Chap. 16 (2010).

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CHAPTER 16
Hot Weather Concreting

Weather conditions at a jobsite may be vastly different • nonuniform surface appearance

from optimum concrete placement conditions assumed
at the time a concrete mixture is specified, designed, or
selected. They rarely coincide with laboratory conditions
in which concrete specimens are stored and tested. Longer
duration projects will require changes to the concrete
mixture as the seasonal weather changes. Hot weather
conditions can adversely influence concrete quality pri-
marily by accelerating the rate of evaporation/moisture
loss and rate of cement hydration. Detrimental hot
weather conditions include:
• high ambient air temperature
• high concrete temperature
• low relative humidity
• wind
• solar radiation
Hot weather conditions can create difficulties in fresh
concrete, such as:
• increased water demand
• accelerated slump loss
• increased rate of setting
• increased tendency for plastic shrinkage cracking
• increased potential for cold joints
• difficulties in controlling entrained air content
• increased concrete temperature
• increased potential for thermal cracking
Many difficulties with hot weather concreting including
increased water demand and accelerated slump loss lead
to the addition of water on site. Adding water to the con-
crete at the jobsite can adversely affect properties and
serviceability of the hardened concrete, resulting in:
• decreased strength
• decreased durability
• increased permeability
• increased tendency for drying shrinkage
• reduced abrasion resistance
For more information on the above topics, see ACI
Committee 305 (2010).
When to Take Precautions
During hot weather the most favorable temperature for
achieving high quality freshly mixed concrete is usually
lower than can be obtained without artificial cooling. A
concrete temperature of 10°C to 15°C (50°F to 60°F) is
most desirable to maximize beneficial concrete properties,
but such temperatures are not always practical. Many spe-
cifications require only that concrete when placed should
have a temperature of less than 29°C to 35°C (85°F to 95°F).
ASTM C94 (AASHTO M 157), Standard Specification for
Ready Mixed Concrete, notes in some situations difficulty
may be encountered when concrete temperatures ap-
proach 32°C (90°F). However, this specification does not
mandate a maximum concrete temperature unless heated
aggregates or heated water are used. ACI 301 (2010)
requires that the temperature of concrete as delivered
shall not exceed 35°C (95°F), unless otherwise specified
or permitted.
Advanced planning is required for concrete placed in
ambient conditions that are somewhere between 24°C and
38°C (75°F and 100°F). Last-minute attempts to mitigate
hot-weather concreting are rarely performed soon enough
to prevent damaging effects. If acceptable field data is not
available, the maximum temperature limit should be
established for conditions at the jobsite; this should be
based on trial-batch tests at the temperature and for the
typical concrete section thickness anticipated, rather than
on ideal temperatures of 20°C to 30°C (68°F to 86°F) cited
in ASTM C192 (AASHTO T 126), Standard Practice for
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Labora-
tory. If possible, large trial batches should be made to

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Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001
establish the relationship for the property of interest as a
function of time at various concrete temperatures. This
process will establish the maximum allowable time to
discharge concrete after batching for various concrete
temperatures.
Setting a maximum concrete temperature is not a guar-
antee of strength or durability. For most work it is too
complex to simply limit only the maximum temperature
of concrete as placed; circumstances and concrete require-
ments vary too widely. For example, a temperature limit
that would serve successfully at one jobsite (such as in a
cooler climate) could be highly restrictive at another (such
as in a warmer climate). The inverse could occur if con-
crete mixtures that were designed for hot-weather condi-
tions were placed in cooler ambient conditions.
Atmospheric conditions, including air temperature, rela-
tive humidity and wind speed, in conjunction with site
conditions influence the precautions needed. For example,
flatwork done under a roof that blocks solar radiation
with exterior walls in place that screen the wind could be
successfully completed using a concrete with a high tem-
perature. However, this concrete would cause difficulty if
placed outdoors on the same day where it would be ex-
posed to direct sun and wind. Additionally, placement of
concretes with a vulnerable surface to volume ratio such
as thin overlays with relatively high cementitious contents
require special care.
Figure 16-1. Liquid nitrogen added directly into a truck mixer at the
ready mix plant is an effective method of reducing concrete tempera-
ture for mass concrete placements or during hot-weather concreting.
Which precautions to use and when to use them will
depend on: the type of member or construction; character-
istics of the materials being used; and the experience of
the placing and finishing crew in dealing with the atmos-
pheric conditions on the site. The following list of precau-
tions will reduce or avoid the potential problems of
hot-weather concreting:
316
• organize a preconstruction conference to discuss the
precautions required for the project
• use materials and mix proportions that have proven
performance in hot-weather conditions (lower
cement contents, and set retarding admixtures)
• cool the concrete or one or more of its ingredients
(Figure 16-1)
• use a concrete consistency (slump) that allows rapid
placement and consolidation
• reduce the time of transport, placing, and finishing as
much as possible so as to reduce and minimize
waiting time
• schedule concrete placements to limit exposure to
harsh atmospheric conditions. Consider night or
more favorable weather conditions
• consider methods to limit moisture loss during
placing and finishing, such as sunshades, wind-
screens, fogging, or spraying
• apply temporary moisture-retaining films to control
evaporation after strike-off and prior to finishing
concrete
The above precautions are discussed in further detail
throughout this chapter.
Effects of High Concrete Temperatures
As concrete temperature increases there is a loss in slump
that is often compensated for by adding water to the con-
crete at the jobsite. At higher temperatures a greater amount
of water is required to hold slump constant than is needed
at lower temperatures. The addition of water results in a
higher water-cement ratio, thereby lowering the strength at
all ages and adversely affecting other desirable properties
of the hardened concrete. This is in addition to the adverse
effect on strength at later ages due to the higher tempera-
ture, even without the addition of water.
As shown in Figure 16-2, if the temperature of freshly
mixed concrete is increased from 10°C to 38°C (50°F to
100°F), about 20 kg/m3 (33 lb/yd3) of additional water is
needed to maintain the same 75-mm (3-in.) slump. This
additional water could reduce strength by 12% to 15%
and produce compressive strength cylinder test results
that may not comply with specifications. Adjusting
mixture proportions for the higher water demand while
maintaining w/cm will improve the concrete strength,
however the durability and resistance to cracking (due to
volume change) will still be impacted by the higher water
content. Also, the higher cement content necessary to
maintain the w/cm with additional mix water will further
increase the concrete temperature and water demand.
High temperatures of freshly mixed concrete increase the
rate of setting and shorten the length of time within which
the concrete can be transported, placed, and finished. As a
general rule of thumb, the setting time changes by about
Chap. 16 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:45 PM Page 317

Chapter 16 ◆ Hot Weather Concreting

Concrete temperature, °F 15
Mix proportions held constant.
40 60 80 100
310 Initial set
Cement A
12 Final set
180 Initial set
300 Cement B
Final set

Time, hours
9
Water content, kg/m3

Water content, lb/yd3

ASTM C 403
(AASHTO T 197)
290
6
170

280 3

160 Slump: 75 mm (3 in.) 270 0

Max. size agg: 37.5 mm (11/2 in.) 10°C (50°F) 23°C (73°F) 32°C (90°F)
Casting temperature

0 10 20 30 40 Figure 16-3. Effect of concrete temperature on setting time (Burg

Concrete temperature, °C
1996).

Figure 16-2. The water requirement of a concrete mixture increases 140

Compressive strength, percent of 28 day 23°C (73°F) cured concrete

with an increase in concrete temperature Bureau of Reclamation Mix data:
(1981). w/c ratio: 0.45
120 Slump: 25 to 75 mm (1 to 3 in.)
Air content: 4.5%
33% for every 5°C (10°F) change in the initial concrete Cement: Type I, Normal
temperature. Different cements behave differently and 100 °F)
(73
°
23 90°F)
don’t always follow this generalization, as can be seen in C

32°
Figure 16-3. This shows that the setting time can be re- C(
05°F
80 )
duced by 2 or more hours with a 10°C (18°F) increase in
°C (1
°F)
41
concrete temperature. Concrete should remain plastic long
49°C
(120
enough so that each layer can be placed without devel- 60
opment of cold joints in the concrete. Set retarding ad-
mixtures, ASTM C494, Standard Specification for Chemical 40
Curing: specimens cast
Admixtures for Concrete (AASHTO M 194) Type B, and and moist-cured at
temperature indicated
hydration control admixtures can be beneficial in offset- for first 28 days. All
20
ting the accelerating effects of high temperature. moist-cured at 23°C
(73°F) thereafter.
In hot weather, there is an increased tendency for cracks 0
to form in both the fresh and hardened concrete. Rapid 1 3 7 28 90 365

evaporation of water from freshly placed concrete can Age of test, days

cause plastic-shrinkage cracks before the surface has hard- Figure 16-4. Effect of high concrete temperatures on compressive
ened (see Plastic Shrinkage Cracking). Cracks may also strength at various ages (Klieger 1958).
develop in the hardened concrete because of increased
drying shrinkage due to higher water contents or thermal strengths are lower. If the water content had been increased
volume changes as the concrete cools (see Chapter 10). to maintain the same slump (without increasing cement
content), the reduction in strength may have been even
Air entrainment is also affected in hot weather. At elevated
greater than shown.
temperatures, an increase in the amount of air-entraining
admixture dosage is generally required to produce a given The proper fabrication, curing, and testing of compression
entrained air content. test specimens during hot weather is critical. Steps should
be taken to assure ASTM C31, Standard Practice for Making
Figure 16-4 shows the effect of high initial concrete tem-
and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field (AASHTO
peratures on compressive strength. The concrete tempera-
T 23) procedures are followed regarding initial curing
tures at the time of mixing, casting, and curing were 23°C
of strength specimens for acceptance or quality control
(73°F), 32°C (90°F), 41°C (105°F), and 49°C (120°F). After
testing at 16ºC to 27ºC (60ºF to 80ºF). If the initial 24 hour
28 days, the specimens were all moist-cured at 23°C (73°F)
curing is at 38ºC (100ºF), the 28-day compressive strength
until the 90-day and one-year test ages. The tests, using
of the test specimens may be 10% to 15% lower than if
identical concretes of the same water-cement ratio, show
cured at the required ASTM C31 (AASHTO T 23) curing
that while higher concrete temperatures give higher early
temperatures (Gaynor, Meininger, and Khan 1985).
strength than concrete at 23°C (73°F), at later ages concrete

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Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

Specimens cured in the field in the same manner as the
structure more closely represent the actual strength of
concrete in the structure at the time of testing. However,
test specimens give little indication of whether a deficiency
is due to the quality of the concrete as delivered or to
improper handling and curing. On some projects, field-
cured specimens are made in addition to those destined
for controlled laboratory curing. These are especially
useful when the weather is unfavorable, to determine
when forms can be removed, or when the structure can
be put into use. For more information see Chapter 18.
Cooling Concrete Materials
0.22 (TaMa + Tc Mc) + Tw Mw + TwaMwa
T=
0.22(Ma + Mc) + Mw + Mwa
Where:
T = temperature of the freshly mixed concrete, °C (°F)
Ta, Tc, Tw, and Twa = temperature in °C (°F) of aggregates,
cement, added mixing water, and free water on aggregates
Ma, Mc, Mw, and Mwa = mass, kg (lb), of aggregates,
cementing materials, added mixing water, and free water
on aggregates
Example calculations for initial concrete temperature are
shown in Table 16-1.

Because of the detrimental effects of high concrete temper- Aggregates

atures, all operations in hot weather should be directed
toward keeping the concrete below specified temperature
limits. This is accomplished by cooling the concrete. The
usual method of cooling concrete is to lower the tempera-
ture of the concrete materials before mixing. One or more
of the ingredients can be cooled. The contribution of each
ingredient in a concrete mixture to the temperature of the
freshly mixed concrete is related to the temperature,
specific heat, and quantity of each material.
The aggregates and mixing water have a greater influence
on concrete temperature after mixing than other ingredi-
ents. Therefore these materials should be kept as cool as
practical in hot weather conditions. Figure 16-5 graphi-
cally shows the effect of material temperature on the
temperature of fresh concrete. It is evident that although
concrete temperature is primarily dependent upon the
aggregate temperature (due to quantity of material in the
mixture), cooling the mixing water can also be effective.
The approximate temperature of concrete can be calcu-
lated from the temperatures of its ingredients using the
following equation (NRMCA 1962):
Aggregates have a pronounced effect on the fresh concrete
temperature because they represent 70% to 85% of the
total mass of concrete. To lower the temperature of con-
crete 0.5°C (1°F) requires only a 0.8°C to 1.1°C (1.5°F to
2°F) reduction in the temperature of the coarse aggregate.
There are several simple methods of keeping aggregates
cool. Cooling effects are realized when stockpiles are
shaded from the sun and kept moist by sprinkling. Since
evaporation is a cooling process, sprinkling provides
effective cooling, especially when the relative humidity
is low. Do not cool aggregate stockpiles with seawater.
Using seawater can contribute to acceleration of concrete
setting time and corrosion of steel reinforcement.
Sprinkling of coarse aggregates should be controlled to
avoid excessive variations in the surface moisture content
which may impact consistency.
Refrigeration is another method of cooling materials. Ag-
gregates can be immersed in cold-water tanks, or cooled
air can be circulated through storage bins. Vacuum cooling
can reduce aggregate temperatures to as low as 7°C (45°F).

Table 16-1A. (Metric). Effect of Temperature of Materials on Initial Concrete Temperatures

Specific heat Kilojoules to vary Initial temperature Total kilojoules
Material Mass, M, kg kJ / kg • K temperature, 1°C of material, T, °C in material*
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Col. 1 x Col. 2 Col. 3 x Col. 4
Cement 335 (M c) 0.92 308 66 (Tc) 20,328
Water 123 (Mw) 4.184 515 27 (Tw) 13,905
Total aggregate 1839 (Ma) 0.92 1692 27 (Ta) 45,684
2515 79,917

79,917
Initial concrete temperature = 2515 = 31.8°C
To achieve 1°C reduction in initial concrete temperature:
2515
Cement temperature must be lowered = = 8.2°C
308
2515
Or water temperature dropped = 515 = 4.9°C
2515
Or aggregate temperature cooled = 1692 = 1.5°C
* Total kilojoules are relative to a baseline of 0°C.

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Chapter 16 ◆ Hot Weather Concreting

Table 16-1B. (Inch-Pound). Effect of Temperature of Materials on Initial Concrete Temperatures

Btu to vary Initial temperature Total Btu
Material Mass, M, lb Specific heat temperature, 1°F of material, T, °F in material*
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Col. 1 x Col. 2 Col. 3 x Col. 4
Cement 564 (M c) 0.22 124 150 (Tc) 18,600
Water 282 (Mw) 1.00 282 80 (Tw) 22,560
Total aggregate 3100 (Ma) 0.22 682 80 (Ta) 54,560
1088 95,720
95,720
Initial concrete temperature = 1088 = 88.0°F
To achieve 1°F reduction in initial concrete temperature:
1088
Cement temperature must be lowered = = 8.8°F
124
1088
Or water temperature dropped = 282 = 3.9°F
1088
Or aggregate temperature cooled = 682 = 1.6°F
* Total Btu are relative to a baseline of 0°F.
as cool as practical. Water can be cooled by refrigeration,
Aggregate temperature, °F
liquid nitrogen, or ice. Cooling the mix water temperature
70 80 90 100 110 2.0°C to 2.2°C (3.5°F to 4°F) will usually lower the concrete
90 temperature about 0.5°C (1°F). However, because mix
30 Concrete temperature: water is such a small percentage of the total mixture, it is
3 5°

difficult to lower concrete temperatures more than about

C(

80 4°C (8°F) by cooling the batch water alone (Gajda,

95°
3 2°

Kaufman, and Sumodjo 2005).

F)
C(
Mixing-water temperature, °C

Mixing-water temperature, °F
90°

Ice
2 9°

70
F)

Substituting ice for batch water is more effective than

C(

20
85°

using chilled batch water for cooling concrete. Ice both

2 7°

F)

lowers the batch water temperature and lowers the mix

C(

60 temperature by extracting heat during the phase change

80°
2 4°

that occurs as ice melts into liquid water (Gajda, Kaufman,

F)
C(

and Sumodjo 2005).

75°

10 50
F)

When ice is used, the ice must be completely melted by the

time mixing is completed and the concrete is discharged.
When using crushed ice, care must be taken to store it at
40
a temperature that will prevent the formation of lumps.

The approximate temperature of concrete can be calcu-

0 32
20 30
Aggregate temperature, °C
Figure 16-5. Temperature of freshly mixed concrete as affected by
temperature of its ingredients. Although the chart is based on the
following mixture, it is reasonably accurate for other typical mixtures:
Aggregate 1360 kg (3000 lb). Moisture in aggregate 27 kg (60 lb),
Added mixing water 109 kg (240 lb), Cement at 66°C (150°F) 256 kg
(564 lb).
Water
Although aggregates provide the most influence on con-
crete temperature, water is the easiest ingredient to cool.
Even though it is used in smaller quantities than the other
ingredients, cold water produces a moderate reduction in
the concrete temperature. Mixing water should be stored
in tanks that are not exposed to the direct rays of the sun.
Tanks and pipelines carrying mixing water should be
buried, insulated, shaded, or painted white to keep water
40 lated from the temperatures of its individual ingredients
by using the following equation. This equation accounts
for the heat of fusion of ice:
0.22 (Ta Ma + Tc Mc) + Tw Mw + Twa Mwa–80Mi
T (°C) =
0.22(Ma + Mc) + Mw + Mwa + Mi
0.22 (Ta Ma + Tc Mc) + TwMw + Twa Mwa–112Mi
T (°F) =
0.22(Ma + Mc) + Mw + Mwa + Mi
Where Mi is the mass in kg (lb) of ice (NRMCA 1962).
The heat of fusion of ice in metric units is 335 kJ per kg
(in British thermal units, 144 Btu per pound). Calculations
in Table 16-2 show the effect of 44 kg (75 lb) of ice in re-
ducing the temperature of concrete. Crushed or flaked ice
is more effective than chilled water in reducing concrete
temperature. The amount of water and ice must not ex-
ceed the total mixing-water requirements.

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Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

Table 16-2A. (Metric). Effect of Ice (44 kg) on Temperature of Concrete

Specific heat Kilojoules to vary Initial temperature Total kilojoules
Material Mass, M, kg kJ / kg • K temperature, 1°C of material, T, °C in material*
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Col. 1 x Col. 2 Col. 3 x Col. 4
Cement 335 (M c) 0.92 308 66 (Tc) 20,328
Water 123 (Mw) 4.184 515 27 (Tw) 13,905
Total aggregate 1839 (Ma) 0.92 1692 27 (Ta) 45,684
Ice 44 (M i ) 4.184 184 0 (T i ) 79,917
2699
minus 44 (M i ) x heat of fusion, (335 kJ/kg) = –14,740
65,177
65,177
Concrete temperature = = 24.1°C
2699
* Total kilojoules are relative to a baseline of 0°C.

Table 16-2B. (Inch-Pound Units). Effect of Ice (75 lb) on Temperature of Concrete
Specific heat Btu to vary Initial temperature Total Btu
Material Mass, M, kg Btu / lb • R temperature, 1°F of material, T, °F in material**
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Col. 1 x Col. 2 Col. 3 x Col. 4
Cement 564 (M c) 0.22 124 150 (Tc) 18,600
Water 207 (Mw) 1.00 207 80 (Tw) 16,560
Total aggregate 3100 (Ma) 0.22 682 80 (Ta) 54,560
Ice* 75 (M i ) 1.00 75 32 (T i ) 2,400
1088
minus 75 (M i ) x heat of fusion, (144 Btu/lb) = –10,800
81,320
81,320
Concrete temperature = = 74.7°F
1088
*32 M i – 144 M i = – 112 M i
**Total Btu are relative to a baseline of 0°F.

Figure 16-6 shows crushed ice being charged into a truck
mixer prior to the addition of other materials. Mixing time
should be long enough to completely melt the ice. The
volume of ice generally should not replace more than
approximately 75% of the total batch water. The maxi-
mum temperature reduction from the use of ice is limited
to about 11°C (20°F).
Liquid Nitrogen
If a greater temperature reduction is required, the injection
of liquid nitrogen into the mixer may be the best alterna-
tive method. Liquid nitrogen can be added directly into a
central mixer drum or the drum of a truck mixer to lower
concrete temperature. Figure 16-1 shows liquid nitrogen
added directly into a truck mixer near a ready mix plant.
This may also be added at the jobsite.

Liquid nitrogen precooling should be performed by

trained professionals since liquid nitrogen vapors can
displace oxygen from air, cause localized fog, and liquid
nitrogen is a super-cold liquid. Care should be taken to
prevent the liquid nitrogen from contacting the metal
drum; the super-cold temperature of the liquid nitrogen
can crack the drum. The addition of liquid nitrogen does
not in itself influence the amount of mix water required
except that lowering the concrete temperature can reduce
water demand.

In general, approximately 6 liters (1 ½ gallons) of liquid

Figure 16-6. Substituting ice for part of the mixing water will substan-
tially lower concrete temperature. A crusher delivers finely crushed ice
to a truck mixer reliably and quickly.
nitrogen are needed to cool 1 cubic meter (yard) of concrete
by 0.5°C (1°F). Liquid nitrogen has been successfully used
to precool concrete to temperatures as low as 2°C (35°F) for
specialized applications. The temperature of the concrete

320
Chap. 16 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:46 PM Page 321
during injection can be determined through the use of an
infrared thermometer aimed at the bottom of the drum.
Cement
Cement temperature has only a minor effect on the tem-
perature of the freshly mixed concrete because of cement’s
low specific heat and the relatively small amount of
cement in a concrete mixture (ACI Committee 305). A
cement temperature change of 4°C (8°F) generally will
change the concrete temperature by only 0.5°C (1°F).
Because cement loses heat slowly during storage, it may
still be warm when delivered (this heat is produced in
grinding the cement clinker during manufacture). Cement
temperatures in storage silos at ready-mix plants are often
greater than 50°C (120°F) even in cold weather conditions.
Since the temperature of cement affects the temperature
of the fresh concrete to some extent, some specifications
place a limit on its temperature at the time of use. This
limit varies from 66°C to 82°C (150°F to 180°F). However,
it is more practical to specify a maximum temperature for
freshly mixed concrete rather than place a temperature
limit on individual ingredients (Lerch 1955).
Supplementary Cementitious Materials
Many concrete producers consider the use of supplemen-
tary cementitious materials (SCMs) to be essential in hot
weather conditions. The materials of choice are fly ash and
other pozzolans (ASTM C618, Standard Specification for
Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in
Concrete or AASHTO M 295) and slag cement (ASTM C989,
Standard Specification for Slag Cement for Use in Concrete
and Mortars or AASHTO M 302). Chapter 4 discusses the
impact of each SCM on the water demand and heat of
hydration. These materials generally slow both the rate of
setting and the rate of slump loss. However, some caution
regarding finishing is needed. The rate of bleeding can be
slower than the rate of evaporation and plastic shrinkage
cracking or crazing may result. This is discussed in greater
detail under Plastic Shrinkage Cracking.
Chemical Admixtures
A set retarding admixture may be beneficial in delaying
the setting time in hot weather concreting, despite the
potential for increased rate of slump loss resulting from
their use. A hydration control admixture or set stabilizer
can be used to stop cement hydration and setting. Hydra-
tion is resumed, when desired, with the addition of a
special accelerator (reactivator).
Set retarding admixtures should conform to the require-
ments of ASTM C494 (AASHTO M 194) Type B. Admixtures
should be tested under job conditions before construction
begins; this will determine their compatibility with the
other concrete ingredients. Trial mixtures that simulate the
anticipated temperatures as well as haul and placement
321
Chapter 16 ◆ Hot Weather Concreting
times while measuring slump loss over time have been
helpful in verifying that certain dosages of admixtures will
perform properly in the field.
Preparation Before Concreting
Before concrete is placed, certain precautions should be
taken during hot weather to maintain or reduce concrete
temperature. Mixers, chutes, conveyor belts, hoppers,
pump lines, and other equipment for handling concrete
should be shaded, painted white, or covered with wet
burlap to reduce the effect of solar heating.
Forms, reinforcing steel, and subgrade should be wetted
with cool water just before the concrete is placed. During
placing and finishing operations, fogging can be directed
over the concrete surface. This not only cools the contact
surfaces and surrounding air but also increases its relative
humidity. The increase in relative humidity minimizes the
rate of evaporation of water from the concrete after place-
ment. For slabs on ground, it is a good practice to moisten
the subgrade the evening before concreting. There should
be no standing water or puddles in the forms or on the
subgrade when concrete is placed.
During extremely hot periods, improvements may be ob-
tained by restricting concrete placements to early morning,
late evening, or nighttime hours, especially in arid climates.
This practice has resulted in substantially less thermal
shrinkage and cracking of thick slabs and pavements.
Transporting, Placing, and Finishing
Transporting and placing concrete should be completed
as quickly as practical during hot weather. Delays con-
tribute to slump loss and an increase in concrete temper-
atures. Sufficient labor and equipment must be available
at the jobsite to handle and place concrete immediately
upon delivery.
Prolonged mixing, even at agitating speed, should be
avoided. If delays occur, stopping the mixer and then
agitating intermittently can minimize the heat generated
by mixing. ASTM C94 (AASHTO M 157) requires that
discharge of concrete be completed within 90 minutes or
before the drum has completed 300 revolutions, which-
ever occurs first. However, these restrictions may be ex-
tended under certain conditions (ACI 301-10). During
hot weather the time limit may be reduced to 60 minutes
or even 45 minutes. If specific time limitations on the
completion of discharge of the concrete are desired, they
should be included in the project specifications. It is also
reasonable to obtain test data from a trial batch simulating
the batch to placement time, mixing conditions, and anti-
cipated concrete temperatures to document, if necessary,
a reduction in the time limit.
Since the setting of concrete is more rapid in hot weather,
extra care must be taken with placement techniques to
Chap. 16 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:46 PM Page 322
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001
avoid cold joints. For placement of walls, shallower layers
can be specified to assure enough time for consolidation
with the previous lift. Temporary sunshades and wind-
breaks help to minimize cold joints.
While proper consolidation is critical to concrete place-
ment, overvibration with internal vibrators should be
avoided. Internal vibrators produce significant amounts of
heat and can raise the temperature of the concrete locally
by 10°C (18°F) or more during a 10 second insertion
(Figure 16-7) (Burlingame 2004).
26.9°C (80.4°F)
20 (68)
10 (50)
9.7°C (49.5°F)
Figure 16-7. Infrared image of concrete surface after completed
internal vibration (Burlingame 2004).
Floating of slabs should be done promptly after the water
sheen disappears from the surface or when the concrete
can support the weight of a finisher with no more than
a 5-mm (¼-in.) indentation. Finishing on dry and windy
days requires additional precautions to minimize the
potential for plastic shrinkage cracking.
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
Plastic shrinkage cracks sometimes occur in the surface of
freshly mixed concrete soon after placement, during finish-
ing or shortly thereafter (Figure 16-8). These cracks which
appear mostly on horizontal surfaces can be substantially
eliminated using preventive measures.
Figure 16-8. Typical plastic shrinkage cracks.
322
Plastic shrinkage cracking is usually associated with
hot-weather concreting; however, it can occur any time
ambient conditions produce rapid evaporation of mois-
ture from the concrete surface. These cracks occur when
water evaporates from the surface faster than it can travel
to the surface during the bleeding process. This condition
creates rapid drying shrinkage and tensile stresses in the
surface that often result in short, irregular cracks. The
following conditions, individually or collectively, increase
evaporation of surface moisture and also increase the
possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking:
1. High cementitious materials content
2. Low w/cm
3. High concrete temperature
4. High air temperature
5. Low humidity
6. Wind
The crack length is generally 50 mm to 1000 mm (a few
inches to 3 ft) in length and they are usually spaced in a
somewhat regular pattern (perpendicular to the wind, or
a random pattern on where winds are swirling) with an
irregular spacing from 50 mm to 700 mm (a few inches to
2 ft) apart.
The nomograph in Figure 16-9 is a graphical solution
borrowed directly from hydrologic studies sponsored by
the U.S. Navy and performed by Kohler, Nordenson, and
Fox (Kohler 1952, Kohler 1954, and Kohler, Nordenson,
and Fox 1955) on the shores of Lake Hefner in Oklahoma.
Menzel (1954) sought to estimate the rate of evaporation
of bleed water from a water-covered concrete surface. The
most recent and most comprehensive entry in the hydro-
logical literature available at that time was Kohler’s Lake
Hefner work (Kohler 1952, Kohler 1954).
Figure 16-9 is useful for determining when precautionary
measures should be taken. However, there is no sure or
absolute predictor for plastic shrinkage cracking. Al-
Fadhala and Hover (2001) reinforced the principle that
the nomograph evaluates the evaporative potential of the
environment, not the rate of water loss from the concrete.
However, the difference between the two may be small
when the concrete surface is covered with bleed water.
Menzel (1954) adopted the Kohler (1952) equations,
simply converting the units used to express vapor pres-
sure and wind speed. The values for the saturation vapor
pressure of water are themselves temperature dependent:
W = 0.315 (eo– ea)(0.253 + 0.060V) (for pressure in SI unit
of kPa)
W = 0.44 (eo– ea)(0.253 + 0.096V ) (in.-lb units)
Chap. 16 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:46 PM Page 323

Chapter 16 ◆ Hot Weather Concreting

40
Relative humidity, percent Concrete temperature, °C
100
To use these charts:
90
35
1. Enter with air temperature,
80
move up to relative humidity.
70
2. Move right to concrete tem- 30
perature. 60

3. Move down to wind velocity. 50

25
4. Move left: read approximate 40

rate of evaporation. 30
20

15
20
10
10
5

5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Air temperature, °C Wind velocity, km/h

Metric
4
40

Rate of evaporation, kg (m2/hr)

Concrete temperature, °F
35
Relative humidity, percent
100 3
100 30

25
2 20
80
90
15

60 10
1
80 5

40 0
70 0

60
20
50
40
40 60 80 100
Air temperature, °F Wind velocity, mph

Inch-Pound Units
0.8
Rate of evaporation, lb (ft2/hr)

0.6 25

20

0.4 15

10
0.2
5
2
0
0

Figure 16-9. Effect of concrete and air temperatures, relative humidity, and wind velocity on rate of evaporation of surface moisture from concrete.
Wind speed is the average horizontal air or wind speed in km/h (mph) measured at 500 mm (20 in.) above the evaporating surface. Air temperature
and relative humidity should be measured at a level approximately 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft) above the evaporating surface and on the windward side
shielded from the sun’s rays (Kohler 1952, Menzel 1954, and NRMCA 1960).

323
Chap. 16 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:46 PM Page 324

Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

Uno (1998) built-in regression equations for saturation
vapor pressure and combined them with the Kohler/
Menzel equation to produce a unified equation that takes
vapor pressure into account:
E = 5([Tc + 18]2.5 – r • [Ta + 18]2.5)(V + 4) x 10–6 (SI units)
E = (Tc 2.5 – r • Ta 2.5)(1 + 0.4V) x 10–6 (in.-lb units)
Where:
W = mass of water evaporated in kg (lb) per m2 (ft2) of
water-covered surface per hour
eo = saturation water vapor pressure in mm Hg (psi) in
the air immediately over the concrete surface, at the
concrete temperature. Obtain eo from Weast (1986)
or ACI 305 (2010).
ea = water vapor pressure in mmhg (psi) in the air sur-
rounding the concrete obtained by multiplying the
saturation vapor pressure at the temperature of the air
surrounding the concrete by the relative humidity of
the air. Air temperature and relative humidity are
measured approximately 1.2 m to 1.8 m (4 ft to 6 ft)
above the concrete surface on the windward side and
shielded from the sun’s rays.
3. Moisten concrete aggregates that are dry and
absorptive.
4. Dampen the subgrade (Figure 16-10) and fog forms
prior to placing concrete.
5. Erect temporary windbreaks to reduce wind velocity
over the concrete surface.
6. Erect temporary sunshades to reduce concrete
surface temperatures.
7. Fog the slab immediately after placing and before
finishing, taking care to prevent the accumulation of
water that may increase the w/cm at the surface and
reduce the quality of the cement paste in the slab
surface. Tooling a wet surface will supply the mixing
energy to increase the water-cement ratio.
8. Protect the concrete with temporary coverings, such
as reflective (white) polyethylene sheeting, during
any appreciable delay between placing and finishing.

V = average wind speed in km/h (mph), measured at

0.5 m (20 in.) above the concrete surface.

E = evaporation rate, lb/ft2/h (kg/m2/h)

Tc = concrete (water surface) temperature, °F (°C)

r = (relative humidity percent)/100

Ta = air temperature, °F (°C)
When the rate of evaporation of bleed water exceeds
1 kg/m2 (0.2 lb/ft2) per hour, precautionary measures such
as windscreens or fogging are desired. With some concrete
mixtures, such as those containing certain pozzolans,
cracking is possible if the rate of evaporation exceeds 0.5
kg/m2 (0.1 lb/ft2) per hour. Concrete containing silica fume
is particularly prone to plastic shrinkage because bleeding
rates are commonly as low as 0.25 kg/m2 (0.05 lb/ft2) per
hour. Therefore, protection from premature drying is essen-
tial even at lower evaporation rates.
One or more of the precautions listed below can minimize
the occurrence of plastic shrinkage cracking. They should
be considered while planning for hot-weather concrete
construction or while dealing with the problem after
construction has started.
1. Keep the concrete temperature low by cooling aggre-
gates and mixing water.
2. Add fibers to the concrete mixture
Figure 16-10. Dampening the subgrade, yet keeping it free of
standing water will lessen drying of the concrete and reduce problems
from hot weather conditions.
Fogging the concrete surface before and after final finish-
ing is the most effective way to minimize evaporation and
reduce plastic shrinkage cracking (Figure 16-11). Use of
a fog spray directed at a level approximately 1.5 m (5 ft)
above the concrete surface will raise the relative humidity
of the ambient air over the slab, thus reducing evaporation
from the concrete. Fog nozzles atomize water using air
pressure (Figure 16-12) to create a fog blanket. They should
not be confused with garden-hose nozzles, which leave an
excess amount of water on the slab. Fogging should be
continued until a suitable curing material such as a curing
compound, wet burlap, or curing paper can be applied.
Other methods to prevent the rapid loss of moisture from
the concrete surface include a temporary application of
plastic sheeting to the surface, spray applications, and
reducing placement time. The plastic sheeting, when used,
is typically installed after strike-off and removed immedi-
ately before finishing operations commence. Temporary

324
Chap. 16 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:46 PM
moisture-retaining films (usually polymers) can be applied
immediately after screeding to reduce water evaporation
before final finishing operations and curing commence.
These materials are floated and troweled into the surface
during finishing and should have no adverse effect on the
concrete or inhibit the adhesion of membrane-curing com-
pounds. Repeated applications of moisture-retaining films
followed by finishing are not recommended since these
materials typically contain water contents of 90%. Reduce
time between placing and the start of curing by elimi-
nating delays during construction.
Figure 16-11. Fogging cools the air and raises the relative humidity
above flatwork to lessen rapid evaporation from the concrete surface,
thus reducing cracking and improving surface durability.
Figure 16-12. Fog nozzle.
Curing and Protection
The need for moist curing is greatest during placement
and the first few hours after finishing. Initial curing in-
cludes procedures implemented anytime between place-
ment and final finishing to reduce moisture loss from the
concrete surface. Examples of initial curing include fog-
ging and the use of evaporation reducers (see Chapter 15
and ACI 308).
Page 325
Chapter 16 ◆ Hot Weather Concreting
Curing and protection are more critical in hot weather
than in temperate periods. On hardened concrete and on
flat concrete surfaces in particular, curing water should
not be more than about 11°C (20°F) cooler than the con-
crete. This will minimize cracking caused by thermal
stresses due to temperature differentials between the
concrete and curing water.
To prevent the drying of exposed concrete surfaces, moist
curing should commence as soon as the surfaces are
finished and continue for at least 24 hours. In hot weather,
continuous moist curing for the entire curing period is
preferred. Avoid wetting and drying of a surface.
At lower w/cm concrete mixtures, the permeability of the
paste is normally so low that externally applied curing
water will not penetrate far beyond the surface layer
(ACI 308 and Meeks and Carino 1999). Therefore, bulk
properties such as compressive strength can be consider-
ably less sensitive to surface moisture conditions at lower
w/cm; however other surface properties such as abrasion
and scaling resistance can be markedly improved by wet-
curing low w/cm concrete.
However, if moist curing cannot be continued beyond
24 hours, while the surfaces are still damp, the concrete
should be protected from drying with curing paper, heat-
reflecting plastic sheets, or membrane-forming curing
compounds. White-pigmented curing compounds can be
used on horizontal surfaces. Application of a curing com-
pound during hot weather should be preceded by 24 hours
of moist curing. If this is not practical, the compound
should be applied immediately after final finishing to
keep the concrete surface moist.
Concrete surfaces should dry out slowly after the curing
period to reduce the possibility of surface crazing and
cracking. Crazing, a network pattern of fine cracks that do
not penetrate much below the surface, is caused by minor
surface shrinkage. Crazing cracks are very fine and barely
visible except when the concrete is drying after the surface
has been wet. The cracks form a chicken-wire like pattern
(Figure 16-13).
Figure 16-13. Crazing cracks are a network of fine cracks,
compared to a flexural or tensile stress crack.
325
Chap. 16 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:46 PM Page 326
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001
Heat of Hydration
Heat generated during cement hydration raises the tem-
perature of concrete to a greater or lesser extent depending
on the size of the concrete placement, its surrounding envi-
ronment, and the amount of cement in the concrete. As a
general rule a total temperature rise of 2°C to 9°C (5°F to
15°F) per 45 kg (100 lb) of portland cement can be expected
for thinner slab-type placements from the heat of hydra-
tion. There may be instances in hot-weather concrete work
and massive concrete placements when measures must be
taken to cope with the generation of heat from cement hy-
dration and attendant thermal volume changes to control
cracking (see Chapters 10 and 20).
References
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ACI 301-10, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Michigan, 2010, 74 pages.
ACI Committee 305, Hot-Weather Concreting, ACI 305R-10,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan,
2010, 23 pages.
ACI Committee 308, Guide to Curing Concrete, ACI 308-09,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan,
2009, 31 pages.
Al-Fadhala, M., and Hover, K.C., “Rapid Evaporation
from Freshly Cast Concrete and the Gulf Environment,”
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Burg, Ronald G., The Influence of Casting and Curing Tem-
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Burlingame, Scott, Application of Infrared Imaging to Fresh
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Haynes, W.M., ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
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