(Class notes for 11C and 11A 2078)

Thermal Expansion(second chapter)

The process of increasing the size of substances due to heat is called
thermal expansion.Thermal expansion is the increase in length or area or
volume of matter.Thermal exapansion is due to the increase in
intermolecular spaces of substance.When heat is supplied to the substance
and temperature is increases the vibration of molecules also increases.Due
this vibration the intermolecular space is increases and hence size of
substance increases.

Experimental observation of thermal expansion of solids:

Thermal expansion of solid can be verified experimentally.Most of the solid
gets expansion on heating except few solid like ice ,silica etc at certain
temperature gets contract on heating .Two simple experiments that can
explain thermal expansion are explained below:

1.Ring and ball experiment:

This experiment consists of a metallic ball and a ring .Before heating, the
ball can pass through the ring. When metallic ball is heated and allowed to
pass through the ring , ball can not pass through the ring due to termal
expansion. Again on cooling ball ,it can pass through the ring due
contraction .In this way this experiment can be verified thermal expansion
of substances.

2.Bar and gauge experiment:

Bar

Gauge
This experiment consists of a metallic bar and a metallic gauge.The bar is
fitted with gauge when cold but when bar is heated that can not fit with
gauge due to the thermal expansion.

Verification of different materials have different degree of

expansion:

To prove that different materials have different degree of expansion we can

use bimetallic strip. It consists of two strips of equal length of different
metal or alloys riveted strongly with each other as shown in figure. At low
temperature the strip is straight but when heated up to certain
temperature it is bended in curved structure. It is due to the different
degree of expansion of two substances.

Some practical applications and consequences of thermal

expansion:
1.Fixing of Iron rim on wooden wheel.
2.Gaps on railway track.
3.Gaps between metallic plate of bridges.
4.Opening tightly fixed metallic lid of bottle.
5.Cracking of window glass.
6.Gaps on concrete road.
7.Bimetallic strip and thermal switches.
Thermal expansion of solids:

1.Linear expansion.

Let us consider a rod of initial length l1 at temperature ɵ 1 and when

temperature is increases to ɵ 2 the length of rod becomes l2.The increase in
length(∆l) is:

a.directly proportional to initial length ,i.e

(∆l)= l2- l1 α l1 ……………(1)
b.is directly proportional to increase in temperature,i.e
l2- l1 α (ɵ 2- ɵ 1)…………(2)
Therefore from( 1) and (2), ∆l= α l1(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)……….(3)
This is the relation for increase in length due to thermal expansion.
∆𝑙
From (3 ) ,α=
𝑙1(𝑇2− 𝑇1)

Where α is a constant called coefficient of linear expansion ,which is

defined as increase in length per unit original length per unit change in
temperature. Its unit is per degree Celsius or per Kelvin. It is constant for
given material. For aluminum its value is 2.4x10-5K-1oroC-1.
From (3) we can write,
l2= l1(1+ α∆ɵ)……..(4),Which is expression for final length of given rod.

b.Superficial expansion:
The increase in area due to heat is called superficial expansion.

A1 , ɵ 1
A2, ɵ 2

Let us suppose an object of area A1 at ɵ 1,when temperature is increases

to ɵ 2 then area becomes A2.Then the increase in area A2-A1(∆A) is:
a. directly proportional to initial area A1,
i.e. ∆A α A1………..(1)
b.directly proportional to increase in temperature,
Similarly ∆A α(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)…………(2)
Combining (1) and (2)
∆A α A1(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)
Therefore ∆A = β A1(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)……….(3)
Where β is called coefficient of superficial expansion or only superficial
expansivity.It is constant for given substance.
Therefore, β=∆A/ A1(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)
The constant coefficient of superficial expansion (β) is defined as the
increase in area per unit original area per unit change in temperature. Its
unit is per degree Celsius or per Kelvin
From (3),
A2=A1(1+ β∆ɵ)……(4)
Which is required expression for final area of given sheet after thermal
expansion.

c.Cubical expansion:
The increase in volume of given substance due to heat is called cubical
expansion.
V1 , ɵ 1

V2, ɵ 2

Let us consider a cube of initial volume V1 and at temeprature ɵ1,the cube

is heated up to ɵ2, due to which final volume of cube cube becomes
V2.The increase in volume ∆V or V2- V1 is:
a. directly proportional to initial volume V1
i.e ∆v)α V1………….(1)
b.directly proportional to increase in temperature:
i.e. ∆v α(ɵ2- ɵ1)……….(2)
 Combining (1) and (2)
∆V α ϒ V1(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)
Or ∆V =ϒ V1(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)…………(3)
Where ϒ is called coefficient of cubical expansion or cubical expansivity.
From (3), ϒ=∆V/ V1(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)
Hence ϒ is defined as increase in volume per unit original volume per unit
change in temperature. Its unit is per degree Celsius or per Kelvin. . Its
value for aluminum is 7.20x10-5K-1oroC-1.

Relation between α and β

l, A, ɵ+∆ɵ
lo, Ao, ɵ

Let us consider a square sheet of initial length lo, area Ao at initial

temperature ɵ.When the temperature is increases by ∆ɵ the length of a side
becomes l and area becomes A.The final length of sheet becomes:
l=lo(1+ α ∆ɵ)…………..(1)
and the final surface area becomes:
A=Ao(1+ β∆ɵ)……….(2)
Squaring equation(2)
l 2=lo2(1+ α ∆ɵ)2
 or A=Ao(1+2 α∆ɵ+ α2∆ɵ2)
Since the value of α is very small,the term containing α2 can be neglected.
A=Ao(1+2 α∆ɵ)…………..(3)
Comparing (2) and (3)
β =2α
Hence superficial expansivity of given material is always double of linear
expansivity.
Relation between α and ϒ

l, V, ɵ+∆ɵ
lo, Vo, ɵ

Let us consider a cube of initial length of a side is lo and initial volume Vo

at initial temperature ɵ.When temperature is increases by ∆ɵ,then the
side of a length becomes l and volume becomes V.
The final length of a side can be written as,
l=lo(1+ α ∆ɵ)…………..(1)
The final volume of this cube can be written as,
V=Vo(1+ ϒ ∆ɵ)………..(2)
Taking cube on equation(1).

l 3=lo3(1+ α ∆ɵ)3
Or, l 3=lo3(1+3 α ∆ɵ+3 α2 ∆ɵ2+ α3 ∆ɵ3)
Or, V=Vo(1+3 α ∆ɵ+3 α2 ∆ɵ2+ α3 ∆ɵ3)
Since α is small quantity so its higher power can be neglected.
Therefore V=Vo(1+3 α ∆ɵ) ………….(3)
Comparing (2) and (3),we get:
ϒ=3 α
Hence cubical expansivityf given substance is always 3 times of linear
expansivity.

Relation between α, β and ϒ

We have, β =2α and ϒ=3 α
𝛽
Therefore, α=
2

Similarly
ϒ
α=
2
𝛽 ϒ
Hence , , α= =
2 2

Which is required relation between α, β and ϒ

Determination of linear expansivity of given metal rod by Pullinger’s
Apparatus.
 Fig:Pullinger’s Apparatus
Construction:
The experimental arrangement of Pullinger’s Apparatus is shown in figure.
It consists of a hollow cylider,where the experimental rod is kept inside the
cylinder.There are three opening in the tube. Two upper and lower opening
are for the steam inlet and outlet.Middle one is to fit thermometer to
measure the temperature of experimental rod.The sperometer is kept at the
top of rod to meaure the increase in length of rod due to thermal
expansion.An electric circuit to find either spherometer touches rod or not.
Working:
Intially the length of rod is measured with the help of scale.The initial
temperature is measured by thermometer.Then the steam is passed
through the tube and rod is heated.The final temperature is noted by
thermometer and increase in length is measured by spherometer.

Observations and calculations:

Let ,Initial length of rod = l1
 Intial temperature = ɵ1
Final temperature of rod= ɵ2
Increase in length=∆l
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Linear expapansivity(α)=
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑋 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

α =∆l/ l1x ɵ2- ɵ1

By findings all the values in above formula ,linear expansivity of given rod
can be measured experimentally.
Force set up due to Expansion or contraction:

Let us consider a metl rod of length l1 is fixed at two rigid fixed ends S1 and
S2 as shown in the figure.suppose the initial temperature be ɵ1.Now the
rod is heated up to ɵ2,metal rod will try to expand to length l2,but it cannot
do so.
From linear expansion of solid we have:
l2= l1(1+ α∆ɵ)
Where α is the coefficient of linear expansion of the rod. Now increase in
length is;
 ∆l= α l1(ɵ 2- ɵ 1)
Due to increase in temperature ,the rod tries to expand but will not be able
to,to expand due to rigid support.As a result a force or tension is produced
which would compress the rod .From the definition of Young’s modulus of
elasticity,we have,
Young’s modulus,
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
ϒ= = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑇 𝑙1 𝑇 𝑙1 𝑇
Or ϒ= x = x =
𝐴 𝑙2−𝑙1 𝐴 𝑙 1 𝛼△𝜃 𝐴𝛼△𝜃

Where A is a cross-sectional area of the rod.Then

Or, T= ϒA𝛼Δ𝜃…………….(1)
Equation (1) is required expression for tension or force produced due to
thermal expansion or contraction.

Differential expansion
.
l1

l11
l2

l21
The difference in expansions of different substances when they are
heated through the same range of temperature is called
the differential expansion.
If l1 and l2 be the length of the two metals at ɵ1o C,their difference in
length d1 is given by:
d1=l1-l2 ………………..(1)
Now the rods are heated through the same range of temperature
ɵ2o C then we have,
d2= l11 - l21 ………………..(2)
If α and α1 be the linear expansivties of the rods then we can write:
l11= l1(1+ α∆ ɵ)………..(3)
l21= l2(1+ α1∆ ɵ)………..(4)
From (2),(3) and(4)
d2= l1(1+ α∆ ɵ)-[ l2(1+ α1∆ ɵ)]

Therefore d2= l1-l2+( l1 α- l2 α1)

d2= d1+( l1 α- l2 α1)( ɵ2- ɵ1)…….(5)

If differential expansion is zero i.e.difference in length of the rod is

same for all range of temperature difference, then we have :
d1=d2
 i.e. d1= d1+( l1 α- l2 α1)( ɵ2- ɵ1)
or, ( l1 α- l2 α1)( ɵ2- ɵ1)=0
or, l1 α= l2 α1
𝑙1 𝛼1
Therefore , =
𝑙2 𝛼

If any two rods have this condition theirs differential expansion is

zero.
Variation of density with temperature
When a substance is heated, its volume increases while mass does not
change.The density of the substance ,which is ratio of mass to its
volume,will therefore ,decrease.
Let us consider a substance of initial volume V1 and density 𝜌1 at
temperature 𝜃1.If the temperature is rises up to 𝜃2 then suppose that its
volume and density becomes V2 and 𝜌2 .
According to definition of cubical expansivity:
V2= V1 (1+ϒ∆ɵ)…………(1)
At 𝜃1 temperature we can write,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑚)
Density(𝜌1 )=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉1 )
𝑚
Or, 𝑉1 =
𝜌1

m=𝑉1 𝜌1 ………….(2)
Similarly, at 𝜃2 temperature we can write
 𝑚
𝑉2 =
𝜌2

Or ,m=𝑉2 𝜌2 ………(3)
From (2) and (3),we can write
𝑉1 𝜌1 = 𝑉2 𝜌2
From(1),
𝑉1 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 V1 (1+ϒ∆ɵ)
𝜌1
Or 𝜌2 = ……..(4)
1+ϒ∆ɵ

Hence in general density of substances decreases while increasing

temperature.

Expansion of liquid:
Unlike solid we have to heat liquid inside a vessel.So while heating liquid
vessel is also heated and expanded.
Real and apparent expansion of a liquid
A liquid is taken in a vessel. When the liquid is heated, the vessel is also
heated. The volume of vessel increases on heating. Increase in volume of
the liquid is more than the increase in volume of the vessel. On
observation, the increase in volume of the liquid appears to be less than
the actual increase in volume.
Actual increase in volume of the liquid (taking into account expansion of
the vessel), is called real (in figure BC ) expansion of the liquid.
Observed increase in volume of the liquid (excluding expansion of the
vessel), is called apparent (in figure AC ) expansion of the liquid.
Apparent cubical expansion of liquid is less than the real cubical
expansion by the amount equal to the cubical expansion of the vessel.In
figure AB is expansion of vessel.
Coefficient of real(absolute) expansion of a liquid:
Actual increase in volume of a liquid of unit volume for one degree rise in
temperature, is called coefficient of real cubical expansion of the liquid. It
is represented by the symbol ϒr.
 Coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid:

The observed (apparent) increase in volume of liquid of unit volume for

one degree rise in temperature ,is called coefficient of apparent expansion
of the liquid.It is represented by the symbol ϒa .

Relation between ϒr and ϒa

We have ,
Real expansion in volume =Apparent expansion in volume+Expansion in
volume of vessel……………..(1)
Here,
Real expansion in volume of liquid
ϒ r=
Original volume(V) X change in temperature(∆θ)

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = ϒrx Vx∆𝜃…..(2)

Similarly ,
Apparent expansion in volume of liquid= ϒax Vx∆𝜃……(3)
Increase in volume of liquid= ϒgx Vx∆𝜃…………..(4)
From(1),(2) , (3) and (4)
ϒrx Vx∆𝜃= ϒax Vx∆𝜃+ ϒgx Vx∆𝜃
ϒr= ϒa+ ϒg……………(5)
Which is required relation beween real expansivity and apparent
expansivity of liquid.
Determination of real expansivity(ϒr) of liquid by Dulong and
Petit’s method:

Fig:Dulong and Petit’s law

By the use of balanced columns, a simple method to determine the

coefficient of real expansion of a liquid is Dulong and Petit’s experiment.
It is based on the principle of hydrostatic. The apparatus uses a U-shaped
glass tube ABCD filled with a liquid whose real expansivity should be
determined. Initially, the liquid is at equal height as shown in the figure.
One arm of the tube is surrounded by an ice-water jacket and another
arm is surrounded with a steam jacket. The temperature of each jacket is
noted by the thermometer fitted on them. To prevent the transformation
of heat, a wet cloth is kept in the middle. At different heights, the
pressure at the base is same.
 Let, h1 and h2 be the height of the liquid column in limb AB and CD
respectively,
ρ1 and ρ2 be the density of liquid column in limb AB and CD respectively,
ɵ1 and ɵ2 be the temperature of liquid column in limb AB and CD
respectively,
Patm be the Atmospheric pressure, and
g be the acceleration due to gravity.

For liquid to be in equilibrium, the hydrostatic pressure at B is equal to

hydrostatic pressure at C
Total pressure at B = Total pressure at C
h1 ρ1 g + Patm = h2 ρ2 g + Patm
or, h1 ρ1 = h2 ρ2 ……..(1)
We know that,
ρ2 = ρ1 / (1 + γ ∆ɵ) ……..(2)
Where, γ = coefficient of real expansion of liquid

From eqn.(1 0and eqn.(2) we get

h1 ρ1 = h2 ρ1 / (1 + γ ∆ ɵ)
h1 + h1 γ ∆ ɵ = h2
Therefore γ = (h2 - h1)/h1∆ ɵ………(3)
This is the expression of determining absolute expansivity of liquid.
Hence absolute expansivity of liquid can be determined by Dulong and
Petit’s method.

Compensation of pendulum clock

We know that time period of pendulum clock depends its length.
We have,

𝑙
Time period of simple pendulum is T=2𝜋√ …………(1)
𝑔

Where l is length of pendulum.

If the length of pendulum is changes due to thermal expansion the time

period is also changes. To keep the time period of pendulum constant the
length of pendulum should compensate or center of gravity of pendulum
should keep fix. For this mercury compensation or metallic rod
compensation is done.The mercury gridiron pendulum clock.

Fig: Simple pendulum

 Fig: Mercury gridiron
Pendulum

When the temperature is rises up the length of pendulum increases down but
the mercury level rises up and hence centre of gravity of pendulum remains fixed
and time period remains constant.

Fig:Metal gridiron
pendulum

The metal gridiron pendulum consists of alternating rods of two metals with
different thermal expansion coefficients,such as steel and brass.The rods are
connected by a frame in such a way that their different thermal expansions
compensate for each other,so the overall length of the pendulum and its periods
stays constant with temperature. As shown in figure two side rods are allowed to
expand in upward direction and two in down downward direction such that
effective length of pendulum remains constant.

MCQ for practice

1.There are three Rods A,B,C of equal length L at same temperature .There coefficient of linear
expansion are αa, αb, αr respectively. if the temperature of all rod are increased by θ ° C and
coefficient of linear expansion is like αb>αa >αc. then what will be the final order of length of
rod?

a. Lc>Lb>Lc
b. Lb= La= Lc
c. La>Lb>Lc
d. Lb>La>Lc

2.Three bodies are having temperature

TA = - 42 °F
TB = - 10 °C
TC = 2000 K
Which body among these is most warm
a. TA
b. TB
c. TC
d. None of these

3. A sphere of mass m and diameter D is Heated by temperature ΔT , if Coefficient of linear

expansion is α what will be the change in the Surface Area?

a. π D2α ΔT (α ΔT+ 2)
b. π D2α ΔT (α ΔT- 2)
c. π D2α ΔT (α ΔT+ 4)
d. π D2α ΔT (α Δ- 4)

4. if α is the Coefficient of linear expansion of block and L denotes length, T denotes

Temperature then which one of these is true
a.dL - α L dT = 0
b. dL + α L dT = 0
c. αdL - L dT = 0
d. αdL - +L dT = 0

5.Consider the following statement

A.If body A and body B are in state of thermal equilibrium, B & C are in state of
thermal equilibrium then A & C are in Equilibrium
B. If body A and body B are not in equilibrium and A & C are not in thermal
equilibrium then B & C may be in thermal equilibrium.
a. Only A is Correct
b. Only b is Correct
c. A & B is Correct
d. Neither is correct

6.For any material, density ρ , mass m and volume V are related by ρ = m/V and B
is coefficient of volume expansion then which one is true
a. B = (1/ρ) (dρ/ dT)
b. B = -(1/ρ) (dρ/ dT)
c. B = (1/ρ) (dρ/ dV)
d. B = (1/ρ) (dρ/ dV)

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