Southeast Asia, also spelt South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as

Southeastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical southeastern subregion of Asia,

consisting of the regions that are south of China, south-east of the Indian
subcontinent and north-west of Australia.[5] Southeast Asia is bordered to the
north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and the Bay of Bengal, to the east by
Oceania and the Pacific Ocean, and to the south by Australia and the Indian Ocean.
Apart from the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of Maldives
in South Asia, Southeast Asia is the only other subregion of Asia that lies partly
within the Southern Hemisphere. The majority of the subregion is still in the
Northern Hemisphere. East Timor and the southern portion of Indonesia are the only
parts that are south of the Equator.

In contemporary definition, Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions:

Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula and historically
as Indochina, comprising Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand,
and Vietnam.
Maritime Southeast Asia, also known as the Malay Archipelago and historically as
Nusantara, comprising the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India), Brunei, East
Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore.[6]
The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with both heavy seismic
and volcanic activities. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, featuring
almost all Southeast Asian countries except Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern
Laos, northern Vietnam, and northern Luzon of the Philippines. The mountain ranges
in Myanmar, Thailand, and Peninsular Malaysia are part of the Alpide belt, while
the islands of the Philippines are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Both seismic
belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.[7]

It covers about 4,500,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi), which is 10.5% of Asia or 3% of

Earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 655 million, about 8.5%
of the world's population. It is the third most populous geographical region in
Asia after South Asia and East Asia.[8] The region is culturally and ethnically
diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups.[9] Ten
countries in the region are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), a regional organization established for economic, political, military,
educational and cultural integration amongst its members.[10]

Contents
1 Definitions
1.1 Political divisions
1.1.1 Sovereign states
1.2 Geographical divisions
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era
2.3 Spread of Islam
2.4 Trade and colonisation
2.4.1 Chinese
2.4.2 European
2.4.3 Japanese
2.4.4 Indian
2.4.5 American
2.5 Contemporary history
3 Geography
3.1 Boundaries
3.2 Climate
3.3 Environment
4 Economy
5 Demographics
5.1 Ethnic groups
5.2 Religion
5.3 Languages
5.4 Cities
6 Culture
6.1 Influences
6.2 Arts
6.2.1 Music
6.2.2 Writing
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Citations
10 Further reading
11 External links
Definitions

States and regions of Southeast Asia

The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as the
East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred
the region as Nanyang ("南洋"), which literally means the "Southern Ocean". The
mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to as Indochina by European
geographers due to its location between China and the Indian subcontinent and its
having cultural influences from both neighboring regions. In the 20th century,
however, the term became more restricted to territories of the former French
Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is
also known as the Malay Archipelago, a term derived from the European concept of a
Malay race.[11] Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia is Insulindia (Indian
Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia.[12]

The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm
in his book Travels in South-Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland
section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia.[13]
The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by the Allies, through
the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943.[14] SEAC popularised the
use of the term "Southeast Asia," although what constituted Southeast Asia was not
fixed; for example, SEAC excluded the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia
while including Ceylon. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the
term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it encompasses had emerged.[15] Although
from a cultural or linguistic perspective the definitions of "Southeast Asia" may
vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the
countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below. This
conglomeration of countries is based upon the regions of general proximity formerly
controlled or dominated by the Western colonial powers of Great Britain, France,
Holland, Spain and the U.S. It bears no universal commonality in culture, language,
religion, ethnicity, or system of government.

Ten of the eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New
Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer.
Sovereignty issues exist over some islands in the South China Sea.

Political divisions
Sovereign states
State Area
(km2) Population
(2020)[16] Density
(/km2) GDP (nominal),
USD (2020)[4] GDP (PPP)
per capita,
Int$ (2020)[4] HDI (2019 report) Capital
Brunei 5,765[17] 437,479 74 12,455,000,000 $85,011 0.838 Bandar
Seri Begawan
Cambodia 181,035[18] 16,718,965 90 26,730,000,000 $5,044 0.594 Phnom
Penh
East Timor 14,874[19] 1,267,974 85 2,938,000,000 $5,321 0.606 Dili
Indonesia 1,904,569[20] 267,670,543 141 1,111,713,000,000 $14,841 0.718
Jakarta
Laos 236,800[21] 7,061,507 30 19,127,000,000 $8,684 0.613 Vientiane
Malaysia 329,847[22] 31,528,033 96 365,303,000,000 $34,567 0.810 Kuala
Lumpur *
Myanmar 676,578[23] 53,708,320 79 65,994,000,000 $7,220 0.583 Nay
Pyi Taw
Philippines 300,000[24] 106,651,394 356 356,814,000,000 $10,094 0.718
Manila
Singapore 719.2[25] 5,757,499 8,005 362,818,000,000 $105,689 0.938
Singapore
Thailand 513,120[26] 69,428,453 135 529,177,000,000 $21,361 0.777
Bangkok
Vietnam 331,210[27] 95,545,962 288 261,637,000,000 $8,677 0.704 Hanoi
* Administrative centre in Putrajaya.

The UN Statistics Division for Asia are based on convenience rather than implying
any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or
territories:[28]
Central Asia
East Asia
North Asia
South Asia
Southeast Asia
West Asia

Political map of Southeast Asia

Geographical divisions
Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland
Southeast Asia (or the Indochinese Peninsula) and Maritime Southeast Asia (or the
similarly defined Malay Archipelago) (Javanese: Nusantara).

Mainland Southeast Asia includes:

Cambodia
Laos
Myanmar (Burma)
Peninsular Malaysia
Thailand
Vietnam
Maritime Southeast Asia includes:

Brunei
East Malaysia
East Timor
Indonesia
Philippines
Singapore
Although Peninsular Malaysia geographically situated in Mainland Southeast Asia, it
also shares many similar cultural and ecological affinities with surrounding
islands, thus it serves as a bridge of two subregions.[29] Geographically, the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India is also considered a part of Maritime
Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties
with Mainland Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas
between South Asia and Southeast Asia.[30] Similarly, Christmas Island and the
Cocos (Keeling) Islands have strong cultural ties with Maritime Southeast Asia and
are sometimes considered transregional areas between Southeast Asia and
Australia/Oceania. On some occasions, Sri Lanka has been considered a part of
Southeast Asia because of its cultural and religious ties to Mainland Southeast
Asia.[15][31] The eastern half of the island of New Guinea, which is not a part of
Indonesia, namely, Papua New Guinea, is sometimes included as a part of Maritime
Southeast Asia, and so are Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Palau, which
were all parts of the Spanish East Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties
to the region, specifically, the Philippines.[32]

East Timor and the eastern half of Indonesia (east of the Wallace Line in the
region of Wallacea) are considered to be geographically associated with Oceania due
to their distinctive faunal features. Geologically, the island of New Guinea and
its surrounding islands are considered as parts of the Australian continent,
connected via the Sahul Shelf. Both Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling)
Islands are located on the Australian Plate, south of the Java Trench. Even though
they are geographically closer to Maritime Southeast Asia than mainland Australia,
these two Australian external territories are not geologically associated with Asia
as none of them is actually on the Sunda Plate. The United Nations geoscheme has
classified both island territories as parts of Oceania, under the Australia and New
Zealand (Australasia) subregion.

Location map of oceans, seas, major gulfs and straits in Southeast AsiaAndaman
SeaAndaman SeaArafura SeaArafura SeaBali SeaBali SeaBanda SeaBanda SeaCeram
SeaCeram SeaFlores SeaFlores SeaJava SeaJava SeaMolucca SeaMolucca SeaSavu SeaSavu
SeaSouth China SeaSouth China SeaTimor SeaTimor SeaBohol SeaBohol SeaCamotes
SeaCamotes SeaPhilippine Sea (Pacific Ocean)Philippine Sea (Pacific Ocean)Samar
SeaSamar SeaSibuyan SeaSibuyan SeaSulu SeaSulu SeaVisayan SeaVisayan SeaCelebes
SeaCelebes SeaBismarck SeaBismarck SeaCoral SeaCoral SeaSolomon SeaSolomon SeaGulf
of ThailandGulf of ThailandGulf of TonkinGulf of TonkinBay of BengalBay of
BengalIndian OceanIndian OceanStrait of MalaccaStrait of MalaccaMakassar
StraitMakassar StraitGulf of CarpentariaGulf of CarpentariaKarimata StraitKarimata
StraitLuzon StraitLuzon StraitGulf of TominiGulf of TominiSunda StraitSunda
StraitMoro GulfMoro GulfMadura StraitMadura Strait
Oceans and Seas in Southeast Asia
History
Main article: History of Southeast Asia
Prehistory
See also: Australo-Melanesian and Austronesian peoples

Megalithic statue found in Tegurwangi, Sumatra, Indonesia 1500 CE

The region was already inhabited by Homo erectus from approximately 1,500,000 years
ago during the Middle Pleistocene age.[33] Homo sapiens, the ancestors of modern
Australo-Melanesians, reached the region by around 45,000 years ago,[34] having
moved eastwards from the Indian subcontinent.[35] Rock art (parietal art) dating
from 40,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered
in the caves of Borneo.[36] Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until at
least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct.[37] During much of this
time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single
landmass known as Sundaland due to lower sea levels.

The Austronesian expansion

In the late Neolithic, the Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the
modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, and the Philippines,
migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan in the first seaborne human migration known
as the Austronesian Expansion. They arrived in the northern Philippines in 2200 BC
and rapidly spread further into the Northern Mariana Islands and Borneo by 1500 BC;
Island Melanesia by 1300 BC; and to the rest of Indonesia, Malaysia, southern
Vietnam, and Palau by 1000 BC.[38][39] They often settled along coastal areas,
assimilating the preexisting Australo-Melanesian peoples such as Orang Asli of
peninsular Malaysia, Negritos of the Philippines, and Papuans of New Guinea.[40]
[41]

The Austronesian peoples of Southeast Asia have been seafarers for thousands of
years. They spread eastwards to Micronesia and Polynesia, as well as westwards to
Madagascar, becoming the ancestors of modern-day Malagasy people, Micronesians,
Melanesians, and Polynesians.[42] Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the
colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast
of India and Chinese southern coast.[42] Gold from Sumatra is thought to have
reached as far west as Rome. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History about
Chryse and Argyre, two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the
Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the vinta, were capable to sail across the
ocean. Magellan's voyage records how much more maneuverable their vessels were, as
compared to the European ships.[43] A slave from the Sulu Sea was believed to have
been used in Magellan's voyage as a translator.

Studies presented by the Human Genome Organisation (HUGO) through genetic studies
of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration
event from Africa, whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of
Asia, first entered the Malay peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in
particular the Semang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants
of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and
travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show
greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China.[44][45]

Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network
ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD.
[46] The Bronze Age Dong Son culture flourished in Northern Vietnam from about 1000
BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia.[47][48][49] The
region entered the Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in northern
Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighboring
China.[33]

Bronze drum from Sông Đà, northern Vietnam. Mid-1st millennium BC

Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist, engaged in ancestors, nature,
and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by Hinduism and
Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contact with Indian
subcontinent during the 1st century.[50] Indian Brahmins and traders brought
Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts.[51] Local rulers
converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to
reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief
counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically
invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of
Indianisation in the region.[52][53][54] Shaivism was the dominant religious
tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the 1st century. It then
spread into Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal, Indochina, then Malay Archipelago,
leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as
Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in the region.[55][56] Theravada
Buddhism entered the region during the 3rd century, via maritime trade routes
between the region and Sri Lanka.[57] Buddhism later established a strong presence
in Funan region in the 5th century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia,
Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practiced by the Thai, Burmese,
and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer
culture. Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought
by Chinese monks during their transit in the region en route to Nalanda.[52] It is
still the dominant branch of Buddhism practiced by Indonesian and Malaysian
Buddhists.

The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian
indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. Maluku Islands and New Guinea were
never Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th
century when Islam began to spread in those areas.[58] While in Vietnam, Buddhism
never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese
influence.[59] In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where its
folk religion makes up the plurality.[60][61] Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is
undergoing a revival with the support of the government.[62] Elsewhere, there are
ethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resisted conversion and still retain their
original animist beliefs, such as the Dayaks in Kalimantan, the Igorots in Luzon,
and the Shans in eastern Myanmar.[63]

Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era

Main articles: Greater India and History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia

Spread of Hinduism from South Asia to Southeast Asia

After the region came under contact with the Indian subcontinent circa 400 BCE, it
began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions,
cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and
religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks
were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local
polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions.[64]
[53][54] Sanskrit and Pali became the elite language of the region, which
effectively made Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere.[65] Most of the region had
been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised
circa 9th century when Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon.[66] Vietnam,
especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of
Chinese domination it experienced.[67]

The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were the Pyu city-
states that already existed circa 2nd century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It
served as an overland trading hub between India and China.[68] Theravada Buddhism
was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other
Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread.[69]
[70] In the 1st century, the Funan states centered in Mekong Delta were
established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern
Thailand. It became the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about
five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority
over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia.[42] In maritime Southeast Asia,
the first recorded Indianised kingdom was Salakanagara, established in western Java
circa 2nd century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as Argyre (Land of
Silver).[71]

Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia

By the 5th century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in
the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as Malacca
and Sunda Strait due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change
resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as Srivijaya,
Tarumanagara, and Medang emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime
power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca and Sunda
Strait.[42] This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by Chola
Empire, a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025.[72] The invasion
reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers
such as the Khmer Empire and Kahuripan.[73] Continued commercial contacts with the
Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the
surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast
Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.[note 2]

Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia

As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a
golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital Angkor hosts
majestic monuments—such as Angkor Wat and Bayon. Satellite imaging has revealed
that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the
world.[75] The Champa civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam,
and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a massive
conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa,
ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly
assimilating them into Vietnamese culture.[76]

During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions, affected areas
such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the
Mongols tried to invade Đại Việt and Champa.[77] The invasions were unsuccessful,
yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to Yuan dynasty to
avoid further conflicts.[78] The Mongols also invaded Pagan Kingdom in Burma from
1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller Shan
States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty.[79][80]
However, in 1297, a new local power emerged. Myinsaing Kingdom became the real
ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second
Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing.[81][82] The
Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma.[83] In 1292, The Mongols sent
envoys to Singhasari Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule.
Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and
made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari
collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols
arrived in Java, a local prince named Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist
the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his
Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave
Java.[84][85]

After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit Empire in
eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest
ruler was Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when
other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali came
under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that
its influence spanned over parts of Sulawesi, Maluku, and some areas of western New
Guinea and southern Philippines, making it one of the largest empire to ever exist
in Southeast Asian history.[86]:107 By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's
influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise
of new Islamic states such as Samudera Pasai and Malacca Sultanate around the
strategic Strait of Malacca. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last
major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the region before the arrival of
the Europeans.[87][88]

Spread of Islam
Main articles: Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and Islam in Southeast Asia

Wapauwe Old Mosque is the oldest surviving mosque in Indonesia, and the second
oldest in Southeast Asia, built in 1414
Islam began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the 8th-century CE, when the
Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes.[89][90][91] However its
spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent
period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia. The Indian Chola navy
crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman
in Kadaram (Kedah); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the
king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and
Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of
Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu
faith, and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136.
Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married
the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon,
Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers
followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981)
wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately
related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."[92]

There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. Another
theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia
helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from Southern Yemen (Hadramout)
brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled in
Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This is evident in the Arab-Indonesian, Arab-
Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each
of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further
aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the
region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th
century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the
region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes.
Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia.[93]

Trade and colonisation

Strait of Malacca
Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of
colonial rule, struggle for independence, and in some cases war influenced the
economic attitudes and policies of each country.[94]

Chinese
See also: List of tributaries of Imperial China and Chinese Empire
From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was
successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han, Eastern
Han, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei, Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang, Sui, Tang, and
Southern Han.

Records from Magellan's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than European
ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them.[43]

Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Hang Li Po, to
Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was
impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Han Li Po's well (constructed 1459) is now a
tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina, where her retinue settled.

The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which was controlled by Sultanate of
Malacca in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese
writer Duarte Barbosa, who in 1500 wrote: "He who is lord of Malacca has his hand
on the throat of Venice".

Colonial boundaries in Southeast Asia

European
See also: European colonisation of Southeast Asia

Fort Cornwallis in George Town marks the spot where the British East India Company
first landed in Penang in 1786, thus heralding the British colonisation of Malaya
Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the
Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the
Spanish years later. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch established
the Dutch East Indies; the French Indochina; and the British Strait Settlements. By
the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for Thailand.

Duit, a coin minted by the VOC, 1646–1667. 2 kas, 2 duit

European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east.
Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from
mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as honey and
hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the eighteenth and
nineteenth century, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links.
For the majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively little
interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships
continued. For most, a life with subsistence-level agriculture, fishing and, in
less developed civilizations, hunting and gathering was still hard.[95]

Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become

widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to
develop its own education system as well as start sending Royal members and Thai
scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia.

Japanese
See also: Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, Empire of Japan, and Japanese war
crimes
During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western colonies.
The Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as the
Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labour, such as the
one involving 4 to 10 million romusha in Indonesia.[96] A later UN report stated
that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour
during the Japanese occupation.[97] The Allied powers who defeated Japan in the
South-East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists to whom
the occupation authorities had granted independence.

Indian
Gujarat, India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th
and 16th centuries.[93] The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after the
Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century.[93]

American
See also: American Philippines
The United States took the Philippines from Spain in 1898. Internal autonomy was
granted in 1934, and independence in 1946.[98]

Contemporary history
Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms of
government and the recognition of human rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a
framework for the integration of commerce and regional responses to international
concerns.

China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea, based on its nine-dash
line, and has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China
also has asserted an exclusive economic zone based on the Spratly Islands. The
Philippines challenged China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in
2013, and in Philippines v. China (2016), the Court ruled in favor of the
Philippines and rejected China's claims.[99][100]

Geography
See also: Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia), List of Southeast Asian mountains, and
Zomia (geography)

Relief map of Southeast Asia

Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and is also the largest
archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World Factbook).
Geologically, the Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most volcanically active
regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some
impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia at 5,030
metres (16,503 feet), on the island of New Guinea; it is the only place where ice
glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is
Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 metres (19,577 feet) and can be found in northern Burma
sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest.

The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The
Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral
rivers that flow into the South China Sea.

Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerously active, holds the record of the world's
most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous eruption.[101]

Boundaries
Further information: Boundaries between the continents of Earth
Geographically, Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian
continent, the boundary between these two regions runs through Wallacea.

Geopolitically, the boundary lies between Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian
region of Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua). Both countries share the
island of New Guinea.

Climate

Southeast Asia map of Köppen climate classification

The climate in Southeast Asia is mainly tropical–hot and humid all year round with
plentiful rainfall. Northern Vietnam and the mountainous parts of Laos and Myanmar
are the only regions in Southeast Asia that feature a subtropical climate, which
have a cooler winter with potential snow. The majority of Southeast Asia has a wet
and dry season caused by seasonal shifts in winds or monsoon. The tropical rain
belt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rainforest is the
second largest on Earth (with the Amazon rainforest being the largest). An
exception to this type of climate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the
northern region, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures and drier
landscape. Other parts fall out of this climate because they are desert-like.

Southeast Asia is one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change in the
world.[102][103] Climate change will have a big effect on agriculture in Southeast
Asia such as irrigation systems will be affected by changes in rainfall and runoff,
and subsequently, water quality and supply.[104] Climate change is also likely to
pose a serious threat to the fisheries industry in Southeast Asia.[102] Despite
being one of the most vulnerable regions to the effects of climate change in the
world, Southeast Asian countries are lagging behind in terms of their climate
mitigation measures.[103]

Environment
See also: Southeast Asian coral reefs and Wallace Line

Komodo dragon in Komodo National Park, Indonesia

The vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its
climate generally can be characterised as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia
are diverse; on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the orangutan, the Asian
elephant, the Malayan tapir, the Sumatran rhinoceros and the Bornean clouded
leopard can also be found. Six subspecies of the binturong or bearcat exist in the
region, though the one endemic to the island of Palawan is now classed as
vulnerable.

Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (the
Sumatran tiger), in peninsular Malaysia (the Malayan tiger), and in Indochina (the
Indochinese tiger); all of which are endangered species.

The Komodo dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands
of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and Gili Motang in Indonesia.

The Philippine eagle

The Philippine eagle is the national bird of the Philippines. It is considered by
scientists as the largest eagle in the world,[105] and is endemic to the
Philippines' forests.

The wild Asian water buffalo, and on various islands related dwarf species of
Bubalus such as anoa were once widespread in Southeast Asia; nowadays the domestic
Asian water buffalo is common across the region, but its remaining relatives are
rare and endangered.

The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, mostly can be
found on Sumatra, Borneo (Indonesia), and in Palawan Islands (Philippines). The
gaur, a gigantic wild ox larger than even wild water buffalo, is found mainly in
Indochina. There is very little scientific information available regarding
Southeast Asian amphibians.[106]

Birds such as the green peafowl and drongo live in this subregion as far east as
Indonesia. The babirusa, a four-tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. The
hornbill was prized for its beak and used in trade with China. The horn of the
rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well.

The Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line. This line runs along what
is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species
from Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands between Java/Borneo and Papua form
a mixed zone, where both types occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of development
accelerates and populations continue to expand in Southeast Asia, concern has
increased regarding the impact of human activity on the region's environment. A
significant portion of Southeast Asia, however, has not changed greatly and remains
an unaltered home to wildlife. The nations of the region, with only a few
exceptions, have become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to
prevent soil erosion but to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna. Indonesia,
for example, has created an extensive system of national parks and preserves for
this purpose. Even so, such species as the Javan rhinoceros face extinction, with
only a handful of the animals remaining in western Java.

Wallace's hypothetical line divides Indonesian Archipelago into 2 types of fauna,

Australasian and Southeast Asian fauna. The deepwater of the Lombok Strait between
the islands of Bali and Lombok formed a water barrier even when lower sea levels
linked the now-separated islands and landmasses on either side
The shallow waters of the Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of
biodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish, and molluscs
abound. According to Conservation International, marine surveys suggest that the
marine life diversity in the Raja Ampat (Indonesia) is the highest recorded on
Earth. Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral
Triangle composed of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. The Coral
Triangle is the heart of the world's coral reef biodiversity, the Verde Passage is
dubbed by Conservation International as the world's "center of the center of marine
shorefish biodiversity". The whale shark, the world's largest species of fish and 6
species of sea turtles can also be found in the South China Sea and the Pacific
Ocean territories of the Philippines.

The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the
mountains are tall enough, temperate-climate vegetation can be found. These
rainforest areas are currently being logged-over, especially in Borneo.

While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna, Southeast Asia is facing severe
deforestation which causes habitat loss for various endangered species such as
orangutan and the Sumatran tiger. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of
the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st
century.[107] At the same time, haze has been a regular occurrence. The two worst
regional hazes were in 1997 and 2006 in which multiple countries were covered with
thick haze, mostly caused by "slash and burn" activities in Sumatra and Borneo. In
reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed the ASEAN Agreement on
Transboundary Haze Pollution to combat haze pollution.

The 2013 Southeast Asian Haze saw API levels reach a hazardous level in some
countries. Muar experienced the highest API level of 746 on 23 June 2013 at around
7 am.[108]

Economy

The Port of Singapore is the busiest transshipment and container port in the world,
and is an important transportation and shipping hub in Southeast Asia
Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical
part of the world trading system. A wide range of commodities originated in the
region, but especially important were spices such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and
nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but
it also brought Europeans to the region. First, Spaniards (Manila galleon) who
sailed from the Americas and Kingdom of Portugal, then the Dutch, and finally the
British and French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The
penetration of European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of
territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect and expand
their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into Indonesia, the British into
Malaya and parts of Borneo, the French into Indochina, and the Spanish and the US
into the Philippines. An economic effect of this imperialism was the shift in the
production of commodities. For example, the rubber plantations of Malaysia, Java,
Vietnam, and Cambodia, the tin mining of Malaya, the rice fields of the Mekong
Delta in Vietnam, and the Irrawaddy River delta in Burma, were a response to the
powerful market demands.[109]

The overseas Chinese community has played a large role in the development of the
economies in the region. The origins of Chinese influence can be traced to the 16th
century, when Chinese migrants from southern China settled in Indonesia, Thailand,
and other Southeast Asian countries.[110] Chinese populations in the region saw a
rapid increase following the Communist Revolution in 1949, which forced many
refugees to emigrate outside of China.[111]

The region's economy greatly depends on agriculture; rice and rubber have long been
prominent exports. Manufacturing and services are becoming more important.[citation
needed] An emerging market, Indonesia is the largest economy in this region. Newly
industrialised countries include Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the
Philippines, while Singapore and Brunei are affluent developed economies. The rest
of Southeast Asia is still heavily dependent on agriculture, but Vietnam is notably
making steady progress in developing its industrial sectors.[citation needed] The
region notably manufactures textiles, electronic high-tech goods such as
microprocessors, and heavy industrial products such as automobiles.[citation
needed] Oil reserves in Southeast Asia are plentiful.[citation needed]

Seventeen telecommunications companies contracted to build the Asia-America Gateway

submarine cable to connect Southeast Asia to the US[112] This is to avoid
disruption of the kind caused by the cutting of the undersea cable from Taiwan to
the US in the 2006 Hengchun earthquakes.

Along with its temples Cambodia has been promoting its coastal resorts. Island off
Otres Beach Sihanoukville, Cambodia
Tourism has been a key factor in economic development for many Southeast Asian
countries, especially Cambodia. According to UNESCO, "tourism, if correctly
conceived, can be a tremendous development tool and an effective means of
preserving the cultural diversity of our planet."[113] Since the early 1990s, "even
the non-ASEAN nations such as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Burma, where the income
derived from tourism is low, are attempting to expand their own tourism
industries."[114] In 1995, Singapore was the regional leader in tourism receipts
relative to GDP at over 8%. By 1998, those receipts had dropped to less than 6% of
GDP while Thailand and Lao PDR increased receipts to over 7%. Since 2000, Cambodia
has surpassed all other ASEAN countries and generated almost 15% of its GDP from
tourism in 2006.[115] Furthermore, Vietnam is considered as a rising power in
Southeast Asia due to its large foreign investment opportunities and the booming
tourism sector, despite only having their trade embargo lifted in 1995.

Indonesia is the only member of G-20 major economies and is the largest economy in
the region.[116] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product for 2020 was
US$1,088.8 billion (nominal) or $3,328.3 billion (PPP) with per capita GDP of
US$4,038 (nominal) or $12,345 (PPP).[117]

Stock markets in Southeast Asia have performed better than other bourses in the
Asia-Pacific region in 2010, with the Philippines' PSE leading the way with 22
percent growth, followed by Thailand's SET with 21 percent and Indonesia's JKSE
with 19 percent.[118][119]

Southeast Asia's GDP per capita is US$4,685 according to a 2020 International

Monetary Fund estimates, which is comparable to South Africa, Iraq, and Georgia.
[120]

Country Currency Population

(2020)[16][121] Nominal GDP
(2020) $ billion[122] GDP per capita
(2020)[120] GDP growth
(2020)[123] Inflation
(2020)[124] Main industries
Brunei B$ Brunei dollar 437,479 $10.647 $23,117 0.1% 0.3%
Petroleum, Petrochemicals, Fishing
Cambodia ៛ Riel 16,718,965 $26.316 $1,572 -2.8% 2.5% Clothing, Gold,
Agriculture
East Timor US$ US dollar 1,318,445 $1.920 $1,456 -6.8% 0.9%
Petroleum, Coffee, Electronics
Indonesia Rp Rupiah 270,203,917[121] $1,088.768 $4,038 -1.5% 2.1% Coal,
Petroleum, Palm oil
Laos ₭ Kip 7,275,560 $18.653 $2,567 0.2% 6.5% Copper, Electronics, Tin
Malaysia RM Ringgit 32,365,999 $336.330 $10,192 -6% -1.1% Electronics,
Petroleum, Palm oil
Myanmar K Kyat 54,409,800 $70.890 $1,333 2% 6.1% Natural gas,
Agriculture, Clothing
Philippines ₱ Peso 109,581,078 $367.362 $3,373 -8.3% 2.4%
Electronics, Timber, Automotive
Singapore S$ Singapore dollar 5,850,342 $337.451 $58,484 -6% -0.4%
Electronics, Petroleum, Chemicals
Thailand ฿ Baht 69,799,978 $509.200 $7,295 -7.1% -0.4% Electronics,
Automotive, Rubber
Vietnam ₫ Đồng 97,338,579 $340.602 $3,498 2.9% 3.8% Electronics,
Clothing, Petroleum
Demographics

Population distribution of the countries of Southeast Asia (with Indonesia split

into its major islands).
Southeast Asia has an area of approximately 4,500,000 square kilometres (1,700,000
sq mi). As of 2018, around 655 million people live in the region, more than a fifth
live (143 million) on the Indonesian island of Java, the most densely populated
large island in the world. Indonesia is the most populous country with 268 million
people, and also the 4th most populous country in the world. The distribution of
the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some
30 million overseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently in
Christmas Island, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand,
and also as the Hoa in Vietnam. People of Southeast Asian origins are known as
Southeast Asians or Aseanites.

vte
Largest cities in Southeast Asia
Demographia 2020
Rank Name Country Pop. Rank Name Country Pop.
Jakarta
Jakarta
Manila
Manila 1 Jakarta Indonesia 34,540,000 11 Medan Indonesia
3,632,000 Bangkok
Bangkok
Ho Chi Minh City
Ho Chi Minh City
2 Manila Philippines 23,088,000 12 Cebu City Philippines 2,275,000
3 Bangkok Thailand 17,066,000 13 Phnom Penh Cambodia 2,177,000
4 Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam 13,312,000 14 Semarang Indonesia
1,992,000
5 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 8,285,000 15 Johor Bahru Malaysia
1,981,000
6 Bandung Indonesia 7,065,000 16 Makassar Indonesia 1,952,000
7 Hanoi Vietnam 6,576,000 17 Palembang Indonesia 1,889,000
8 Surabaya Indonesia 6,499,000 18 Mandalay Myanmar 1,633,000
9 Yangon Myanmar 6,314,000 19 Hai Phong Vietnam 1,623,000
10 Singapore Singapore 5,745,000 20 Yogyakarta Indonesia 1,568,000
Ethnic groups
Main article: Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia

Ati woman in Aklan – the Negritos were the earliest inhabitants of Southeast Asia.

Ethnic mosaic of Southeast Asia

The Aslians and Negritos were believed as one of the earliest inhabitants in the
region. They are genetically related to the Papuans in Eastern Indonesia, East
Timor and Australian Aborigines. In modern times, the Javanese are the largest
ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million people, mostly
concentrated in Java, Indonesia. The second-largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia
is Vietnamese (Kinh people) with around 86 million population, mainly inhabiting in
Vietnam, thus forming a significant minority in neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The
Thais is also a significant ethnic group with around 59 million population forming
the majority in Thailand. In Burma, the Burmese account for more than two-thirds of
the ethnic stock in this country, with the Indo-Aryan Rohingya make up a
significant minority in Rakhine State.

Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, with
hundreds of ethnic minorities inhabited the archipelago, including Madurese,
Minangkabau, Bugis, Balinese, Dayak, Batak and Malays. While Malaysia is split
between more than half Malays and one-quarter Chinese, and also Indian minority in
the West Malaysia however Dayaks make up the majority in Sarawak and Kadazan-dusun
makes up the majority in Sabah which are in the East Malaysia. The Malays are the
majority in West Malaysia and Brunei, while they forming a significant minority in
Indonesia, Southern Thailand, East Malaysia and Singapore. In city-state Singapore,
Chinese are the majority, yet the city is a multicultural melting pot with Malays,
Indians and Eurasian also called the island their home.

The Chams form a significant minority in Central and South Vietnam, also in Central
Cambodia. While the Khmers are the majority in Cambodia and form a significant
minority in Southern Vietnam and Thailand, the Hmong people are the minority in
Vietnam, China, and Laos.

Within the Philippines, the Tagalog, Visayan (mainly Cebuanos, Warays and
Hiligaynons), Ilocano, Bicolano, Moro (mainly Tausug, Maranao, and Maguindanao) and
Central Luzon (mainly Kapampangan and Pangasinan) groups are significant.

Religion
See also: Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Hinduism in Southeast Asia, Islam in
Southeast Asia, Shenism in Southeast Asia, Muslim Southeast Asia, and Christianity
in Asia

Spirit houses are common in areas of Southeast Asia where Animism is a held belief.

The Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Balinese Hindu
temples.

Thai Theravada Buddhists in Chiang Mai, Thailand.

The prayer hall of the Goddess of Mercy Temple, the oldest Taoist temple in Penang,
Malaysia.

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque in Brunei, an Islamic country with Sharia rule.

Roman Catholic Cathedral-Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, the metropolitan

see of the Archbishop of Manila, Philippines.

A Protestant church in Indonesia. Indonesia has the largest Protestant population

in Southeast Asia.

Jewish Surabaya Synagogue in Indonesia, demolished in 2013.

Countries in Southeast Asia practice many different religions. By population, Islam
is the most practised faith, numbering approximately 240 million adherents, or
about 40% of the entire population, concentrated in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia,
Southern Thailand and in the Southern Philippines. Indonesia is the most populous
Muslim-majority country in the world.

There are approximately 205 million Buddhists in Southeast Asia, making it the
second-largest religion in the region, after Islam. Approximately 38% of the global
Buddhist population resides in Southeast Asia. Buddhism is predominant in Vietnam,
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar and Singapore. Ancestor worship and Confucianism
are also widely practised in Vietnam and Singapore.

Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, East Malaysia,

and East Timor. The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population in Asia.
[125] East Timor is also predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history of
Indonesian[126] and Portuguese rule. In October 2019, the number of Christians,
both Catholic and Protestant in Southeast Asia, reached 156 million, of which 97
million came from the Philippines, 26 million came from Indonesia, 11 million came
from Vietnam, and the rest came from Malaysia, Myanmar, East Timor, Singapore,
Laos, Cambodia and Brunei.

No individual Southeast Asian country is religiously homogeneous. Some groups are

protected de facto by their isolation from the rest of the world.[127] In the
world's most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is dominant on islands
such as Bali. Christianity also predominates in the rest of the part of the
Philippines, New Guinea, Flores and Timor. Pockets of Hindu population can also be
found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysia, etc. Garuda, the phoenix who is
the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national symbol in both Thailand and Indonesia;
in the Philippines, gold images of Garuda have been found on Palawan; gold images
of other Hindu gods and goddesses have also been found on Mindanao. Balinese
Hinduism is somewhat different from Hinduism practised elsewhere, as Animism and
local culture is incorporated into it. Christians can also be found throughout
Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in East Timor and the Philippines, Asia's
largest Christian nation. In addition, there are also older tribal religious
practices in remote areas of Sarawak in East Malaysia, Highland Philippines, and
Papua in eastern Indonesia. In Burma, Sakka (Indra) is revered as a Nat. In
Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practised, which is influenced by native animism but
with a strong emphasis on ancestor worship.

The religious composition for each country is as follows: Some values are taken
from the CIA World Factbook:[128]

Country Religions
India Andaman and Nicobar Islands Hinduism (69%), Christianity, Islam, Sikhism
and others
Brunei Islam (67%), Buddhism, Christianity, others (indigenous beliefs, etc.)
Cambodia Buddhism (97%), Islam, Christianity, Animism, others
East Timor Roman Catholicism (97%), Protestantism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism
Indonesia Islam (87.18%), Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, others[129]
Laos Buddhism (67%), Animism, Christianity, others
Malaysia Islam (60.4%), Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Animism
Myanmar (Burma) Buddhism (89%), Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Animism, others
Philippines Roman Catholicism (80.6%), Islam (6.9%-11%),[130] Evangelicals
(2.7%), Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) (2.4%), Other Protestants (3.8%),
Buddhism (0.05%-2%),[131] Animism (0.2%-1.25%), others (1.9%)[132]
Singapore Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism, Hinduism, others
Thailand Buddhism (94.50%), Islam (4.06%), Christianity (0.7%), Hinduism
(0.011%), others (0.094%)
Vietnam Vietnamese folk religion (45.3%), Buddhism (16.4%), Christianity
(8.2%), Other (0.4%), Unaffiliated (29.6%)[133]
Languages
See also: Classification schemes for Southeast Asian languages, Sino-Tibetan
languages, Austroasiatic languages, Austronesian languages, Hmong–Mien languages,
and Tai–Kadai languages
Each of the languages has been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade,
immigration, and historical colonization as well. There are nearly 800 native
languages in the region.

The language composition for each country is as follows (with official languages in
bold):

Country/Region Languages
India Andaman and Nicobar Islands Bengali, Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu,
Malayalam, Shompen, A-Pucikwar, Aka-Jeru, Aka-Bea, Aka-Bo, Aka-Cari, Aka-Kede, Aka-
Kol, Aka-Kora, Aka-Bale, Jangil, Jarawa, Oko-Juwoi, Önge, Sentinelese, Camorta,
Car, Chaura, Katchal, Nancowry, Southern Nicobarese, Teressa
Brunei Malay, English, Indonesian, Chinese, Tamil and indigenous Bornean
dialects (Iban, Murutic language, Lun Bawang,)[134]
Cambodia Khmer, English, French, Teochew, Vietnamese, Cham, Mandarin,
others[135]
East Timor Tetum, Portuguese, Mambae, Makasae, Tukudede, Bunak, Galoli, Kemak,
Fataluku, Baikeno, others[136]
Indonesia Indonesian, Javanese, Sundanese, Batak, Minangkabau, Buginese, Banjar,
Papuan, Dayak, Acehnese, Ambonese Balinese, Betawi, Madurese, Musi, Manado, Sasak,
Makassarese, Batak Dairi, Karo, Mandailing, Jambi Malay, Mongondow, Gorontalo,
Ngaju, Kenyah, Nias, North Moluccan, Uab Meto, Bima, Manggarai, Toraja-Sa'dan,
Komering, Tetum, Rejang, Muna, Sumbawa, Bangka Malay, Osing, Gayo, Bungku-Tolaki
languages, Moronene, Bungku, Bahonsuai, Kulisusu, Wawonii, Mori Bawah, Mori Atas,
Padoe, Tomadino, Lewotobi, Tae', Mongondow, Lampung, Tolaki, Ma'anyan, Simeulue,
Gayo, Buginese, Mandar, Minahasan, Enggano, Ternate, Tidore, Mairasi, East
Cenderawasih Language, Lakes Plain Languages, Tor-Kwerba, Nimboran, Skou/Sko,
Border languages, Senagi, Pauwasi, Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew,
Tamil, Punjabi, Bengali, and Arabic.
Indonesia has over 700 languages in over 17,000 islands across the archipelago,
making Indonesia the second most linguistically diverse country on the planet,[137]
slightly behind Papua New Guinea. The official language of Indonesia is Indonesian
(Bahasa Indonesia), widely used in educational, political, economic, and other
formal situations. In daily activities and informal situations, most Indonesians
speak in their local language(s). For more details, see: Languages of Indonesia.

Laos Lao, Thai, Vietnamese, Hmong, Miao, Mien, Dao, Shan and others[138]
Malaysia Malaysian, English, Mandarin, Indonesian, Tamil, Kedah Malay, Sabah
Malay, Brunei Malay, Kelantan Malay, Pahang Malay, Acehnese, Javanese, Minangkabau,
Banjar, Buginese, Tagalog, Hakka, Cantonese, Hokkien, Teochew, Fuzhounese, Telugu,
Bengali, Punjabi, Hindi, Sinhala, Malayalam, Arabic, Brunei Bisaya, Okolod, Kota
Marudu Talantang, Kelabit, Lotud, Terengganu Malay, Semelai, Thai, Iban, Kadazan,
Dusun, Kristang, Bajau, Jakun, Mah Meri, Batek, Melanau, Semai, Temuan, Lun Bawang,
Temiar, Penan, Tausug, Iranun, Lundayeh/Lun Bawang, and others[139] see: Languages
of Malaysia
Myanmar (Burma) Burmese, Shan, Kayin(Karen), Rakhine, Kachin, Chin, Mon, Kayah,
Chinese and other ethnic languages.[140]
Philippines Filipino (Tagalog), English, Bisayan languages (Aklanon, Cebuano,
Kinaray-a, Capiznon, Hiligaynon, Waray, Masbateño, Romblomanon, Cuyonon,
Surigaonon, Butuanon, Tausug), Ivatan, Ilocano, Ibanag, Pangasinan, Kapampangan,
Bicolano, Sama-Bajaw, Maguindanao, Maranao, Chavacano
The Philippines has more than a hundred native languages, most without official
recognition from the national government. Spanish and Arabic are on a voluntary and
optional basis. Malay (Bahasa Malaysia, Bahasa Indonesia), Mandarin, Lan-nang
(Hokkien), Cantonese, Hakka, Japanese and Korean are also spoken in the Philippines
due to immigration, geographic proximity and historical ties. See: Languages of the
Philippines

Singapore English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, Tamil, Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese,

Hakka, Telugu, Malayalam, Punjabi, Hindi, Sinhala, Javanese, Balinese, Singlish
creole and others
Thailand Thai, Isan, Northern Khmer, Malay, Karen, Hmong, Teochew, Minnan,
Hakka, Yuehai, Burmese, Mien, Tamil, Bengali, Urdu, Arabic, Shan, Lue, Phutai, Mon
and others[141]
Vietnam Vietnamese, Khmer, Cantonese, Hmong, Tai, Cham and others[142]
Cities
See also: List of cities in ASEAN by population
Jabodetabek (Jakarta/Bogor/Depok/Tangerang/South Tangerang/Bekasi), Indonesia
Metro Manila (Manila/Quezon City/Makati/Taguig/Pasay/Caloocan and 11 others),
Philippines
Bangkok Metropolitan Region (Bangkok/Nonthaburi/Samut Prakan/Pathum Thani/Samut
Sakhon/Nakhon Pathom), Thailand
Eastern Economic Corridor (Chachoengsao/Chonburi/Rayong), Thailand
Gerbangkertosusila (Surabaya/Sidoarjo/Gresik/Mojokerto/Lamongan/Bangkalan),
Indonesia
Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley (Kuala Lumpur/Selangor), Malaysia
Greater Penang (Penang/Kedah/Perak), Malaysia
Sijori Triangle (Singapore/Johor Bahru/Batam), Singapore Malaysia Indonesia
Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area (Ho Chi Minh City/Vũng Tàu/Bình Dương/Đồng
Nai), Vietnam
Hanoi Capital Region (Hà Nội/Hải Phòng/Hạ Long), Vietnam
Da Nang City (Đà Nẵng/Hội An/Huế), Vietnam
Yangon Region (Yangon/Thanlyin), Myanmar
Greater Bandung Metropolitan Area (Bandung/Cimahi), Indonesia
Metro Cebu (Cebu City/Mandaue/Lapu-Lapu City/Talisay City and 11 others),
Philippines
Metro Davao (Davao City/Digos/Tagum/Island Garden City of Samal), Philippines
Metro Iloilo-Guimaras (Iloilo City/Pavia/Oton/Leganes/Zarraga/San
Miguel/Guimaras) , Philippines
Metro Cagayan de Oro (Cagayan de Oro/El Salvador and 13 others) Philippines
Phnom Penh City (Phnom Penh/Kandal), Cambodia
Vientiane Prefecture (Vientiane/Don Noun/Tha Ngon), Laos
Brunei-Muara (Bandar Seri Begawan/Muara), Brunei
Dili (Dili), East Timor
Night skylines

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Bangkok, Thailand

Singapore

Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Map of Southeast Asia showing the most populated cities. Capital cities are in
bold.JakartaJakartaBangkokBangkokHồ Chí Minh CityHồ Chí Minh CityHà NộiHà
NộiSingaporeSingaporeYangonYangonSurabayaSurabayaQuezon CityQuezon CitySoutheast
AsiaSoutheast AsiaMedanMedanSoutheast AsiaHải PhòngHải PhòngSoutheast
AsiaManilaManilaDavao CityDavao CitySoutheast AsiaSoutheast
AsiaPalembangPalembangKuala LumpurKuala LumpurSoutheast AsiaMakassarMakassarPhnom
PenhPhnom PenhCần ThơCần
ThơMandalayMandalayBatamBatamPekanbaruPekanbaruBogorBogorSoutheast AsiaĐà NẵngĐà
NẵngBandar LampungBandar LampungCebu CityCebu CityPadangPadangZamboanga
CityZamboanga CityDenpasarDenpasarMalangMalangSamarindaSamarindaSoutheast
AsiaSoutheast AsiaSoutheast AsiaGeorge Town, PenangGeorge Town,
PenangTasikmalayaTasikmalayaCagayan de OroCagayan de
OroBanjarmasinBanjarmasinSoutheast AsiaSoutheast
AsiaIpohIpohBalikpapanBalikpapanSoutheast AsiaSoutheast AsiaSoutheast AsiaSoutheast
AsiaGeneral SantosGeneral SantosSoutheast AsiaSoutheast AsiaSoutheast
AsiaBacolodBacolodSoutheast AsiaNay Pyi TawNay Pyi TawVientianeVientianeNha
TrangNha TrangChiang MaiChiang MaiThanh HóaThanh HóaSoutheast AsiaSoutheast
AsiaSoutheast AsiaJambiJambiPontianakPontianak
Most populous cities in Southeast Asia (500,000+ inhabitants)
Culture
See also: Southeast Asian cinema, Southeast Asian Games, and Southeast Asian music

Burmese puppet performance

The culture in Southeast Asia is very diverse: on mainland Southeast Asia, the
culture is a mix of Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian, and Thai (Indian) and Vietnamese
(Chinese) cultures. While in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Malaysia
the culture is a mix of indigenous Austronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and
Chinese cultures. Also Brunei shows a strong influence from Arabia. Vietnam and
Singapore show more Chinese influence[143] in that Singapore, although being
geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese majority and
Vietnam was in China's sphere of influence for much of its history. Indian
influence in Singapore is only evident through the Tamil migrants,[144] which
influenced, to some extent, the cuisine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnam's history,
it has had no direct influence from India – only through contact with the Thai,
Khmer and Cham peoples. Moreover, Vietnam is also categorized under the East Asian
cultural sphere along with China, Korea, and Japan due to a large amount of Chinese
influence embedded in their culture and lifestyle.

Paddy field in Vietnam

Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for millennia, ranging across
the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate the Banaue
Rice Terraces in the mountains of Luzon in the Philippines. Maintenance of these
paddies is very labour-intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the monsoon
climate of the region.

Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Vietnam to
Borneo, to Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea. The region has diverse
metalworking, especially in Indonesia. This includes weaponry, such as the
distinctive kris, and musical instruments, such as the gamelan.

Influences
The region's chief cultural influences have been from some combination of Islam,
India, and China. Diverse cultural influence is pronounced in the Philippines,
derived particularly from the period of Spanish and American rule, contact with
Indian-influenced cultures, and the Chinese and Japanese trading era.

As a rule, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely influenced by
the culture of India, for example, than the culture of China, where the peoples ate
with chopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can be found across the region. The fish
sauces distinctive to the region tend to vary.

Arts
The Royal Ballet of Cambodia (Paris, France 2010)
The arts of Southeast Asia have an affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in
much of Southeast Asia includes movement of the hands as well as the feet, to
express the dance's emotion and meaning of the story that the ballerina is going to
tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asia introduced dance into their court; in
particular, Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the early 7th century before
the Khmer Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance,
famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindu symbolic
dance.

Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past
centuries, a famous one being Wayang from Indonesia. The arts and literature in
some of Southeast Asia are quite influenced by Hinduism, which was brought to them
centuries ago. Indonesia, despite conversion to Islam which opposes certain forms
of art, has retained many forms of Hindu-influenced practices, culture, art, and
literature. An example is the Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) and literature like the
Ramayana. The wayang kulit show has been recognized by UNESCO on 7 November 2003,
as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were concerned
with depicting the life of the gods, but to the Southeast Asian mind, the life of
the gods was the life of the peoples themselves—joyous, earthy, yet divine. The
Tai, coming late into Southeast Asia, brought with them some Chinese artistic
traditions, but they soon shed them in favour of the Khmer and Mon traditions, and
the only indications of their earlier contact with Chinese arts were in the style
of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in their lacquerware.

Music
Main article: Music of Southeast Asia

Angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity

Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural
divisions. Main styles of traditional music can be seen: Court music, folk music,
music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and music influenced by genres outside the
geographic region.

Of the court and folk genres, Gong chime ensembles and orchestras make up the
majority (the exception being lowland areas of Vietnam). Gamelan and Angklung
orchestras from Indonesia, Piphat /Pinpeat ensembles of Thailand and Cambodia and
the Kulintang ensembles of the southern Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and Timor are
the three main distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other
traditional musical styles in the region. String instruments also are popular in
the region.

On 18 November 2010, UNESCO officially recognized angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral

and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and encourage the Indonesian people and
government to safeguard, transmit, promote performances and to encourage the
craftsmanship of angklung making.

Writing
Main articles: Writing systems of Southeast Asia, Baybayin, Jawi script, S.E.A.
Write Award, and Thai alphabet

Thai manuscript from before the 19th-century writing system

The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both
within and without writing about the region.

Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about writing.
This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the
Balinese script shown on split palm leaf called lontar (see image to the left —
magnify the image to see the writing on the flat side, and the decoration on the
reverse side).

Sign in Balinese and Latin script at a Hindu temple in Bali

The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around
the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written
longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer
portion was decorated. The alphabets of Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until
the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not
just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use paper, included
Javanese copperplate scrolls. This material would have been more durable than paper
in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia.

In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay language is now generally written in
the Latin script. The same phenomenon is present in Indonesian, although different
spelling standards are utilised (e.g. 'Teksi' in Malay and 'Taksi' in Indonesian
for the word 'Taxi').

The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present, is only evident in Vietnam
and more recently, Singapore and Malaysia. The adoption of Chữ Hán in Vietnam
dates back to around 111 B.C. when it was occupied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese
script called Chữ Nôm used modified Chữ Hán to express the Vietnamese language.
Both Chữ Hán and Chữ Nôm were used up until the early 20th century.

However, the use of the Chinese script has been in decline, especially in Singapore
and Malaysia as the younger generations are in favour of the Latin Script.

See also
icon Asia portal
flag Indonesia portal
flag Singapore portal
flag Malaysia portal
flag Thailand portal
flag Philippines portal
flag Vietnam portal
flag Cambodia portal
flag Laos portal
Southeast Asian Games
List of Southeast Asian leaders
Northeast Asia
South Asia
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
Tiger Cub Economies
Military build-up in Southeast Asia
ASEAN
Notes
Transcontinental country.
The great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of
similarities with the South Indian architecture.[74]
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Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. Yale University
Press. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-300-10518-6.
CNN (11/21/2018) Tribespeople believed to have 'killed' 27-year-old missionary who
trespassed on the remote island
"Field Listing – Religions". CIA Factbook. Retrieved 24 February 2007.
Indonesia – The World Factbook
"National Commission on Muslim Filipinos". www.ncmf.gov.ph.
BuddhaNet. "World Buddhist Directory – Presented by BuddhaNet.Net".
buddhanet.info.
"2015 Philippine Statistical Yearbook" (PDF). psa.gov.ph. Philippine Statistical
Authority. October 2015. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
"Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages". 18 December 2012.
CIA – The World Factbook – Brunei. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
CIA – The World Factbook – Cambodia. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
CIA – The World Factbook – East Timor. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
"Top 20 Countries by Number of Languages Spoken". www.vistawide.com. Retrieved 28
May 2016.
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Further reading
Acharya, Amitav. The making of Southeast Asia: International relations of a region
(Cornell UP, 2013).
Ang, Cheng Guan. Southeast Asia After the Cold War: A Contemporary History
(Singapore: NUS Press, 2019) online review
Ang, Cheng Guan. Southeast Asia’s Cold War: An Interpretive History (University of
Hawai’i Press, 2018). online review
Barwise, J. M., and Nicholas J. White. A traveller's history of Southeast Asia
(2002) online
Cady, John F. Southeast Asia: its historical development (McGraw-Hill, 1964) online
Cady, John F. The roots of French imperialism in Eastern Asia (1954) online
Coedes, George. The Making of South East Asia (2nd ed. U of California Press,
1983).
Dutt, Ashok K. Southeast Asia: A Ten Nation Region (1996) excerpt
Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988)
vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online
Heidhues, Mary Somers. Southeast Asia : a concise history (2000) online
Leinbach, Thomas R., and Richard Ulack. Southeast Asia: diversity and development
(Prentice Hall, 1999) online.
Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (6 vol.
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002).
Osborne, Milton. Region of revolt: focus on Southeast Asia (Elsevier, 2013). online
Osborne, Milton (2010; first published in 1979). Southeast Asia: An Introductory
History Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74237-302-7 online
Osborne, Milton. River at risk: the Mekong and water politics of China and
Southeast Asia (Longueville Media, 2004).
Reid, Anthony (1999). Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia Silkworm
Books. ISBN 978-974-7551-06-8
Swearer, Donald K. The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia (2nd ed. 2010) online
Ulack, Richard, and Gyula Pauer. Atlas of Southeast Asia (Macmillan, 1989) online.
Williams, Lea E. Southeast Asia : a history (1976) online
External links
Southeast Asia
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guides from Wikivoyage
Resources from Wikiversity
Data from Wikidata
Topography of Southeast Asia in detail (PDF) (previous version)
Southeast Asian Archive at the University of California, Irvine at archive.today
(archived 12 December 2012)
Southeast Asia Digital Library at Northern Illinois University
"Documenting the Southeast Asian Refugee Experience", exhibit at the University of
California, Irvine, Library at archive.today (archived 25 February 2003)
Southeast Asia Visions, a collection of historical travel narratives Cornell
University Library Digital Collection
Official website of the ASEAN Tourism Association
Art of Island Southeast Asia, a full text exhibition catalogue from The
Metropolitan Museum of Art