brunei more democratic, and to
integrate the territory and other former British colonies in Borneo into Indonesia,
with the support from the latter government.[123] This directly led to the Brunei
Revolt, which thwarted Azahari's attempt and forced him to escape to Indonesia.
Brunei withdrew from being part of the new Federation of Malaysia due to some
disagreements on other issues while political leaders in Sarawak and North Borneo
continued to favour inclusion in a larger federation.[124]

With the continuous opposition from Indonesia and the Philippines, the Cobbold
Commission was established to discover the feeling of the native populations in
northern Borneo; it found the people greatly in favour of federation, with various
stipulations.[125][126] The federation was successfully achieved with the inclusion
of northern Borneo through the Malaysia Agreement on 16 September 1963.[127] To
this day, the area in northern Borneo is still subjected to attacks by Moro Pirates
since the 18th century and militant from groups such as Abu Sayyaf since 2000 in
the frequent cross border attacks. During the administration of Philippine
President Ferdinand Marcos, the President made some attempts to destabilise the
state of Sabah,[128] although his plan failed and resulted in the Jabidah massacre
and later the insurgency in the southern Philippines.[129][130]

In August 2019, Indonesian president Joko Widodo announced a plan to move the
capital of Indonesia from Jakarta to a newly established location in the East
Kalimantan province in Borneo.[131]

Demographics

Indigenous peoples with their musical instruments, dance and their respective
traditional dress
The demonym for Borneo is Bornean.[132]

Borneo has 21.3 million inhabitants (in 2014), a population density of 29

inhabitants per square kilometre (75 inhabitants per square mile). Most of the
population lives in coastal cities, although the hinterland has small towns and
villages along the rivers. The population consists mainly of Dayak ethnic groups,
Malay, Banjar, Orang Ulu, Chinese and Kadazan-Dusun. The Chinese, who make up 29%
of the population of Sarawak and 17% of total population in West Kalimantan,
Indonesia[133] are descendants of immigrants primarily from southeastern China.
[134]

In Sabah during the administration of Mustapha Harun of the United Sabah National
Organisation (USNO) in the 1970s, thousands of Muslim immigrants and refugees from
the southern Philippines of Mindanao and Sulawesi of Indonesia were given sanctuary
and later identity cards in the bid to increase the Muslim population of the state:
a policy later known as Project IC.[135] Due to the high number of crimes
attributed to the new migrant populations, ethnic tension between the indigenous
and migrant populations has risen up to the present.[136]

Balikpapan, a major city in Borneo

In Kalimantan, since the 1990s, the Indonesian government has undertaken an intense
transmigration program; to that end it has financed the relocation of poor,
landless families from Java, Madura, and Bali. By 2001, transmigrants made up 21%
of the population in Central Kalimantan.[137] Since the 1990s, the indigenous Dayak
and Malays have resisted encroachment by these migrants, and violent conflict has
occurred between some transmigrant and indigenous populations. In the 1999 Sambas
riots, Dayaks and Malays joined together to massacre thousands of the Madurese
migrants. In Kalimantan, thousands were killed in 2001 fighting between Madurese
transmigrants and the Dayak people in the Sampit conflict.[138]

Religion
Religion in Indonesian Borneo (2010)[139]

Islam (78.2%)
Protestantism (9%)
Roman Catholic (8.9%)
Buddhism (1.9%)
Hinduism (0.3%)
Confucianism and others (1.7%)
Religion in Malaysian Borneo (2010)[140]
 Islam (51.3%)
Christianity (33.3%)
Buddhism (9.3%)
Confucianism and others (3.1%)
Unknown (1.6%)
No religion (1.3%)
Hinduism (0.1%)
Religion in Brunei (2016)[141]

Islam (80.9%)
Christianity (7.1%)
Buddhism (7%)
Other (5%)
Administration

Political divisions of Borneo

The island of Borneo is divided administratively by three countries.

The Indonesian provinces of East, South, West, North and Central Kalimantan, in
Kalimantan
The East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, as well as the Federal Territory of
Labuan (on offshore islands nearby)
The independent sultanate of Brunei (main part and eastern exclave of Temburong)
Economy
Borneo's economy depends mainly on agriculture, logging and mining, oil and gas,
and ecotourism.[142] Brunei's economy is highly dependent on the oil and gas
production sector, and the country has become one of the largest oil producers in
Southeast Asia. The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are both top exporters of
timber.[142] Sabah is also known as the agricultural producer of rubber, cacao, and
vegetables, and for its fisheries, while Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan export liquefied
natural gas (LNG) and petroleum. The Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan are mostly
dependent on mining sectors despite also being involved in logging and oil and gas
explorations.[142]

See also
Hikayat Banjar
Kutai basin
List of islands of Indonesia
List of islands of Malaysia
Maphilindo
List of bats of Borneo
Indonesia portalMalaysia portalIslands portal
Notes
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Further reading
L. W. W Gudgeon; Allan Stewart (1913), British North Borneo / by L. W. W. Gudgeon ;
with twelve full-page illustrations in colour by Allan Stewart, Adam and Charles
Black
Redmond O'Hanlon (1984). Into the Heart of Borneo: An Account of a Journey Made in
1983 to the Mountains of Batu Tiban with James Fenton. Salamander Press. ISBN 978-
0-9075-4055-7.
Eric Hansen (1988). Stranger in the Forest: On Foot Across Borneo. Century. ISBN
978-0-7126-1158-9.
Gordon Barclay Corbet; John Edwards Hill (1992). The mammals of the Indomalayan
Region: a systematic review. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-854693-1.
Robert Young Pelton (1995). Fielding's Borneo. Fielding Worldwide. ISBN 978-1-5695-
2026-0.
Ghazally Ismail (1996–2001). A Scientific Journey Through Borneo. Kota Samarahan:
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
K. M. Wong; Chew Lun Chan (1997). Mount Kinabalu: Borneo's Magic Mountain: An
Introduction to the Natural History of One of the World's Great Natural Monuments.
Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications. ISBN 978-983-812-014-2.
Dennis Lau (1999). Borneo: a photographic journey. Travelcom Asia. ISBN 978-983-
99431-1-5.
John Wassner (2001). Espresso with the Headhunters: A Journey Through the Jungles
of Borneo. Summersdale. ISBN 978-1-84024-137-2.
Less S. Hall; Greg Richards; Mohamad Tajuddin Abdullah (2002), "The bats of Niah
National Park, Sarawak", The Sarawak Museum Journal
Mohd Azlan J.; Ibnu Martono; Agus P. Kartono; Mohamad Tajuddin Abdullah (2003),
"Diversity, Relative Abundance and Conservation of Chiropterans in Kayan Mentarang
National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia", The Sarawak Museum Journal
Mohd Tajuddin Abdullah (2003), Biogeography and variation of Cynopterus brachyotis
in Southeast Asia (PhD thesis ed.), Brisbane: University of Queensland
Catherine Karim; Andrew Alek Tuen; Mohamad Tajuddin Abdullah (2004), "Mammals", The
Sarawak Museum Journal
Less S. Hall; Gordon G. Grigg; Craig Moritz; Besar Ketol; Isa Sait; Wahab Marni;
M.T. Abdullah (2004), "Biogeography of fruit bats in Southeast Asia", The Sarawak
Museum Journal