STRAIN MEASUREMENT

GIVEN:
We put a 60 degree strain gauge
rosette on the surface of an object
subjected to load. We measure the
following elongations:
ε=a 60 ⋅10−6
ε b 135 ⋅10−6
=
ε c 264 ⋅10−6
=
The material properties of the object:
E= 2 ⋅105 MPa
ν =0.3

TASK:
Write down the matrix of the stress tensor at the location of the rosette in the
coordinate system of the principal axes. Calculate the principal axes.
SOLUTION:
 
NOTE: In case of an unloaded surface in xy plane ρ z =0 ⇒ σ z =0, τ xz =0, τ yz =0
This is called a plane state of stress. In this case, the stress and strain look as follows:
 1 
 εx 2
γ xy 0
σ x τ xy 0  
1
F p = τ yx σ y 0  AP =  γ yx εy 0
2 
 0 0 0   0
 0 ε z 
 
ν
where: ε z =
−
1 −ν
(ε x + ε y ) So we have 3 independent values in each tensor → 3
measurements are needed for the knowledge of the stress/strain state.
step 1: unit direction vectors of the strain gauges:
 
na = i

   1 3
cos(60 )i + sin(60 ) j =
nb = i+ j
2 2
   1 3
− sin(30 )i + cos(30 ) j =
nc = − i+ j
2 2

1
step 2: strains in xyz coordinate system
1) Elongation in direction a=x:
ε=
a ε=
x 60 ⋅10−6
2) Elongation in direction b:
 1  1  1 3 
 εx γ xy 0  εx + γ xy 
2 2  2 4 
  
  1 3  1   3  1 3  1 3 
ε b = nb ⋅ A ⋅ nb =  0  γ yx εy 0  =  0   γ yx + εy =
 2 2 
 2
 2  2 2  4 2 

 
ε z  
αb
 0 0 0   0 
 
   
  

1 3 3 3 1 3 3
=ε x + γ xy + γ yx + ε y = ε x + γ xy + ε y
4 8 8 4 4 4 4
3) Elongation in direction c:
 1   1  1 3 
 εx γ xy 0  −  − ε x + γ xy 
2 2  2 4 
  
   1 3  1  3  1 3  1 3 
ε c =nc ⋅ A ⋅ nc = − 0  γ yx εy 0    = − 0   − γ yx + εy =
   2

αc  2 2  2    
2 2  4 2 
 0 0 εz   0   0 
 
     

1 3 3 3 1 3 3
=ε x − γ xy − γ yx + ε y = ε x − γ xy + ε y
4 8 8 4 4 4 4

2 3 2 ( ε − ε ) 2 (135 − 264 ) ⋅10−6

2) - 3): ε b − ε c = γ xy ⇒ γ xy = b c = =−149 ⋅10−6
4 3 3
2) + 3):
2 6 1 3 2 ( ε b + ε c ) − ε a 2 (135 + 264 ) − 60
εb + εc = εx + ε y = εa + ε y ⇒ εy = = = 246 ⋅10−6
4 4 2 2 3 3
Furthermore:
ν 0.3
εz =
−
1 −ν
(ε x +εy ) =
−
1 − 0.3
( 60 + 246 ) ⋅10−6 =
−131 ⋅10−6

step 3: The matrix of the strain tensor in xyz coordinate system:

 1 
 εx 2
γ xy 0 
   60 −74.5 0 
1 
A= γ εy 0= −74.5 246 0  ⋅10−6
 2 yx  
 0  0 0 −131
 0 ε z  
 

2
 NOTE: At this point, we have to choice of options:
• Either first, we calculate the matrix of the stress tensor – utilizing Hooke’s law - in
xyz coordinate system. Then we calculate the principal stresses and principal axes
from the stress tensor.
• Or first, we calculate the principal strains and principal axes from the strain tensor,
then we calculate the principal stresses (utilizing Hooke’s law)
In the followings, the latter method is presented.

step 4: The matrix of the stress tensor in xyz coordinate system

 ν 
According to Generalized Hooke’s law:
= F 2G  A + AI I 
 1 − 2ν 
where:
E 2 ⋅105
=• G = = 76923 MPa (shear modolus)
2(1 +ν ) 2(1 + 0.3)
• AI = ε x + ε y + ε z = ( 60 + 246 − 131) ⋅10−6 = 175 ⋅10−6 (first scalar invariant of strain
tensor)
• I is a 3x3 identity matrix
ν 0.3 6
• A=
I ⋅175 ⋅10−= 131.25 ⋅10−6
1 − 2ν 1 − 2 ⋅ 0.3
Generalized Hooke’s law with expanded matrices:

 
 1  
  εx γ xy 0  
σ x τ xy 0   2 1 0 0  
 
τ 
 2G  γ 1 ν 0 1 0  
=
 yx σ y 0   2 yx ε y 0 + (
 1 − 2ν 
ε x + ε

y + ε

z ) 
 0 0 0    0 0 1  
ε z 
AI
    0 0  
F   
I 
   
 A 

 ν 
σ x = 2G  ε x + AI ⋅1 = 2 ⋅ 76923 ( 60 + 131.25 ⋅1) ⋅10−6 = 29.4 MPa
 1 − 2ν 

 ν 
σ y = 2G  ε y + AI ⋅1 = 2 ⋅ 76923 ( 246 + 131.25 ⋅1) ⋅10−6 = 58 MPa
 1 − 2ν 

1 ν 
τ xy =τ yx =2G  γ xy + AI ⋅ 0  =Gγ xy =76923 ⋅ ( −149 ⋅10−6 ) =−11.5 MPa
2 1 − 2ν 
The matrix of the stress tensor:

σ x τ xy 0  29.4 −11.5 0 
F = τ yx σ y 0  =  −11.5
 58 0  MPa
 0 0 0   0 0 0 

3
 Step 4: Principal stresses, principal axes

( F − σ I ) e =
e 0
step 1: eigenvalues (→ principal stresses) step 2: eigenvectors (→ principal axes)
The characteristic equation: 1) Principal axis belonging to σ 3 :
det F P − σ e I =
0  
σ 3 = σ z ⇒ e3 = k
With expanded matrices:
 29.4 −11.5 0  1 0 0  2) Principal axis belonging to σ 1 :
 −11.5     
 58 0  − σ e  0 1 0  0
= ( F − σ 1 I ) e 0
1 =
 0 0 0  0 0 1  With expanded matrices:
29.4 − σ e −11.5 0   29.4 −11.5 0  1 0 0    x1  0 
  − 62 0 1 0    y  =  
−11.5 58 0    1  0
−11.5 58 − σ e 0 = 0   
  0 0 1    z1   0 
0 0 −σ e   0 0 0 
 29.4 − 62 −11.5 0   x1  0 
Let’s expand determinant along 3rd row:  −11.5
 58 − 62 0   y1  =  
0 
−σ e ( 29.4 − σ e )( 58 − σ e ) − ( −11.5 )( −11.5 )  =0  0 0 0 − 62   z1  0 

Note: always expand the dertminant along the  −32.6 −11.5 0   x1  0 
row(or column), which contains 2 zeros!  −11.5
 −4 0   y1  =0 
 
−σ e 1705.2 − 29.4σ e − 58σ e + σ e2 − 132.25 =
0  0 0 −62   z1  0 
−σ e σ e2 − 87.4σ e + 1572.95 =
0 Matrix equation in scalar form:
1) − 32.6 x1 − 11.5 y1 =
0  ⇒ y1 =
−2.8 x1
from the firs factor: σ e = 0 
2) − 11.5 x1 − 4 y1 = 0  ⇒ y1 =−2.8 x1
from the 2nd factor: ⇒z =
3) − 62 z1 = 0  1 0
87.4 ± 87.42 − 4 ⋅1 ⋅1572.95 62 MPa
σe = = < The 1st and 2nd equations are the
2 ⋅1 25.4 MPa same, so we have 1 equation with 2
Put the results in descending order: unknowns → we can assing any (non
σ 1 = 62 MPa zero) value to x1, e.g. let it be 1:
σ 2 = 25.4 MPa 1 ⇒ y1 =
x1 = −2.8
σ 3 = 0 MPa the magnitude of the calculated
eigenvector:
Stress tensor in the coordinate system of s1 = x12 + y12 + z12 = 12 + (−2.8) 2 + 02 = 2.97
the principal axes: unit vector of the 1st principal axis:
 x  y  z 
e1 = 1 i + 1 j + 1 k =
σ 1 0 0  62 0 0 s1 s1 s1
= F = 0 σ 2 0   0 25.4 0  MPa
  1  −2.8  0   
1,2,3
= i+ j+ k =0.33i − 0.94 j
 0 0 σ 3   0 0 0  2.97 2.97 2.97

3) Principal axis belonging to σ 2 :

     
e2 = e3 × e1 = k × ( 0.33i − 0.94 j ) =
     
= 0.33 k × i − 0.94 k ×= j 0.94i + 0.33 j
 
j −i

4
Matlab code of the exercise:
clear all
clc

% DATA INPUT %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

% Measured elongations:
Ea=60e-6;
Eb=135e-6;
Ec=264e-6;

% Material properties:
E=2e5; % Young's modulus
nu=0.3; % Poisson's ratio

% STRAIN TENSOR %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

Ex=Ea;
Ey=(2*(Eb+Ec)-Ea)/3;
Ez=-(nu/(1-nu))*(Ex+Ey);
Gxy=2*(Eb-Ec)/sqrt(3);

A=[Ex 1/2*Gxy 0
1/2*Gxy Ey 0
0 0 Ez]

% STRESS TENSOR %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

G=E/(2*(1+nu));
AI=Ex+Ey+Ez;
F=2*G*(A+nu/(1-2*nu)*AI*eye(3))

% PRINCIPAL STRESSES/AXES %%%%%%%%%

[V,D]=eig(F,'vector');
% Principal stresses:
[S123,idx]=sort(D,'descend');
% Stress tensor in the csys of the principal axes:
F123=diag(S123)
% Principal axes:
e123=V(:,idx)