Daf Ditty Beitzah 29: Measuring Food

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MISHNA: A person may go on a Festival to a grocer from whom he is accustomed to buy and
say to him: Give me eggs and nuts of such-and-such a number, as it is the manner of a
homeowner to count this way in his own house. Counting eggs or nuts is not considered a
commercial activity, as people regularly mention the number of eggs and nuts that they need.

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GEMARA: The Sages taught in the Tosefta: A person may go on a Festival to a shepherd with
whom he is accustomed to deal and say to him: Give me one kid, or one lamb. Similarly, one
may go on a Festival to a butcher from whom he is accustomed to buy and say to him: Give
me one foreleg of an animal, or one thigh. Likewise, one may approach one who deals in
fattened fowl from whom he is accustomed to buy and say to him: Give me one dove or one
pigeon. He may also visit a baker from whom he is accustomed to buy and say to him: Give
me one loaf or one cake [geluska].

And one may go on a Festival to a grocer from whom he is accustomed to buy and say to him:
Give me twenty eggs, or fifty nuts, or ten peaches, or five pomegranates, or one etrog,
provided that he does not mention any measure. In other words, he must not specify a unit of
measurement, e.g., a kav; rather, he must state a number, which is not the usual manner of making
a purchase. Rabbi Shimon ben Elazar says: This is permitted, provided that he does not
mention the amount of the purchase, meaning that he must not mention the sum of money that

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he is spending, but rather he must take what he needs and after the Festival they will calculate how
much he owes.

Summary

Introduction1

After having dealt with how one may get meat from a butcher on Yom Tov, our mishnah deals
with how one can buy other food supplies from others or from a storekeeper. We will see again
that the mishnah is very concerned with protecting the atmosphere of Yom Tov. Cooking is
permitted and therefore we must allow people to get things at the store (remember they had no
refrigeration and probably stored very little food at home), but when they do so they should refrain
from any action that would send the message that business is being conducted as usual.

A man may say [on Yom Tov] to his fellow, “Fill me this vessel,” but not in a
specific measure.

A person can bring a vessel to his friend or to a storekeeper and ask him to fill it up for him on
Yom Tov with wine or oil but he may not mention to him a specific amount. Since this is not the
way that business is usually conducted it is permitted on Yom Tov.

Rabbi Judah says: if it was a measuring-vessel he may not fill it.

Rabbi Judah says that this is not permitted if the vessel is one used for measuring. Although the
person does not mention a specific amount, in other words, he does not say, “fill up this ten liter
jug”, it is still forbidden because both he and the person giving him the wine or oil know exactly
how much is being given.

It happened that Abba Shaul ben Batnit used to fill up his measures on the eve of
Yom Tov and give them to his customers on Yom Tov. Abba Shaul says: he used
to do so even during hol hamoed (the intermediate days of the, on account of
clarifying the measures. But the sages say: he used also to do so on an ordinary
day for the sake of the draining of the measures.

In order to avoid the problem of measuring out wine or oil when giving it out on Yom Tov, Abba
Shaul ben Batnit used to fill his measuring vessels before Yom Tov and then just give them out on
Yom Tov. Abba Shaul says that Abba Shaul ben Batnit used to do the same thing on the
intermediate days of the festival, hol hamoed. During these days people were not supposed to be
doing work (we will learn this in Tractate Moed Katan) and so they had time to learn how to

1
https://www.sefaria.org/Beitzah.29b.6?lang=bi&p2=Mishnah_Beitzah.3.8&lang2=bi&w2=English%20Explanation%20of%20
Mishnah&lang3=en

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measure things out. Because there were so many people who came to him, he didn’t have time to
fill up all of the measuring vessels that they should be completely full without any froth. Therefore
he filled them up at night. Good manuscripts of the Mishnah do not contain the words “on account
of clarifying the measures.” Indeed there is another explanation in the Talmud. There it says “on
account of not attending the Bet Midrash.” Abba Shaul ben Batnit filled up his measuring vessels
early so that he could spend all of hol hamoed teaching Torah. Rashi explains that many people
would come to see him on hol hamoed because they were free from doing work, and hence he
didn’t want to waste any time filling up his measures. Notice Abba Shaul ben Batnit was a
businessman he just made sure that he conducted his business in a manner in which he could still
teach and learn Torah. The sages say that Abba Shaul ben Batnit always filled up his measuring
vessels ahead of time, even on ordinary weekdays. He would then pour from his vessels into his
customers’ vessels and then wait overnight and fill them up more, depending upon how much the
clay vessel had soaked up into its walls. This was his way of making sure that his customers
received the full amount that they paid for.

A man may go to a shopkeeper to whom he generally goes and say to him, “Give
me [so many] eggs and nuts” since this is the way of a householder to reckon in
his own home.

A person can go to a storekeeper with whom he is familiar, one that will give him food now and
not make him pay back until a later day. To this storekeeper he may even tell the number of eggs
or nuts that he wants. This does not look like “business as usual” because the customer does not
usually count the eggs or nuts until he goes home.

Today we learn more about money, measuring and weighing on Festivals. A Mishna at the very
end of 28b teaches that a person cannot ask a butcher to weigh a dinar's worth of meat. However,
it is permitted to slaughter an animal and prepare it for customers without naming a price. The
rabbis clarify that any measure is not to be said, whether that is a dinar or a half an uzya or a
'quarter'.

The next Mishna elaborates: a person cannot ask another person to fill a vessel for him/her during
a Festival where the payment will come later. Rabbi Yehuda says that a filling mixing vessel is
permitted. We learn that Abba Shaul ben Botnit would fill vessels before the chag so that he would
not have to measure on the chag itself. Abba Shaul [unrelated] pointed out that this should be
one's practice at all times to ensure accurate measurement. The Gemara looks at which vessels
can and cannot be used for measuring. It wonders which practices are done on weekdays. It
discusses measuring barley for animals, spices, flour, or dough for bread. Rav Huna the Short
permits sifting flour a second time, and we are told to "go out and see how many sieves circulate
in Neharde'a" - the women already know what is permitted.

A story is told about Abba Shaul ben Botnit, who along with other grocers felt that he might be
cheating his customers when apportioning into vessels. It was decided that he had done no wrong,

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but more importantly: items stolen from an unknown victim are to be donated to the betterment of
the entire community (cisterns, etc.).

Other stories are shared. Rav Yosef's wife and Rav Ashi's wife are descried sifting flour in unusual
manners. Both of their husband’s hint to them that this stringency is not required and that they
should sift the flour in their usual manner.2 Interesting that the wives of rabbis would take it upon
themselves to keep halacha so strictly. They heard their husbands arguing about the laws and so
they knew that one rabbi's opinion would prevail as the most 'correct' interpretation. So they knew
that G-d's will might mean sifting; it might mean not sifting. And yet they tried to be stringent. Is
that piety? Or subservience? Or the will to please those with power? Or did these women practice
Judaism like I do, understanding that the halachot are created by people but that we benefit from
following these practices, and so it is worth our effort?

One more Mishna: On a Festival people are permitted to go to their usual grocers to request specific
numbers of eggs and nuts for it is normal for homeowners to count this way in their homes. So
counting eggs and nuts are not considered to be commercial activities. The Gemara quotes the
Tosefta first, saying that shepherds are permitted to request a specific number of lambs or kids. We
are thus permitted to request specific numbers of legs or thighs from the butcher; specific numbers
of cakes from the baker; specific numbers of fruits from the grocer. People are permitted to name
the number of items requested but we are not permitted to name a measure nor are we allowed to
discuss cost on a Festival.

Our Daf 29(b) ends with a final Mishna. A person who brings wine jugs from one place to another
may not bring lots of them in a basket or in a tub on a Festival, as usual. Instead, he may bring
one-two barrels on his shoulder or carry them in front of himself. Similarly, a person who brings
straw (kindling, animal feed) may not place the tub behind himself. Instead, it should be
transported in front of him in his hand. It is alright to take straw from a pile of straw for kindling
but it not alright to take wood from a woodpile in storage .

300 BARRELS OF "BIRUREI HA'MIDOS"

Rav Mordechai Kornfeld writes:3

The Gemara relates that Aba Shaul ben Botnis once collected 300 barrels of wine from the "Birurei
ha'Midos" of wine that he sold. (Each time he would pour wine into the buyer's jugs, the wine
would foam up and prevent the full measure (for which he was paid) from being filled.)

2
In fact, Rav Ashi's wife was sifting onto a table which was not considered to be as stringent an interpretation, while Rav Yosef's
wife was using the sifter upside down - not as effective a 'sift'. The rabbis discuss Rav Ashi's lineage; she came from minds who
knew that 'only' sifting onto a table on a Festival was perfectly reasonable. The implication is that leniency should be encouraged.
3
https://www.dafyomi.co.il/beitzah/insites/bt-dt-029.htm

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According to one Girsa in the Mishnah (cited by Rashi), Aba Shaul ben Botnis used to fill up the
jugs at night on Chol ha'Mo'ed so that the buyers who would come to take the jugs the following
day would receive a full measure with no foamed-up wine (see Rashi DH Tana Af). According to
that Girsa, he was very careful to avoid being left with "Birurei ha'Midos" and he made sure that
every buyer received his full money's worth of wine. How, then, could he have filled up 300 barrels
of wine from "Birurei ha'Midos"?

Even after all of his cautiousness, Aba Shaul ben Botnis still collected wine from "Birurei
ha'Midos" from those who did not leave their jugs with him the night before, but who came during
the day to buy wine from him and left immediately.

Alternatively, he became cautious only after this incident occurred -- when he discovered how
much wine was actually accruing because of "Birurei ha'Midos."

RE-SIFTING FLOUR ON YOM TOV

The Beraisa records a dispute with regard to "Shonin" on Yom Tov -- re-sifting flour (which was
sifted once before Yom Tov) in order to improve its appearance. The Beraisa says that everyone
agrees that if a pebble or splinter fell into the flour, one is permitted to re-sift the flour in order to
remove the object.

An Amora related to Ravina a Beraisa that says that if a pebble or splinter fell into the flour, one
may remove it with his hand. Ravina responded that such an action certainly should be prohibited
because it resembles the Melachah of Borer.
What is the Halachah in the case of "Shonin" (re-sifting flour on Yom Tov) and in the case of a
pebble or splinter which fell into sifted flour?

(a) The RAMBAM (Hilchos Yom Tov 3:14) rules in accordance with the practice of the wives of
Rav Yosef and Rav Ashi, who re-sifted their flour with a Shinuy. Accordingly, when one re-sifts
he should either use the back of an upside-down sieve (as was the practice of Rav Yosef's wife) or
sift the flour onto a table instead of into a mixing bowl (as was the practice of Rav Ashi's wife,
according to Tosfos' explanation).

(b) The ROSH (3:16) asks why the RIF cites both the incident of Rav Yosef, who told his wife to
re-sift the flour in the normal manner and not with a Shinuy, and the incident of Rav Ashi, who
commended his wife for doing it with a Shinuy. The two incidents seem to be contradictory. Why
does the Rif cite both when he records the Halachah?

The Rosh explains that both practices are correct. One who re-sifts flour on Yom Tov should not
use a gross Shinuy, such as sifting with an upside-down sieve, because the flour will not be sifted
well and the bread will not taste good. Nevertheless, one should use a slight Shinuy, such as sifting
the flour onto a table.

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(c) TOSFOS (DH Agav) cites the RASHBAM who says that a Shinuy helps not only for re-sifting
flour but also for sifting flour for the first time on Yom Tov.

The Rishonim point out that the Rashbam's text of the Gemara differed from the text in our edition.
Instead of the words, "Kamah Mahulta Hadran b'Neharde'a" -- "See how many sieves are going
around Neharde'a" (i.e., which are used for re-sifting), his Girsa read, "Kamah
Mahulta Rakdan b'Neharde'a" -- "See how many sieves are sifting in Neharde'a" (i.e., which are
used for first-time sifting).

HALACHAH: The SHULCHAN ARUCH (OC 506:2) rules like the Rosh who says that flour
may be re-sifted on Yom Tov as long as a slight Shinuy is used, such as sifting it on the top of a
table.

The REMA permits sifting flour for the first time as long as it is done with a Shinuy, as the
Rashbam writes, but he says that in practice one should rely on this opinion only if a Nochri sifts
for him. The PRI CHADASH, cited by the MISHNAH BERURAH (506:16), says that one
should not even have a Nochri sift flour for him with a Shinuy. The Mishnah Berurah adds that if
the Nochri sifts with a gross Shinuy, such as with an upside-down sieve, then perhaps even the Pri
Chadash would permit it.

With regard to the removal of a pebble or splinter which fell into flour on Yom Tov, there are
grounds to permit one to sift the flour on Yom Tov since it was impossible to remove the object
before Yom Tov. The same reasoning applies when one crushes Matzos on Yom Tov and wants
to sift the crumbs to remove the clumps; he may sift the crumbs on Yom Tov since it could not be
done before Yom Tov.

The MISHNAH BERURAH (506:9) rules that one is permitted to remove the splinter with a sieve
when he uses a Shinuy, since it is not the type of Melachah done for large quantities at one time
and thus it is included in the allowance to perform Melachah on Yom Tov for Ochel Nefesh.

The REMA writes that some are stringent with regard to removing the pebble with one's hands
because that is the manner in which the Melachah of Borer is usually done. Accordingly, one is
permitted to remove the pebble with a utensil (a sieve) but not by hand. This is the opposite of the
Halachah in many other places, where one is permitted to do the act by hand but not with a utensil.
The reason for this difference is that it is the normal manner to sift flour by hand to remove a
pebble. Since during the week Borer is normally done by hand, this act is considered the normal
manner of Borer and is forbidden on Yom Tov.

The Girsa of the RE'AH and the ME'IRI, however, implies the opposite conclusion. According
to their Girsa, Ravina told the Amora that separating the pebble from the flour with a sieve is
forbidden because of Borer, and one should separate it by hand instead. According to this Girsa,
the Gemara's ruling is consistent with the ruling in many other places: one may perform the act by
hand but not with a utensil.

Steinzaltz (OBM) writes:4

4
https://www.ou.org/life/torah/masechet_beitzah_2834/

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Because we are able to prepare food on Yom Tov, it is possible for people to find themselves in a
situation in which they discover that essential ingredients for the meal are missing. Obviously they
can go to their neighbors, borrow raw ingredients, and return them after Yom Tov is over. The last
few Mishnayot in our perek relate to such transactions.

The last Mishnah in the perek teaches that a person can go to his local storekeeper and ask for a
specific number of nuts or eggs – that he intends to pay for after the close of the holiday – even
though previous Mishnayot limit the permissibility of having him weigh meat (28a, b) or measure
out liquids (29a).

The Tosafot R”id explain the difference as being whether the agreement appears to be a business
transaction or simply a neighborly agreement. Weights and measures – especially when connected
with a specific value (like the case in the Mishnah on 28b: “weigh for me a dinar’s worth of meat”)
– are clearly business-related and are forbidden on Yom Tov since they are “weekday activities.”
Counting out a certain amount of eggs or fruit is an everyday household activity, which does not
carry with it the stigma of commerce, and would thus be permitted.

It is interesting to note that at least some of these discussions are not specific to Yom Tov. The P’nei
Yehoshua points out that the discussion, found in the Mishnah on our daf, of whether a person can
say “fill up this jug for me” if it is a measuring utensil, may be an appropriate question
for Shabbat as well as for Yom Tov, since it is not specifically related to an issue of food
preparation. As such, he asks, why is this Mishnah placed in Masechet Beitzah and not
in Masechet Shabbat?

Several answers are suggested in response to this question. The Bigdei Yom Tov, for example,
argues that, given the leniencies permitted with regard to food preparation on Yom Tov, we could
logically conclude that we should allow for these activities, as well. It is therefore essential for the
Mishnah to teach that weighing and measuring appear so much like forbidden business activities
that we cannot permit them on Yom Tov, even for essential food preparation.

I'll take that cut.

BEN HARRIS WRITES:5

In a mishnah at the bottom of yesterday’s daf, we learn a fairly straightforward rule:

A person may not say to a butcher on a festival: Weigh for me a dinar’s worth of meat. But the
butcher may slaughter an animal and apportion it without stipulating a price.

As has been well established by our tractate so far, the rabbis were fairly permissive when it came
to acquiring and preparing food on a festival. But they drew a firm line at commercial transactions.
While purchasing meat from a butcher on a festival is a clear no-no, one could take the meat on a

5
https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/beitzah-29/

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festival and pay up later — provided, as this mishnah makes clear, the exchange of meat on the
festival itself doesn’t appear like a regular sale. Hence, the prohibition on talking price.

On our daf, the Gemara inquires how this actually worked in practice. How did people order meat
on a festival from a butcher if they couldn’t stipulate the worth of the meat they wanted to buy?

As they would say in Sura: (Give me that cut of meat called a) tarta or half a tarta (without
naming a price). In Neresh they would say: A part or half a part. In Pumbedita they would say:
An uzya or half an uzya. In Nehar Pekod and in Mata Mehasya they would say: Give me a
quarter or half a quarter.

Essentially, the workaround hinged on ordering by the particular measure of animal that was
wanted — not its cost. Which might not seem like much of a workaround at all, since that’s
precisely how most of us typically order food at the deli counter today — we usually ask for the
poundage or volume we want, not the dollar amount we want to spend. But that seems not to have
been the practice in the days of the rabbis. And yet, the practice is still a curious one. Regardless
of how the specific quantity is denoted, the rabbis are still allowing a practice that looks an awful
lot like the purchase of meat on a festival.

And as we know, appearances matter. Marit ayin is the principle that certain otherwise permissible
actions may be barred solely because they might appear to be impermissible. Apparently for the
rabbis, going to pick up meat from the butcher on a holiday doesn’t create a marit ayin issue, but
mentioning the price to be paid when you do skirts too close to the line.

We also know that intention matters. Earlier in this tractate, we encountered the rule that if
someone designates a bird prior to a festival to be eaten on the festival, one has to be sure it’s the
exact bird that eventually becomes lunch. Which bird you intended to eat matters. The very
permissibility of eating it on the festival rests on that intention. And there are literally countless
other comparable examples. As we saw back in Tractate Sukkah, some rabbis argue that intention
is critical to the proper performance of any mitzvah.

Here we find something sort of like the opposite. For all intents and purposes both parties to the
transaction know precisely what’s going on — they know the intention is a sale, even if only one
half the exchange occurs on the festival. But in this case, the rabbis allow it provided some verbal
vagueness is maintained. (A cynic might call it plausible deniability: Money? What, money?)
Everyone knows what’s transpiring, but because no money exchanged hands — indeed, money
isn’t even mentioned — we can all pretend that what transpired isn’t technically part of an act of
commerce.

Of course, it’s meaningful that the case here is a butcher. Food is a special category of leniency on
festivals. Surely, the rabbis wouldn’t have allowed transactions of non-foodstuffs on festivals even
if the cash exchanged hands only after the festival was over and no price was mentioned. But the
case does draw attention to the fact that there’s some flexibility around when intention truly matters
— and when it doesn’t.

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Rabbi Johnny Solomon writes:6
Today is Isru Chag (in Israel) which is when we reflect on the Yamim Tovim that we have
experienced throughout Tishrei while also thinking about how we can channel the immense
spiritual energy and inspiration that we have drawn within the past month into the coming year.
And it is within this spirit that I read the Mishna (Beitzah 3:8) found in today’s daf (Beitzah 29a)
which begins with the words ‫‘ – אומר אדם לחבירו‬someone can say to their friend’, ‫– מלא לי כלי זה‬
‘fill up this vessel for me’, ‫‘ – אבל לא במדה‬but not with a measure’.

In terms of the Mishna itself, it refers to the prohibition of measuring quantities on Shabbat and
Yom Tov, and describes a situation where someone gives a vessel which is used for measuring to
another to fill it, but stipulates that they don’t pay attention to the measure when filling it up.

However, I would like to interpret these words in a different way, because during the past month
of Tishrei we – as spiritual vessels - have been ‘filled up’ with tefillot, mitzvot and - at least in
some places around the world - opportunities to connect with friends and family. And just like the
Mishna describes unmeasured quantities, the impact of those tefillot and mitzvot and gatherings
are genuinely immeasurable.

For some, it may be the words or tune of a tefillah that they have said or sung over the past month
which may carry them during the coming year. For others, it will be the mitzvot that they
performed which will serve as a merit for them. And for others, it will be the memories of good
times of celebrating festivals with family or friends which they will think back to and will bring a
smile to their face.

Either way, while the period of ‫ אחרי החגים‬often reminds us of all that needs to be done, the blessing
of Tishrei is that we now approach all those things as filled vessels – feeling charged and ready to
realise the aspirations we have fixed for ourselves for the coming year.

Measuring Food on Shabbos or Yom Tov

Rabbi Doniel Yehudah Neustadt writes:7

Question: Is it permitted to use a measuring cup or spoon to measure ingredients that will be used
in a dish to be served on Shabbos or Yom Tov?

Discussion: Chazal considered all forms of weighing or measuring to be a weekday activity that
should be restricted on Shabbos and Yom Tov.74 It is therefore forbidden to weigh oneself or
measure one’s height,75 to hang a thermometer outdoors in order to determine the temperature, or
to measure the size of a room with a tape measure.76

6
www.rabbijohnnysolomon.com
7
https://outorah.org/p/80049/

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When it comes to measuring food items, however, Chazal were concerned about
our oneg Shabbos and Yom Tov and were a bit more lenient, allowing measuring for the sake of
assuring the quality of the food. If, for instance, a particular food would not be so tasty unless it
was prepared exactly as the recipe specifies, such as a dressing that must be spiced or flavored just
so, then it is permitted to use a measuring spoon or cup77 to measure those ingredients
precisely.78 It is forbidden, however, to use a measuring cup to measure foods where a little more
or a little less of an ingredient will not affect the overall taste and quality of the dish, such as a
pasta salad or a rice pilaf, where having more or less pasta or rice will hardly make a difference to
the taste of the finished product.79 It is permitted to use a measuring cup or spoon if it is used for
approximation and not for measuring an exact amount.80

Measuring for Mitzvah Purposes

Question: Is it permitted to measure or weigh things on Shabbos or Yom Tov for the purpose of
a mitzvah?

Discussion: Yes, it is. Since measuring and weighing were restricted by Chazal as a weekday
activity, the restriction is lifted when the measuring81 or weighing82 is done for the sake of a
mitzvah. It is therefore permitted to measure or weigh:
• a cup, to see whether it is large enough to be used for Kiddush or the Four Cups on
Pesach.
• the amount of matzah that is required to fulfill the mitzvos of the Seder.
• the amount of food an ill person may eat on Yom Kippur.
• medicine (or food) for an ill person or a baby, since taking care of one’s health is
considered a mitzvah.83
• a person’s body temperature to check for fever. (Unless the patient is dangerously ill, a
digital thermometer may not be used.)
• the distance of 2000 amos from the end of the city to determine
where techum Shabbos ends.
Although as stated the basic halachah is that it is permitted to weigh things on Shabbos for a
mitzvah purpose, it is however correct to weigh it before Shabbos where possible.84

74. Mishnah Berurah 306:34; 500:8.

75. See Shemiras Shabbos Kehilchasah (14:42); see Shulchan Shlomo 306:16-2 for an elaboration.
76. It is even questionable whether or not it is permitted to measure the size of a room by counting tiles; Rav S.Z. Auerbach
in Shemiras Shabbos Kehilchasah 29, note 94.
77. A scale, however, may not be used for this purpose. Shemiras Shabbos Kehilchasah 11:31.
78. Mishnah Berurah 504:21-22.
79. Mishnah Berurah 506:1.
80. Rema, O.C. 323:1 and Mishnah Berurah 5.
81. Mishnah Berurah 306:34.
82. Rav S.Z. Auerbach (Shemiras Shabbos Kehilchasah 29:40).
83. Mishnah Berurah 306:36. A healthy person, though, who is on a weight-control diet, may not measure precise portions.
84. Kaf Hachayim 618:40, see also Shemiras Shabbos Kehilchasah (29, footnote 57).

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 May one use a measuring device to cook on Yom Tov?
Rabanit K. Sara Cohen writes:8
Halachah certainly allows one to cook on Yom Tov, but the question arises as to whether
measuring is permissible as part of the process of food preparation.

The chachamim forbade precise measuring on Yom Tov, but not making rough measurements.
Therefore, it would be forbidden to use a measuring cup for the purpose of arriving at a precise
amount. One may, however, use a measuring cup in order to roughly estimate an amount of rice.
As long as one’s intent is to arrive at a general estimate and not to measure with precision, he may
use a measuring cup to measure food.

Certainly, it is permissible to use an ordinary glass that does not have measurements, to determine
the amount of rice that one wishes to prepare. Furthermore, Ha’Rav Ovadiyah Yosef (shlit”a)
states that measuring is permissible for the purpose of a Mitzvah. Some people have the minhag
of weighing Matzah at the Seder to know precisely how much they need to eat and some Hagadot
include tables and diagrams to help a person determine the amounts of Maror and other foods he
needs to eat. These measurements are permissible on Yom Tov, because they are made for the
sake of a Mitzvah.

Preparing Food on Yom Tov

Rabbi Yirmiyohu Kaganoff writes:9
The Torah teaches that although most melachos are forbidden on Yom Tov, cooking and most other
food preparation are permitted. Nevertheless, some types of food preparation are prohibited
on Yom Tov, such as catching fish, picking fruit, and squeezing juice. Why are these activities
different from cooking, kneading, and the other food preparatory activities that are permitted
on Yom Tov?

To understand the answer to this question correctly, we must imagine ourselves preparing a meal
in the days of Chazal: Refrigeration and most modern methods of preserving food do not exist,
and preparing a festive meal requires baking and cooking on the day of the occasion. Although it
may seem strange to us, even shechitah and soaking and salting the meat are performed the day
the meal is served. Thus, the Torah permitted any activity necessary to prepare a meal that will be
served on Yom Tov. It is even permitted to skin the hide off an animal that has been shechted
on Yom Tov since one cannot remove the meat properly without first removing the hide.

However, some food preparatory activities are usually performed in advance of the day the meal
will be served. Even in earlier days, one did not begin preparing the day’s meal by catching fish.
8
https://www.ohelsara.com/cm-faq-question/may-one-use-a-measuring-device-to-cook-on-yom-tov/
9
https://rabbikaganoff.com/preparing-food-on-yom-tov-3/

14
One who planned fish for dinner would catch or purchase the fish the day before, and then leave
the fish in water until it was time to prepare it. Therefore, it is forbidden to fish on Yom Tov, even
if one intends to fry fish for the day’s meal.

Similarly, fruits are usually picked and squeezed when they ripen, and then the juice or oil is stored.
Thus, picking and squeezing fruit is not permitted on Yom Tov, even though they are steps in the
preparation of food. Even picking or squeezing a small amount of fruit is prohibited, since usually
these activities are performed in quantity and stored for a longer period of time.

In a like manner, the day one prepares a meal is not the time to begin grinding the wheat into flour,
and it is certainly not the time to harvest the grain or to thresh it. At an earlier date, one would
grind the grain into flour and then store it for subsequent use. However, someone serving fresh
bread or pastry prepares the dough the day the meal is to be served. Therefore, it is permitted to
mix flour and water on Yom Tov. This subject leads us to a more extensive discussion about
the melacha of kneading on Yom Tov.

Kneading on Yom Tov

One of the thirty-nine melachos of Shabbos is kneading, which includes any instance of
combining fine particles together with a liquid until they stick together. Thus, one may not mix
grains or powders with liquid to create an edible cereal on Shabbos. However, since one may knead
dough on Yom Tov, all kneading is permitted on Yom Tov. Thus, one may prepare oatmeal,
pudding, or baby cereals on Yom Tov the same way these foods would be prepared on a weekday.
(One may not mix these foods in the usual fashion on Shabbos.)

Separating challah

When one kneads dough on Yom Tov, the challah portion is separated (assuming that one kneaded
a sufficient quantity of dough), even though separating terumah and maaser is not permitted
on Yom Tov. However, one does not burn the separated challah portion on Yom Tov. Instead, one
sets the portion aside to be burnt after Yom Tov (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chayim 506:4).

If one baked before Shabbos or Yom Tov, one may not separate the challah portion
on Shabbos or Yom Tov. What happens if you realize on Shabbos or Yom Tov that you forgot to
separate challah? The answer to this shaylah depends on whether the dough was kneaded in Eretz
Yisroel or in chutz la’aretz. If the dough was kneaded in Eretz Yisroel, then there is no solution
but to leave the bread uneaten until after Shabbos or Yom Tov, and then separate
the challah portion. However, if this dough was kneaded in chutz la’aretz, there is a different
solution. One may eat the bread on Shabbos or Yom Tov as long as one makes sure that some of
the bread remains until after Shabbos or Yom Tov. After Shabbos or Yom Tov, one separates
the challah portion from the leftover bread. This separating “after the fact” is sufficient to fulfill
the mitzvah of separating challah in a dough produced in chutz la’aretz (Rama 506:3). The reason
for this distinction requires a bit of explanation.

15
Min HaTorah there is a requirement to separate challah only on dough that is made in Eretz
Yisroel. (In actuality, the requirement is min hatorah only when most Jews live in Eretz
Yisroel.) The requirement to separate challah on dough mixed in chutz la’aretz is out of concern
that Jews living in chutz la’aretz should not forget the mitzvah to separate challah. However, since
the mitzvah is only miderabbanan, Chazal allowed the leniency of separating the challah portion
“after the fact” (Shulchan Aruch Yoreh Deah 322:2-3).

Grating, grinding, and mashing on Yom Tov

The melacha of grinding is different from the melachos previously discussed. Some foods are
ground as you prepare the meal, whereas others are ground well before the meal is prepared. For
example, when preparing a kugel, the potatoes are grated when you prepare the meal; similarly, a
gourmet chef might crush fresh pepper and other spices specifically for the meal. These types of
grinding are permitted on Yom Tov, as I will explain. On the other hand, one does not grind wheat
the day one plans to bake bread, and it is therefore prohibited to grind flour on Yom Tov.

The laws of Yom Tov divide the various items that might be ground into four categories:

1. Items that are usually ground well in advance of preparing a meal, such as flour, may not be
ground at all.

2. Items that might be ground while preparing the meal, but could have been ground earlier
without affecting their flavor, such as salt, may be ground on Yom Tov, but only by grinding with
a shinui, in a way that is different from usual. For example, the Mishnah states that one may grind
salt on Yom Tov with a wooden pestle, rather than one of stone (Beitzah 14a). Therefore, if
someone discovers on Yom Tov that he has no table salt in the house, only coarse koshering salt,
he may crush the salt on Yom Tov directly on the table, but not with a mortar and pestle, or salt or
pepper mill.

3. Items that taste better fresh, but are usable if ground before Yom Tov, may be ground or chopped
on Yom Tov, but only by grinding or chopping them with a slight shinui (Rama 504:1), such as by
placing a napkin on the plate or mortar, on which they are being ground (Mishnah
Berurah 504:19). Therefore, someone accustomed to freshly crushed pepper or spices may grind
them on Yom Tov slightly differently from usual, but may not use a tabletop pepper mill.

4. Items that will become useless if ground or chopped before Yom Tov may be ground or chopped
on Yom Tov in the way that they would usually be ground or chopped on a weekday. Therefore,
one may mash avocado and banana, grate potatoes and onions, and dice salad and apples on Yom
Tov the way one would on a weekday (Piskei Teshuvos 504:3).

Measuring

16
In general, it is prohibited to measure on Yom Tov, just as it is prohibited to measure on Shabbos.
Thus, one may not measure out how much flour, sugar, or oil to use in a recipe (Shulchan Aruch
Orach Chayim 506:1). However, one may approximate how much flour, oil, or sugar is needed. It
is permitted to use a measuring cup, as long as one does not fill the cup exactly to its measuring
points (Mishnah Berurah 506:3).

The poskim dispute whether one may measure spices on Yom Tov, some permitting (even though
it is prohibited to measure other items) because approximating spices may ruin the recipe if one
errs (Beitzah 29a). However, Magen Avraham (504:10) contends that since most women cook
without measuring spices on weekdays, but simply estimate how much they use, they may not
measure spices on Yom Tov. Others contend that someone who measure spices on weekdays may
measure them on Yom Tov.

Cooking that is prohibited

One is permitted to cook and prepare food on Yom Tov only when one intends to eat that food
on Yom Tov, but one may not cook for after Yom Tov or on the first day of Yom Tov for the second.
For this reason, it is important that all preparations of meals for the second night of Yom Tov wait
until the first day of Yom Tov is over. Thus, there was a custom in many communities in Eastern
Europe to delay the davening the second night of Yom Tov, in order to discourage beginning the
meal preparations too early.

One may cook amply for the Yom Tov meal, knowing that there will certainly be leftovers that can
then be served on the second day of Yom Tov. However, this is allowed only if everything is
prepared in one action: For example, one may cook on the first day a two-pound piece of meat
even if only one pound of meat is needed for that day. One may not prepare individual units of a
food item, knowing that one is preparing more than can possibly be eaten on Yom Tov.

One is not permitted to cook on Yom Tov for a non-Jew, since he does not observe Yom Tov.
Furthermore, Chazal forbade inviting a non-Jew for a Yom Tov meal, out of concern that one might
cook for him on Yom Tov. One may invite a non-Jew, such as domestic help, for whom you would
not prepare a special dish. However, one may not cook specifically for him on Yom Tov.

It is also forbidden to cook or do other melacha for an animal. Thus, although one is permitted to
mix dry grains with liquid to create an edible cereal on Yom Tov, one may not mix these items to
feed a pet.

Use of stoves and ovens on Yom Tov

Chazal prohibited kindling a new flame on Yom Tov (Mishnah Beitzah 33a). Thus, although one
may turn up an existing flame, one may not strike a match on Yom Tov (Aruch Hashulchan 502:6),
nor may one light a stove or oven by using an electric igniter, since this is considered lighting with

17
a new flame (Igros Moshe 1:115). If someone has a stove or oven that does not light with a gas
pilot, it is a good idea to have a twenty-four hour candle burning over Yom Tov to facilitate lighting
the stove on Yom Tov. Another advantage to igniting this candle before Yom Tov is that it enables
the lighting of the Yom Tov candles on the second night of Yom Tov.

One is permitted to lower a flame in order to cook on Yom Tov. However, there are poskim who
rule that one may lower a flame only when there is no option for turning up or on a different flame.
According to the latter opinion, if one is cooking on a stove and one wants to lower the fire so that
the food does not burn or boil out, one can do so only if there is no option for turning on another
flame (Magen Avraham 514:2). However, Rav Moshe Feinstein ruled that it is permitted to lower
a flame, because one desires to cook with a lower flame or so that the food does not burn or boil
out (Igros Moshe 1:115; 4:103).

Hashkafah of preparing food on Yom Tov

The Torah refers to the Yomim Tovim as moed. Just as the word ohel moed refers to the tent in the
desert which served as a meeting place between Hashem and the Jewish people, so too a moed is
a meeting time between Hashem and the Jewish people (Hirsch, Vayikra 23:3
and Horeb). Although on Shabbos we are to refrain from all melacha activity, on Yom Tov, the
Torah permitted melacha activity that enhances the celebration of the Yom Tov as a Moed.
Permitting the preparations of delicious, freshly prepared meals allows an even greater celebration
of the festivities of the Yom Tov, as we celebrate our unique relationship with Hashem.

The Unwanted Leftovers

Rabbi Mendel Weinbach writes:10

"We would like you to use these three hundred barrels of wine and three hundred barrels of oil
for any of the needs of the Beit Hamikdash."

This was the offer made by Abba Shaul ben Botnit and his fellow merchants.

10
https://ohr.edu/explore_judaism/daf_yomi/talmudigest/2806

18
Both the wine and the oil were the accumulation of what remained by the sellers of these
commodities after they measured out to the buyers the amount they paid for. The foam which
formed when the wine was poured caused the buyer's vessel to have the appearance of being filled,
while in actuality he was receiving less than a full measure. In the case of the oil, it was the amount
of oil sticking to the bottom and sides which created the false impression of a full vessel.

The Beit Hamikdash trustees understood that these donors were concerned that they might have
unwillingly acquired these leftovers in a dishonest fashion. The donors therefore informed them
that this was not so because their customers were well aware that they were not receiving full
measure, but because the buyers didn't want to devote the time necessary for guaranteeing full
measure they willingly forgave the sellers for the amount left behind.

When the donors insisted that they did not wish to benefit from something which should have
belonged to others, they were advised to dedicate it for some public project. Just as the rule is that
someone who actually stole from somewhere and is unaware of the victim's identity when he
wishes to return the stolen property is advised to do something for the general public,

so too these merchants who so righteously felt uncomfortable about owning wine and oil acquired
in a questionable manner could made amends by devoting these items to the public good.

Maharsha points out that the trustees did not accept the wine and oil for Beit Hamikdash use
despite the assurance they gave the donors that they were legally theirs because they hesitated to
use something that had even the slightest hint of dishonesty for sacred purposes. Although they
told the merchants that they could rightly assume that the buyers had forgiven them, their failure
to verbalize this in advance disqualified it for sacred use.

Measuring for the Purpose of a Mitzvah11

In the previous Halacha we have mentioned that our Sages have prohibited any kind of measuring
on Shabbat or Yom Tov. For instance, one may not weigh various foods items or beverages on
Shabbat. Although the scale is mechanical and not electronic, this is likewise a rabbinic
prohibition.

Measuring for the Purpose of a Mitzvah

11
http://halachayomit.co.il/en/default.aspx?HalachaID=3954

19
Nevertheless, the Mishnah (Shabbat 157a) states that our Sages permitted measuring for the
purpose of a Mitzvah. For instance, if it is necessary to use a “measuring tape” to measure the
dimensions of a Mikveh in or to determine whether or not it is valid for immersion, this is
permissible on Shabbat. Maran Ha’Shulchan Aruch (Chapter 306, Section 7) rule likewise.

The Opinion of the Peri Megadim

The Peri Megadim explains that the reason for this because the original reason why our Sages
forbade measuring on Shabbat is because this appears to be a mundane act performed only on
weekdays, for one measures while purchasing produce, meat, and the like. However, measuring
for the purpose of a Mitzvah, such as measuring a Mikveh, does not appear like a mundane act and
is permissible.

One Who Must Eat on Yom Kippur

Similarly, when one is ill and must eat on Yom Kippur, the individual is fed in quantities less than
the size of a date and time intervals that are less than that for which one would be liable for the
“Karet” punishment for eating on Yom Kippur. The Sefer Ha’Chinuch (Mitzvah 313) rules that
one may measure the amount of food the ill individual must eat so that they are less than the
prescribed amount. The Poskim (including the Mishnah Berura, Chapter 306) explain that this is
because it is preferable to be concerned with the more severe Torah prohibition of eating on Yom
Kippur as opposed to the rabbinic prohibition of measuring on Shabbat and Yom Tov; thus, this is
also considered measuring for the purpose of a Mitzvah.

The Ruling of Maran zt”l harav Ovadiah Yosef

20
Based on this, Maran Rabbeinu Ovadia Yosef zt”l rules (in his Chazon Ovadia-Shabbat, Part 6,
page 26, among other places) that on the night of the Pesach Seder, one may measure
the Kezayit amounts of Matzah and Maror, for this is also considered measuring for the purpose
of a Mitzvah and this does not resemble a mundane act.

It is nevertheless clear that although cooking on Yom Tov for the holiday meals is permissible and
is a Mitzvah of enjoying and honoring the holiday, measuring, or weighing food items for the
purpose of cooking or baking is not considered measuring for the purpose of a Mitzvah, for only
when something is completely recognizable as being done for the purpose of a Mitzvah, such as
measuring Matzah and Maror or measuring a Mikveh, is this permissible. However, measuring for
the purpose of cooking on Yom Tov is forbidden.

It is likewise permissible to prepare formula and the like in a baby bottle for a baby on Shabbat
although doing so entails measuring the water and formula.

Summary: Although measuring on Shabbat or Yom Tov is forbidden, nevertheless, measuring

for the purpose of a Mitzvah, such as measuring the amounts of Matzah and Maror, measuring the
size of a Mikveh, or taking an ill person’s temperature etc., is permissible on Shabbat and Yom
Tov.

May I take my temperature on Shabbos?

Rabbi Chaim Hillel Raskin writes

Chazal prohibited any form of measuring on Shabbos or on Yom Tov1 since it is a degradation of
Shabbos and is similar to weekday activity,2 and also because it may cause a person to write.3
Some examples include: Measuring ingredients for a salad dressing, determining the size of a room
(even just by counting the tiles),4 checking one’s weight or measuring height, or timing how long
an activity takes. Only precise measuring is prohibited (even if later used in an imprecise manner),
however approximate measuring (e.g. a cupful of baby cereal) is permissible.5

21
Thus, when cooking on Yom Tov one should not measure the ingredients precisely, (measuring
flour which can be done just the same before Yom Tov is not permitted even though cooking is
permitted).6 However, spices may be measured if an imprecise amount will positively ruin the
dish.7

What about a sand clock for a game?

Chazal say that one may measure for no particular purpose.8 One rishon explains that this can be
understood to mean:9 (1) for play (an unnecessary purpose) or (2) as a joke (no purpose at all).
According to the latter meaning, one may not use a sand clock for a game since one does have a
purpose in this measuring. The Rebbe understands the Alter Rebbe to be siding with this second
explanation.10

Only actual measuring is prohibited. However, there is no prohibition to look at a clock or read
the temperature from an already hanging thermostat.11

Chazal permitted measuring mitzva objects (e.g. a mikva, techum Shabbos), since it doesn’t appear
mundane.12 However, if it isn’t obviously mitzva-related, it is not permitted. 13 Likewise, some
say that if the mitzva object could have been measured before Shabbos (e.g. kazayis of matza,
revi’is for kiddush), it may not be measured precisely on Shabbos.14 In practice, one may rely on
the lenient opinion in case of need.15

Similarly, halacha permits measuring for health needs, since this is also a mitzva.16 One may
therefore measure fever with a non-electric thermometer,17 use a blood pressure device, or
measure medicine for the exact dose.

1. ‫שבת קנ”ז ע”א וע”ב‬, ‫ביצה דף כ”ח ע”א‬.

2. ‫ וראה בשוע”ר תק”ו ס”א שמוסיף שנראה כמוכר‬.‫ ושוע”ר או”ח סי’ ש”ו סי”ח‬,‫תוס’ שבת קכ”ו ע”ב ד”ה ומדבריהן‬.
3. ‫ע”פ רמב”ם שבת פכ”ג הי”ב‬.
4. ‫)שש”כ פכ”ט סל”ה )כשיש לו מטרה למשל לתכנן ריהוט‬.
5. ‫ וראה שוע”ר סי’ שכ”ד ס”ב וסי’ תק”ו ס”א‬.‫שש”כ פכ”ט סל”ו וסמ”ב‬.
6. ‫ ועיי”ש שהוא אפי’ בכדי לדעת השיעור של חלה‬.‫ראה ט”ז סי’ תק”ו סק”א ושוע”ר סי’ תק”ו ס”א וסי’ תנ”ו ס”ט‬.
7. ‫ )וכיון שבד”כ א”צ מדידה מדוייקת יש‬.‫ ופ”ו סכ”ח‬7 ’‫ וראה יו”ט כהלכתו פ”ז הע‬.‫ שוע”ר סי’ תק”ד ס”ט‬,‫ וראה מחצה”ש ריש סי’ תק”ו‬.‫ביצה כ”ט ע”א‬
‫)להיזהר‬.
8. ‫ שוע”ר סי’ ש”ו סי”ט‬,‫ ראבי”ה שבת סי’ שע”ז‬,‫שבת רנ”ז ע”ב‬.
9 . ‫)פסקי הרי”ד בסוף מסכת שבת )מהדורת חיטריק‬.
10. ‫ אג”ק ח”כ ע’ שמ”א‬.(”‫שוע”ר סי’ ש”ו סי”ט )“שלא לצורך כלל‬.
11 . ‫ וראה מה שהעתיק בשו”ת יחו”ד ח”ב סי’ מ”ט וראה אג”מ‬.‫ע”ד להסתכל בשעון לא חשיב מדידה דאינו עושה מעשה – וראה שו”ת פמ”א ח”ב סי’ רכ”ג‬
‫או”ח ח”ה סי’ מ”ט‬.
12. ‫ ושוע”ר שם סי”ח‬,‫ וראה מג”א או”ח סי’ ש”ו סקט”ז‬.‫שבת קנ”ז ע”א וע”ב‬.
13. ‫)ולהעיר משיחת ש”פ בראשית תשי”ט שיש ללמוד תורה בשופי ולא להסתכל על השעון‬.‫ מג”א שם סקע”ז‬,‫שוע”ר סי’ ש”ח ספ”ח‬.).
14. ‫ אך דעתו להחמיר‬,‫ראה כף החיים סי’ ש”ו סקס”ג בשם פתח הדביר אות ט”ו להקל‬.
15. ‫)שש”כ פכ”ט הע’ ק”ג )ועיי”ש שבמשקל יש יותר מקום להחמיר‬.
16. ‫שוע”ר שם‬.
17. 7 ’‫ ומנגד בשש”כ פ”מ ס”ב והע‬,‫אבל להוריד המדידה לפני מדידת החום שנוי במחלוקת – ראה שבט הלוי ח “ג סי’ כ”ח‬

22
23
 Serving and Portion Sizes: How Much Should I Eat?
Eating a variety of foods from each food group will help you get the nutrients you need.12

The Dietary Guidelines describe three USDA Food Patterns, each of which includes slight
variations in amounts recommended from different food groups. For example, people 50 or older
following the Healthy U.S.-Style Eating Pattern choose foods every day from the following:

• Vegetables — 2 to 3 cups
• Fruits — 1½ to 2 cups
• Grains — 5 to 8 ounces
• Dairy — 3 cups (fat-free or low-fat)
• Protein foods — 5 to 6½ ounces
• Oils — 5 to 7 teaspoons
•
Does this mean you have to measure or weigh everything you eat? Not really. Some people find it
helps to measure things carefully at first, but once you get used to your new eating plan, strict
measuring probably won’t be necessary. But what exactly is a serving? And is that different from
a portion?
A “serving size” is a standard amount of a food, such as a cup or an ounce. Serving sizes can help
you when choosing foods and when comparing like items while shopping, but they are not
recommendations for how much of a certain food to eat.

12
https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/infographics/make-smart-food-choices-healthy-aging

24
Read and share this infographic to learn about making smart food choices for healthy aging.
The term “portion” means how much of a food you are served or how much you eat. A portion
size can vary from meal to meal. For example, at home you may serve yourself two small pancakes
in one portion, but at a restaurant, you may get a large stack of pancakes as one portion. A portion
size may also be bigger than a serving size. For example, the serving size on the Nutrition Facts
label for your favorite cereal may be 1 cup, but you may pour yourself 1½ cups in a bowl.
Portion size can be a problem when eating out. To keep your portion sizes under control, try
ordering one or two small appetizers instead of a large entrée. Or you could share an entrée with a
friend, or eat just half and ask for a take-out container for the rest. Put the leftovers in the fridge
as soon as possible. Then enjoy them the next day for lunch or dinner.

The Science Behind Calories and Nutrition Facts Labels

Find out how scientists figure out the information on food nutrition labels and why that
information can help to keep you healthy.13

13
https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/science-behind-calories-and-nutrition-facts-labels

25
Have you ever taken a good look at the labels on the bottles, jars, and boxes of food in your
kitchen? Then you have probably seen their nutrition labels. These labels provide you with
information you need to make healthy food choices.
Our bodies get energy from the food we eat. When we digest food, our bodies use some energy
right away and store the rest of the energy for later. Our bodies use energy for three main things.
These include digestion, physical activity, and other body functions.

Our bodies need around 10% of their energy for digestion, 20% of its energy
for physical activities and 70% for other body functions

Ideally, we take in as much energy as we need. If we take in more energy than we need, our
bodies will store the extra energy as fat. If we take in less energy than we need, our bodies will
get energy from stored fat. Neither too much nor too little energy is a good thing.
A calorie is a measure of energy. The calorie number we see on food labels refers to
a kilocalorie (kcal), which is also known as a large calorie or a food calorie. A kilocalorie is 1
000 calories. One kilocalorie is the amount of energy it takes to heat one kilogram of water one
degree Celsius at sea level. For foods, the calorie count is a measure of how much energy that
food stores in its chemical bonds.

26
How many calories do you need in a day?
Your age, biological sex, and physical activity levels all affect how many calories you need. For
example, a sporty, active person needs more calories than someone who is less active,
or sedentary.
Turning the energy from food into energy that the body can use is called metabolism.
Metabolism is actually a series of chemical reactions. Each reaction breaks down food and
releases energy.
A person’s basal metabolic rate is the rate at which their body uses energy while at rest. In
other words, it’s how much energy your body uses when you are not doing anything. Your basal
metabolic rate is responsible for up to 70% of the calories your body uses.

What’s in your food?

The nutrition label also gives information about the amount of three main nutrients in the
product. These main nutrients are fats (lipids), proteins and carbohydrates.
Some calories you consume every day should come from each of the three nutrients.

About 50 to 60% of your calories should come from carbohydrates, 30% of your calories should
come from fat and 12 to 20% of your calories should come from proteins (©2020 Let’s Talk
Science).

27
Reading nutrition labels can help you determine how much of these key nutrients you are getting
from your food.

How is the fat content of food measured?

To measure the fat content in a food, the food is ground up and then mixed with a chemical that
dissolves only the fat. This method can be long and quite complicated.
To make the process quicker and easier, scientists are looking at a technique called nuclear
magnetic resonance. In this technique, food is bombarded with a pulse of radio waves. This
affects the atoms in the molecules that make up the food. Fats react differently to these pulses
than other types of molecules. This makes this technique useful for determining the amount of
fat in the food.

How is the protein content of food measured?

Since protein is high in nitrogen, by measuring the nitrogen in a food, you can get a good sense
of how much protein is in that food. One way to measure the nitrogen in food is through
the Kjeldahl method. In the Kjeldahl method, the food is heated in boiling sulphuric acid
(H2SO4). The acid decomposes the organic molecules and produces ammonium sulphate
(NH4)2SO4. Next the ammonium sulphate is distilled with a small amount of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH). This converts the ammonium (NH4+) to ammonia (NH3) gas. The ammonia gas can
then be separated and measured using acid-base titration.

Materials and set up of equipment for the Kjeldahl method (Let’s Talk
Science using images by Roshan220195 [CC BY-SA 3.0]

How is the carbohydrate content of food measured?

Carbohydrates aren’t specifically measured in food. Instead, they’re calculated. Scientists
measure the amount of protein, fat, and water in food. They add these numbers together. Then

28
they subtract that sum from the total weight of the food. The difference is the amount of
carbohydrates in the food.

Why should I read nutrition labels?

By reading nutrition labels, you can ensure that your body is getting the right amount of fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates you need to stay healthy.
Be careful, though. The measures of energy on labels tell you how much energy the food
contains. It doesn’t measure how much energy you can actually get from it. That’s because some
foods take a lot more energy to digest than others.
And of course, it isn’t all about energy. We should also be careful to consume the vitamins we
need. These are also listed on nutrition labels.
Of course, different foods affect each of us differently. So while it’s useful to read nutrition
labels, it’s also important to pay attention to how you feel after eating certain foods. It’s your
body’s way of telling you what it needs!

How Counting Calories Became a Science

Calorimeters defined the nutritional value of food and the output of steam generators

Allison Marsh writes:14

A new year means another attempt to pay more attention to what I eat in the never-ending hope of
trimming my waistline. Naturally my thoughts turn to counting calories and a renewed fascination
with Wilbur O. Atwater. It was Atwater who introduced American audiences to the Calorie as a
unit of energy for food. (More on the distinction between “Calorie" and “calorie" in a bit.)

Atwater was a professor of chemistry at Wesleyan University in Connecticut from 1873 to 1907.
His interest in nutrition and metabolism evolved over time, especially after he traveled to Munich
and learned of German techniques for analyzing the nutritional content of food. He investigated
the correlation between the chemical energy from food and manual labor because he wanted to
make sure that workers had an appropriate diet.

In 1887, Atwater published an article called “ The Potential Energy of Food" [PDF], in which he
defined the Calorie as the amount of heat that would raise the temperature of a kilogram of water
one degree centigrade (or a pound of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit). He wanted to show that a unit
of heat could be a unit of mechanical energy, and so he also defined a Calorie as 1.53 foot-tons—
that is, the force needed to lift a ton by one foot.

14
https://spectrum.ieee.org/how-counting-calories-became-a-science

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In his article, Atwater listed the Calorie counts of various foods by the pound, such as beef, round,
rather lean (807); butter (3,691); cows' milk, both regular (308) and skimmed (176); oatmeal
(1,830); and turnips (139). His figures were based on his estimates of the amounts of nutrients,
protein, fat, and carbohydrates in each food, plus some experiments. Although modern calorie
counts for these foods differ slightly from Atwater's, we still use his estimates that a gram of protein
contains 4.1 Calories and a gram of lipids 9.3 Calories.

One instrument Atwater relied on in his experiments was a bomb calorimeter. Already in
widespread use at the time, it measures the heat given off during a reaction. A sample is placed in
a steel reaction vessel called a bomb, which is then immersed in water. An electric current ignites
the sample, and the water bath absorbs the resulting heat. The temperature of the water is recorded
at defined intervals.

Atwater, along with Wesleyan physicist Edward Rosa and chemist Francis Benedict, also
developed a respiration calorimeter. It let the scientists estimate the calories consumed by a human
subject, by measuring the person's intake of oxygen, output of carbon dioxide, and the resulting
quantity of heat produced. The calorimeter was a copper box 6 feet high, 4 feet wide, and 7 feet
deep (1.8 by 1.4 by 2.1 meters) that was encased in wood and zinc to help maintain a constant
temperature. The subject would remain in the box for up to 12 days, doing various assigned tasks,
from lying at rest to exercising. These studies became the foundation for understanding metabolic
rates.

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And that's how we came to count calories. Except that it's not.

Defining the calorie took decades—and then the joule came along

Atwater did not coin the term Calorie. That distinction usually goes to Nicolas Clément, a
professor of chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. In 1819 Clément was
teaching a course on industrial chemistry, and he needed a unit of heat for a discussion of how
steam engines convert heat into work. He arrived at the calorie, which he defined as the quantity
of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 °C—the same definition Atwater later
used. Clément, though, was more precise in specifying that the measurement was taken from 0 to
1 °C. Scientists accepted Clément's definition, and the calorie entered into French physics
textbooks.

Among those texts were two by the French physicist Adolphe Ganot that were translated into
multiple languages. Universities in Europe and the United States used the popular textbooks into
the early 20th century. And so Clément's calorie entered the English language.

Meanwhile, though, another definition of the calorie was circulating. In 1852, the French chemist
Pierre Favre and the French physicist Johann Silbermann defined their calorie as the amount of
energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree centigrade—a

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difference in scale of 1,000! Favre and Silbermann published widely, and German scientists
adopted their definition.

By the 1870s, the competing definitions of the calorie pushed French chemist Marcellin Berthelot
to make a distinction. He defined the calorie (with a lowercase c) as a gram-calorie à la Favre and
Silbermann, and the Calorie (capitalized) as the kilogram-calorie à la Clément. The calorie in turn
became known as the “small calorie," while the Calorie became known as the “large calorie." In
1894, U.S. physician Joseph Raymond, in his classic textbook A Manual of Human Physiology,
proposed calling the large calorie the kilocalorie, but the term didn't catch on until some years
later.

Meanwhile, the British Association for the Advancement of Science was working on an entirely
different energy unit: the joule. In 1882 William Siemens proposed the joule during his
inauguration speech as chairman of the BAAS. Confounded by the calorie, Siemens argued: “The
inconvenience of a unit so entirely arbitrary is sufficiently apparent to justify the introduction of
one based on the electro-magnetic system." He defined a joule as the energy dissipated as heat
when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm

for one second.

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And so when Atwater was conducting his nutritional investigations of food, he had his choice of
units for heat energy. He would have read about Clément's calorie in Ganot's translated textbooks.
He would have come across Favre and Silbermann's calorie during his postdoctoral training in
Germany. And as a man of science, he likely would have heard about the proposed joule, although
Siemens's definition wasn't adopted until 1889, at the second International Electrical Congress.

James L. Hargrove of the University of Georgia has investigated the history of the calorie and
offers a few suggestions as to why Atwater chose the Calorie. For one, it was the only unit of
energy listed in American dictionaries. Perhaps more importantly, Hargrove suggests, the Calorie
was of a manageable scale around which Atwater could create a recommended daily intake of
2,000 Calories. A daily intake of 2 million calories, on the other hand, would have seemed onerous.

U.S. nutritionists followed Atwater's lead, bolstered by tables that Atwater and his workers
prepared for the U.S. Department of Agriculture listing the Calorie counts of over 500 foods.
Atwater's daughter Helen assisted in his lab for a decade. After her father's death in 1907, she went
to work for the USDA's Bureau of Home Economics.

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Both the Calorie and the calorie were officially rendered obsolete in 1948 when the international
scientific community adopted the joule as the standard unit of energy. As Siemens had noted, it
was just too confusing to have two different definitions distinguished only by capitalization and
orders of magnitude. To this day, though, U.S. nutrition labels continue to report Calories, while
other countries give values in both kcals and joules.

Calorimeters guided the design of steam generators

Nutritionists weren't the only ones interested in calories. At the turn of the last century, demand
for electricity was booming, and municipalities in many countries were building new power plants.
With the invention of the steam turbine, generators became more complex and boilers operated at
higher temperatures and pressures. Engineers desperately needed data about their steam
equipment, yet they lacked internationally standardized values for the properties of water and
steam. And so they turned to calorimeters that went back to Clément's original intent: measuring
the work done by steam.

Beginning in 1921 and continuing for almost two decades, Nathan Osborne, Harold Stimson, and
Defoe Ginnings worked at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of
Standards and Technology) on this precise problem. The team developed the elegant
calorimeter pictured at top to study the heat capacity and heat of vaporization of water at
temperatures up to 100 °C.

The instrument, which has been cut away to show the interior, worked similarly to the bomb
calorimeters that Atwater used. The spherical inner shell held the water sample. Energy was added
by an electric current, and the scientists observed the change of state. Their data guided the design
and evaluation of steam power equipment into the 1960s.

As Osborne noted in his 1925 report “ Calorimetry of a Fluid" [PDF], the adoption and refinement
of electric heaters, resistance thermometers, and thermocouples allowed calorimeters to become a
reliably accurate means of measurement in thermal research.

And so, whether calculating the energy in food or the heat capacity of water, calorimeters have
been valuable instruments for chemists, physicists, and engineers for over two centuries. As we
enter a new year, and as many of us take a renewed interest in calories, it seems only fitting to pay
homage to the instruments that count them.

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