INFORMATION COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS (3351601)
 Unit Practical Exercises
Sr. No.
No. (Outcomes in Psychomotor Domain)
1 Test and verify Amplitude Shift Keying.( Modulation and
Demodulation)
2 Test and verify Frequency Shift Keying. ( Modulation and
Demodulation)
3 Test and verify Phase Shift Keying. ( Modulation and
Demodulation)
4 Test and verify QPSK. ( Modulation and Demodulation)
5 Test and verify QAM. ( Modulation and Demodulation)
6 Test and verify PCM. ( Modulation and Demodulation)
7 I Test and verify MSK. ( Modulation and Demodulation)
8 Test and verify GMSK. ( Modulation and Demodulation)
9 Test and verify ON-OFF coding method.
10 Test and verify BIPOLAR coding method.
11 Test and verify MANCHESTER coding method.
12 Test the basic parameters of wireless communication using
II
GSM trainer.
13 Test and Verify various GSM identifier using GSM Trainer
14 Test and Verify GSM Base station using GSM Trainer
15 Test and Verify GSM mobile station using GSM Trainer
III
17 Test and Verify various GSM identifier , GSM Base station,
mobile station using GSM Trainer
18 Test and verify working of GPRS.
19 Test and verify working of EDGE.
20 Test and verify working of UMTS.
21 IV Test and verify working of CDMA.
22 V Test and verify working of RFID.
23 Test and verify working of Bluetooth.
 EXPERIMENT-1
Aim: To study and perform ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying) Modulation. Intro to Generation of ASK

Amplitude shift keying - ASK - in the context of digital communications is a modulation

process, which imparts to a sinusoid two or more discrete amplitude levels. These are related to

the number of levels adopted by the digital message. For a binary message sequence there are two

levels, one of which is typically zero. Thus the modulated waveform consists of bursts of a sinusoid.

Figure 1 illustrates a binary ASK signal (lower), together with the binary sequence which

initiated it (upper). Neither signal has been band limited.

Figure 1: an ASK signal (below) and the message (above)

There are sharp discontinuities shown at the transition points. These result in the signal having
an unnecessarily wide bandwidth. Bandlimiting is generally introduced before transmission, in
which case these discontinuities would be ‘rounded off’. The bandlimiting may be applied to the
digital message, or the modulated signal itself.
The data rate is often made a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency. This has been done in the
waveform of Figure 1.
One of the disadvantages of ASK, compared with FSK and PSK, for example, is that it has not got
a constant envelope. This makes its processing (eg, power amplification) more difficult, since
linearity becomes an important factor. However, it does make for ease of demodulation with an
envelope detector.
Intro to Bandwidth Modification
As already indicated, the sharp discontinuities in the ASK waveform of Figure 1 imply a wide
bandwidth. A significant reduction can be accepted before errors at the receiver increase
unacceptably. This can be brought about by band limiting (pulse shaping) the message before
modulation, or band limiting the ASK signal itself after generation.
Conclusion:
The ASK modulation was studied.
 EXPERIMENT-2
Aim: To study and perform FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) Modulation. FSK Generation:

As its name suggests, a frequency shift keyed transmitter has its frequency shifted by the

message. Although there could be more than two frequencies involved in an FSK signal, in this

experiment the message will be a binary bit stream, and so only two frequencies will be involved.

The word ‘keyed’ suggests that the message is of the ‘on-off’ (mark-space) variety, such as one

(historically) generated by a Morse key, or more likely in the present context, a binary sequence.

The output from such a generator is illustrated in Figure 1 below.

In FSK (Frequency Shift Keying), the instant frequency of carrier signal is varied corresponding to
the values of pulse-sequence code. If the base band signal is assumed to have only ‘0’ or ‘1’,
modulation process can be considered as a keying operation.
Conceptually, and in fact, the transmitter could consist of two oscillators (on frequenciesf1 and
f2), with only one being connected to the output at any one time. This is shown in block diagram
form in Figure 2 below.

Unless there are special relationships between the two oscillator frequencies and the bit clock,
there will be abrupt phase discontinuities of the output waveform during transitions of the
message.
Conclusion:
The FSK modulation scheme was studied.
 EXPERIMENT-3
Aim: To study PSK (Phase Shift Keying) Modulation.
In communication system, besides AM and FM, there is another type of modulation which is the
phase modulation. Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by
changing, or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).

Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital data.
PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of binary digits. Usually,
each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is
represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the
symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back
to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires the receiver to be able
to compare the phase of the received signal to a reference signal
In phase modulation, the amplitude and frequency remain the same, the only difference is the
phase. The binary signal is used to switch the phase between 0o and 180o, which is called phase
shift keying (PSK) modulation.
Generally, in order to increase the transmission rate, we need to use more bandwidth. However,
as for the variation of PSK modulation, the signal is hidden in the phase, therefore, the problem
of the consumption of bandwidth will not occur. Figure 1 is the 1-bit transmission of the PSK
modulation. If the variation located at the zero phase, it represents the data signal is zero. On the
other words, if the variation located at the π phase, it represents the data signal is 1.

Figure 1. Constellation Diagram PSK

PSK Waveform:
Shows Carrier wave, Modulating wave and PSK waveform. In PSK waveform, for data ‘0’ no phase change is
introduced in carrier and for data ‘1’, 180 degree phase change is introduced.
NOTE: DRAW THE WAVEFORM OF PSK FROM TEXT BOOK
Conclusion:
The PSK modulation scheme was studied.
 EXPERIMENT-4
Aim: To study QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) Modulation.
In Quadrature Phase Shift keying each pair of consecutive data bit is treated as a two bit (or
dibit) code which is used to switch the phase of the carrier sine wave between one of four phases
90° apart. The four possible combination of dibit code are 00, 01, 10 and 11. Each code
represents either a phase of 45°, 135°, 225°, and 315° lagging, relative to the phase of the original
un-modulated carrier. The choice of these phases is arbitrary as it is convenient to produce them.
Quadrature phase shift keying offers an advantage over PSK, in a manner that now each phase
represents a two bit code rather than a single bit. This means now either we can change phase per
second or the same amount of data can be transmitted with half as many phase changes per
second. The second choice results in a lowering of bandwidth requirement.
In a popular variation of BPSK, Quadrature PSK (QPSK), the modulator produces two sine carriers
90° apart. The binary data modulates each phase, producing four unique sine signals shifted by
90° from one another. The two phases are added together to produce the final signal. Each unique
pair of bits generates a carrier with a different phase (Table 1).

Figure 2(a) illustrates QPSK with a phasor diagram where the phasor represents the carrier sine
amplitude peak and its position indicates the phase. A constellation diagram in figure 2b shows
the same information. QPSK is very spectrally efficient since each carrier phase represents two
bits of data. The spectral efficiency is 2 bits/Hz, meaning twice the data rate can be achieved in
the same bandwidth as BPSK.

Figure 2. Modulation can be represented without time domain waveforms. For example, QPSK can
be represented with a phasor diagram (a) or a constellation diagram (b), both of which indicate
phase and amplitude magnitudes.
QPSK Waveform:
Figure 2 shows Q PSK waveform. In QPSK waveform, for data ‘00’, 45 degree phase change , for data ‘01’,135
degree phase change, for data ‘10’, 225 degree phase change and for data ‘11’, 315 degree phase change is
introduced.

Figure 2. QPSK waveform

Conclusion:
The QPSK modulation scheme was studied.
 EXPERIMENT-5
Aim: To study OQPSK (Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) Modulation.
Offset Quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) is a variant of phase-shift keying modulation using 4
different values of the phase to transmit. It is sometimes called Staggered quadrature phase-shift
keying (SQPSK).

Figure 1. OQPSK Constellation Diagram

Figure 2.Difference of the phase between QPSK and OQPSK

Taking four values of the phase (two bits) at a time to construct a QPSK symbol can allow the phase
of the signal to jump by as much as 180° at a time. By offsetting the timing of the odd and even
bits by one bit-period, or half a symbol-period, the in-phase and Quadrature components will
never change at the same time. In the constellation diagram shown in figure 1, it can be seen that
this will limit the phase-shift to no more than 90° at a time. This yields much lower
amplitude fluctuations than non-offset QPSK and is sometimes preferred in practice.
The figure 2 shows the difference in the behavior of the phase between ordinary QPSK and OQPSK.
It can be seen that in the first plot the phase can change by 180° at once, while in OQPSK the
changes are never greater than 90°.

Conclusion:

The OQPSK modulation scheme was studied.

 EXPERIMENT-6
Aim: To study and Perform Pulse Code Modulation.
General Information:
In Pulse Modulation, analog message is transmitted in discrete time. First of all, sampling of the
message signal should be performed. Considering the sampling process, the sampled signal appears
as a train of samples which is a form of PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) signal. When M levels
are used to quantize this signal, this modulation is called M-PAM. If those pulses were converted
to digital numbers, then the train of numbers so generated would be called as Pulse Code
Modulated – PCM signal. In PCM, modulation process is executed in three steps:
1. Sampling
2. Quantizing
3. Coding
These steps are shown in Figure 1 with a block diagram:

As stated before, in PCM, the information signal x(t) is first sampled with the appropriate sampling
frequency (sampling frequency f s = 2×highest frequency of the information signal (fx ) ), then the
sampled levels are quantized to appropriate quantization levels. In the last step, each quanta level
is demonstrated by a two-code word, that is by a finite number of {0,1} sequence. After this step,
the signal is called as PCM wave.
If the max and min amplitude values of information signal x(t) are A max and Amin, respectively,
and if n-digit code words will be used, then the quantizing interval/pace “a” becomes:
In quantizing process, “which quanta region does the sample belong to” is an important question.
The sample value is rounded to the closest quanta level. Later the quantized signal is encoded
and the signal is matched with code words. In two-word number system, +V volt pulse can be sent
for „1‟s, and space/no volt is sent for „0‟s to transmit the code. As another method, +V volt
pulse is sent for „1‟s, and –V volt pulse is sent for „0‟s. A guide gap
(tg) is kept between two pulses. An example to the PCM steps explained up to here is given
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Sampling & Quantizing of an analog signal and indication of corresponding PCM
waveforms
 EXPERIMENT-7
Aim: To study QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).
Ability of equipment to distinguish small differences in phase limits the potential bit rate. This
can be improved by combining ASK and PSK. This combined modulation technique is known
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM). It is possible to obtain higher data rate using QAM. The
constellation diagram of a QAM signal with two amplitude levels and four phases is shown in Fig.
It may be noted that M-ary QAM does not have constant energy per symbol, nor does it have
constant distance between possible symbol values.

Constellation diagram for 8-QAM signal

Data bits Amplitude Level Phase Value

000 1V 0
001 2V 0
010 1V 90
011 2V 90
100 1V 180
101 2V 180
110 1V 270
111 2V 270

Conclusion:
The Modulation technique QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) was studied.
 EXPERIMENT-8
Aim: To study ON-OFF (Unipolar) Line Coding Methods.

The waveform pattern of voltage or current used to represent the 1s and 0s of a digital data on a
transmission link is called line encoding. It is the process for converting digital data into digital
signal. Digital data is found in digital format which is binary bits. It is represented (stored) internally
as series of 1s and 0s.The common types of line encoding are unipolar/on-off (NRZ and RZ), bipolar
(NRZ and RZ), Manchester encoding and AMI coding.

Unipolar (On-off) coding:

In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or below.
NRZ (Non-Return to-Zero):

Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in which the
positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0. It is called NRZ because the signal
does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.
RZ (Return to-Zero):
In Return to –zero schemes, zero voltage defines bit 0 and for bit 1, the signal becomes zero from
positive voltage in the middle of the bit.
Conclusion:
The Unipolar ON-OFF Line coding Method is studied.
 EXPERIMENT-9
Aim: To understand BIPOLAR coding method.
The waveform pattern of voltage or current used to represent the 1s and 0s of a digital data on a
transmission link is called line encoding. It is the process for converting digital data into digital
signal. Digital data is found in digital format which is binary bits. It is represented (stored) internally
as series of 1s and 0s.The common types of line encoding are unipolar/on-off (NRZ and RZ), bipolar
(NRZ and RZ), Manchester encoding and AMI coding.

Bipolar coding:
In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example, the voltage level
for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for I can be negative.
NRZ (Non-Return to-Zero): In this, positive voltage defines bit 1 and the negative voltage defines
bit 0. It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.

RZ (Return to-Zero): Negative voltage defines bit 0 and for bit 1, the signal becomes zero from
positive voltage in the middle of the bit.

Conclusion:
The Bipolar Line coding Method was studied.
 EXPERIMENT-10
Aim: To study Manchester Coding Method.
The waveform pattern of voltage or current used to represent the 1s and 0s of a digital data on a
transmission link is called line encoding. It is the process for converting digital data into digital
signal. Digital data is found in digital format which is binary bits. It is represented (stored) internally
as series of 1s and 0s.The common types of line encoding are unipolar/on-off (NRZ and RZ), bipolar
(NRZ and RZ), Manchester encoding and AMI coding.

Manchester Encoding:
In Manchester Encoding 0 and 1 bits are represented as shown below:

Here, the transition occurs in the middle of the cycle. An example of Manchester encoded sequence is shown
below:

Conclusion:
The Manchester coding Method was studied.
 EXPERIMENT-11
Aim: To Study the architecture of GSM.
A GSM network consists of several functional entities whose functions and interfaces are
defined. The GSM network can be divided into following broad parts.
The Mobile Station(MS)
The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
The Operation Support Subsystem(OSS)
Following is the simple architecture diagram of GSM Network.

The added components of the GSM architecture include the functions of the databases and
messaging systems:
Home Location Register (HLR)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Authentication Center (AuC)
SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
Gateway MSC (GMSC)
Chargeback Center (CBC)
Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
Following is the diagram of GSM Netwrok alongwith added elements.
The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface, also known as the air interface or radio
link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching center across the A interface.
GSM network areas:
In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:
Cell: Cell is the basic service area: one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell Global Identity
(CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
Location Area: A group of cells form a Location Area. This is the area that is paged when a
subscriber gets an incoming call. Each Location Area is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI). Each
Location Area is served by one or more BSCs.
MSC/VLR Service Area: The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service area.
PLMN: The area covered by one network operator is called PLMN. A PLMN can contain one
or more MSCs.
The Mobile Station:
The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and digital signal
processors, and the SIM card. It provides the air interface to the user in GSM networks. As such,
other services are also provided, which include:
Voice teleservices
Data bearer services
The features' supplementary services
What is SIM?
The SIM provides personal mobility so that the user can have access to all subscribed services
irrespective of both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific terminal. You need to
insert the SIM card into another GSM cellular phone to receive calls at that phone, make calls
from that phone, or receive other subscribed services.
The Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
The BSS is composed of two parts:
The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations
between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS may
consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The BSS uses the
Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1 or E1) is then
connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.

The Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and
handles the radio link protocols with the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may

be deployed.
The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A BTS is
usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell. Each BTS has
between 1 and 16 transceivers, depending on the density of users in the cell. Each BTS serves
a single cell. It also includes the following functions:
Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to the
antenna.
Transcoding and rate adaptation
Time and frequency synchronizing
Voice through full- or half-rate services
Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals
Random access detection
Timing advances
Uplink channel measurements
The Base Station Controller (BSC):
The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup,
frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the MSC.
The BSC also translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the standard 64
Kbps channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSDN) or ISDN.
It assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles intercell
handover. It controls the power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area. The function of the
BSC is to allocate the necessary time slots between the BTS and the MSC. It is a switching
device that handles the radio resources. Additional functions include:
Control of frequency hopping
Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the BSS
Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
Time and frequency synchronization
Power management
Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS

The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):

The Network switching system (NSS), the main part of which is the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network
users, as well as the management of mobile services such as authentication.

The switching system includes the following functional elements.

Home Location Register (HLR)
The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is
considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers,
including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an
individual buys a subscription in the form of SIM then all the information about this subscription
is registered in the HLR of that operator.
Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the switching of
calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as the management of
mobile services such as such as registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and call
routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network
interfacing, common channel signaling, and others. Every MSC is identified by a unique ID.
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by
the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When
a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data
about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will
have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time.
Authentication Center (AUC)
The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in
each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio channel.
The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular
world.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile
equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies
each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.
The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS):
The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support system
(OSS).
Here are some of the OMC functions:
Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging and
statistics).
Security Management.
Network configuration, Operation and Performance Management.
Maintenance Tasks.
The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the Telecommunication
Management Network (TMN) which is standardized in the ITU-T series M.30. Following is the figure
which shows how OMC system covers all the GSM elements.
The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls the
system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized,
regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network.
An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support the maintenance
activities of different operation and maintenance organizations.
 EXPERIMENT-12
Aim: To study RFID technology.

What is RFID?

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a generic term that is used to describe a system that
transmits the identity (in the form of a unique serial number) of an object or person wirelessly,
using radio waves. It's grouped under the broad category of automatic identification
technologies. RFID is increasingly used with biometric technologies for security.
Unlike ubiquitous UPC bar-code technology, RFID technology does not require contact or line of
sight for communication. RFID data can be read through the human body, clothing and non-
metallic materials.
Components:
A basic RFID system consists of three components:
An antenna or coil
A transceiver (with decoder)
A transponder (RF tag) electronically programmed with unique information

The antenna emits radio signals to activate the tag and to read and write data to it.
The reader emits radio waves in ranges of anywhere from one inch to 100 feet or more,
depending upon its power output and the radio frequency used. When an RFID tag passes through
the electromagnetic zone, it detects the reader's activation signal.
The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag's integrated circuit (silicon chip) and the
data is passed to the host computer for processing.The purpose of an RFID system is to enable
data to be transmitted by a portable device, called a tag, which is read by an RFID reader and
processed according to the needs of a particular application. The data transmitted by the tag
may provide identification or location information, or specifics about the product tagged, such
as price, color, date of purchase, etc. RFID technology has been used by thousands of
companies for a decade or more. . RFID quickly gained attention because of its ability to track
moving objects. As the technology is refined, more pervasive - and invasive - uses for RFID tags are
in the works. A typical RFID tag consists of a microchip attached to a radio antenna mounted on a
substrate. The chip can store as much as 2 kilobytes of data. To retrieve the data stored on an RFID
tag, you need a reader. A typical reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio
 waves and receive signals back from the tag. The reader then passes the information in digital form
to a computer system.
Current and Potential Uses of RFID: Asset Tracking
It's no surprise that asset tracking is one of the most common uses of RFID. Companies can put
RFID tags on assets that are lost or stolen often, that are underutilized or that are just hard to
locate at the time they are needed. Just about every type of RFID system is used for asset
management. NYK Logistics, a third-party logistics provider based in Secaucus, N.J., needed to
track containers at its Long Beach, Calif., distribution center. It chose a real-time locating system
that uses active RFID beacons to locate container to within 10 feet.
Manufacturing
RFID has been used in manufacturing plants for more than a decade. It's used to track parts and
work in process and to reduce defects, increase throughput and manage the production of
different versions of the same product.
Supply Chain Management
RFID technology has been used in closed loop supply chains or to automate parts of the supply
chain within a company's control for years.
As standards emerge, companies are increasingly turning to RFID to track shipments among
supply chain partners
Retailing
Retailers such as Best Buy, Metro, Target, Tesco and Wal-Mart are in the forefront of RFID adoption.
These retailers are currently focused on improving supply chain efficiency and making sure product
is on the shelf when customers want to buy it.
Payment Systems
RFID is all the rage in the supply chain world, but the technology is also catching on as a convenient
payment mechanism. One of the most popular uses of RFID today is to pay for road tolls without
stopping. These active systems have caught on in many countries, and quick service restaurants
are experimenting with using the same active RFID tags to pay for meals at drive-through windows.
Security and Access Control
RFID has long been used as an electronic key to control who has access to office buildings or areas
within office buildings. The first access control systems used low-frequency RFID tags. Recently,
vendors have introduced 13.56 MHz systems that offer longer read range. The advantage of RFID
is it is convenient (an employee can hold up a badge to unlock a door, rather than looking for a
key or swiping a magnetic stripe card) and because there is no contact between the card and
reader, there is less wear and tear, and therefore less maintenance.
As RFID technology evolves and becomes less expensive and more robust, it's likely that
companies and RFID vendors will develop many new applications to solve common and unique
business problems.
Advantages of RFID versus Barcodes
RFID tags and barcodes both carry information about products. However, there are important
differences between these two technologies:
Barcode readers require a direct line of sight to the printed barcode; RFID readers do not
require a direct line of sight to either active RFID tags or passive RFID tags.
RFID tags can be read at much greater distances; an RFID reader can pull information
from a tag at distances up to 300 feet. The range to read a barcode is much less, typically no more
than fifteen feet.
RFID readers can interrogate, or read, RFID tags much faster; read rates of forty or more
tags per second are possible. Reading barcodes is much more time-consuming; due to the fact
that a direct line of sight is required, if the items are not properly oriented to the reader it
may take seconds to read an individual tag. Barcode readers usually take a half- second or more
to successfully complete a read.
 Line of sight requirements also limit the ruggedness of barcodes as well as the
reusability of barcodes. (Since line of sight is required for barcodes, the printed barcode must be
exposed on the outside of the product, where it is subject to greater wear and tear.) RFID tags
are typically more rugged, since the electronic components are better protected in a plastic cover.
RFID tags can also be implanted within the product itself, guaranteeing greater ruggedness and
reusability.
 Barcodes have no read/write capability; that is, you cannot add to the information written on
a printed barcode. RFID tags, however, can be read/write devices; the RFID reader can
communicate with the tag, and alter as much of the information as the tag design will allow.
 RFID tags are typically more expensive than barcodes, in some cases, much more so.
Problems With RFID:
RFID problems can be divided into several categories:
Technical problems with RFID
Privacy and ethics problems with RFID

Technical problems with RFID

Problems with RFID Standards

RFID has been implemented in different ways by different manufacturers; global standards are
still being worked on. It should be noted that some RFID devices are never meant to leave their
network (as in the case of RFID tags used for inventory control within a company). This can
cause problems for companies.

Consumers may also have problems with RFID standards. For example, ExxonMobil's
SpeedPass system is a proprietary RFID system; if another company wanted to use the
convenient SpeedPass (say, at the drive-in window of your favorite fast food restaurant) they
would have to pay to access it - an unlikely scenario. On the other hand, if every company had
their own "SpeedPass" system, a consumer would need to carry many different devices with
them.

RFID systems can be easily disrupted

Since RFID systems make use of the electromagnetic spectrum (like WiFi networks or cellphones),
they are relatively easy to jam using energy at the right frequency. Although this would only be
an inconvenience for consumers in stores (longer waits at the checkout), it could be disastrous
in other environments where RFID is increasingly used, like hospitals or in the military in the field.
Also, active RFID tags (those that use a battery to increase the range of the system) can be
repeatedly interrogated to wear the battery down, disrupting the system.

RFID Reader Collision

Reader collision occurs when the signals from two or more readers overlap. The tag is unable to
respond to simultaneous queries. Systems must be carefully set up to avoid this problem; many
systems use an anti-collision protocol (also called a singulation protocol. Anti-collision protocols
enable the tags to take turns in transmitting to a reader.

RFID Tag Collision

Tag collision occurs when many tags are present in a small area; but since the read time is very
fast, it is easier for vendors to develop systems that ensure that tags respond one at a time.

Security, privacy and ethics problems with RFID

The following problems with RFID tags and readers have been reported.

The contents of an RFID tag can be read after the item leaves the supply chain
An RFID tag cannot tell the difference between one reader and another. RFID scanners are very
portable; RFID tags can be read from a distance, from a few inches to a few yards. This allows
anyone to see the contents of your purse or pocket as you walk down the street. Some tags can
be turned off when the item has left the supply chain.

RFID tags are difficult to remove

RFID tags are difficult to for consumers to remove; some are very small (less than a half- millimeter
square, and as thin as a sheet of paper) - others may be hidden or embedded inside a product
where consumers cannot see them. New technologies allow RFID tags to be "printed" right on a
product and may not be removable at all.

RFID tags can be read without your knowledge

Since the tags can be read without being swiped or obviously scanned (as is the case with magnetic
strips or barcodes), anyone with an RFID tag reader can read the tags embedded in your
clothes and other consumer products without your knowledge. For example, you could be scanned
before you enter the store, just to see what you are carrying. You might then be approached
by a clerk who knows what you have in your backpack or purse, and can suggest accessories or
other items.
RFID tags can be read a greater distances with a high-gain antenna

For various reasons, RFID reader/tag systems are designed so that distance between the tag and
the reader is kept to a minimum. However, a high-gain antenna can be used to read the tags from
much further away, leading to privacy problems.
 EXPERIMENT-13
Aim: To study Bluetooth technology.
What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth technology eliminates the need for numerous and inconvenient cable attachments
for connecting fixed computers, mobile phones, mobile computers, handheld devices, digital
cameras and even new breed of digital appliances. It will enable users to connect a wide range of
computing and telecommunications devices easily and simply, without the need to buy, carry, or
connect cables - quite often proprietary to a specific device. It delivers opportunities for rapid ad
hoc connections, and the possibility of automatic, unconscious, connections between devices. It
creates the possibility of using mobile data in a variety of applications.
Bluetooth is actually a standard for wireless communications between devices in a personal area
network (PAN) using radio frequency for a short range (around 10 meters). So any two devices
that follow the standard can communicate and exchange data between each other without
the need of any connection to be made between them. A group of Bluetooth devices like a mobile
phone, a digital camera, a hand held device etc. can instantly form a network with each other as
soon as they are switched on. You could have a mobile phone in your pocket and you could be
sending e-mails using your laptop without making any connection between your laptop and the
mobile. Your refrigerator could be placing an order with the supermarket if your milk supply has
been exhausted using your mobile phone.
Briefly, Bluetooth technology
uses radio waves in 2.4 GHz band - therefore, no line of sight is required
supports multipoint, not just point to point
works in a small confined area - 10 to 15 meters apart
is able to support speeds of 1-2 Mbps today but will offer higher speeds in future
How Bluetooth Technology Works?
Bluetooth is a high-speed, low-power microwave wireless link technology, designed to connect
phones, laptops, PDAs and other portable equipment together with little or no work by the user.
Unlike infra-red, Bluetooth does not require line-of-sight positioning of connected units. The
technology uses modifications of existing wireless LAN techniques but is most notable for its small
size and low cost. When one Bluetooth product comes within range of another, (this can be set to
between 10cm and 100m) they automatically exchange address and capability details. They can
then establish a 1 megabit/s link (up to 2 Mbps in the second generation of the technology) with
security and error correction, to use as required. The protocols will handle both voice and data,
with a very flexible network topography.
This technology achieves its goal by embedding tiny, inexpensive, short-range transceivers into
the electronic devices that are available today. The radio operates on the globally-available
unlicensed radio band, 2.45 GHz (meaning there will be no hindrance for international travelers
using Bluetooth-enabled equipment.), and supports data speeds of up to 721 Kbps, as well as
three voice channels. The bluetooth modules can be either built into electronic devices or used
as an adaptor. For instance in a PC they can be built in as a PC card or externally attached via the
USB port.
Each device has a unique 48-bit address from the IEEE 802 standard. Connections can be point- to-
point or multipoint. The maximum range is 10 meters but can be extended to 100 meters by
increasing the power. Bluetooth devices are protected from radio interference by changing their
frequencies arbitrarily upto a maximum of 1600 times a second, a technique known as frequency
hopping. They also use three different but complimentary error correction schemes. Built-in
encryption and verification is provided.
Moreover, Bluetooth devices won't drain precious battery life. The Bluetooth specification
targets power consumption of the device from a "hold" mode consuming 30 micro amps to the
active transmitting range of 8-30 milliamps (or less than 1/10th of a watt). The radio chip
consumers only 0.3mA in standby mode, which is less than 3 % of the power used by a standard
mobile phone. The chips also have excellent power-saving features, as they will automatically shift
to a low-power mode as soon as traffic volume lessens or stops.
Bluetooth devices are classified according to three different power classes, as shown in the
following table.

Power Class Maximum Power

1 100 mW
Output (20
2 2.5 mW (4 dBm)
dBm)
3 1 mW (0 dBm)
Bluetooth guarantees security at the bit level. Authentication is controlled by the user by using a
128 bit key. Radio signals can be coded with 8 bits or anything upto 128 bits. The Bluetooth
radio transmissions will conform to the safety standards required by the countries where the
technology will be used with respect to the affects of radio transmissions on the human body.
Emissions from Bluetooth enabled devices will be no greater than emissions from industry-
standard cordless phones. The Bluetooth module will not interfere or cause harm to public or
private telecommunications network.
Modes of operation
An interesting aspect of the technology is the instant formation of networks once the bluetooth
devices come in range to each other. A piconet is a collection of devices connected via Bluetooth
technology in an ad hoc fashion. A Piconet can be a simple connection between two devices or
more than two devices. Multiple independent and non-synchronized piconets can form a
scatternet. Any of the devices in a piconet can also be a member of another by means of time
multiplexing. i.e a device can be a part of more than one piconet by suitably sharing the time.
The Bluetooth system supports both point-to-point and point-to-multi-point connections. When a
device is connected to another device it is a point to point connection. If it is connected to more
that one (upto 7 ) it is a point to multipoint connection. Several piconets can be established and
linked together ad hoc, where each piconet is identified by a different frequency hopping
sequence. All users participating on the same piconet are synchronized to this hopping sequence.
If a device is connected to more than one piconet it communicates in each piconet using a different
hopping sequence. A piconet starts with two connected devices, such as a portable PC and cellular
phone, and may grow to eight connected devices. All Bluetooth devices are peer units and
have identical implementations. However, when establishing a piconet, one unit will act as a
master and the other(s) as slave(s) for the duration of the piconet connection. In a piconet there
is a master unit whose clock and hopping sequence are used to synchronize all other devices
in the piconet. All the other devices in a piconet that are not the master are slave units. A 3-bit
MAC address is used to distinguish between units participating in the piconet. Devices
synchronized to a piconet can enter power-saving modes called Sniff and hold mode, in which
device activity is lowered. Also there can be parked units which are synchronized but do not
have a MAC addresses. These parked units have a 8 bit address, therefore there can be a
maximum of 256 parked devices.

Voice channels use either a 64 kbps log PCM or the Continuous Variable Slope Delta
Modulation (CVSD) voice coding scheme, and never retransmit voice packets. The voice quality
on the line interface should be better than or equal to the 64 kbps log PCM. The CVSD method
was chosen for its robustness in handling dropped and damaged voice samples. Rising
interference levels are experienced as increased background noise: even at bit error rates up 4%,
the CVSD coded voice is quite audible.
 EXPERIMENT-14

Aim: To study GPRS technology.

GPRS Overview:
GPRS stands for General Packet Radio System. GPRS provides packet radio access for mobile Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and time-division multiple access (TDMA) users.
GPRS is important as a migration step toward third-generation (3G) networks and allows
network operators to implement an IP-based core architecture for data applications, which will
continue to be used and expanded for 3G services for integrated voice and data applications.
Key Features:
The following three key features describe wireless packet data:
The always online feature: Removes the dial-up process, making applications only one click
away.
An upgrade to existing systems: Operators do not have to replace their equipment;
rather, GPRS is added on top of the existing infrastructure.
An integral part of future 3G systems: GPRS is the packet data core network for 3G
systems EDGE and WCDMA.
Benefits of GPRS:
Higher Data Rate
Easy Billing
GPRS Architecture:
GPRS is a data network that overlays a second-generation GSM network. This data overlay network
provides packet data transport at rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Additionally, multiple users can share
the same air-interface resources simultaneously.
Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:
GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to effectively
build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements, interfaces, and
protocols for handling packet traffic are required.
GPRS Mobile Stations:
New Mobile Station are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones do not handle
the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including a high- speed version
of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device with an embedded GSM
phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations are backward compatible for
making voice calls using GSM.
GPRS Base Station Subsystem:
Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a software
upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the base station subsystem (BSS)
for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but typically does not require
hardware enhancements.
GPRS Support Nodes:
Following two new components, called GPRS support nodes (GSNs), are added:
Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN):
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. The GGSN
contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the IP
based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects
charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act as a packet
filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS support node (SGSN):
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles, registration of
mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information for charging for the use
of the air interface.
 Internal Backbone:
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs.
Tunneling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any
information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signaling from a GSN to a MSC, HLR or EIR
is done using SS7.
Routing Area:
GPRS introduces the concept of a routing area. This is much the same as a Location Area in GSM,
except that it will generally contain fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than Location
Areas, less radio resources are used when a paging message is broadcast.
GPRS Applications:
Communications: E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/Internet access etc.
Value-added services: Information services and games etc.
E-commerce: Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial trading etc.
Location-based applications: Navigation, traffic conditions, airline/rail schedules and location
finder etc.
Vertical applications: Freight delivery, fleet management and sales-force automation.
Advertising: Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a user entering a mall can
receive advertisements specific to the stores in that mall.
 EXPERIMENT-15
Aim: To study EDGE technology.
EDGE is an evolution to the GSM mobile cellular phone system. The name EDGE stands for
Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution and it enables data to be sent over a GSM TDMA
system at speeds up to 384 kbps. In some instances GSM EDGE evolution systems may also be
known as EGPRS, or Enhanced General Packet Radio Service systems. Although strictly
speaking a "2.5G" system, the GSM EDGE cellular technology is capable of providing data rates
There are a number of key elements in the upgrade from GSM or GPRS to EDGE. The GSM EDGE
technology requires a number of new elements to be added to the system:

Use of 8PSK modulation: In order to achieve the higher data rates within GSM EDGE,
the modulation format can be changed from GMSK to 8PSK. This provides a significant advantage
in being able to convey 3 bits per symbol, thereby increasing the maximum data rate. This
upgrade requires a change to the base station. Sometimes hardware upgrades may be required,
although it is often simply a software change.

Base station: Apart from the upgrade to incorporate the 8PSK modulation capability,
other small changes are required to the base station. These are normally relatively small and can
often be accomplished by software upgrades.

Upgrade to network architecture: GSM EDGE provides the capability for IP based data
transfer. As a result, additional network elements are required. These are the same as those
needed for GPRS and later for UMTS. In this way the introduction of EDGE technology is part
of the overall migration path from GSM to UMTS.

The two main additional nodes required for the network are the Gateway GPRS Service Node
(GGSN) and the Serving GPRS Service Node (SGSN). The GGSN connects to packet-switched
networks such as the Internet and other GPRS networks. The SGSN provides the packet-switched
link to mobile stations.

Mobile stations: It is necessary to have a GSM EDGE handset that is EDGE

compatible. As it is not possible to upgrade handsets, this means that the user needs to buy a
new GSM EDGE handset.

Architecture:
In order that the GSM EDGE upgrade can be implemented, additions are required within the EDGE
network architecture to be able to cater for the packet data that is carried by the system. The
additional network entities required are the same as those used for GPRS and also for With
the introduction of the new entities within the network, it was still necessary for the new EDGE
network elements and those from the existing GSM elements to work along side one another.
Accordingly the introduction of GPRS and EDGE technology saw the addition of some new entities
within the over network architecture.
The two main elements that are required by the GSM EDGE network architecture are the GGSN
and SGSN. These enable the network to be able to cater for the packet data that is passed over
the network.
GSM EDGE network architecture upgrades
Although in practice a variety of elements are required within the network architecture, the main
new network architecture entities that are needed for the EDGE upgrade are:

SGSN: GPRS Support Node - this forms a gateway to the services within the network.
GGSN: Gateway GPRS Support Node which forms the gateway to the outside world.
PCU: Packet Control Unit which differentiates whether data is to be routed to the packet
switched or circuit switched networks.

GSM EDGE network architecture

A simplified view of the GSM EDGE network architecture can be seen in the diagram below.
From this it can be seen that it is very similar to the more basic GSM network architecture, but
with additional elements.
SGSN
The SGSN or Serving GPRS Support Node element of the GPRS network provides a number of takes
focused on the IP elements of the overall system. It provides a variety of services to the mobiles:
Packet routing and transfer
Mobility management
Authentication
Attach/detach
 Logical link management
Charging data
There is a location register within the SGSN and this stores location information (e.g., current
cell, current VLR). It also stores the user profiles (e.g., IMSI, packet addresses used) for all the GPRS
users registered with the particular SGSN.
GGSN
The GGSN, Gateway GPRS Support Node is one of the most important entities within the GSM
EDGE network architecture.
The GGSN organises the inter-working between the GPRS / EDGE network and external packet
switched networks to which the mobiles may be connected. These may include both Internet and
X.25 networks.
The GGSN can be considered to be a combination of a gateway, router and firewall as it hides
the internal network to the outside. In operation, when the GGSN receives data addressed to a
specific user, it checks if the user is active, then forwarding the data. In the opposite direction,
packet data from the mobile is routed to the right destination network by the GGSN.
PCU
The PCU or Packet Control Unit is a hardware router that is added to the BSC. It differentiates data
destined for the standard GSM network (circuit switched data) and data destined for the EDGE
network (Packet Switched Data). The PCU itself may be a separate physical entity, or more often
these days it is incorporated into the base station controller, BSC, thereby saving additional
hardware costs.
 EXPERIMENT-16
Aim: To study UMTS technology.
UMTS, short for Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, is a 3G networking standard used
throughout much of the world as an upgrade to existing GSM mobile networks. Although UMTS
uses a totally different air interface, the core network elements have been migrating towards the
UMTS requirements with the introduction of GPRS and EDGE. In this way the transition from GSM
to the 3G UMTS architecture did not require such a large instantaneous investment. Wideband
CDMA (WCDMA) is the radio technology used in UMTS. As a result, the terms UMTS and WCDMA
are often used interchangeably.
It is also gaining a third name. Some are calling it 3GSM because it is a 3G migration for GSM.
Architecture:
The UMTS network architecture is required to provide a greater level of performance to that of
the original GSM network. However as many networks had migrated through the use of GPRS and
EDGE, they already had the ability to carry data. Accordingly many of the elements required for
the WCDMA / UMTS network architecture were seen as a migration. This considerably reduced
the cost of implementing the UMTS network as many elements were in place or needed upgrading.
With one of the major aims of UMTS being to be able to carry data, the UMTS network architecture
was designed to enable a considerable improvement in data performance over that provided for
GSM.
UMTS network constituents
The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements:
1. User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment or UE is the name given to what was previous
termed the mobile, or cellphone. The new name was chosne because the considerably greater
functionality that the UE could have. It could also be anything between a mobile phone used
for talking to a data terminal attached to a computer with no voice capability.
2. Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS is the equivalent of the previous Base Station
Subsystem or BSS in GSM. It provides and manages the air interface fort he overall network.
3. Core Network: The core network provides all the central processing and management for
the system. It is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching Subsystem or NSS.
The core network is then the overall entity that interfaces to external networks including the
public phone network and other cellular telecommunications networks.
User Equipment, UE
The USER Equipment or UE is a major element of the overall UMTS network architecture. It forms
the final interface with the user. In view of the far greater number of applications and facilities
that it can perform, the decision was made to call it a user equipment rather than a mobile.
However it is essentially the handset (in the broadest terminology), although having access to
much higher speed data communications, it can be much more versatile, containing many more
applications. It consists of a variety of different elements including RF circuitry, processing,
antenna, battery, etc.
There are a number of elements within the UE that can be described separately:
UE RF circuitry: The RF areas handle all elements of the signal, both for the receiver
and for the transmitter. One of the major challenges for the RF power amplifier was to reduce the
power consumption. The form of modulation used for W-CDMA requires the use of a linear
amplifier. These inherently take more current than non linear amplifiers which can be used for
the form of modulation used on GSM. Accordingly to maintain battery life, measures were
introduced into many of the designs to ensure the optimum efficiency.
Baseband processing: The base-band signal processing consists mainly of digital
circuitry. This is considerably more complicated than that used in phones for previous generations.
Again this has been optimised to reduce the current consumption as far as possible.
Battery: While current consumption has been minimised as far as possible within the
circuitry of the phone, there has been an increase in current drain on the battery. With users
expecting the same lifetime between charging batteries as experienced on the previous
generation phones, this has necessitated the use of new and improved battery technology. Now
Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries are used. These phones to remain small and relatively light while
still retaining or even improving the overall life between charges.
 Universal Subscriber Identity Module, USIM: The UE also contains a SIM card,
although in the case of UMTS it is termed a USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module). This is a
more advanced version of the SIM card used in GSM and other systems, but embodies the same
types of information. It contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity number (IMSI) as
well as the Mobile Station International ISDN Number (MSISDN). Other information that the USIM
holds includes the preferred language to enable the correct language information to be displayed,
especially when roaming, and a list of preferred and prohibited Public Land Mobile Networks
(PLMN).
The USIM also contains a short message storage area that allows messages to stay with the user
even when the phone is changed. Similarly "phone book" numbers and call information of the
numbers of incoming and outgoing calls are stored.
The UE can take a variety of forms, although the most common format is still a version of a "mobile
phone" although having many data capabilities. Other broadband dongles are also being widely
used.
UMTS Radio Network Subsystem
This is the section of the UMTS / WCDMA network that interfaces to both the UE and the core
network. The overall radio access network, i.e. collectively all the Radio Network Subsystem is
known as the UTRAN UMTS Radio Access Network.
The Radio Network Subsystem comprises two main components:
Radio Network Controller, RNC: This element of the radio network subsystem controls
the Node Bs that are connected to it. The RNC undertakes the radio resource management
and some of the mobility management functions, although not all. It is also the point at which the
data encryption / decryption is performed to protect the user data from eavesdropping.
Node B: Node B is the term used within UMTS to denote the base station transceiver. It
contains the transmitter and receiver to communicate with the UEs within the cell.
In order to facilitate effective handover between Node Bs under the control of different RNCs,
the RNC not only communicates with the Core Network, but also with neighbouring RNCs.

UMTS Radio Network Subsystem Architecture

UMTS Core Network
The UMTS core network architecture is a migration of that used for GSM with further elements
overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS.
In view of the different ways in which data may be carried, the UMTS core network may be split
into two different areas:
Circuit switched elements: These elements are primarily based on the GSM network
entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a permanent channel for the duration of
the call.
Packet switched elements: These network entities are designed to carry packet data. This
enables much higher network usage as the capacity can be shared and data is carried as packets
which are routed according to their destination.
Some network elements, particularly those that are associated with registration are shared
by both domains and operate in the same way that they did with GSM.

Circuit switched elements

The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following
network entities:
Mobile switching centre (MSC): This is essentially the same as that within GSM, and it
manages the circuit switched calls under way.
Gateway MSC (GMSC): This is effectively the interface to the external networks.

Packet switched elements

The packet switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following
network entities:
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
 EXPERIMENT-17
Aim: To study CDMA technology.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital cellular technology used for mobile
communication. CDMA is the base on which access methods such as cdmaOne, CDMA-2000, and
WCDMA are built. CDMA cellular systems are deemed superior to FDMA and TDMA, which is why
CDMA plays a critical role in building efficient, robust, and secure radio communication systems.
Salient Features of CDMA
As shown in the following figure, the power density of Spread Spectrum signals could be lower
than the noise density. This is a wonderful feature that can keep the signals protected and
maintain privacy.

By spreading the spectrum of the transmitted signal, one can reduce its power density such that
it becomes less than the power density of the noise. In this way, it is possible to hide the signal
in the noise. It can be demodulated if you know the code that was used to send the signal. In
case the code is not known, then the received signal will remain hidden in the noise even
after the
demodulation.
CDMA, which is based on the spread spectrum technique has following salient features −
In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.
Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence and then
transmitted using a wide frequency range.
CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications,
allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time.
Spread Spectrum:
Since the signal is spread over a wide frequency band, the power spectral density becomes very
low, so other communication systems do not suffer from this kind of communication. However,
the Gaussian noise increases. Given below is a list of a few major advantages of Spread
Spectrum −
Multipath can be agreed with, as a large number of codes can be generated, allowing
a large number of users.
In spread spectrum, there is no limit of users whereas there is a limitation of users in
FDMA technology.
Security − without knowing the spreading code, it is hardly possible to recover the
transmitted data.
Descending rejection − as large bandwidth is used , the system it is less susceptible to
deformation.
 EXPERIMENT-18
Aim: To study WLAN technology.
A wireless local area network (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that links two or more
devices using a wireless distribution method (often spread-spectrum or OFDM radio) within a
limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building. This gives users the
ability to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network, and
can provide a connection to the wider Internet. Most modern WLANs are based on IEEE 802.11
standards, marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name.
Wireless LANs have become popular in the home due to ease of installation, and in commercial
complexes offering wireless access to their customers; often for free.
WLAN Architecture: Stations
All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network are referred to as stations.
All stations are equipped with wireless network interface controllers (WNICs). Wireless stations fall
into one of two categories: wireless access points, and clients. Access points (APs), normally
wireless routers, are base stations for the wireless network. They transmit and receive radio
frequencies for wireless enabled devices to communicate with. Wireless clients can be mobile
devices such as laptops, personal digital assistants, IP phones and other smartphones, or fixed
devices such as desktops and workstations that are equipped with a wireless network interface.
Basic service set
The basic service set (BSS) is a set of all stations that can communicate with each other. Every BSS
has an identification (ID) called the BSSID, which is the MAC address of the access point servicing
the BSS.There are two types of BSS: Independent BSS (also referred to as IBSS), and infrastructure
BSS. An independent BSS (IBSS) is an ad hoc network that contains no access points, which means
they can not connect to any other basic service set.
Extended service set
An extended service set (ESS) is a set of connected BSSs. Access points in an ESS are connected by
a distribution system. Each ESS has an ID called the SSID which is a 32-byte (maximum) character
string.
Distribution system
A distribution system (DS) connects access points in an extended service set. The concept of a
DS can be used to increase network coverage through roaming between cells.
DS can be wired or wireless. Current wireless distribution systems are mostly based on WDS or
MESH protocols, though other systems are in use.
Types of wireless LANs

The IEEE 802.11 has two basic modes of operation: ad hoc mode and infrastructure mode. In ad
hoc mode, mobile units transmit directly peer-to-peer. In infrastructure mode, mobile units
communicate through an access point that serves as a bridge to other networks (such as Internet
or LAN).
 Peer-to-peer

An ad hoc network) is a network where stations communicate only peer to peer (P2P). There is
no base and no one gives permission to talk. This is accomplished using the Independent Basic
Service Set (IBSS).
A WiFi Direct network is another type of network where stations communicate peer to peer.
In a Wi-Fi P2P group, the group owner operates as an access point and all other devices are clients.
There are two main methods to establish a group owner in the Wi-Fi Direct group. In one approach,
the user sets up a P2P group owner manually. This method is also known as Autonomous Group
Owner (autonomous GO). In the second method, also called negotiation- based group creation,
two devices compete based on the group owner intent value. The device with higher intent value
becomes a group owner and the second device becomes a client. Group owner intent value can
depend on whether the wireless device performs a cross-connection between an infrastructure
WLAN service and a P2P group, remaining power in the wireless device, whether the wireless
device is already a group owner in another group and/or a received signal strength of the first
wireless device.
A peer-to-peer network allows wireless devices to directly communicate with each other.
Wireless devices within range of each other can discover and communicate directly without
involving central access points. This method is typically used by two computers so that they can
connect to each other to form a network. This can basically occur in devices within a closed range.
Wireless distribution system
A Wireless Distribution System enables the wireless interconnection of access points in an IEEE
802.11 network. It allows a wireless network to be expanded using multiple access points
without the need for a wired backbone to link them, as is traditionally required. The notable
advantage of WDS over other solutions is that it preserves the MAC addresses of client packets
across links between access points.
An access point can be either a main, relay or remote base station. A main base station is
typically connected to the wired Ethernet. A relay base station relays data between remote base
stations, wireless clients or other relay stations to either a main or another relay base station. A
remote base station accepts connections from wireless clients and passes them to relay or main
stations. Connections between "clients" are made using MAC addresses rather than by specifying
IP assignments.
All base stations in a Wireless Distribution System must be configured to use the same radio
channel, and share WEP keys or WPA keys if they are used. They can be configured to different
service set identifiers. WDS also requires that every base station be configured to forward to
others in the system as mentioned above.
WDS may also be referred to as repeater mode because it appears to bridge and accept wireless
clients at the same time (unlike traditional bridging). It should be noted, however, that
throughput in this method is halved for all clients connected wirelessly.
When it is difficult to connect all of the access points in a network by wires, it is also possible to
put up access points as repeaters.
Advantages and Disadvantages of WLAN:
Advantages of WLAN:
User mobility
Voice and data services
Scalable architecture
Handover between access points
Robust model for industry
Economical access points
Plug-and-Play architecture
Robust controller
Security on the level of fixed networks
“Small Enterprise” option with own controller
“Branch Office” option for small branches where remote controller is used
Disadvantages of WLAN:
As the number of computers using the network increases, the data transfer rate to each
computer will decrease accordingly.
As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless cards and/or access points.
Lower wireless bandwidth means some applications such as video streaming will be more
effective on a wired LAN.
Security is more difficult to guarantee and requires configuration.
Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point, with the distance
determined by the standard used and buildings and other obstacles between the access point and
the user.
A wired LAN is most likely to be required to provide a backbone to the WLAN; a
WLAN should be a supplement to a wired LAN and not a complete solution.
Long-term cost benefits are harder to achieve in static environments that require few moves
and changes.
Applications:
Wireless LANs have a great deal of applications. Modern implementations of WLANs range
from small in-home networks to large, campus-sized ones to completely mobile networks on
airplanes and trains. Users can access the Internet from WLAN hotspots in restaurants, hotels,
and now with portable devices that connect to 3G or 4G networks. Oftentimes these types of
public access points require no registration or password to join the network. Others can be
accessed once registration has occurred and/or a fee is paid.
 EXPERIMENT-19
Aim: To study ZigBee technology.
ZigBee is an established set of specifications for wireless personal area networking (WPAN),
i.e., digital radio connections between computers and related devices. This kind of network
eliminates use of physical data buses like USB and Ethernet cables. The devices could include
telephones, hand-held digital assistants, sensors and controls located within a few meters of each
other.
ZigBee is one of the global standards of communication protocol formulated by the relevant task
force under the IEEE 802.15 working group. The fourth in the series, WPAN Low Rate/ZigBee is
the newest and provides specifications for devices that have low data rates, consume very low
power and are thus characterized by long battery life. Other standards like Bluetooth and IrDA
address high data rate applications such as voice, video and LAN communications.
Device Types:
There are three different ZigBee device types that operate on these layers in any self-organizing
application network.
These devices have 64-bit IEEE addresses, with option to enable shorter addresses to reduce
packet size, and work in either of two addressing modes – star and peer-to-peer.
1. The ZigBee coordinator node : There is one, and only one, ZigBee coordinator in each
network to act as the router to other networks, and can be likened to the root of a (network)
tree. It is designed to store information about the network.
2. The full function device FFD : The FFD is an intermediary router transmitting data from
other devices. It needs lesser memory than the ZigBee coordinator node, and entails lesser
manufacturing costs. It can operate in all topologies and can act as a coordinator.
3. The reduced function device RFD : This device is just capable of talking in the network; it
cannot relay data from other devices. Requiring even less memory, (no flash, very little ROM
and RAM), an RFD will thus be cheaper than an FFD. This device talks only to a network
coordinator and can be implemented very simply in star topology.
ZigBee Characteristics:
The focus of network applications under the IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee standard include the
features of low power consumption, needed for only two major modes (Tx/Rx or Sleep), high
density of nodes per network, low costs and simple implementation.
These features are enabled by the following characteristics:
• 2.4GHz and 868/915 MHz dual PHY modes. This represents three license-free bands: 2.4-
2.4835 GHz, 868-870 MHz and 902-928 MHz. The number of channels allotted to each
frequency band is fixed at sixteen (numbered 11-26), one (numbered 0) and ten (numbered 1-
10) respectively. The higher frequency band is applicable worldwide, and the lower band in
the areas of North America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand .
• Low power consumption, with battery life ranging from months to years. Considering the
number of devices with remotes in use at present, it is easy to see that more numbers of batteries
need to be provisioned every so often, entailing regular (as well as timely), recurring expenditure.
In the ZigBee standard, longer battery life is achievable by either of two means: continuous
network connection and slow but sure battery drain, or intermittent connection and even slower
battery drain.
• Maximum data rates allowed for each of these frequency bands are fixed as 250 kbps @2.4
GHz, 40 kbps @ 915 MHz, and 20 kbps @868 MHz.
• High throughput and low latency for low duty-cycle applications (<0.1%)
• Channel access using Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA - CA)
• Addressing space of up to 64 bit IEEE address devices, 65,535 networks
• 50m typical range
• Fully reliable “hand-shaked” data transfer protocol.
• Different topologies as illustrated below: star, peer-to-peer, mesh

Advantages and Disadvantages of ZigBee:

Typical applications:
Home Entertainment and Control
Smart lighting, advanced temperature control, safety and security, movies and music.
Home Awareness
Water sensors, power sensors, smoke and fire detectors, smart appliances and access sensors
Mobile Services
Mobile payment, Mobile monitoring and control, Mobile security and access control, Mobile
healthcare and Telecommunication assist
Industrial Plant
Process control, asset management, environmental management, energy management, industrial
device control
Water Sensor
It is used in big water towers that helps to indicate us that tank is going to full and also take care
to stop water motor.

Fire Sensor
It used in big hotels to stop fire wizards in accidents and also it calls fire engine.

Health Centers
It says to doctor up to date information of the patient and also take care of him by changing
condition of room.
 EXPERIMENT-20
Aim: To study LTE technology.
Architecture:
The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components:
The User Equipment (UE).
The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
The evolved packet core communicates with packet data networks in the outside world such as
the internet, private corporate networks or the IP multimedia subsystem. The interfaces between
the different parts of the system are denoted Uu, S1 and SGi as shown below:

The User Equipment (UE)

The internal architecture of the user equipment for LTE is identical to the one used by UMTS
and GSM which is actually a Mobile Equipment (ME). The mobile equipment comprised of the
following important modules:
Mobile Termination (MT): This handles all the communication functions.
Terminal Equipment (TE): This terminates the data streams.
Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC): This is also known as the SIM card for LTE
equipments. It runs an application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).
A USIM stores user-specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps information about the
user's phone number, home network identity and security keys etc.
The E-UTRAN (The access network)
The architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) has been illustrated
below.
The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved packet core
and just has one component, the evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB is a base
station that controls the mobiles in one or more cells. The base station that is communicating with
a mobile is known as its serving eNB.
LTE Mobile communicates with just one base station and one cell at a time and there are following
two main functions supported by eNB:
The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the analogue and
digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.
The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending them signalling
messages such as handover commands.
Each eBN connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface and it can also be connected to
nearby base stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly used for signalling and packet forwarding
during handover.
A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to provide femtocell
coverage within the home. A home eNB belongs to a closed subscriber group (CSG) and can
only be accessed by mobiles with a USIM that also belongs to the closed subscriber group.
The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network)
The architecture of Evolved Packet Core (EPC) has been illustrated below. There are few more
components which have not been shown in the diagram to keep it simple. These components are
like the Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System (ETWS), the Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
and Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF).
Below is a brief description of each of the components shown in the above architecture:
The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) component has been carried forward from UMTS
and GSM and is a central database that contains information about all the network
operator's subscribers.
The Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW) communicates with the outside world
ie. packet data networks PDN, using SGi interface. Each packet data network is identified by an
access point name (APN). The PDN gateway has the same role as the GPRS support node
(GGSN) and the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) with UMTS and GSM.
The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the base station
and the PDN gateway.
The mobility management entity (MME) controls the high-level operation of the mobile
by means of signaling messages and Home Subscriber Server (HSS).
The Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is a component which is not
shown in the above diagram but it is responsible for policy control decision-making, as well as for
controlling the flow-based charging functionalities in the Policy Control Enforcement Function
(PCEF), which resides in the P-GW.
The interface between the serving and PDN gateways is known as S5/S8. This has two slightly
different implementations, namely S5 if the two devices are in the same network, and S8 if they
are in different networks.
Advantages of LTE

High throughput: High data rates can be achieved in both downlink as well as uplink.
This causes high throughput.
Low latency: Time required to connect to the network is in range of a few hundred
milliseconds and power saving states can now be entered and exited very quickly.
FDD and TDD in the same platform: Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time
Division Duplex (FDD), both schemes can be used on same platform.
Superior end-user experience: Optimized signaling for connection establishment and
other air interface and mobility management procedures have further improved the user
experience. Reduced latency (to 10 ms) for better user experience.
Seamless Connection: LTE will also support seamless connection to existing networks
such as GSM, CDMA and WCDMA.
Plug and play: The user does not have to manually install drivers for the device. Instead
system automatically recognizes the device, loads new drivers for the hardware if needed,
and begins to work with the newly connected device.
Simple architecture: Because of Simple architecture low operating expenditure (OPEX)
 EXPERIMENT-21
Aim: To study MANET technology.
A Mobile Adhoc Network is a collection of independent mobile nodes that can communicate to
each other via radio waves. The mobile nodes that are in radio range of each other can directly
communicate, whereas others needs the aid of intermediate nodes to route their packets. Each of
the node has a wireless interface to communicate with each other. These networks are fully
distributed, and can work at any place without the help of any fixed infrastructure as access
points or base stations.
Figure 1 shows a simple ad hoc network with 3 nodes. Node 1 and node 3 are not within range of
each other,however the node 2 can be used to forward packets between node 1and node 2. The
node 2 will act as a router and these three nodes together form an ad-hoc network.

MANETs characteristics:
1) Distributed operation: There is no background network for the central control of the network
operations, the control of the network is distributed among the nodes. The nodes involved in a
MANET should cooperate with each other and communicate among themselves and each node
acts as a relay as needed, to implement specific functions such as routing and security.
2) Multi hop routing: When a node tries to send information to other nodes which is out of its
communication range, the packet should be forwarded via one or more intermediate nodes.
3) Autonomous terminal: In MANET, each mobile node is an independent node, which could
function as both a host and a router.
4) Dynamic topology:
Nodes are free to move arbitrarily with different speeds; thus, the network topology may change
randomly and at unpredictable time. The nodes in the MANET dynamically establish routing
among themselves as they travel around, establishing their own network.
5) Light-weight terminals: In maximum cases, the nodes at MANET are mobile with less CPU
capability, low power storage and small memory size.
6) Shared Physical Medium: The wireless communication medium is accessible to any entity
with the appropriate equipment and adequate resources. Accordingly, access to the channel
cannot be restricted.
Advantages of MANET:
The advantages of an AdHoc network include the following:
•They provide access to information and services regardless of geographic position.
•Independence from central network administration.
Self-configuring network, nodes are also act as routers Less expensive as compared to wired
network.
•Scalable: accommodates the addition of more nodes.
•Improved Flexiblibility
•Robust due to decentralize administration.
•The network can be set up at any place and time.
MANETs Challenges:
1) Limited bandwidth: Wireless link continue to have significantly lower capacity than
infrastructured networks. In addition, the realized throughput of wireless communication after
accounting for the effect of multiple access, fading, noise, and interference conditions, etc., is
often much less than a radio’s maximum transmission rate.
2) Dynamic topology: Dynamic topology membership may disturb the trust relationship among
nodes. The trust may also be disturbed if some nodes are detected as compromised.
3) Routing Overhead: In wireless adhoc networks, nodes often change their location within
network. So, some stale routes are generated in the routing table which leads to unnecessary
routing overhead.
4) Hidden terminal problem: The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a
receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not within the direct
transmission range of the sender, but are within the transmission range of the receiver.
5) Packet losses due to transmission errors: Ad hoc wireless networks experiences a much higher
packet loss due to factors such as increased collisions due to the presence of hidden terminals,
presence of interference, uni-directional links, frequent path breaks due to mobility of nodes.
6) Mobility-induced route changes: The network topology in an ad hoc wireless network is
highly dynamic due to the movement of nodes; hence an on-going session suffers frequent path
breaks. This situation often leads to frequent route changes.
7) Battery constraints: Devices used in these networks have restrictions on the power source in
order to maintain portability, size and weight of the device.
8) Security threats: The wireless mobile ad hoc nature of MANETs brings new security challenges
to the network design. As the wireless medium is vulnerable to eavesdropping and ad hoc network
functionality is established through node cooperation, mobile ad hoc networks are intrinsically
exposed to numerous security attacks.
MANETs Applications:
Some of the typical applications include:
1) Military battlefield:
Ad-Hoc networking would allow the military to take advantage of commonplace network
technology to maintain an information network between the soldiers, vehicles, and military
information head quarter.
2) Collaborative work:
For some business environments, the need for collaborative computing might be more important
outside office environments than inside and where people do need to have outside meetings
to cooperate and exchange information on a given project.
3) Local level:
Ad-Hoc networks can autonomously link an instant and temporary multimedia network using
notebook computers to spread and share information among participants at a e.g. conference or
classroom. Another appropriate local level application might be in home networks where devices
can communicate directly to exchange information.
4) Personal area network and bluetooth:
A personal area network is a short range, localized network where nodes are usually associated
with a given person. Short-range MANET such as Bluetooth can simplify the
intercommunication between various mobile devices such as a laptop, and a mobile phone.
5) Commercial Sector:
Ad hoc can be used in emergency/rescue operations for disaster relief efforts, e.g. in fire, flood,
or earthquake. Emergency rescue operations must take place where non-existing or damaged
communications infrastructure and rapid deployment of a communication network is needed.
 EXPERIMENT-22
Aim: To study GSM Identifiers.
GSM treats the users and the equipment in different ways. Phone numbers, subscribers, and
equipment identifiers are some of the known ones. There are many other identifiers that have
been well-defined, which are required for the subscriber’s mobility management and for
addressing the remaining network elements. Vital addresses and identifiers that are used in GSM
are addressed below.
International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)
The International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) looks more like a serial number which
distinctively identifies a mobile station internationally. This is allocated by the equipment
manufacturer and registered by the network operator, who stores it in the Entrepreneurs-in-
Residence (EIR). By means of IMEI, one recognizes obsolete, stolen, or non-functional equipment.
Following are the parts of IMEI:
Type Approval Code (TAC) : 6 decimal places, centrally assigned.
Final Assembly Code (FAC) : 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
Serial Number (SNR) : 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
Spare (SP) : 1 decimal place.
Thus, IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + SP. It uniquely characterizes a mobile station and gives clues
about the manufacturer and the date of manufacturing.
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
Every registered user has an original International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) with a
valid IMEI stored in their Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
IMSI comprises of the following parts:
Mobile Country Code (MCC) : 3 decimal places, internationally standardized.
Mobile Network Code (MNC) : 2 decimal places, for unique identification of mobile
network within the country.
Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN) : Maximum 10 decimal places,
identification number of the subscriber in the home mobile network.
Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)
The authentic telephone number of a mobile station is the Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number
(MSISDN). Based on the SIM, a mobile station can have many MSISDNs, as each subscriber is
assigned with a separate MSISDN to their SIM respectively.
Listed below is the structure followed by MSISDN categories, as they are defined based on
international ISDN number plan:
Country Code (CC) : Up to 3 decimal places.
National Destination Code (NDC) : Typically 2-3 decimal places.
Subscriber Number (SN) : Maximum 10 decimal places.
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an interim location dependent ISDN number,
assigned to a mobile station by a regionally responsible Visitor Location Register (VLA). Using
MSRN, the incoming calls are channelled to the MS.
The MSRN has the same structure as the MSISDN.
Country Code (CC) : of the visited network.
National Destination Code (NDC) : of the visited network.
Subscriber Number (SN) : in the current mobile network.
Location Area Identity (LAI)
Within a PLMN, a Location Area identifies its own authentic Location Area Identity (LAI). The LAI
hierarchy is based on international standard and structured in a unique format as mentioned
below:
Country Code (CC) : 3 decimal places.
Mobile Network Code (MNC) : 2 decimal places.
Location Area Code (LAC) : maximum 5 decimal places or maximum twice 8 bits coded
in hexadecimal (LAC < FFFF).
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) can be assigned by the VLR, which is responsible for
the current location of a subscriber. The TMSI needs to have only local significance in the area
handled by the VLR. This is stored on the network side only in the VLR and is not passed to the
Home Location Register (HLR).
Together with the current location area, the TMSI identifies a subscriber uniquely. It can contain
up to 4 × 8 bits.
Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI)
Each mobile station can be assigned with a Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI), which is an
original key, by the VLR. This key can be used as the auxiliary searching key for each mobile station
within its region. It can also help accelerate the database access. An LMSI is assigned if the mobile
station is registered with the VLR and sent to the HLR. LMSI comprises of four octets (4x8
bits).
Cell Identifier (CI)
Using a Cell Identifier (CI) (maximum 2 × 8) bits, the individual cells that are within an LA can be
recognized. When the Global Cell Identity (LAI + CI) calls are combined, then it is uniquely defined.
 EXPERIMENT-23
Aim: To study of Radio Wave to speech & speech to radio wave Conversion.

[Fig (a): Speech to Radio wave & Radio wave to Speech Conversion Process]
Fig. (a) Shows how Human speech is converted to radio wave and from radio wave to speech. Each
step is explained below:
Digitizing and source coding:
- The user speech is digitized at 8 KHz (64 Kbps) sampling rate using RPE-LPC (Residual Pulse Excited-
Linear Predictive Coder).
- This 64 Kbps data rate is compressed to 13 Kbps data rate.
- 13 Kbps data rate indicates 260 bits for each 20 ms block of speech.
Channel Coding:
- This step introduces redundancy information into the output bits of source coder.
- Addition of redundancy information increases the gross bit rate from 13 Kbps to 22.8 Kbps.
- The bit rate 22.8 Kbps represents 456 bits for every 20 ms of speech.
- Channel coding provides error protection in data.
- Channel coding is used to detect and correct errors in a received bit stream.
Interleaving:
In this step, bits are rearranged in particular way.

[Fig (b): Interleaving Process]

- Fig. (b) shows interleaving process.
- Here three frames of 456 bits each (20 ms each) are shown.
- All frames are divided in eight 57- bit blocks.
- Here the first four blocks of middle frame are interleaved with last four blocks of first frame.
- The last four blocks of middle frame are interleaved with first four blocks of third frame.
- This is how interleaving process is done.
- The interleaving process improves the performance of error-correction mechanism.
- The interleaving process decreases the possibility of losing whole bursts during the transmission
instead only few bits are lost. Thus the errors are less concentrated and it is easier to correct
them.
Ciphering:
- Ciphering means- to change the form of data for security.
- Ciphering process applies encryption technique on the interleaved blocks.
- Two algorithms A3 and A5 are used.
- A3 (Authentication algorithm): used to prevent unauthorized access to network.
- A5 (Encryption algorithm): for privacy of radio transmission.
Burst formatting:
- Adds binary information to the ciphered block.
- This additional information is used for synchronization and equalization of the received data.
Modulation:
- The modulation technique chosen for GSM system is GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying).
- Using this technique, the binary data is converted back into the analog signal.
- This analog signal is radiated as radio wave over the air.
This way, speech to radio wave conversion take place and similarly the radio wave to speech
conversion is achieved by Demodulation, De-ciphering, Burst formatting, De-interleaving,
channel decoding and source decoding as shown in figure (