Artificial Intelligence

1 The Concept
Syllabus
Fhatis Al?: The Al Problems, The Underlying Assumption, What is an AI Techniques, The Level
of The Model, Criteria For Success, Some General References, One Final Word.

Contents
1.1 The Concept of Artificial Intelligence (Al) . Winter-12,14,16,17,19,
Summer-18, 20 . Marks 7
1.2 Al Problem
Winter-12 Marks 7
1.3 The Undertying Assumption
1.4 What is an Al Technique ?
1.5 The Level of the Model.. . . Winter-19,
Marks 3
1.6 Criteria for Success
1.7 Some General References
1.8 AI Tems
1.9 The Environments
.Winter-18,19,Summer-19 Marks 3
1.10 Different Types of Agents
1.11 Designing an Agent System
1.12 One Final Word
1.13 University Questions with Answers
 1-2 Artificial Intelligence 1-3
(AI) Artificial Intelligence The Concept
Intelligence
G T U :Winter-12,14,16,1
4,16.17,19. Summer-r-18,20 10. "The study of the
A r t i f c i a lI n t o l l i g e n c e

of
Artificlal

(Winston - 1992)
computations that make it possible to perceive, reason and act".
C o n c e p t

The
1.1
11. Systems that act rationally
working 12. "Computational intelligence
c o m p u t e r

is the study of the

developing

design of intelligent agents". (Poole

1 . 1 . 1Introduction

mental
activities
such
as

commonsense
reasoning,
understanding
u n d e r

languages
to demand "intelli
to dem
et al 1998)
said
13. "AI is
concerned with
Many
human
engaging
in
an
automobile
are
task
pertorm tasks such
perform
e" intelligent behaviour
in artifacts". (Nilsson
1998)
can
that c an These definitions vary
alorng
mathematics,

built that
driving
two main dimensions. First dimension is the
out
interpreting
it,
even

have
been
bult

stems that can diagnose disease

systems
thought
process and reasoning and second dimension is the behaviour of the machine.
and systems computers
computer developed
speech
and rural language text.
natural

The first
Several
specially human
definitions are based on comparisons to human
seven
are understand

of artificial
into
lligence. performance where
quadratic
equations, certain degree as
remaining
definitions measure success against an ideal
concept of intelligence,
solve possess which we call rationality. A
systems that "How
"How to think" system is rational if it does the "right thing" given
all such systems is OR
saythat
and
what it knows.
.We can
such
all think".
activities

ofthinking
thi has various steps like Historically, there are four approaches that are followed in AL
central point of These four approaches are
The process
The
make system a world that is nade up
made
of
tiny Acting Humanly, Thinking Humanly, Thinking
rather
"How to
predict
and
manipulate
Rationally and Acting Rationally. Let us consider four approaches in detail.
understand,
preceive, 1) Acting Humanly
things or
situations.
but it builds intelliger
Turing
understand
complex
of Al not just attempts
to
Test: For testing
intelligence Alan Turing (1950) proposed a test called as
T h e field Turing test. He suggested a test based on common
features that can match with
entities. the most intelligent entity human beings.
-

of AI Computer would need to possess following capabilities

Varlous Defintons
12 science that is concerned with the a) Natural language
as the branch
of computer processing To enable it to communicate successfully in
1 Al may be defined Englissh.
1993) behaviour. (Luger
automation
ofintelligent b) Knowledge representation to store what it
knows, what it hears.
Systems that thinks like human. c) Automated reasoning to make use of stored
machines with minds, in the information to answer questions
make computers think ...

being asked and to draw conclusions.

3. The exciting new effort to
full and literal sense. (Hallgeland 1985) d) Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances
with human thinking, activities
sueh and to detect and make new
4 "The automation of activities that we associate predictions by finding patterns.
as devision making, problem solving, learning ." (Bellman - 1978) Turing also suggested to have
physical interaction between interrogater and
5.
Systems humans that act like computers. Turing test avoids this but Total
Turing Test includes video signal so
that the
. he art of creating machines that perform functions that require intelligence, WE interrogator can test the subject's perceptual abilities, as well as the
opportunity for the interrogator to pass the physical objects
performed by people". (Kurzweil 1990) .To pass total turing test in
"through the hatch'.
addition, computer will need
n e stay of how to make computers do things at which, at the mome e) Computer vision to following capabilities.
better". perceive objects.
are
(Rich and Knight 1991).
Robotics
-

8.
Systems that think rationally.
to
manipulate objects.
9. The niak 2) Thinklng Humanly
study of mental faculties
and McDermott 1985) through the use of computational n As we are
saying that the given program thinks like human it we should know
that how human thinks. For that, the
theory of human minds needs to be
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust
TECH
for knowledge
 Artificial inteingence - The
The Concept

1-4 Artificial Intelligence The Concept

i.
1-5
through
introspection

experin"n8 ng to catch Artificial Intelligence

A r t i f ñ c i e lI n t e l i g e n c e this :
to do and make
psychological

to make decisions so as to maximize payoff

support AI
ways
two through
Economics
and
ing
matches corresponding human
corres
are matches
There
by
theygo decisions under uncertain circumstances.
behaviours

explored.
mechani
as
mechanisms
our
own
thoughts

I/0
and
timing
of the
program's
could als gives information which
is related to brain processing which helps
programs,
some

of cognitive
science Neuroscience

bings
that field
computer can sayi n t e r d e s c i p l i n a r y theories.
f
that is,
we techniques from AI to develope date processing
behaviours,

operating
in
human.
The

from
AI
and
experimental

of the
workings es
PSycho

of human
of

mind
chology Phychology provides strong concepts
of how humans and animals think
and actions.
and act

AI for developing process of thinking

be models theories

together
computer
and
testable
which helps
precise
toconstruct
approach"

that try
the
"Maws ofthought by
Aristotle.
This idea provided
This i
1.1.4 The Strong and Weak AI
proposed
Rationally was
correct conch
conclusions now let
vielded that contribute towards AI,
correct

3) Thinking of "Right
thinking aVS
always
yielded
brief look at various disciplines
concept
that After taking basic foundation
and weak AI which also gives
structures
The

for argument us look at the concept of strong

patterns
given correct premises. for developing automated systems.
"Ram is man,

For example,
men are
mortal, 1.1.4.1 Strong AI
"All
"Minds, Brains
This concept was put forward John Searle in 1980 in his article,
by
"Ram is mortal in
operation
the operation in the mind; their theories for developing some form of
min.

supposed to govern and Programs". Strong form AI provides

were to create intelligent
create A strong form of AI
These laws of thought called logic which
can be implemented
computer based AI that can truly
reason and solve problems.

initiated the field self

study is said to be sentient or aware.

systems.
Strong can be categorized as,
AI
4) Acting Rationaly and much like a
program thinks
acts. But computer agents reasons
that are Human-like AI In which the computer
do) is something
-

An agent (Latin agre-to atributes that distinguish them from just #h human-mind.
other
to have more
expected under autonomous control, perceivine
eiving which the computer program develops a totally
because they need to operate Non-human-like AI - In
"programs",
over a prolonged time period, adapting to change non-human sentience, and a non-human way of thinking and reasoning.
their environment, persisting is expected to act
another goals. A rational agent
and being capable of taking on
is uncertainity to acheive best 1.1.4.2 Weak AI
outcome or when there
so as to achieve the best
Weak artificial intelligence research deals with the creation of some form of
expected outcome.
can reason
should be incorported in computer based AI-
that cannot truly reason and solve problems. They
The laws of thought emphasis on correct inference which limited domain, such a machine would, in
in
some

rational agent.
and solve problems only a

ways, act as if it were intelligent,

but it would not possess true intelligence.
Much of the
1.1.3 The Foundation of AI There are several fields of weak AI, one of which is natural language.
work in this field has been done with computer simulations
of intelligence based
Now we discuss the various disciplines that contributed ideas, viewpoints and Al.
on predefined sets of rules. little progress has been made in strong
Very
techniques to AL how one defines one's goals, a moderate amount of progress has
Depending on
Philosophy provides base to Al by providing theories of relationship between been made in weak AI.
physical brain and mental mind, rules for drawing valid conclusions. It also
provides information about knowledge origins and the knowledge leads to action.
Mathematics gives strong base to AI to
develop concrete and formal rules tor
drawing valid conclusions, various methods for date
to deal with
uncertain information. computation and techniques

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS
-
An up thrust for knowledge
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust
for knowledge
 Artiicia toigE
noept
Artimicial Inteligence Artificial Inteiligerce The Concapt
Artici inteligece

can do Todey 1.1.5.7 Language Understanding and Problem Solving

11.5 What Al PROVERB is
Pianning
and
Scheduling

the first
on-board
autonomous

rem
pianrning computer program which expert in solving crossword puzzles
1151
Autonomous
became
spacecraft. Such
Such remote agents It make
Remote Agent
program
of operations
for spacecraft.
problens
problems as they
can use
of constraints or
possible word fillers, a
large database of past
NASA
control
the
scheduling
and
recovering
from
puzzles and variety of information sources
including dictionaries and online
to
progTam
detecting.
diagnosing
databases Such as a list of movies and the actors that appears in them.
of
can do task
AI does not generate magic or science fiction but rather it can
Orurred develops science,
engineering and mathematics system.
defeated
1152 Game Plaeytng named as Deep
Blue
wori
chess Recent progress in
by IBM in 1997 Such type of gaming understanding the theoretical basis for intelligence has gone
A computer chess program e x h i b i t i o n match in
hand in hand with
Garry Kasparov
in improvements in the capabilities of real systems. The subfields
champion Al techniques. of AI have became more integrated and AI has found common
can be developed
using ground with other
programs
disciplines.
1.15.3 Autonomous Control
keep to it f o l l e i
vision system
w a s trained
to stear car
wing 1.1.6 Human Vs Machine
The ALVINN computer which 98 % ot the time contro was
2850 miles in
a lane. It
was made to travel
human n took over. Al ccan
took a n give
over.
give more 1161 WiIl Machine behave Exactly as Human ?
and only 2 % of the time
with the system Here are the considerable
theories to develop
such systems. difference between human and machine.
1) Machines do not have life, as they are mechanical. On the
other hand, humans
are made of flesh and
154 Diagnosls blood; life is not mechanical for humans.
where leading expert on lymph node
2) Humans have
Heckerman (1991) describes a case a

case. The machine

feelings and emotions and they can express these emotions.
of an difficult can
Machines have no feelings and emotions.
pathology scoffs atprogram's diagnosis
a
They just work as per the details fed
the major tactors influencing i t into their mechanical brain.
the diagnosis. The machine points out
explain in this case. If such
decision and explain interaction
of several of the symptoms 3) Human do
accurate dignosis can be
anything original and machines cannot.
can
Al then highly
diagnostic programs are developed using 4)Humans have the capability to understand
situations and behave
made. On the contrary, machines do not
have this capability.
accordingly
5) While humans behave as
11.55 Logistc Planning per their consciousness, machines just
perform as
I n 1991 during the persion Gulf Crisis U.S. forces deployed a dynamac analysis they are taught.
and replanning tool name DART for automated logistics planning and scheduling 6) Humans perform activities as per their own intelligence. On the contrary,
for transportation machines only have an artificial intelligence.
Al can provide techniques for making fast and accurate plans. 1.1.6.2 Comparisons between Human and Machines
1) Brains analogue ; machines are digital.
are
1.156 Robotics
2) The brain uses content-addressable
'For doing complex and critical tasks systems can be developed using AI accessed by polling its
memory; In machine, information in memory is
techniques precise memory address. This is known as
memory. byte-addressable
or
eg Surgeons can use robot assistants in microsurgery which can generate 3D 3)
vision of patents internal The brain is
massively parallel machine; machines are modular
a
and serial.
anatomy. 4) Processing speed is not fixed in the brain; machine has fixed
5) Brains short
speed specification.
term memory is not like RAM.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust

thrust for knowledge for knowledge
 Artificial intelligence The
Concept Artificial Intelligence
T h e Concept
Artificiel Intelligence with respect to #h e Artificial Inteligence
1- 9

software
distinction
can be made
brain or GTU : Winter-12
6) No hardware
1 . 2 Al Problem
mind. logic gates.
than
electrical
formal tasks, such as game playing and
complex work in AI focused on
Synapses are far more
are performed by
by the same Much of the early theorist was an early attempt to
playing, logic
management
memory chess
processing and theorem proving. For example the
8) Unlike machine, and theorem proving share
mathematical theorems. Game playing
the brain. prove be displaying
components in considered to
who do them well
are

organizing system. property that people

9The brain is a self
than any lcurrent] machin.
is much,
much digger intelligence.
bodies, the brain well at those tasks by being
10) Brain have that computers could perform
Field
Despite this it appeared then selecting the best one.
Influential in AI fast at exploring a large number of solution paths and
Systems combinatorial explosion generated
1.1.7 List of Expert But no computer is fast enough to
o v e r c o m e the

solve complex maths problems.

on how to
MACSYMA Advised the u s e r -
by most problems.
1. the output from
on how to interpret from a mass we do every day for instance,
when we
2. DENDRAL Advised the user
- AI focusing on the sort of problem solving
called reasoning.In
decide to get to work in the morning, often
c o m m o n s e n s e

spectrograph.
Are all medical expert Newel, Shaw, and Simon built the General
PUFF, CASNET stems or
syste
investigating this sort of reasoning
3. CENTAUR, INTERNIST, several commonsense tasks as well
Problem Solver (GPS), which they applied to
various purposes.
performing symbolic manipulations of expression. However no attempt was
logical
4. DELTA - Locomotive engineering made to create a program with a large amount of knowledge about a particular
Oilfield prospecting tasks selected.
5. Drilling Advisor
-

problem domain. Only quite simple were

6. Exper Tax -
Tax minimisation advice. A s AI research progressed and techniques for handling larger amounts of world
knowledge were developed in dealing with problem solving in specialized
7. XSEL Computer sales. domains such as medical diagnosis and chemical analysis.
data as potential evidence for mineral
8. PROSPECTOR Interpreted geological Perception (vision and speech) is another area for AI problems. Natural language
deposits. (Duda, Hart, in 1976).
understanding and problem solving in specialized domain are other areas related
9 NAVEX Monitored radar data and estimated the velocity and position of the
to AI problems. The problem of understanding spoken language is perceptual
space shuttle. (Marsh, 1984) problem and is hard to solve from the fact that it is more analog related than
the basis of customer's digital related. Many people can perform one or may be more specialized tasks in
10. RI/XCON -

Configured VAX computer systems on

needs which carefully acquired expertise is necessary. Examples of such as tasks include
(Mc Dermott, 1980)
engineering design, scientific discovery, medical diagnosis, and financial planning.
11.COOKER ADVISER Provides repair advice with respect to canned soup
Programs that can solve problems in these domains also fall under the aegis of
sterilizing machines. (Texas Instruments, 1986) Artificial Intelligence.
12. VENTILATOR MANAGEMENT ASSISTANT Scrutinised the data from hospital -

The tasks that are targets of works in Al can be categorized as folows:

breathing support machines, and provided accounts of the patient's conditions
1. Mundane tasks Perception (Vision and Speech), Natural language
(Fagan, 1978) (Understanding, Gerneration, Translation, Commonsense reasoning, Robot
13. MYCIN Diagnosed -

blood infections of the sort that be contracted in control)

might
hospital. 2. Formal tasks Games (Chess, etc.), Mathematics
14. CROP
(Geometry, Logic, Integral
ADVISOR Developed by ICI to advise cereal
-

calculus, etc.)
fertilizers and pesticides for their
grain farmers on appropriae
farms. 3. Expert tasks Engineering (Design, Fault finding,
15. Manufacturing planning),
OPTIMUM - AV -

is a
planner used by the European Space Agency to neip n the
Scientific analysis, Medical diagnosis, Financial analysis
assembly, integration and verification of
spacecraft
TECHNICAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge
PUBLICATIONs- An up thrust for
knowledge
 Artificial Intelligenc
nce The Conceni
1-10

Artificial Intelligence
from several of th
the Artificial Intelligence-
The Concept

A person
who
knows how
to pertorm
skills
tasks

in a standard ard order. categories sho

irst percephua
Artificial Intelligence
1-11

chess moves, the

learn the necessary
Jearned. Later exn
the processes are
the legal
in above list skills
are

a kills Chess: The symbols

are
the pieces, board
linguistic,
and
commonsense

are acquired.
Earlier skils
Sier such are
pieces
the positions of all
the o n the

of these are also examples

of

engineering,
medicine, or
finance

computerized
duplication
than the later, mOr
re and tru
specialized
expressions
The physical symbol system
hypothesis claims that both
human thoughts
a r e the symbols
that a r e encoded
to in Al work was con.

amenable
Intelligent of
more initial work symbol systems. the mental operations
much of the physical The processes
a r e

For this reason

practi
thoe in o u r brains. The expressions are thoughts.

artificial intelligence program

the symbols are data,
the data.
the

thinking. In a running
early areas.
tical
most as a
that manipulate

The problems
areas

domains
where now

that
Al is flourishing

require only zed

specialized expertise diwiscithpoutline expressions are more data and
the processes a r e programs

The importance of the physical symbol

system hypothesis
is twofold. It
is significant

primarily
assistance of
the
knowledge. Expert
commonsense
systems (AI programe
perhaps all.
orams) nOW are e of human intelligernce
and it forms
the basis of the belief that it is

tasks which are currently

at solving part,
or
tn theory of the nature intelligent
tasks that aim build that can perform
for day-to-day high human expertise. possible to programs
that previously required
significant problem performed by people.
a expert system,
following questions need to he
be consideret
When one is building is an Al Technique ?
further: 1.4 What
before one can progress but knowledge possesses
less desirable properties
about intelligence ? Intelligence requires knowledge 3. It is constantly
What are the underlying assumptions difficult to characterize accurately.
such as, 1. It is voluminous. 2. It is to its
will be useful for solving AI problems? data by being organised in a way that corresponds
What kinds oftechniques ?
changing. 4. It differs from
human intelligence be modelled application.
A t what level if at all can
that is represented so that the
intelligent program has been built ? An AI technique is a method that exploits knowledge share
.When will it be realised when an and situations that properties which can be
knowledge captures generalizations
allowed separate representation. It can be
Underlying Assumption grouped together, rather than being
1.3 The understood by people who must provide the knowledge; although for many programs

A physical symbol system consists of a set of entities called symbols which
components of another
patterns that can occur as
an instant the system will contain a collection of these symbol structures
addition the system also contains a collection of processes that operate on
expressions to produae other expressions processes of creation, modification,
reproduction and destruction. A physical symbol system is a machine that
produces through time an evolving collection of symbol structures. Such a system
is machine that produces through time an evolving collection of symbol structures
Following are the examples of physical systems -
the bulk of the data may come automatically, such as from readings.
form the
entity called an expression In many AI domains people must supply the knowledge to programs in a
At
people understand and in a form that is acceptable to the program. Knowledge can be
easily modified to correct errors and reflect changes in real conditions. Knowledge can
be widely used even if it is incomplete or inaccurate. Knowledge can be used to helpP
overcome its own sheer bulk by helping to narrow the range of possibilities that must
be usually considered.
Following are three important AI techniques
Search Provides a way of solving problems for which no more direct approach is

available.
Formal logie : The symbols are words like "and", "or", "not", "for all
The expressions are statements in formal
and x so U s e ofknowledge - Provides a way of solving complex problems by exploiting the
logic which can be true or false. The structures of the objects that are involved.
processes are the rules of logical deduction.

Algebra: The symbols are "+", '*, "x", "y", "1", "2", "3",
Abstraction- Provides a way of separating important features and variations from
etc. The expressions ae the many unimportant ones that would otherwise overwhelm any process.
equations. The processes are the rules of algebra, that allow
mathematical expression and retain its truth.
you to
manipulate 1.5 The Level of the Model GTU: Winter-19
A digital computer: The symbols are and ory, the Before starting doing something, it is good idea to decide exactly what
zeros ones of computer me one is trying
processes are the operations of the CPU that to do. One should ask following questions for self analysis
change memory.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge
 Artificial inegeiCe Ihe COn.
- 12 Concept 1-13
Artificial Intelligence The Concept
Artificiel Intelligence
do the tasks the
Artificial Intelligence
programs
that
same way this, then we will
machine succeeds at
it is the person. If the
produce
to
What is the 80al
in tying believing that
think.
people do? that
do the
tasks the same

tasks in
wav
y
ople do ? conclude that the machine can

programs
ply do
do the task
the
whatever
simply
Are we trying to produce
to produce
programs
that
way Some General References

Or are
we trying do can be di as AI was done in
the period
tasks the way people The earlywork that is now generally recognized
appears easiest men McCulloch and
perform that do w e r e formally put by
not

Efforts to build
program
that

those that attempt

to
solve problems

easily solve. The

se
really! it of 1943 to 1955. The first AI thoughts
Walter Pitts (1943). Their idea of AI was
based on three theories, firstly
basic

two classes.
The first one are
that computer
could

do things that fall more

that fall m e class in the brain), secondly formal analysis
of
of Al ie. problems
those
that
clearly phsycology (the function of n e u r o n s
our
definition

human
perforrmance
are
not trivial he com
for the computer. propositional logic and third was Turing's theory of computation.
things that
are
to model do
attempt
of Ai tasks; they rule for modifying the
our
definition
these kind of tasks Later Donald Hebb in 1949 demonstrated simple updating
within for
now called Hebbian learning
connection strengths between n e u r o n s . His rule
T o test psychologicalhuman performance
theories of human pertomance. E-g FARRY programsimulate
Reasons for modeling
human paranoid behaviour to
e which is considered to be great influencial model in AI.
model of
work that can be recognized as AI but Alan Turing
a
which exploited
for this reason,
of a paranoid person.
There were huge early day
named "Computing
complete vision of AI in his 1950 article
behaviour
the
conversational
For example, for a
who first articulated a

to
understand human reasoning.
question, such
comput
"qATter Machinery and Intelligence".
T o enable computer answer as
then
story and did on automata
to be able to read a n e w s paper
Real AI birth year is 1956 where in John McCarthy held workshop
Ravana lose the game? theory, neural nets and study of intelligencewhere other researchers also
in many cases D e a n i .
computer reasoning. their papers and they out with new field in computer science
to understand
re presented come
To enable people unless they can understand w the
reluctant to rely on
the output of computer called AL.

machine arrived at its

result. From 1952 to 1969 large amount of work was done with great success
we can collect from people. Newell and Simon's presented General Problem Solver (GPS) within the limited
To exploit what knowledge
and ask them how to procasd class of puzzles it could handle. It turned out that the order in which the
To ask for assistance
from best performing people
tasks.
program considered subgoals and possible actions was similar that in which
in dealing with their
humans approached the same problems. GPS was probably the first program
which has "thinking humanly" apPproach.
1.6 Criteria for Success
Herbert Gelernter (1959) constructed the Geometry Theorem Prover which was
most important questions any scientific or engineering
to answer in
One of the succeeded ?. So how in Al we
capable of proving quite tricky mathematics theorem.
research project is "How will we know if we have
know if have constructed a machine thatis A t MIT, in 1958 John McCarthy made major contributions to AI field
have to ask ourselves, how will we we

inteligent? The question s hard as unanswerable question "What is development of HLL LISP which has became the dominant AI
programing
Intelligence?" language.
In 1958, McCarthy
To measure the progress we use proposed method known as Turing Test. Alan published
a paper entitled
Programs with Common Sense, in
which he described the Advice Taker, a
Turing suggested this method to determine whether the machine can think. To hypothetical program that can be seen
as the first
conduct this test, we need two people and the machine to be evaluated. One complete AI system. Like the Logic Theorist and Theorem Geometry
Prover. McCarthy's program
act as who is in and the
was
designed to use
knowledge to search for
person
other
interogator,
The
from the computer
a separate room
solutions of problems.
person. interrogator can ask questions of either the person or computer
by typing questions and received typed The program was also
designed so that it could accept new axioms in the normal
responses. However the interrogaro of
knows them
only as A and B and aims to determine which is the person a n course
operation, thereby allowing it to achieve competence in new areas
which is
the machine. The goal of the machine is to fool the into
interrogator TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust
TECHINICAL PUBLICA for knowiedge
TIONS-An up thrust for knowleadge
 Artificial intelligen
Artificial Inteligence
1- 14
The Concept Artificial Intelligence-The Concept
Advice
Taker thus embodied the 1-15
The

centntra
come
without being
reprogrammed.
Artificial Inteligence
and reasoning AI has finally
representation of methodolo8y
Prncples of knowledge McCulloch of In terms based o n
Hidden

building on the neural

networks

showed how.a
and Pitts d I n 1990s Al emerged
as a
method. In
science.
approaches
recent yearsThis model
is
Early work Cowan (1963) la scientific
d o m i n a t e the
AI field.
flourished. The work of
Winogard and individual Conge ge nur firmly
under the
to and second is,
(HMMS) have
come
an model theory
of elements could collectively
represent
Hebb's lean
ept, with Markov Models
one is igorous
mathematical

on a large corpus
real
and parallelism. based on two aspects of training
robustness
Wi 8
dro, 62)ethods
in a process
Hoff, 1960; are generated by
increase
corresponding and

his 1962), who

(Widrow these models
Bernie Widrow
were enhanced by Rosenblatt (1962) with hi led to a n e w
by Frank
speech data.
Intelligent Systems
called his
Rosenblatt
networks adalines, and

proved the perceptron

convergence
theorem,

of a
showing thas
perception to
perceptrons
ep
matrh Judea Pearl's (1988)
probability theory
Reasoning in
Probabilistic

in AL. Later Bayesian

network w a s

support.
invented

strengths acceptance of
algorithm ould adjust
the connection knowledge along with reasoning
which can represent
uncertain
the idea of
in 1986 promoted
existed.
a match
data, provided such to Eric Hovitz and
David Hackerman of decision
appeared conduct the laws
ELIZA program Judea Pearl, according to
1965,
Weizenbaum's
serious that can act rationally
In
conversation on any topic by basically
human. None
borrowing
of the programs
and
manipulating
manin.

developed so
the f
normative

theory.
expert systems
vision and
given by a
ad ocurred in robotics, computer
sentences
called weak' methods. Researcha Similar but slow
revolution have
and were

complicated,realized
domain knowledge
complex knowledge for more
mo knowledge representation. Allan
that it was necessary
to use more
larget architecture called SOAR was work out by
reasoning tasks. In 1987 a complete agent Rosenbloom. Many such agents were developed to
Paul
Buchanan in 1969 and was:
was based on Newell, John Laired and become so common in
web
developed by "Internet". AI systems have
The DENDRAL program was domain. used work in big environment
program that effectively " bot" sufix has entered in everyday language.
these principles. It was a unique
knowledge in problem solving. In the mid-1970's, MYCIN, a program deva specifc
eloped based applications that the
underlie Internet tools, such as search engines,
to diagnose illnesses a Al technologies many
It used expert knowledge
to diagnose blood infections. recommender systems and website.
prescribe treatments. This program is also knovwn as the first program, hich
realized that previously isolated
addressed the problem of reasoning with uncertain or incomplete information. While developing complete agents it was

subfields of AI need to reorganize when their results are to be tied together.

Within a very short time a number of knowledge representation languages were
Today, in particular it is widely appreciated that sensory systems (vision, sonar,
developed such as predicate calculus, semantic networks, frames and objects. Some speech-recogonition, etc.) cannot deliver perfectly reliable information about the
of them are based on mathematical logic such as PROLOG. Although PROLOG
environment. Hence reasoning and planning systems must be able to handle
goes back to 1972, it did not attract wide spread attention until a more efficient
version was introduced in 1979. uncertainity. AI has been draw in to much closer contact with other fields such as

control theory and ecornomics, that also deal with agents.

A s the real, useful strong works on AI were put forward by researchers, Al
emerged to be a big Industry. 1.8 AI Terms
In
1981, Japanese
announced 5n generation projecta 10-year plan to build 1.8.1 Agents and it's Envlronment
ntelligent
computers running PROLOG. US also formed the Micro electronis
and Computer An
Technology Corporation (MCC) for research in Al. agent is anything that can be viewed as
perceiving its environment through
Overall the Al sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators.
industry boomed from few million dollars in 1980 to bilions or
dollars in 1988. But soon For example consider human as agent. Human has
after that AI
industry had huge setback as n eyes, ears and other organs
companies suffered as they failed to deliver on extra which are sensors. Hands, legs, mouth and other body part work as actuators.
vagant promises. Lets
I n late 1970s more
research were done
by which consider another example of agent Robot. A Robotic-

agent might have

continued in 19805 psychologists
on neural nerwo cameras, infrared rangefinders as sensors. Robot can have various motors foor
actuators.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONSs -An up thrust for knowledge TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS -
An up thrust for knowledge
 Artificial Inteligencce
1-16
The Concep
The Concept
Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence
1-17
Artificlal Intelligence
of agent
More examples
packets.
all the agent
Software agent and
network

4) Agent Program
we need to tabulate
1. Agent contents

agent program functions

file
packet. When w e want
to develop a
lead to infinite
This can practically
Keystrokes,

that we need to
network
Sensors files, describes any given agent.
writing functions that of percept sequence
Screen,
bound o n the length be external
Actuator
Internet shopping agent hence w e need to put and action will
script) sequences
graphics consider. This table
of functions of percept function for an intelligent
agent
2. Agent DHTML,
pages (text where as internally agent
H T M L , follow URL characteristics of the agent
Sensors user,
agent program.
displayto implement by an
Forms,
will be
Actuators
Note
Terminology abstract mathematical description.
The AI function is an
1.8.2 Agent on the agent architecture.
at any given i.
implementation, running
1) Percept perceptual
inputs instant. Agent program is a concrete

the agent's
refers to
percept
The term
1.8.3 Architecture of Agent
in the sky "through
"thro eyes and takes its which is called the
Examples "Bird fAying snan runs on some sort of computing device,
percepts The agent program
that the architecture will
human agent
architecture. The program we choose
has to be one
1) A
neras and takes
canmer
from the sensors available to
(photograph) of a boiler through accept and run. The architecture makes the percepts
action choices to the
Temperature

robotic agent perceive the program, runs the program and feeds the program's
2) A architectures annd
control action. effectors as they are generated. The relationship among agernts,

programs can be summed up as follows

2) Percept Sequence of everything the.
is the complete
history has e Agent Architecture + Program
sequence n s t a n t and it can
dena
An agent's percept
has choice of action at any 8iven
ange in the perception
on te
The change
perceived. Agent
agent has
recorded.
forms
percept sequence
entire
Environment]
historical case. Percepts]
Forexample a boiler will be sensing it
contins
ISensor
temperature of
A robotic agent monitoring
This percept sequence will heh
the percept sequence.
and keep on maintaining
fluctuates and action
will be taken dependino
agent to know
percept sequence
how temperature
for controlling temperature.
Tmints
Actuator
3) Agent Function
function which maps each and every possible perogt
(Action
It is defined as mathematical
action.
sequence to a possible
and it gives output as action.
This function has input as percept sequence
can be represented in a tabular form.
Agent function Fig. 1.8.1 Agent and its environment
Example
ATM machine is a agent, it display menu for withdrawing money, when ATM can
1.8.4 Schematic of Ar's Agent
Performing Action
inserted. When provided with percept sequence (1) A transaction type and Following diagram illustrates the agent's action process,
number, then only user gets cash. architecture. This can be also termed as
as
specified by
agene's structure.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONs An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust
for knowledge
 The (Concept
Artifncial inegence The
18
Artificial Intelligence The Concept
Artificial Intelligence
- 19 Artificial Intelligence
Ar
LAL
Design Agent program 1.8.7.1 Weak Agent
architecture
hardware or software based computer
Agent prOgraim A weak notion says that an agent is a

Implements
system that has the following properties
Agent function
1] Autonomy
Maps have control over their
without direct intervention of humans and
Agents operate
Perception
actions and internal state.
Leads to
Action 2] Soclal ablity
action process communication
1.8.2 Agent's Agents interact with other agents (and possibly humans) via an agent
Flg.
language.
Program
1.8.5 Role of An Agent 3] Reactivity
is internally environment and respond in timely and rational fashion to
agent program An agent program Agents perceive their
An
Input (Agent function) Output
implemented as agent
function.
(Curent percepts (Action made changes that occur in it.
from sensors) through actuators)
takes input
An agent program 4] Pro activeness
from the Fia. 1.8.3 Role of an agent program in agent
as the curent percept architecture Agents do not simply act in response to their environment, they are capable of taking8
action to
sensor and return an
the initiative, generate their owm goals and act to achieve them.
the effectors (Actuators).

Tabulation of a Agent
1.8.7.2 Strong Agent
for
1.86 Simple Example A stronger nation says that an agent has mental properties, such as knowledge, belief,
internet called as bot.
A shopping agent on
intention, obligation. In addition and agent has other properties such as:
Agent
Tabulation of percepts and action mapping 1. Mobility: Agents can move around from one machine to another and across
different system architectures and platforms.
Sequence of Percepts Actions
St. No. 2. Veracity: Agents do not knowingly communicate false information.
mygreeting.com Display website.
URL of greeting
[Type 3. Rationality: Agents will try to achieve their goals and not acts in such a way that
the link.
[Navigation and observation of greetings to Clicks on would prevent their goals from being achieved.
be purchased] Strong AI is associated with human traits such as consciousness, sentience, sapience,
To get details of greeting (which is Form filling. self-awareness
purchased}, in terms of a formj
1. Conciousness To have subjective experience and thought.
[To perceive completion of process Receiving recept u
awwawwwwwww.wwwww.wwwwww
2. Selfawareness To be aware of oneself as a separate individual, especially to be
aware of one's own thoughts.
1.8.7 The Weak and Strong Agent
3. Sentience The ability to feel perceptions and emotions subjectively.
An agent is anything that can be viewed
perceiving its environment through
as 4. Sapience The capacity for wisdom.
sensors and
acting upon that environment through effectors/actuators.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONs -An TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thust for knowledge

up thrust for knowledge
 1-20 Artificial Intelligence- The Concept
Artificial Intelligence
The Concept
and
Omniscience
1-21
Artificial intelligence
Rational Behaviour Artificiel Intelligence
1.8.8
1.8.8.1 Rational Agent 1.8.8.2 The Good and the Bad Agent
the agent function is filled correctly then the a behaviour leads to
two
Environment known
If every entry in
called as rational agent. Doino
ill alway T h e concept of rational
Such agent is the bad agent.
agents and
do the right thing.
we need certain methods to"ENt thi types agernts, the good
measurethitnhge
and bad behaviour
successful. S0 now Most of the time the good Good agent
makes agent most
of the agent depends
success of rational agent. (that is performance)
environment.
it
working in the environment, generates a sequene of actione
is completely on the Rational behaviour
When an agent known then we get
it receives. This sequence of action
tions leads to
according to the percept If environment is completely
states of environment.
If this sequences of environment state change
s various agent's good
behaviour as depicted in Fig.
1.8.5.
Fig. 1.8.5 Good agent

then we can say that agent

has performed well. So if the tasks and n able is unknown then agent
can act
If environment
change automatically
the measuring conditions will change and
hence ment badly as depicted Fig
in 1.8.6.
fixed measure suitable for all agents. no
As a general rule, it is better to design pertormance measures accordino Environment unknown
to
one wants in the environment,
rather than according to how one thinks hat
should behave. agent Bad agent
The rationality depends things
upon 4
.

1) The performance measure that defines the criterion of success. Irational behaviour

2) The agent's prior knowledge about the environment.

3) The actions that the agent can perform. Fig. 1.8.6 Bad agent

4) The agent's percept sequence til current date 1.8.8.3 Omniscience, Leaming and Autonomy
outcome of its actions and can act
Based on above 4 statements rational agent can be defined as follows A n omniscient agent knows the actual

For each possible percept sequence, a rational agent should select an action that is accordingly, but in reality omniscience is impossible.
Rationality is not same as perfection. Rationality maximizes expected performance
expected to maximize its performance measure given the evidence provided by the
where as perfection maximizes actual performance.
percept sequence and whatever built-in knowledge the agent has. Following figue
must do same actions in order to modify future
depits performance measuremetric. For increasing performance agent
percepts.
This is called as information gathering which is important part of rationality. Also
Optimal/ right ection / behaviour
agent should explore (understand) environment to increase performance ie. for
doing more correct actions.
Result into desired information.
sequence of states Learning is another important activity agent should do so as to gather
Agent may know environment completely (which practically
is not possible) in
Perceive sequence which
generator optimal certain cases but if it is not known agent needs leam on its own
sequence actions To the extent that an agent relies on the prior knowledge of its designer rather
Agent coupled than on its own percepts, we say that agent lacks autonomy. A rational agent
with complex
environment should be autonomous it should leam what it can do to compensate for partial
or incorrect prior knowledge.
Fig. 1.8.4 Optimal perfomance triangle
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge
-
 Artificial Intelligence The Con
Artificial Intelligence 1-22 oncep Artificial Intelligence
- 23 Artificial Intelligence The Concept

RelationshipP
Figure Depicting rationality and Omniscience
Action
Expected Percept Sequence
Sequence Rationality performance
Ball Right
of percept Depends Maximizes IL1, No Black
on Pick
as L1, More Black Balls1
same
is not

I L2, No Black Ball ]I Right

Actual Pick
[ L2, More Black Balls
Pertection Maximizes perfomance

betwoen rationallty and omniscience

Flg. 1.8.7 The relationship

I L1, No Black Ball [ L1, No Black Ball ] Right

1.8.9 Agent and it's Environment
[ L1, More Black Balls Pick
L1, No Black Ball ,
1891 Agent Doscrption
PICKER
A BLACK BALLS
following example,
Consider

The Picker World (Environment)

world so one can invent many variations.
It is a simple and made-up No Black Ball },
consider square I LI No Black Ball,[L1,
has two buckets at two locations, Li and L2 (for simplicity area
for
It WHITE colour bals. I L1, No Black Ball } Right
location), full of BLACK and
[L1, No Black Ball , [ L1, No Black Ball,
The Plcker and ts Perceptions
ILI, More Black Balls 1 Pick
perceive that, is there a BLACK ball
Picker peroceives at which location it is. It can at

the given location.

The Agent Actlons

Picker can choose to MOVE LEFT or MOVE RIGHT, PICK UP BLACK BALL or be 1.9 The Environments GTU Winter-18.19. Summer-19
ideal that as do nothing
A function can be devised as follows if the current location bucket has more 1.9.1 Nature of Environment
BLACK BALLS then PICK, otherwise MOVE to other square.
.In previous section we have seen various types of agents, now let us see the
Dlagram Depicting Black Ball Plcker details of environment where in agent is going to work. A task environment is

function for the black ball essentially a problem to which agent is a solution.
Following is the partial tabulation of a simple agent
picker. The range of task environments that might arise in Al is obviously vast. We can,
however, identify a fairly small number of dimensions along which task
environments can be categorized. These dimensions determine, to a large extent,
the appropriate agent design and the applicability of each of the principle families
of techniques for agent implementation.

Fig. 1.8.8 Black ball picker world with two buckets at two locations

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust
for knowledge
 - 24
Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligen
The Concept
The Concept Artificial Intelligence

of Task Environment 1-2

1.9.2 Types Artificiel Intelligence

Observable
1.9.2.1 Fully Observable Vs Partialy Examples
percept of the image,
current
agent can

to the whatever is
If an agent's sensors give it the
access
complete state
state of the Deterministic: In image analysis of image
based on current knowledge.

eachpoint fully
of time, then it is observable.
environment.at take next action or c a n process
remaining part

all the detail aspects

of the image.
e n v i r o n m e n t as from
the
. I n some environment, if there is noise or gent is with
inaccurate Finally it can produce is in strategic
sensors tic-tac toe game
of other agents.
ch environment
be some states of environment are missing then such Strategic: Agent playing
or.
for the action

observable.
environment is partially
may current state agent
decides next state
action except

More examples
Example
Video analysis. 2) Trading agent. the next driving does
1) stochastic
environment as
in
Fully Observable Stochastic : Boat driving agent is and from all current and
In fact it has to
see the goal
current state.
The puzzle game environment is fully observable where agent can see all tho not based on
the aspects, needs to take
action.

that are surrounding it. That is agent can see all the squares of the
the previous percepts agent
with values (if any added) in them.
puzzle
puzzle
game along More examples
Robot firing in crowd.
1) Car driving 2)
More examples
1) Image analysis. 1.9.2.3 Eplsodic Vs Sequential divided into atomic episodes such
is
2) Tic tac toe. episodic
environment agene's experience then performing
process and
In
consists of, the agent perceiving
that each episode the episode
environment the choice of action depends only on

Partially Observable action. In this

single actions.
episode does not affect current
itself, previous
The pocker game environment is partially observable. Game of pocker is a card game environment on the other hand, the
current decision could affect all
that shares betting rule; and usually (but not always) hand rankings. In this game In sequential
agent future decision.
is not able to perceive other player's betting the
environments are more simpler than sequential environments because
Also agent cannot see other player's card. It has .Episodic
to play with reference to its own
N not need to think ahead.
cards and with current betting knowledge. agent does

More examples Example

machine.
defective part of assembled computer
Episodic Environment: Agent finding on previous
1) Interactive Science Tutor. and take action which does not depend
Here agent will inspect current part
2) Millitary Planning. decisions (previously checked parts).

More Examples
1.9.2.2 Deterministic Vs Stochastic
1) Blood testing for patient. 2) Card games.
I f from current state of environment and the action, agent can deduce the next
state of environment then, it is deterministic environment otherwise it is stochastic
Environment: A game of chess is
Sequential sequential environment where agent
takes action based on all previous decisions.
environment.
More examples -

. I f the environment is deterministic except for the actions of other agents, we say
1) Chess with a clock. 2) Refinery controller.
that the environment is strategic.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge

 ArTTcia/ eigence .
Artificial Intelligence 1-26 The Concep
Artificial Intelligence The Concept
1-27
1.9.2.4 Static Vs Dynamic Artificlal Intelligence
while agent is deliberating then we say the
the environment can change it is static. Vs Mutlagent
environment is dynamic for
the agent, otherwise 192.6 Single Agent who takes decision
environment we have well defined single agent
need not worry abo
to tackle as agent In single agent
are easy
Static environments

around (as it will not change) while taking actions. changes and acts
be various agents or
there can
various group of agents

on changing continuously
which makes In multiagent environment environment
Dynamic environments keep
decisions for act.
agent to be which a r e working together
to take decision and
act. In multiagent

environment, in which many agents

are
more attentive to make can have competitive multiagent
we
individual or there can be
not change with time but the agent's nt's performance miximize performance of
I f the environment itself does Ders.
working parallel to all agents have single goal and
environment is semidynamic. environment, where in
does, then we say that co-operative multiagent
of all of them together.
they work to get high performance
Examples Example
Static: In crossword puzzle game
the environment that is values values held in se.

squares can Multiagent independent environment

onlychange by the action of agent. Many agent in game of Maze.

More examples Multiagent cooperative environment
1)8 queen puzzle. 2) Semidynamic. together to achieve same goal.]
Fantasy footbalil. [Here many agents work
dynamic
boat is in because the enin
environment
Dynamic : Agent driving
can change (A big wave can come, it can be more windy) without any action of ironme
Multiagent competitive environ1ment
ant
agent. working but opposite to each other]
Trading agents. [Here many agents are

More examples Multiagent antagonistic environment

1) Car driving. 2) Tutor Wargames. [Here multiple agents are working opposite
to each other but one

side (agent/agent team) is having negative goal.]

1.9.2.5 Dscrete Vs Continuous
Single agent environment
I n discrete environment the environ1ment has fixed finite discrete states over
the Boat driving[Here single agent perceives and acts]
time and each state has associated percepts and action.

.Where as continuous environment is not stable at any given point of time andit 1927 Complexty Comparlson of Task Environment
changes randomly thereby making agent to learn continuously, so as to male the rising order of complexity of various task environment.
Following is
decisions.
Low-
Rising order oHigh
complexity
Example:
Discrete: A game of tic-tac toe depicts discrete environment where every state is
stable and it associated percept and it is outcome of some action. Observable Partially observable
More examples . Determiristic Stochastic
1) 8- queen puzzle. 2) Crossword puzzle. Episodic quenti
Continuous: A boat driving environment is continuous where the state changes are Static Dynamic
continuous, and agent needs to perceive continuously. Discrete Continuous
More examples Single agent Muitiple agents.
wwwwww.wwwwwnin vwwme wvv
1) Part Picking Robot. 2) Flight Controller.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONs An up thrust for knowledge
 Artificiel Inteligence The
Artificial Intelligence
26 Concept The Concept
1-2 Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Inteligence
Environment
1.9.3 More Types of Task task environmer
can
further classiry nents Problem Solving
Environment
from
we
10)
specific problem
domains
solve different types of problems
Dased on
We can have agent who salesman
Example: problem like travelling
follow. or statistics or
any general purpose
mathematics
Environment
Survelance
1) Monltoring and problem.
at some gathering whera
re

Agent monitoring
incoming people only and Engineering Task Environment
Example 11) Sclentific
:

allowed. calculations for aeronautics purpose

or agent
authorized people are
Example Agent doing
:
scientific

road maps or over

bridge structure.

2) Time Constrained
Environment
the move should be d develop to design
environment
where
with a clock
Task Environment
Example : Chess 12) Biological
of time. helpful for
for of chemical component
specified amount Example: Agent working design some

Environment medicine.
Decision Making
3) of a organization, Can

Example: The
executive agent who
is monitoring profit help 13) Space Task
Environment
decision.
to take environment and
top level management Example: Agent that is working in space for observing space
Process Based
Environment recording details about it.
4) take input and synthesize ittto
who can
agent
Example The image processingabout the image. 14) Research Task
Environment
and details
produce required output, in research lab where it is made to grasp (learm)
Example: Agent working a

User Environment knowledge and represent it and drawing conclusions from it, which will helps
5) Personal or
assistance who can helh researcher for further study.
which can be used as personal
A small scale agent
Example: about work etc.
who can give notifications Network Task Environment
to remember daily task, 15)
6) Buying Environment Example: An agent developed carry data over a computer network
to automatically
based on certain conditions like time limit or data size limit in same network (same type
Example: A online book shopping bot (agent) who buys book online as per user of agent can be developed for physically transferring items or mails) over same network.
requirements.
16) Repository Task Environment
7) Automated Task Environment
Example If a data repository is to be maintained then agent can be developed to
firm can use a agent who automates complete
Example A cadburry manufacturing arrange data based on criterias which will be helphul for searching later on.
procedure of cadburry making.
1.10 Different Types of Agents
8) Industrlal Task Environment
Example: An agent developed to make architecture of a building or layout of 1.10.1 Intelligent Agent
building. "Intelligent agent is an intelligent actor, who observe and act upon an
environmene"
9) Leaming Task Environment (Educational) Intelligent agent is magnum opus.
Example: We can have a agent who is learning some act or some theories presented
to if and later it can play it back which will be helpful for others to learn that act or

theories.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for

knowledge TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge
 Artificial Intel
Artificial Inteligence 1-30 nce Ine Con
The Concept
Artificial Intelligence
1-31
Artificial Intelligence
Enviroment

(world with agents) amounts of data.

The IA must learnquickly from large
3) incremently.
Percept
accommodate n e w problem
solving rules
4) The IA
must
- through sensors and retrival capacities.
Knowledge which must exhibit storage
,Belief
5) The IA must have memory error and success.

self in terms of behaviour,

should be able to analyze
Interaction
Intelligent 6) The IA
agent of Agents)
Goals Forms of Agents: (Types
Obligation Desires 1.10.2 Different and sub-agents.
there are different forms of intelligent agent
In artificial intelligence, it is possible to framne
through actuators and capability varies,
of perceived intelligence
IAction As the degree
into four categories.
World agent's
without 1. Simple reflex agents.
20ent
2. Model based reflex agents.
3. Goal based agents.

Fig. 1.10.1 Intelligent agent

4. Utility based agents.
detail.
Fig. 1100.2 discuss each type of agent in
is different from intelligent agent. In the following section
we
The term Intelligent thinker
intelligent agent's behaviour.
1.10.2.1 Agent Type 1
Intelligent agent Simple Reflex Agent
ignoring the rest of
These agents select actions on the basis
of the current percept,

percept history.
An entity

which perfom?

1. Perception Sensor
2. Action What the
wortd is like
now?
Fig. 1.10.2 Intelligent Agent

What actOn
Example: Conditon action rulee I shoukd do
now?
1) A robotic agent (Cameras, Infrared range finders).

2) An embedded real time software system agent. Actuator

3) A human agent (Eyes, ears and other organ). Environment

Characteristics of
Intelligent Agent (LA)
1) The IA leam and improve through interaction with
must the environment. Flg. 1.10.3 Slmple reflex agent
2) The LA must adapt online and in the real
time situation.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIOws- An up thrust for knowledge
 Artificiel Intelligence The Concept
Artificial Intelligence 1-32 The Concept
Artificlel Inteligence 1-33 Artificial Intalligence

Property: is limited.
but their intelligence Forexample:
) T h e s e are very simple
be made on the basis of onlv
which maintains its own internal state and then take action as

if correct
decision can
the A car driving agernt
2) They will work only environment is fully observable.
environment appears to it.
current percept- that
is only if the
serious trouble.
can cause
3) A little bit of unobservability then, it
observable environment can

reflex agent works

in partially lead Sensor
4) f simple
to infinite loops. State
reflex agent can try out possible
Infinite loops can be avoided if simplex
ach.
tions Whatthe wortd
5) Howthe wortd
randomize the actions. evolves? is like now?
ie can
perform better than deterministic
6) A randomize simple reflex agent will reflex What my action do?
agent.
What action I
Example Condition-action rule should do now?
In ATM agent system if PIN matches with given account number then customer gets
Actuators

money. Environment
REFLEX AGENT
Procedure: SIMPLE
-

Input: Percept
Fig. 1.10.4 Model based reflex agent
Output: An action.
action rules. Procedure : REFLEX-AGENT-WITH-STATE
Static: Rules, a set of condition -

1. State INTERPRET - INPUT (percept) Input: Percept

2 rule RULE MATCH (state, rules) Output: An action.
3. action RULE - ACTION (rule) Static State, a description of the current world state, rules, a set of condition-
action rules, action, the most recent action, initially none.
4. returm action.
-UPDATE-STATE (state, action,
1. State percep)
110 22 Agent Type 2 2. Rule-RULE-MATCH (state, rules)
Model Based Refex Agent 3. Action RULE-ACTION (rule)
Internal state of the agent stores current state of environment which describes part of 4. return action.
unseen world ie how world evolves, and effect of agent's own actions. It means that it
stores model of model based reflex agent.
110.23 Agent Type 3
possibilities around it. Hence it is called as
Goal Based Agent
Property: Goal based agent stores state
1) It has ability to handle partially observable environments.
description as well as it stores
goal states information.

2) Its internal state is updated continuously which can be shown as: Property
Old Internal state 1) Goal based agent works simply towards achieving goal.
+ Current percept =Update state. 2) For tricky goals it needs searching and planning.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust PUBLICATIONS

for knowledge TECHNICAL An up thrust for knowledge
 Artificiel Intelligence The
The Concept Artificial Intelligence- The Concept
Artificial Intelligence 35
1-34 Artificial Intelligence

information description appear.

because the ars two discrete states
** dynamic in nature
are
Goals gives only
4)
proper and explicit manner. UnhappPy
behaviour for new/unknown oal. a) Happy b)
4) based agent's
We can quickly change goal For example -

action to be taken. Its

of
robot which provides certain plan
Millitary planning performance is
also high.
is to complex, and expected
Environment environment
Sensor
Environment
State
What the workd Sensor
How the worid is like nOw?
evoves? What the
world is like
State now
What may action do? What it will be like
ifI do action A
How the world evolves What it wlll be
like if do
What action I What may actions doF action A?

GoalsF should do now?

How happy I will be
in such a state?
Actuators

What action I
should do now?

Fig. 1.10.5 Goal-based agent

For example: Fig. 1.10.6 Utlity- based agent

Agent searching a solution for &queen puzzle.
1.10.3 The Learning Agent
110.24 Agent Type 4 then agent should be
If agent is to operate initially in unknown environments
Ulity Based Agent self-learner. It should observe and gain and store information. Learnming agent c a n be
enough for agernt designs. Additional to divided into 4 conceptual components
In complex environment only goals are not
1) Learning Element - Which is responsible for making improvements.
this we can have utility function.
2) Performance Elements Which is responsible for selecting external actions.
-

Property: 3) Critic I t tells how agent is doing and determines how the performance element
function maps to real number, which describes the associated
1) Utility a state on a should be modified to do better in the future.
degree of best performance. Problem Generator It is responsible for suggesting actions that will lead to new
4) -

2) Goals gives us only two outcomes achieved or not achieved. But

agents provide a way in which the likelihood of success can be measured against
utility based and informative experiences to agent. Agent can ask problem generator for
suggestions.
importance of the goals. T performance standards distinguishes part of the incoming percept as a reward
3) Rational agent which value of u lity (success) or penalty (failure) that provides direct feedback orn the quality of the agent's
is utility based can maximize expected
function ie more
perfection can be achieved. behaviour.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust
for knowledge
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS -
An up thrust for knowledge
 Artificial Intelligence - The (

36
Artificial Intelligence 1-37 Artificial Intelligence The Concept
Artificial Intelligence
ough
thro.

earning
pertormance

their
improve
can
seen
More Types of Agents
All four type
ypes agent
we
have
1.10.4
and there by become learning agernt do classification of agents based on various like
We can aspects -

ment
from environment and
For example which
continuously
learns
then do 1) Task they perform. 2) Their various control architecture.
agent
roplane driving
Aerop 3) Depending on sensitivity of their sensors, and effectiveness of their action and
safe plane driving internal states they possess.
of Learming Agent
1.10.3.1 Components basic knowledge and learm Following are various types of agents, based on above classification criteria
Base/Learner/Learming
element-It holds ngs
1) environment.
1. Physical Agents: A physical agent is an entity which perceives through sensors
unfamiliar
from the Capable system is and acts through actuators.
system/Performing elements
the
respo S16le
2) Capable/Efficient actions.
Performance element is actual
agent. 2. Temporal Agents A temporal agent may use time based stored information to
external It
for selecting
actions. offer instructions or data acts to a computer program or human being and takes
and decides
perceives
feedback. It reflects fault and analyze cor program inputs percepts to adjust its next behaviour.
3)
It
gives
Faultreflector element maximum success.
orrective 3. Spatial Agents That relate to the physical real-world.
actions in order to get
element -
It generate new and informative experi 4. Processing Agents -
That solve a problem like speech recognition.
4) New problem generator t
suggests new actions. 5. Input Agents That process and make sense of sensor inputs- eg. neural
makes difference between incoming percept as a network based agents.
The performance standard reward
ree

direct feedback on the quality of the agent's behaviour. 6. Decision Agents That are geared upto do decision making
(or penalty), that indícate
7. Believable Agents An agent exhibiting a personality via the use of an artificial
Performance character (the agent is embedded) for the interaction.
standaro
8. Computational Agents That can do some complex, lengthy scientiic
computations as per problem requirements.
Crtic 9. Information Gathering Agents Who can collect
(perceive) and store data.
Feedback 10. Entertaining Agents Who can perform something which can entertain human
like gaming agents.
Changes
Learning Performance 11. Biological Agents Their reasoning engine works almost identical to human
element element
Knowledge brain.
Leerning
Goals 12. World Agents That incorporate a combination of all the other classes of agents
Problem to allow autonomous behaviours.
generator 13. Life Like
ActuatorsS Agents Which are combinations of other classes of agents which will
behave like real world characters. (For example A robotic dog)
Environment Sensors
1.11 Designing an Agent System
When we are
specifying agents we need to specify performance measure, the
Fig. 1.10.7 Leaming agent environment and the agent's sensors and actuators. We group all these under the
heading of the task environment.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for
knowledge
-

knowledge
 Artificial Intelligence 1-38 Artificial lIntelligence.
The Concp Artificial
intelligence
The Concept

(P]erformance, [E}nviro 1-3

For e acronymically
we call this PEAS ment, [A]ctuato Artificlal Intelligence

[Slen
Slensors) description. atom, Industrlal
Business
Purpose
Sensors
Actuators
) Environment
an Agent Performance
1.11.1 The Steps in Designing Agent Type Measure
task environment) in complete Sr. No. Display product Keyboard,
area (i.e. mouse.

1) Define problem face recognitiorn, automated taxi a Secure reliable, E-commerce

human lists with price,
Example-Vaccum world, automated driver. E-commerce

System
fast business
websites,

system.
forms.
processing8
tabulate PEAS.
(customer).
Define Temperature,
2) or
and action. Values, pumps,
functions uence and
(i.e. percept sequence action
column) Refinery, pressure

3) Define or tabulate agent

Refinery
Maximize,
purity, yield, operators.
heaters,
displays.
hemical
sensors.
controller

4) Design agent program. safety.

an architecture to implement agent program.
5) Design
Purpose
an agent program / Research
Sensors
6) Implement )
Scientific
ActuatoIs
be single agent or multiple agents system. Performance
Environment

The agent system may Agent Type

need to consider communication, coo Sr. Measure

If system is multiagents
then we
co-operation No.
Correct image
Downlink from Display
categorization
of
Color pixel
arrays.
agents.
strategies among multiple
satelite.
Satellite image orbiting
analysis system. categorization
scere
and Thelr PEAS Description resuit Knowledge
Examples of Agent Types lab Recording database of
1.11.2 According to
****

A chemistry of reaction
Correct chemicals and
Their Uses Chemical of where
recording their
e a c t i o n analyzer instruments,
reaction.
for common man) in chemistry chemicais are
characteristics.

1) General Purpose (uses research lab. available for

carrying out
Environment Actuators Sensors
Performance reactions.
St. No. Agent Type Measure

Roads, other Steering Cameras, sonar,

An automated Safe, fast, legal, acceleration speedometer, Medical Purpose Sensors
comforatable traffic, GPS, Odometa, wwwe
Actuators
taxi driver
trip, maximize pedestrians, break, Signal, Performance
Environment
accele rometer
Customers. hom, display.
St. No. Agent Type Measure
profits. engine, Sensors, Keyboard entry
keyboard Display of symptoms,
Patient, hospital,
Medical
Healthy patient,
minimize costs, staft. guestions, indings
Web/video diagrosesS
Human face Capturing face diagnosis treatments,
patiene's
lawsusS
An automated Correct, feature camera, answers.
software, web system. referrals
face recognizer recognition extraction keyboard, of
efficient system. camera/video Database
mouse, infrared Detail reporting of
camera, infrared classification Blood sample with procedures
ight Blood testing Correct of each test test conduction
light. reporting on lab. specified
and resus
arm and Camera, joint system. each test.t Commponents.
Conveyor belt Jointed a n g l e sensors
Percentage of
3, Part-picking with parts hand. wwww.wwwwww.w.a
parts in correct
robot
bins. bins.
Touch screen.

Secure, reliabie
ATM machine, Display
ATM system human system
menu/screer

fast service. with options,

(customer.
validity checks
An up
thrust for knowledge
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATIONS
 The Concepot
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence 1 - 40 Artificial lntelligence The Con 1 41
Concept Artficial lntelligenoce

V) Educational Purpose The following

[S]ensors : Tutor agent system.
The
M in interactive English
Agent Type Performnance
Environment Actuators Sensors plays a crucial role

No. Measure
Sensor
required
to support sequence of perception
are
sensor
events.
for providing input
Interactive
English tutor.
Maximize
s t u d e n t ' s sCore
Set of students,
testing agency.
Display exercises
sugEestions,
corrections.
Keyboard entry.
Keyboard
1) Keyboard
for GUI
interface.
Mouse
on test 2) audio recording.
and mike for
Group of
learner Display of each
Inputs from 3) Headphone for listening
A casio teacher. Learmer should
be able to play or a single note,
presentation of
learner, trom Video/web camera's for video shooting
specific musical learner. mouse or 4)
pieces. playing a key,
sample music keyboard and One Final Word
database ot casio 1.12 c a n be s e e n
that goal
pieces details. its related work it
******

After taking a brief tour

of AI history andthat solve the problems
which a r e useful

of AI is to construct working programs

1.11.3 The Detail Example of PEAS being

for well
of human.
a m o u n t of data and processed
Interactive English Tutor is to acquire large and enough
. I n AI major issue and at least solve the toy
Agent deal with almost all the problems
knowledge that c a n o n c e the

The [Plerfomance Measures It becomes harder to access appropriate

things when required,
1) problems.
Tutor agent system must achieve the following performan. amount of knowledge grows up.
The Interactive English nance related to AI
is required to process knowledge
measures. A good programming language for AI programming.
maximum knowledge regarding English subject, such s most commonly used language
1) All the student must get problems. LISP has been that have been
are easiest to build using languages
vocabulary, verbal soft skills, (i.e. communicational skil), reading, writing skills Specifically, AI programs
rather than primarily numeric computation.
marks in the english test. designed to support symbolic
2) All the students must score good In o u r syllabus w e are going to
AI is still a
yet to bloom and a bud in industry.
study some of the basic but major topics related
to AL.
I1) The [E]nvironment:

In Interactive English Tutor agent system environment has following properties

Answer in Brief
and 1Q (Intellectual Quotient).
1) All the students having different grasping power
demonstration. 1. Define Al. (Refer section 1.1)
2) Software modules which gives
2. What is AI ? (Refer section 1.1)

I) The [A]ctuators (Actions) 3. What is meant by robotic agent ? (Refer section 1.1)
architecture. (ie.
The software model (agent program) will be executed on the agent What are adoantages one can infer when machines perform intelligently ? (Refer section 1.1)
interactive english tutor are, 5. Define an agent. (Refer section 1.8)
operating system). The actions performed by
6. What is role of an agent program ? (Refer section 1.8)
1) Audio / video demonstration on different topics.
7. Define rotational agent. (Refer section 1.8)
2) Practical assignment on verbal written skills, report generation, letter writing,etc
8. List down the characteristics of intelligemt agent. (Refer section 1.10)
Monitoring and inspection (ie. checking) of the practical assignment provide 9. Give general model of learning agent. (Refer section 1.10)
10. Explain in detail the history of Al. (Refer section 1.
with suggestions and corrections, to students.
11. What are various domains of AI ? (Refer section 1.1)
4) Online test conduction and result analysis.
12. Discuss in detail the structure
5) Student's of agent with suitable diagram. (Refer section 1.8)
speech and video recording.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS- An up thrust for knowledge

 Artiñicial intelligence 1 - 42 Artificial lntelligence The Conca The Concept
****** Artificial intelligence-
43.
******

What is an ideal rational agent ? (Refer section 1.8)

1-43
Artficiel Intelligence8
14. Explain properties of environment. (Refer section 1.9)
Summer - 18
. Name at least 5 agent types with percepts actions and goals with environment.

41
(Refer section 1.9)
test. (Refer section 1.1)
? (Refer section 1.10) Discuss Turning
W h a t are requirements of intelligent agents Q.5
based agents. (Refer section 1.10) Winter- 18
17. Discuss model based agents andgoals wmww.d
(Refer section 1.10)
18. Give the structure of a n agent with goals. task domain of artificial intelligence.
Define and
discuss different 31
types and describe
their PEAS. (Refer section 1.11) Q.6
19. List few agent (Refer section 1.9)
20. What is meant by PEAS ? (Refer section 1.11)
Summer 19
system is diferent from a cornvolutional! computing
computing system.
s
21. What is AI ? Explain how an Al
(Refer section 1.1) (Refer section 1.9) 141
words in the context of AI: Intelligence
characteristics of Al. (Refer section 1.1) Q.7 Define the following
22. What is Al ? State various
23. Explain the nature and scope of AlL. Why game playing problems are considered Al vrohi Winter 19
lems ?
(Refer section 1.1)
how AI techniques improve
section 14) Q.8 Define the "Artificial Intelligence". Explain
term
24. What are Al techniques? (Refer (Refer sections 1.1 and 1.4)
real-world problem solving.
25. Define AI and justify with suitable example how does conventional computing diflerent
the What is the significance of the Turing Test" in Al : Explain how it is performed.
section 1.1)
intelligent computing. (Refer Q.9 41
26. Explan desirable properties of Al internal representation and Al softoare. (Refer section 1
(Refer section 1.1)
1.1)
a.10 Enlist and discuss the major task domains of Artificial Intelligence.
Questions with Answers (Refer section 1.9)
1.13 University nwww.wwwwnw

Winter 12 Summer-20
wwwww.w
wwww.w wi

What is intelligence Discuss types of problems requiring intelligence to solbe it. Q.11 Define the following wods in the contert of Al:
Q.1
sections 1.1.2 and 1.2) i) Intelligence. (Refer section 1.1)
Define Al. (Refer

Winter -14 O00

the characteristics of Al problem. (Refer section 1.12)
Q.2 Define Al ? Explain
Winter 16

(Refer section 1.1)

Q.3 Discuss following: i) Turing test
Winter 17
wmmnommmmmuá

Q4 Discuss: Turning test. (Refer section 1.1)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS -
An up thrust for knowledge

An up thrust for
knowledge
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS -