Lexical and auxiliary verbs

There are two kinds of verb in English: lexical and auxiliary. Lexical verbs are the ones that belong to
the indefinitely large general vocabulary of the language (e.g. run, eat, seem, explain, recycle, shatter,
prepare, depend). Auxiliary verbs, by contrast, are a special and very restricted set of verbs. The clear
ones are: be, have, and do (which can also be lexical) and can/could, will/would, shall/should,
may/might, must, and need.
A full VP must contain a lexical verb and it may contain auxiliary verbs. In the following, the lexical
verbs are in bold and the auxiliary verbs are in italics.
Lexical verbs are easily identified by their morphological (i.e. their wordform) possibilities. They are
words that take some if not all of the verbal inflections -s, -ing, -ed, -en. For example: plays, playing,
played and writes, writing, written.

Auxiliary verbs

The clear auxiliary verbs are: be, have, and do (which can also be lexical) and can/could, will/would,
shall/should, may/might, must, and need.. A full VP may contain auxiliary verbs.

Modal verbs

1. Central modals: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will/´ll, would/´d, must
2. Marginal modals: dare, need, ought to, used to
About Marginal modals: Closely resemble the central modal auxiliaries
Dare, need, ought – proper modals – constructed as a main verb
Used to – denotes a habit or a state that existed in the past
3. Modal idioms: had better, would rather/sooner, be to, have got to, etc.
4. Semi-auxiliaries: have to, be about to, be able to, be bound to, be going to, be obliged to, be
supposed to, be willing to, etc.

Lexical verbs

They belong to the indefinitely large general vocabulary of the language, e.g., run, eat etc. A full VP
must contain a lexical verb.
Six sub-categories of lexical verbs:
(1) transitive,
(2) intransitive,
(3) ditransitive,
(4) intensive,
(5) complex transitive,
(6) prepositional.

1. Transitive verbs

A transitive verb is one which requires a single Noun Phrase to complement it. For example, dread,
make, spot, throw, and inspect are transitive verbs.
The NP that complements a transitive verb is said to function (more specifically) as its direct object. So,
in Phil dreads affectionate cats, the NP within the VP (affectionate cats) is complementing the transitive
verb dread as its direct object.

2. Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb is one that does not require any further constituent as a sister in the VP.
‘INtransitive’ means ‘has (and needs) no complement’.
Disappear, die, laugh, vegetate (and play on one interpretation) are intransitive verbs. Since an
intransitive verb requires no further element to form a complete predicate, an intransitive verb counts as
a complete VP in its own right.

3. Ditransitive verbs

Ditransitive verbs require TWO NPs as complements. The classic example of a ditransitive verb is give.
Others are send and buy:
[23a] William gave Millie some bleach.
[24a] The staff sent the general a message.
[25a] Max buys his butler all necessary work-clothes.
In [23a]–[25a] the first complement (the NP in bold) functions, more specifically, as the indirect object
of the ditransitive verb. Indirect objects are usually the recipients or beneficiaries of the action. The
second complement NP (in italics) functions as the direct object – it has the same function as the NP that
complements a transitive verb.
An important characteristic of VPs consisting of a ditransitive verb complemented by two NPs is that
they are systematically related to VPs in which the indirect object NP (bold in [23a]–[25a]) corresponds
to a Prepositional Phrase (PP) in a position following the direct object.
A ditransitive verb accepts or may require an indirect object to complete its meaning—"the noun to
whom something is given" or simply "the recipient". The indirect object takes form as a noun phrase—a
name (Jane), an accusative pronoun (him, her, them, us, me), or a noun (the young woman). (In Latin, it
is known as the dative case.)
After some verbs, the recipient may be restated as a prepositional phrase with to or for (depending on
the meaning of the verb). The prepositional phrase means the same but functions differently from the
indirect object in passive constructions. This prepositional phrase is especially preferred when the direct
object is lengthy.
Please give that purple and pink poster that you have on the wall to me. ⇒ Please give me that purple
and pink poster that you have on the wall.

Ditransitive verbs (exceptions)

Verbs —recipient is expressed as IO or for (PP)

For example, bake, build, cook, do, find, make, prescribe, write, sing…
You bought for me a sandwich. ⇒ You bought a sandwich for me.
(Place the prepositional phrase at the end of the clause.)

When the direct object is a personal pronoun like it or them, the indirect object is restated as a
prepositional phrase at the end of the clause.
⇒ Will you please give it to me.
⇒ I am showing them to my family.

He gave me it.
⇒ He gave it to me. Avoid using two short pronouns.
⇒ He gave me the letter. Expand one of the pronouns.
(BURTON-ROBERTS, 2013)
(SEVASTOPOULOS, 2020)

4. Intensive verbs

Intensive verbs require a single complement, which can take the form of an Adjective Phrase, a Noun
Phrase or a Prepositional Phrase. The most obvious and commonly used intensive verb is be. As the
central example of the intensive sub-category of verb, be is called ‘the copula’.
[33] Ed is rather extravagant. (AP)
[34] Sigmund was an auctioneer. (NP)
[35] Oscar and the First Mate were in the engine room. (PP)
The complement of an intensive verb functions (more specifically) as a predicative. Other intensive
verbs – i.e. other verbs taking a predicative as complement – are: become, seem, appear, turn, remain,
look, taste, feel, smell, sound.
When a verb is complemented just by an AP, you can be sure you are dealing with an intensive verb.
This is because [intensive] is the only sub-category of verb that can take just an AP complement. The
point is worth noting because, as mentioned, intensive verbs can be complemented by an NP or a PP
and, when a verb is complemented by an NP, you will have to decide whether [V + NP] is an example of
[transitive V + direct object] or an example of [intensive V + predicative].
Understanding the concept of ‘predicative’ involves understanding the difference between predicative
and direct object. I explain this now.
Compare [34] above (repeated as [36]) with [37]:
[36] Sigmund was an auctioneer.
[37] Sigmund spotted an auctioneer.
In both, we have a verb complemented by an NP. In [37] the verb is transitive, so the NP complement
functions more specifically as direct object. As a direct object, the NP identifies an individual distinct
from Sigmund (referred to by the subject NP Sigmund). In saying that Sigmund spotted an auctioneer,
we mention two distinct individuals – Sigmund and the auctioneer – and say that the former spotted the
latter. It is in the nature of spotting that it’s a relation between two individuals: a spotter (subject) and a
spottee (direct object). That’s what makes spot a transitive verb.
A moment’s thought will show something quite different going on in [36]. [36] does not express a
relation between two individuals. In [36], with the intensive verb, only one individual is mentioned (by
means of the subject Sigmund ). The rest of the sentence (the VP) is used to characterise the subject. If
[36] can be said to express a relation at all, it is a relation between an individual and a property: the
sentence expresses the idea that Sigmund has the property of being an auctioneer. Predicatives are used
to attribute properties to the things referred to by other expressions. Unlike direct/indirect objects, they
do not themselves refer to things or people.
It is because intensive verbs only take predicatives that they can be complemented by Adjective Phrases:
APs only ever identify properties. Thus, [33] mentions Ed and simply attributes the property of
extravagance to him. NPs, by contrast, can be used both to identify properties and to refer to individuals.
This is why an NP can function either as predicative (complementing an intensive verb) or as direct
object (complementing a transitive verb).
Many of the intensive verbs listed above also belong to the transitive subcategory – but with a different
meaning. This difference between transitive (+ direct object) and intensive (+ predicative) can be made
quite vivid by contrasting the two meanings of such verbs. For each of the following decide whether the
(italicised) complement NP is complementing a transitive verb as direct object or complementing an
intensive verb as predicative:
[38] Max turned a subtle shade of green.
[39] Max turned another card.
[40] Tarzan felt a tap on his shoulder.
[41] Tarzan felt a real idiot.
[42] The leopard-skin pillbox hat didn’t become her.
[43] The hat became a very useful wastepaper basket.
[44] The captain sounds an absolute tyrant.
[45] The captain sounded the ship’s horn.
The NPs are functioning as direct objects (complementing the verbs in their transitive senses) in [39],
[40], [42], and [45]. They are functioning as predicatives (complementing the verbs in their intensive
senses) in [38], [41], [43], and [44]. Notice that, in the latter cases, those NPs could be replaced by APs
without changing the sense of the verb (green in [38], idiotic in [41], ever more useful in [43], and
absolutely tyrannical in [44]).

5. Complex transitive verbs

Complex transitive verbs take two complements: a direct object (NP) and an object-predicative. Again,
the predicative can take the form of an AP, an NP or a PP. Here are some examples, with the direct
object in italics and the predicative in bold.
[48] Jack finds his own jokes extremely funny. (AP)
[49] They made Stella their spokesperson. (NP)
[50] Liza put the liquor under her bed. (PP)
Everything I said about predicatives above goes for the predicative in a complex VP, but with one big
difference. The difference is that the predicative in a complex transitive VP characterises (attributes a
property to) the direct object, not the subject, hence the name ‘object-predicative’. The semantic relation
between direct object and object-predicative in a complex transitive VP, then, parallels that between the
subject and the subject-predicative in an intensive sentence.
It’s an intensive relation. For example, if [48] is true, then, as far as Jack is concerned, his own jokes are
extremely funny; if [49] is true, then Stella became their spokesperson; and if [50] is true, then the liquor
was under Liza’s bed.
In assigning the feature [complex] to the V node, we are making the whole phrase marker represent the
function of his own jokes as direct object and the function of extremely funny as object-predicative
(those are the functions associated with complex transitive verbs). This is particularly needed in a case
like [52a].
[52a] Max found [Bill] [an amusing companion].
This example is ambiguous. First identify the two interpretations in your mind and then explain the
ambiguity by assigning different functions to the two complements of the verb. On the basis of that, you
should be able to assign two different sub-categorisation features to the V found.
On one interpretation, [52a] corresponds in meaning with (a) Max found an amusing companion for Bill.
On this interpretation, the verb find is ditransitive:
Bill refers to the beneficiary and is functioning as indirect object, and an amusing companion is the
direct object. Notice that three participants are involved on this (ditransitive) interpretation. On the other
interpretation, [52a] corresponds with (b) Max found Bill to be an amusing companion. On this
interpretation, Bill and an amusing companion have the functions associated with the complementation
of complex transitive verbs: direct object (Bill) and object-predicative (an amusing companion). On this
complex transitive interpretation, there are only two participants, Max and Bill; an amusing companion
merely attributes a property to Bill. The distinction in meaning between (a) and (b) – and hence the
ambiguity – and the different functions of Bill and an amusing companion is all accounted for simply by
the difference in sub-categorisation feature attached to the V.

6. Prepositional verbs

Glance (at NP), reply (to NP), refer (to NP), and worry (about NP) are examples of prepositional verbs –
complemented by a Prepositional Phrase. Take glance, for example:
[53] *Max glanced. (glance is not intransitive)
[54] *Max glanced the falling acrobat. (glance is not transitive)
[55] Max glanced at the falling acrobat. (glance demands a PP complement)
I shall call the PP that complements a [prepositional] verb, a prepositional
complement. There are, then, three kinds of VP consisting of [V + PP]:
(a) V[intens] + PP. The PP is a complement (subject predicative);
(b) V[prep] + PP. The PP is a complement (prepositional complement);
(c) V[intrans] + PP. The PP is an optional modifier.
As the complement of V, the PP in (a) and (b) is represented as sister-of-V. As we shall see in the next
chapter, the modifier PP in (c) is represented in another position.
Prepositional verbs are called ‘prepositional’ because they can only be complemented by a PP. In this,
they contrast with [intens] verbs, which can be complemented by NP, AP or PP. Furthermore, each
[prep] verb generally demands that the head of that PP be one particular preposition – for example, we
have glance [at NP], not *glance [to NP], and refer [to NP], not *refer [at NP].
We have now looked at a six-way distinction among verbs and their associated sentence patterns. Not all
verbs – and not all uses of all verbs – fit neatly into this classification or do so only with a certain
amount of ingenuity on the part of the analyst. The distinctions given nevertheless provide an
introduction to the topic of sub-categorisation and, in discussing them, I have dealt with all the major
constituent functions and with the sister of V within VP.
Summary

TRANSITIVE – ‘[trans]’: subject – V – direct object

(S)                   (DO)

INTRANSITIVE – ‘[intrans]’: subject – V

(S)

DITRANSITIVE – ‘[ditrans]’: subject – V – indirect object – direct object

INTENSIVE – ‘[intens]’:
(S)                  (IO)               (DO)
or:
subject – V – direct object – indirect object
(S)                    (DO)              (IO)
subject – V – subject-predicative
(S)                      (SP)

COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE – subject – V – direct object – object-predicative

‘[complex]’: (S)                   (DO)                (OP)
 PREPOSITIONAL – ‘[prep]’: subject – V – prepositional complement
(S)                       (PC)

The following may help in identifying the sub-categories of verb in sentences:

Categories Functions

NO complements  => [intrans]

ONE complement => [trans] NP only DO

                                 => [prep] PP only PC
                                 => [intens] AP or NP or PP SP

TWO complements => [ditrans] NP + NP or NP + PP IO + DO

                                    => [complex] NP + AP or NP or PP DO + OP

NOEL BURTON-ROBERTS. Analysing Sentences. An Introduction to English Syntax. 2013, p.68-86.