What Is Reading?
The Psycholinguistic Model of Reading (Kenneth Goodman)
Reading is defined as a cognitive process that involves decoding symbols to arrive
at meaning.
Reading is an active process of constructing meanings of words.
Reading with a purpose helps the reader to direct information towards a goal and
focuses their attention.
The first keyword is interactive. This keyword refers to two different conceptions: (1)
the interaction that occurs between the reader and the text, whereby the reader
constructs meaning based partly on the knowledge drawn from the text and partly
from the existing knowledge that the reader has; and (2) the interactivity occurring
simultaneously among the many component skills that results in comprehension. As
Grabe (1991) notes, the interactive reading processes involve “both an array of low-
level rapid, automatic identification skills and an array of higher-level
comprehension/interpretation skills”
Another keyword is processes. A number of processes are at work when people read.
Grabe (2009) identifies “lower-level processes, including word recognition, syntactic
parsing and meaning encoding as propositions” and “higher-level processing,
including text-model formation (what the text is about), situation-model building
(how we decide to interpret the text), inferencing, executive-control processing (how
we direct our attention), and strategic processing”
Also critical is knowledge. Actually, perhaps knowledges would be more accurate.
This includes knowledge of the language (e.g., the writing system, grammar,
vocabulary), knowledge of the topic of the text, knowledge of the author, knowledge
of the genre (e.g., editorial in a newspaper, a romance novel), and knowledge of the
world, including experiences, values, and beliefs. People use all of these knowledges
to build, to create, and to construct meaning. Readers all have different knowledge.
Goodman regards meaning construction as a continuous process of testing the reading text.
The reader strives to predict, to sample and to confirm or to change previous predictions, and
consequently tests and samples the text again. In this model of reading comprehension, using
all of the existing textual hints is not required for the skilled reader. If the reader is able to
make suitable and related guessing, the less confirmation via the text is required, that is, the
less visual perceptual information the reader needs. The basic psycholinguistic model was
clarified by Coady (1979). He suggested a model in which reader’s conceptual abilities and
strategies act together with his background knowledge to understand the text.
In the early 1960s Kenneth S. Goodman began studying the reading of authentic texts
by urban and rural young people. His earliest miscue research, published in 1965, is
probably the most widely replicated study in reading research history. But it was his
article, "Reading: a Psycholinguistic Guessing Game" (1967), that began a revolution
moving away from a view of reading as rapid accurate sequential word recognition to
an understanding of reading as a process of constructing meaning - making sense - of
print.
     Goodman defined reading as: �a receptive psycholinguistic process wherein the
actor uses strategies to create meaning from text� (Goodman, 1988).  Basically, the
study of reading looks at translating a linguistic surface representation (text) into
thought.  Goodman based much of his theory on analysing miscues (mistakes) in texts
being read-aloud.  He believed that efficient readers minimize dependence on visual
detail, but focused his theories on the interactions of reader and text.  Basic physical
sensory information (the physiological process) is cycled into deeper levels of
cognitive processes.
Cycles� readers move from text to understanding through cycles of deeper
processing, moving from optical, to perceptual, to syntactic, to meaning
Cognitive Processes of the brain used in reading are:
 recognition / initiation � the brain must recognise text and initiate reading
 prediction � anticipates and predicts as it seeks order and significance of
input
 confirmation � verification of predictions or disconfirmation
 correction � reprocessing when it finds inconsistencies or disconfirmations
 termination � formal ending of reading act
N.B.:  Goodman treats these processes as sequential, whereas later models may not

Text in language classrooms: TALO, TAVI and TASP
One of the enormous benefits of the Internet has been the accessibility of loads and
loads of English texts for teachers to use with their learners. But the gap between a
teacher finding a text and successfully using it in class can be quite large. How should
teachers use texts? How have they used them in the past?
Texts in language classrooms: A brief trip through time
Texts have been used in language classrooms for a long time. Their exploitation,
however, has changed over the years.
 A hundred years ago, a teacher would bring a text, usually literary, into class
and would translate it word for word and sentence for sentence with the
students, drawing attention to similarities and differences between English and
the students' L1. This was part of the grammar translation approach.
 Fifty years ago, teachers were also using texts. These texts would be
considerably different from the literary texts mentioned earlier. For a start,
they were most often presented in dialogue form. The text had been written
specifically to highlight a language point. Students would read the text
silently, then repeat parts of the dialogue after the teacher before practising it
together in pairs. This is an example of the Audiolingual method.
 Fifteen years ago,The Communicative Approach to language teaching also
used texts, but authentic texts were preferred. In this approach, the teacher
would be focussing much more on the meaning of the text as a whole.
Students would be urged "not to try and understand every word" but to read a
text to get at the content and the overall meaning, rather than just the
language.
As John and Davies (1983) have phrased it, there are three ways to handle a text in the
modern EFL classroom: use it as TAVI, TALO or TASP. These acronyms stand for the
following concepts and imply the below-listed purposes as Clandfield (2010) has
elaborated on them:
TALO - A TALO text is used for language work, specifically grammar or vocabulary. They
are written especially with a pedagogical purpose in mind; they could be authentic texts
the teacher has chosen because they contain lots of examples of a particular feature of
language and they could be authentic texts "adapted" to contain or highlight certain
features of language.
In this approach, a reading text is used purely for language input.  It may contain, for
example, grammatical items which form the target of this part of the teaching programme
or lexis in a particular field of interest to the learners.
The approach involves mining the text for these language items (with most of the hard
digging done by the teacher, usually) and then focusing on them for further clarification
and practice.  Examples of tasks using texts for this purpose will include activities such
as:
Find and underline all the words in the text to do with crime and divide them into three
lists: person who does the crime, the crime and the verb
Find all the ways in the text where the writer is recommending what should happen next. 
Make a list from strongest to weakest suggestions.
This is not using the text to develop reading skills, of course, except incidentally.
Some sample TALO activities are:
 Find all the examples of X in a text (for example, a grammar pattern, function
words, a particular verb form…)
 Find all the words in the text that are connected to X (words that are topically
linked, or lexical sets)
 Decide why certain forms were chosen over others (why was a conditional
used, for example)
Ex. We can see that this text contains a lot of verbs in past simple. Therefore, it can
easily be used as the object for reinforcing the teaching of the simple past tense. The
teacher can prepare for the lesson by making it a gap-fill text by taking out the past
tense verbs: ’thought’, ‘rushed’, ‘married’, etc. and by finding a picture illustrating
these verbs. The pictures need to be handed around the classroom and as students
read out the text loudly, they have to pay attention to the gaps and show the picture
the signification of which fits into that particular gap. Doing this activity, the learners
simultaneously master the skill of scanning and skimming as they need to keep
paying attention to which words have been used and which ones are to be still placed
into the gaps.
TAVI: Text as a vehicle for information
A TAVI text has a different focus. Information within the text is seen as more
important than the language. Students should understand the overall meaning of a text
instead of (or at least before) the finer points of detail.
In this approach, the text is being used to develop the strategies that learners need to
deploy to unlock the writer's meanings and attitudes.  The theory is that this approach
will lead to the development of cognitive strategies which learners can then use
independently to access the meaning of any text they encounter.
Tasks typical of a TAVI approach to reading are, for example:
Is the writer strongly or only weakly opposed to tolls on main roads?
What does the writer say about his childhood in general?  Did he have a normal
childhood in your opinion?
It is a TAVI approach that is considered here because we are concerned with
language skills rather than language systems development.
 TAVI texts:
o can be chosen because they are motivating
o can be ones that the teacher would hope the students would like to read
anyway
o can be authentic texts.
 TAVI type activities include:
o predicting the content of the text, discussing questions or statements
that relate to the text
o marking things in the text that you knew/didn't know before
o answering comprehension questions
o summarizing the main points of a text
o putting events in order
Ex. Prior to reading, as the topic of the lesson, a discussion can be elicited about
students’ opinions on keeping domestic animals. They can also get involved in a
discussion focusing on their personal experiences with animals. After the discussion,
one group of the class has to scan through the first paragraph, the other one has to
scan through the second paragraph. Each group has to predict what beginning or end
is implied in the text. Once they get back into forming the whole class again, they
discuss among one another what the beginning and the end is. Thus, pyramid reading
is done.
Creative reordering
For the second reading of the text, the class is divided into groups and they have to
work together on drawing pictures related to the text: picture of a dog, of cushions,
purple jar, bookcase, etc. The winning group has the most images drawn. Once the
whole class joins together, they have to select the best picture by voting. After doing
this, they have to reorder the images in the chronological order as the words follow
one another in the text.
Point of order (Collie; Slater, 1991)
Following the first two activities, students get one sentence each from the text. They
have to stick the sentences on their chest and sit down on a chair. After the teacher
has explained that their task is to unscramble the text, students stand up, check each
other’s sentences and in the form of cooperative group work they sit down in an order
that corresponds to the text.
TASP: Text as a springboard for production
Another text acronym is TASP. TASP stands for Text as a Stimulus for Production.
This means using a text as a springboard for another task - usually a reading or
writing task. TASP approaches also fit well with the communicative approach.
Using texts in this third way may involve a good deal of TALO use first because the
text may be used as a model to analyse before the learners embark on constructing
their own texts following the same generic staging and using similar circumstances
and verbal processes.  Such a procedure would be typical of a genre approach (new
tab) to teaching writing skills.
This approach to reading texts may be much simpler, using the text purely as stimulus
for discussion, role-play or a speaking activity.  Texts are frequently used this way in
conversation-driven classes typified by, e.g., Dogme.
Typical tasks in a TASP approach might be, for example:
Circle the paragraphs which set the scene of the story.  Put a box around the
complication in the story.
Underline the verbs phrases which refer to actions and highlight the verbs which
refer to relationships.
Make a note of the three reasons the writer dislikes piped music.  How far do you
agree?  Talk to your group to see how much agreement there is.
 TASP type activities could be:
o doing a role play based on the text
o discussing issues raised by the text
o having a debate about the points of view presented in the text
o writing a similar text about something the students know about
o writing a response to the text.
Ex. Based on this text, the teacher can jump start a very engaging and
productive task. Firstly, the class has to agree on a title of this excerpt.
Secondly, after reading the text, students are put into groups or pairs. The
partners working in the same group or pair have to find a fictitious
character. They have to write an article about him or her in a fictitious
newspaper. They are required to use a lot of adjectives as Virginia Woolf
does in this excerpt. The teams have to produce this imagined piece of
writing for an imagined newspaper. They also have to verbally express
their feeling towards their own created ‘hero’.
Visual text associations
For the second round of reading the text, the material is cut up into pieces
of three sentences. Each group gets a card with only three sentences on it.
They have to draw a picture which they think best associates with the
given paragraph. They then have to place the pictures on the board with
bluetack. Once it is done, the paragraphs are collected and given out so
each group will get a different paragraph this time. They have to match the
parts of the text with the picture drawn by some other group. Following
that, teacher elicits a discussion on why they have chosen to draw that
particular image associated with the paragraphs and what the rest of the
class thinks of that choice.
Sealing the times capsule (Collie; Slater, 1991)
The groups have to read the text again and have to work out  a possible
ending of the text. They need to write it down and once they are done with
that, the teacher opens up a box, a time capsule, which the students have to
put their written endings into. They seal the capsule for up until the next
session when the teacher brings in the whole original text and has the class
see which group has had the closest guess as to the ending.
Word Recognition
Word recognition is the act of seeing a word and recognizing its
pronunciation immediately and without any conscious effort. If reading
words requires conscious, effortful decoding, little attention is left for
comprehension of a text to occur. Since reading comprehension is the
ultimate goal in teaching children to read, a critical early objective is to
ensure that they are able to read words with instant, automatic recognition
(Garnett, 2011). What does automatic word recognition look like?
Consider your own reading as an example. Assuming you are a skilled
reader, it is likely that as you are looking at the words on this page, you
cannot avoid reading them. It is impossible to suppress reading the words
that you look at on a page. Because you have learned to instantly
recognize so many words to the point of automaticity, a mere glance with
no conscious effort is all it takes for word recognition to take place.
Despite this word recognition that results from a mere glance at print, it is
critical to understand that you have not simply recognized what the words
look like as wholes, or familiar shapes. Even though we read so many
words automatically and instantaneously, our brains still process every
letter in the words subconsciously. This is evident when we spot
misspellings. For example, when quickly glancing at the words in the
familiar sentences, “Jack be nimble, Jack be quick. Jack jamped over the
canbleslick,” you likely spotted a problem with a few of the individual
letters. Yes, you instantly recognized the words, yet at the same time you
noticed the individual letters within the words that are not correct.
Research-Supported Vocabulary-Learning Strategies
Students need a wide range of independent word-learning
strategies. Vocabulary instruction should aim to engage students in
actively thinking about word meanings, the relationships among words,
and how we can use words in different situations. This type of rich, deep
instruction is most likely to influence comprehension (Graves, 2006;
McKeown and Beck, 2004).
 Student-Friendly Definitions
The meaning of a new word should be explained to students rather than
just providing a dictionary definition for the word—which may be difficult
for students to understand. According to Isabel Beck, two basic principles
should be followed in developing student-friendly explanations or
definitions (Beck et al., 2013):
 Characterize the word and how it is typically used.
 Explain the meaning using everyday language—language that is accessible
and meaningful to the student.
Sometimes a word’s natural context (in text or literature) is not
informative or helpful for deriving word meanings (Beck et al., 2013). It is
useful to intentionally create and develop instructional contexts that
provide strong clues to a word’s meaning. These are usually created by
teachers, but they can sometimes be found in commercial reading
programs.
Defining Words Within Context
Research shows that when words and easy-to-understand explanations are
introduced in context, knowledge of those words increases (Biemiller and
Boote, 2006) and word meanings are better learned (Stahl and Fairbanks,
1986). When an unfamiliar word is likely to affect comprehension, the
most effective time to introduce the word’s meaning may be at the
moment the word is met in the text.
Using Context Clues
Research by Nagy and Scott (2000) showed that students use contextual
analysis to infer the meaning of a word by looking closely at surrounding
text. Since students encounter such an enormous number of words as they
read, some researchers believe that even a small improvement in the
ability to use context clues has the potential to produce substantial, long-
term vocabulary growth  (Nagy, Herman, and Anderson, 1985; Nagy,
Anderson, and Herman, 1987; Swanborn and de Glopper, 1999).
Applying the Target Words
Applying the target words provides another context for learning word
meanings. When students are challenged to apply the target words to their
own experiences, they have another opportunity to understand the
meaning of each word at a personal level. This allows for deep processing
of the meaning of each word. 
Analyzing Word Parts
The ability to analyze word parts also helps when students are faced with
unknown vocabulary. If students know the meanings of root words and
affixes, they are more likely to understand a word containing these word
parts. Explicit instruction in word parts includes teaching meanings of
word parts and disassembling and reassembling words to derive meaning
(Baumann et al., 2002; Baumann, Edwards, Boland, Olejnik, and
Kame'enui, 2003; Graves, 2004).
Sem
antic Mapping
Semantic maps help students develop connections among words and
increase learning of vocabulary words (Baumann et al., 2003; Heimlich
and Pittleman, 1986). For example, by writing an example, a non-
example, a synonym, and an antonym, students must deeply process the
word persist.
 Word Consciousness

Word consciousness is an interest in and awareness of words (Anderson

and Nagy, 1992; Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Students who are word
conscious are aware of the words around them—those they read and hear Problems in Syntax
and those they write and speak (Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Word-
conscious students use words skillfully. They are aware of the subtleties of
word meaning. They are curious about language, and they enjoy playing
with words and investigating the origins and histories of words.

Teachers need to take word-consciousness into account throughout their

instructional day—not just during vocabulary lessons (Scott and Nagy,
2004). It is important to build a classroom “rich in words” (Beck et al.,
2002). Students should have access to resources such as dictionaries,
thesauruses, word walls, crossword puzzles, Scrabble® and other word
games, literature, poetry books, joke books, and word-play activities.

Teachers can promote the development of word consciousness in many

ways:

 Language categories: Students learn to make finer distinctions in their word

choices if they understand the relationships among words, such as synonyms,
antonyms, and homographs. 
 Figurative language: The ability to deal with figures of speech is also a part
of word-consciousness (Scott and Nagy 2004). The most common figures of
speech are similes, metaphors, and idioms.

Once language categories and figurative language have been taught,

students should be encouraged to watch for examples of these in all
content areas.
Strategies for Reading

The process of comprehending text begins before children can read, when
someone reads a picture book to them. They listen to the words, see the
pictures in the book, and may start to associate the words on the page with
the words they are hearing and the ideas they represent.

Using Prior Knowledge/Previewing

When students preview text, they tap into what they already know that
will help them to understand the text they are about to read. This provides
a framework for any new information they read.

Predicting

When students make predictions about the text they are about to read, it
sets up expectations based on their prior knowledge about similar topics.
As they read, they may mentally revise their prediction as they gain more
information.

Identifying the Main Idea and Summarization

Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that students

determine what is important and then put it in their own words. Implicit in
this process is trying to understand the author’s purpose in writing the text.

Questioning

Asking and answering questions about text is another strategy that helps
students focus on the meaning of text. Teachers can help by modeling both
the process of asking good questions and strategies for finding the answers
in the text.

Making Inferences

In order to make inferences about something that is not explicitly stated in

the text, students must learn to draw on prior knowledge and recognize
clues in the text itself.
Visualizing
Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better
recall than those who do not (Pressley, 1977). Readers can take advantage
of illustrations that are embedded in the text or create their own mental
images or drawings when reading text without illustrations.
Reading Journal Articles
Reading any college-level text can be challenging and time-consuming.
The amount of reading assigned and the level of difficulty significantly
increase from high school to college. Many students find that the skills
they needed and used in high school are not as effective in college.
Understanding and using effective active reading strategies can transform
reading and study time from frustrating and confusing to meaningful,
purposeful, and successful. Using active reading strategies can improve
comprehension and ensure that you actually retain the information you
read.
Journal articles bring their own set of challenges. Since journal articles are
usually signifijuscantly different from other texts, it’s even more important
to have a good understanding of active and effective reading strategies,
especially ones that are specific to journal articles. This handout provides
several strategies for reading journal articles effectively and connects you
with resources for reading texts in general.
How are journal articles uniquely challenging?
Journal articles differ from other texts in many significant ways. It is
important to understand the unique features of journal articles before
starting to read one so that you can better understand it while and after you
read.
Background knowledge: Both the author and the intended audience are
likely to be experts on the subject. The author assumes readers are already
familiar with basic ideas, terms, and background knowledge.
Vocabulary: The vocabulary is subject-specific and appropriate for
advanced readers. Key terms are woven into the text, not highlighted with
special formatting or referenced in a glossary. In some cases you can
figure out the important information from context; in others, you may need
to look up a word or two to understand the article.
Purpose: The author may make a claim, develop an argument, or share an
opinion. Look for this in the article’s title and abstract (the introductory
summary paragraph).
Research: The focus is usually research—either the author’s own or the
work of other scholars on the subject. The text is likely to include many
references to other researchers.
Specificity: The author may explore a narrow, highly specific topic or
perspective within a larger subject.
Formatting: Content may be presented in standardized sections. These
include Abstract, Background or Literature Review, Methods, Results,
Discussion, Conclusion, and Reference sections.
Lack of visuals: The text may include few or no visual aids (graphs,
illustrations, charts)—only text. There may be few or no subheadings or
other content delineations.
How to read journal articles effectively
Before reading
Ask your professor for guiding questions or key topics to keep in mind
while reading. These suggestions and insights can guide your reading and
note taking.
Begin with the abstract (or first page) and the conclusion (or final page)
for an overview of topics. These help provide a framework for
comprehension.
Think about why your professor might have assigned the article.
Brainstorm how the content might relate to what you’ve learned in class so
far. The article will make more sense if you have some context and
purpose before you read.
Convert headings and topics into simple questions. Jot these down and
read for answers. Use these to guide your note taking.
If needed, build a foundation with simpler, shorter sources of information,
such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and reputable websites. Gathering
background information will help you process details and identify main
ideas more efficiently. Try looking up a different article on the same topic
or an article that was referenced multiple times by the article you are
reading.
Create a supportive learning environment. Think about what type of
setting enables you to concentrate best and avoid distractions. Clear your
study area of distracting noises and tempting technologies, and choose a
location that is comfortable.
During reading
Feel free to read sections out of order or to focus only on a few sections.
In some classes, your professor may be more interested that you
understand the context (Background/Lit Review) and the outcomes
(Results and Discussion), whereas in others they may want you to think
critically about the methods used in the study.
Make a habit of condensing and paraphrasing what you read. As you
finish each section or page, how well can you explain key terms and ideas
without reproducing the author’s words? Use the note-taking template to
reduce an article to a single page of summaries.
Finish an entire page or section before taking notes. If there are no breaks,
create your own stopping points.
Take note of your thoughts and questions as you read. Don’t let them slip
away! Incorporate them into class discussions and assignments.
Limit your highlighting and underlining. Many students use this strategy,
but it does not require much thinking or help you remember what you
read. Instead of over-highlighting as you read, wait until you finish a
paragraph or section. Then, determine the main ideas and supporting
details in that section and highlight only those.
Try annotating while you read as an alternative to heavy highlighting and
underlining. Make symbols to mark questions, main ideas, unknown
words, and definitions that you encounter while reading. Reading a digital
text? Printing on paper or to PDF can facilitate annotation by hand or with
PDF annotation software.
After reading
Revisit the article at a later date. You are likely to make connections that
weren’t obvious during your first read.
Try some active study strategies such as paraphrasing the article or writing
a short summary from memory to engage in deeper learning and to better
understand the information.
Explain and share what you read with a friend—or at least out loud to
yourself—in your own words. Answer any questions provided in the text,
by your professor, or on the syllabus. If your class is remote or online, try
using Zoom or another online meeting space to connect with classmates
and discuss readings.
Create flashcards, concept maps, or an outline to critically think through
the material and test yourself.