The role of donkey pack-transport in the major grain market (Yehil

Berenda) of Addis Ababa

by

Sisay Zenebe and Tilahun Fekade

National Urban Planning Institute,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia

Abstract

A large part of the people and of the economy ofAddis Ababa depends on donkey transport for the movement of grain
from wholesale centres to retail outlets and households. The service is cheap, flexible and readily accessible in most
parts of the city. It is also an essential source of livelihood and income to many households.

Although the donkey pack-transport service has enormous opportunities, the enterprises and the donkeys face various
constraints. The main problems are related to shortage offood; municipal regulations, and harassment. The donkeys
are usually overloaded and suffer from wounds related to overwork.

An increase in the productivity of the enterprises must be sought by improving their access to good food and health
care. Technological solutions to improve the productivity of donkeys using carts might be difficult in the case ofAddis
Ababa. particularly in view of the settlement pattern in the old settlement parts and the city 's general terrain
characteristics.

The importance ofthe donkeytransport service is recognised by thepublic who are the direct beneficiaries ofthe
service. but government officials. and planners in general. tend to see it as an inferior occupation, and they will not
support donkeypack-transport activity unless they are convinced ofits economic importance. particularly in catering
for the demandfor transport services in less accessibleparts ofthe city which cannot be served by modern modes of
transport.

Introduction

Tesfahunegne(1989)maintainsthat in Ethiopiathe contributionof traditionalequinetransportto the GrossDomestic

Product(GDP)is underestimated. This authorarguesthatthetraditionalsystemof transportcould be appropriatefor
Ethiopia in the shortto mediumtennbecause:

the sector'sresourcebase(theequinepopulation)reproducesitselfandis not subjectto depreciation

the sectoris wholly dependenton locallyavailableresources and not on importedtechnologyandforeignexchange
its operationis not dependentonthe provisionof transportinfrastructure
it hasgreatflexibility andhencehigh penetrationcapacityin areaswhereinfrastructureis lacking.

Donkeysarewidely usedin bothrural andurbanareasof Ethiopiafor transportinga wide varietyof items,eg,grain,

flour, sugar,constructionmaterials,sawdust,animalfoods,etc. Suchtransportis an importantstimulusto tradingand
also representsa sourceof incomefor the donkeyowners.However,therearecertainproblemsfacedby the donkey
pack-transportoperators(DTPO's)whichare asfollows:

the shortageof food

municipalregulationsrelatingto the movementandhousingof animals.

The objectiveof the studyreportedbelowwasto obtaina fuller understanding of the importanceof donkeypack-
transportservicesin urbanareasof Ethiopiaby taking asan examplethe majorgrain marketin Addis Ababa.
The useof a structuredquestionnaire, while desirable,was notpossibledueto limitation of funds.Thus,the information
reportedin this studywasgatheredfromthe following majorsourcesusingunstructuredquestionnaires: DPTO's,grain
traders,consumers, veterinarians,
local 'Kebele'offices,local development
committees, traffic police,etc.The authors'
observationsof the grain market,the donkeymarketand mini-marketsin the city, and in generalhowthe donkeypack-
transportbusinessis operated,andthe movementof donkeyson streetsand within residentialneighbourhoods werealso
importantinputsto the study.The scopeof the studyis limited to the donkeypack-transport of grain within the city
boundaryandis basedon Yehil Berendawhichis the largestwholesalegrain marketin Addis Ababa.
Yehi) Berenda of Addis Ababa

The Yehil Berendaof Addis Ababa,whichis locatednearMercatoin 'Wereda'06, 'Kebele'01, represents the largest
concentration of grain stores,gain mills, donkeypack-transport
operatorsanddonkeysin Ethiopia.The volumeof grain
tradeactivity in Yehil Berendahassignificantlyincreasedoverthe last fewyearsasa resultof the liberalisationof the
graintrade.The numberof DTPO's anddonkeysemployedin transportinggrain arethusreckonedto haveincreased
duringthe sameperiod ashavethe numberof trucks.

A significantproportionof householdsin the city buygrain everymonthin the daysthat immediatelyfollow their pay
day. Thus,the first andlastweeksof eachEthiopianmontharethe busiestin termsof the volumeof transactionsin
Yehil Berendaandhencein the amountof serviceprovidedby the DPTO's.The grainmarketis normallyovercrowded,
buttraffic congestionis the highestduring Mondays,Wednesdays andFridaysdueto a very largeconcentration of
freight trucks, cars,peopleanddonkeys.Thereis no separate parking spacefor freighttrucksand donkeys,andthe
movementof traffic within the marketplaceis highly disorganised.

Thereare four 'terras'in the market,namelyGesho,Becho,Bonoand Shell(in orderof their importancetaking into
accountthe numberof donkeys),which represent the majorgates(departurepoints)alongthe four majorrouteswhich
leadto the variouspartsof the city. The DPTO's identifythemselveswith oneof these'terras',and in generalserve
specificsectionsof the city.

The numberofDPTO's working in andaroundYehil Berendais estimatedto be between800and 1,200,while thoseof

donkeysis estimatedto be between2,500and3,500.The total amountof graintransportedby donkeysfrom Yehil
Berendaduringthe majormarketdaysis between5,000and 7,000quintalsperday(estimatefor April, 1997).

The donkey pack-transport operators

Althoughthe marketis the maincentrefor the donkeypack-transport servicemostDPTO'sresidein the peripheralparts

of the city. The majority of theDTPO's areable-bodiedmaleswho performthe loadingandunloadingtasksby
themselves.Most are illiterate,althoughthe educationalbackgroundof thosewho recentlyjoined the businessis thought
to be relativelybetter.

The donkeypack-transport business,like manyotherinformal activities,haslittle restrictiontoentry. Manyof the new

entrantsinto the businessare ex-soldierswho havelost theirjobs asa resultof military demobilisation.In comparisonto
otheralternativesourcesof employmenteg,working asdaily labourersat constructionsites,mostDTPO's seethe
businessasa morereliablesourceof income.

The donkeypacktransportof grainfrom Yehil Berendais believedto be expanding.It can evenbe consideredasa
lucrativebusiness,particularlyfor thosewho havelargenumberof donkeysandregularcustomers.The activityalso
provides,for the lucky ones,the opportunityto switchinto otherpreferredactivities.Thereare,for example,someex-
DTPO's who have nowestablished themselves asgrain traders,mini-bustaxi or mini-truckoperators,
etc.

The donkey pack-transport business

The DTPO's keep,on average, betweentwo andfive donkeys.Thereareobviousmanagement problemsin keepinga
largernumberof donkeys:feeding,in particular,is veryexpensive.Virtually all the packdonkeysaremales.Female
donkeyscannotbe workedwhen pregnantandkeepingthemin the city is notprofitable.The averagecarryingcapacity
of the donkeysemployedin transportinggrainis one quintal(100 kg), andthe maximumworking life of a donkeyis
estimatedto be five years.

The major cost of starting a donkey pack-transport businessis investment in donkeys (the averageprice of donkeys is
between Birr 350 and 450), as compared to other start-up costs which include straps (Birr 18), pack-saddle (Birr 15) and
whip (Birr 3). Housing for donkeys is rarely constructed as, in most cases,they are simply tied to a pole inside the
owner's compound.

Most of the donkeysusedin the city areimportedfrom otherplaceswithin ShoaRegion.Thereis a specialiseddonkey

marketin .SholaGebeya',while othernearbymarketswheredonkeysareavailablefor saleare SebetaandAkaki.
During purchasethe ageof donkeysis determinedby evaluatingtheirgeneralbodycondition,andthe stateof theirteeth
andhooves.
Expenditureon foods (ie, wheatbran,'Atela' and lowgradecereals)is the majorrunningcost(an averageof Birr 30 per
weekfor a personwho hasfive donkeys)asthereis little availablegrazingspacewithin the city boundary.Donkeysare
usuallyfed athomeduringthe night,and only rarelyduringworkinghours.Thus,thereareno feedingandwatering
troughsin andaroundthe marketplace.

The donkeypack-transport businessis run by owner-operators,

althoughthe helpof assistantdonkeydroversis sought
whenthe addressof the consigneesis unknownor whenowner-operators cannottransportthe grain onthe sameday. In
this casean amountwhich is betweenone-thirdanda half of the totalpriceis paid to the assistant
drover.The DPTO's
did not mentionsalaryasan importantrunningcostasthe donkeyownersdo not hire assistant droverson a regular
basis.

Donkeysaresaidto be moreresistantto diseasesthan otherdomesticanimals(eg,cross-breed cattle).DPTO's,who also

employtraditionaltreatments,
did not mentionveterinarycostsasan importantexpenditureitem in theiroperation.

DPTO's normally startto arrive at Yehil Berendawith theirdonkeysat 5.30am.The donkeyshaveto be returnedbefore
it getsdarkas their sightis impairedduringthe night.Donkeyscannotbe workedduringthe nightasthe headlightsof
automobiles(andmunicipalroad lighting)confusethem,andtheir effectivetime of operationis a 12 hourperiod
between6.00am and6.00p.m.

Most of the graintransactions

takeplaceearlyin the morning,andtheDPTO'sfirst assemble the sacksof grain which
theyhaveagreedto transport.Theypile them in a certaincornerand startthe dispatchingwork after9 am whenthe
marketis quieteningdown.This makesit easyto decideif theyhaveto hire donkeysfrom othertransportoperatorsor if
theycan rentsomeof their donkeysto others.It alsohelpsthem in selectingtheroutestheyshould follow while
dispatchingthe grainand in decidingaboutthe useof assistance
drovers,dependinguponthe addresses of the
consignees.

The DPTO's might completetwo to threeroundtrips in a working day,dependinguponthe numberof donkeysat their
disposal,the numberof quintalsfor transport,andthe distanceof the destinationpoint(s).It is worth noting,thatthe
DTPO's bring all of their donkeysto the marketplaceas it is difficult to arrangefor herdingaroundtheirresidence.
Moreover,theydo not wantto foregobusinessif they happento geta lot of grainto transport.They canalso renttheir
donkeysto otherDPTO's.

Donkeysareworked withoutrest if thereis grainto be transported.

Therateof utilisationof the donkeys,apartfrom the
demandfor the service,is determinedby theirphysicalcondition,particularlythatof their backs(whichare oftensore
dueto the rubbingof the strapswhich areusedastying ropes),andtheirhooves(asthey travellong distances). There
areno pack-saddlesused,but emptysacksaresimplyput underneath the loadsto coverthe shoulders.But DTPO's load
donkeyswith sorebacksastheycannotaffordto wait until theyarecompletelyhealed.

Beneficiariesof the serviceprovided by the business

The DTP's providea serviceto grainshopsand/orgrain mill owners,hotelsand privatehouseholds.

The major
beneficiariesof the cheaptransportserviceprovidedby DTPO's,however,aregrainshopsand/orgrainmills which
retailgrainand flour aroundthe mini-marketsandthehotelsin thecity.

The averagemonthly consumptionof grain by a family of six membersis about50 kg,while the livelihoodof a large
proportionof householdsin the city is basedon incometo be obtainedby working in the informal sectorwhich is
characterizedby intermittentflows of income.Thus,mosthouseholds purchasegrain in smallamountsfrom grain retail
shopswhich arelocatedin andaroundthe smallmarketsandaroundneighbourhoods. Only a smallproportionof
householdspurchasegrain directlyfrom Yehil Berendawheregrainis mostlysold in quintalunits.

Advantagesof the donkey pack-transport service

The donkeypack-transport serviceoffersa numberof advantages,of which its convenience is the majorone.The
DTPO's can takeordersto give a door-to-doorserviceallover the city. Whatthey askis the exactaddressof the
customeranda referencepoint. From experience, they knowalmosteverylocality in the city. This is importantin view
of the roadconditionswhichdo not allowthe useofmotorisedtransport(asthe sackwill notwalk upto the nextbus
station!),particularlyin the old settlement
areaswhich arenot providedwith accessroads.

Taxis maybe usedbut their majordisadvantage (apartfromthe cost)is that onehasto transportthe grain up to the point
wherethe taxi is parked.Moreover,onehasto unloadand againcarrythe graininto the kitchen(astaxis will only
operatealongthe major asphaltroads)which mightinvolve additionalcost(whichwould be roughlyequalto the whole
priceto be chargedby DPTO'sto transportthe grain from the Yehil Berenda).The total transportcost with a taxi can
thereforebe very high, particularlyif the housingunit is locatedin a lessaccessible
area.

The priceschargedby DPTO's (Birr 2-5 per quintalin caseof graintradersand Birr 3-8 per quintalfor individual
familiesand hotels)includeloadingandunloadingservices(DTPO's help eachother in loadingtheir donkeys).These
pricesare,in general,lowerthanthosechargedby taxi operators,Birr 10-15per quintal,whichdoesnot includecharges
for loadingandunloadingthe grain.

Prices charged by DPTO's are generally fIXed and locality-specific. But, they are still negotiable, particularly when
dealing with individual customers. The prices generally increase with distance, but shorter distances are relatively
expensive, as all trips, whether short or long, will involve almost the same effort for loading and unloading the grain.

The minimumprice is Birr 2-3 per quintalwhich refersto the amountpaidto geta quintalof graintransportedfrom
Yehil Berendaup to Messalemiawhichis the nearesttaxi station.The maximum,onthe otherhandis for transportto
Kotebewhich is Birr 12perquintal.(US$ 1 = Birr 6.6).

Income earned by donkey pack-transport operators

It is difficult to give an accurateestimateof the incomeearnedby DPTO's.This is mainlydueto the informalnatureof

the undertakingwhichis characterised by erraticflows of income.Yet,the activityis consideredas profitable,
particularlyfor thosewho havelargenumbersof donkeysandclients.Many DPTO's equatethe incomeof a DPTO with
five donkeyswith thatof a four-seatertaxi operatingin the city.

The incomeearnedby DTPO's is directlyrelatedto the numberof donkeysat theirdisposal.With an averageestimated

daily incomeof Birr 10per donkeyduringthe majormarketdays,the activityis reckonedto be lucrativecomparedto
otherforms of informal activities.The minimummonthlynet incomeofaDPTO with a singledonkey(mostDPTO's
own2-5 donkeys)is estimatedto be Birr 125whichis considerably higherthanthe minimumlegallyfIXedmonthly
salaryof civil servants(whichis only Birr 105).This is calculatedassumingthatthe grossincomethey earnduringthe
majormarketdays(threedaysin a week)accountfor three-fourthsof their total monthlyincome,andcorrectingit for a
monthlyfood costof aboutBirr 25 perdonkey.

The DPTO's are notoriouslybadsavers.But mostof themaremembersof'Ekubs'. It is fundsraisedthroughEkubs

which areoftenusedto fmancetheir requirements for relativelybig expendituressuchasbuying a replacement donkey.
(An Ekubis a traditionalvoluntaryfund mobilising institutionestablishedby a groupof interestedindividuals.
Membersof the Ekub contributea fixed amountof moneyatregularintervalseg,weekly.The moneyis givento the
personin the groupwhoseturn it is to receivethe totaldistributed.The orderof the turnsis decidedby lottery.)

Table 2: Summary of the economicsignificanceof the donkey pack-transportserviceprovided from 'Yehil

Berenda' of Addis Ababa: minimum, maximumand averageestimatesof (1)DTPO's (2)donkeysemployed (3)
grain transported (4) daily transactionand (5) daily incomeofDTPO's during the major market days.

Estimate Transport Donkeys Amount ofgrain Daily Income of

operators(heads) employed transported transactions transport
(heads) (quintals) (Birr) operators
Birr/day
Minimum 800 2,500 5,000 25,000 20

Maximum 1,200 3,500 7,000 35,000 50

Average 1,000 3,000 6,000 30,000 35

Source: Field observation, interviews with donkeypack-transport operators and leaders ofthe Donkey Owners
Association.

Externalities associatedwith the bnsiness

Therearebothpositiveandnegativeexternalitiesassociated with the operationof the donkeypack-transport service.
Amongthe positiveexternalitiesis the manureof donkeys,whichis an importantsourceof householdenergyusedfor
cookingby low incomefamilies.It is collectedby womenand children(who also collectspilledgrain insidethe
market).The local RoadDevelopmentCommittee(RDC)hashired 10 women(with a monthlysalaryof Birr 100-120)
for the roadcleaning.A sack-fullof dried dung,whichis mainlyusedin cooking'injera'(this is a traditionalpancake),
is sold for of six birr.
 Therearealso manypeoplewho work in andaroundthemarketplaceasdaily labourers(eg,as porters),andthis
employmentcanbe takenasanotherpositiveexternalityof the donkeypack-transport
activity.

Not all the manurecanbe recoveredandthis createsa bad smellin andaroundYehil Berenda.Even whendry and
crushedby the hoovesof donkeysit createsdustpollution.Duringthe rainy season,in particular,its collectionbecomes
difficult, andthe sanitaryconditionof the grain marketdeteriorates.
Thus,oneof the negativeexternalitiesis the
polluting effectof the excretaandurineof the donkeys.

The 3,000donkeyswhichoperatearoundYehil Berendarequireconsiderable parking space,andthis causessevere

congestionin the surroundingarea.The movementof donkeyswithin the city alsocontributesto traffic problems,
particularlyaroundthe grain marketand majortraffic crossings.

Therearealso certainzoonoticdiseases,
suchas rabies,thataffectdonkeysandwhichareof a widerpublic health
concern.

Availability of veterinary services

The majordiseases facedby donkeysarerelatedto malnutrition,food poisoningandinternalparasites.In additionthere

arediseases
of the respiratoryorgans,tetanus(locally knownas'MengagaKolf or 'Magirat Getir'),and otherhealth
problemsassociatedwith thembeingoverloaded.

The governmentadministerssomeveterinarylaboratoriesandclinics in Addis Ababalike the SholaVeterinary

Laboratory.Until the recentliberalisationof veterinaryserviceprovision,however,the only non-government
organisationthatwasactive in providingveterinaryservicesto donkeysin Addis Ababawasthe BaptistMission.
Nwnerousveterinariansin the city haveobtainedlicensesfromthe Ministry of Agriculture,andprovide ambulatory
(mobile)veterinaryservicesto all kinds of domesticanimals,includingdonkeys.The majorreasonfor the ambulatory
natureof the serviceis that it easierfor theveterinarianto go to the donkeythanvice versa.

The mostcommontype of modemmedicaltreatmentgivento donkeysis dewormingwhichis providedata rateof Birr

4-6 perhead(veterinariansrecommendthatthis shouldbe repeatedeverythreemonths).It is interestingto notethat
DPTO's considersuchmedicinesasfertilisers,asthe bodyconditionof theirdonkeysimprovesconsiderablyafter
treatment.The donkeysarealsotreatedfor sores,in whichcasedisinfectants
andantibioticsareused.A hooftrirnming
serviceis alsoprovidedby someveterinarians.

Institutional support provided to the business

According to Legal Notice No. 192 of 1954 issued by the Municipality of Addis Ababa, a pennit is required from the
Director of Public Health to keep animals (except dogs and cats)within the municipal boundary (a pennit is also
required for animals that enter the city from other areas).The regulation stipulates that no pennit shall be given to keep
animals within a 100 m buffer on both sides of the eight main roads that radiate from the five major squares in the city.

However,the Municipalitydoesnothavethe necessary institutionalcapacityto effectivelyenforcethe regulation.This

is oneof the majorreasonsfor the presenceof considerable donkey-pack-transport activity within the city whichis done
unofficially. It is interestingto note thatthe highurbanlandvaluesmakeit impossibleto keepdonkeysin the coreparts
of the city.

The donkeytransportbusiness,like mostother informal-sectoractivities,is undertakenwithout any supportfromthe

government.The donkeypack-transport businesses arenot licensed,andtaxesarenotcollected.Thusno servicesare
providedto the DPTO's.Accordingto the DPTO's,thereis widespreaddonkeytheft.The police,however,do not
readilycooperateunlessthe robbersarecaughtred-handed.

Donkeydroversdo not havelegallyprotectedrights.Concerningtheuseof roadsby animals,LegalNoticeNo. 261 of

1962(whichis issuedpursuantto the transportproclamation
of 1943)stipulatesthat:

1. No person shall drive, herd or lead animals on a road if it is possible to do so at another place. If
no such other place exists,the herder shall take everyprecaution to avoid obstruction oftraffic and
hindrance to other road users.

A herder shall keephis animals to the extreme right edge a/the road.

3. Whena motor vehicle approaches animals on a road, the herder shall do everything in his power to
clear the road/or the motor vehicle.

2.
Thus, in the case of a traffic accident in which a donkey and a car are involved, it is the donkey drover who will
invariably be obliged to compensate for the damage sustained by the car, while he cannot claim for his damage. To this
effect, the police might detain the donkeys, and DPTO's have to negotiate with the car drivers on how to compensate
them, unless the drivers exempt them on moral grounds.

The DPTO's and the local Road DevelopmentCommittee(RDC)

Thereis a local RDC establishedto improvethe coverageand qualityof roadsin andaroundYehil Berenda.The RDC
rarelyconsultswith the DTPO's andconsidersthe donkeysasconstraints to its aims.It is believedthatdonkeyswill be
an eyesorewhenthe constructionwork is [mished.Accordingto theDTPO's,the RDC onceattemptedto totally restrict
their entryinto the grain market,whichled to severeresistance.
It could notbe sustainedlongerthan a few hours.This
showshowDPTO's areharassed andmarginalisedin local development initiatives.

A recentdevelopmentwhichhasaffectedthe operationofDTPO's is a restrictionimposedby the RDC whichstipulates

thatdonkeysshouldnot enterthe marketplacebefore10am in the morning(ie, theyareallowedto enterinto Yehil
Berendaonly afterall the truckswhich stayovernightin the markethaveleft), whichis meantto reducethe congestion
of the marketplaceby donkeysandDPTO's.

The DTPO's complainthatthe restrictionhasnegativelyaffectedtheir business,asmostof the graintransactions

take
placeearly in the morning.(Thosecomingto buygrain wantto leavethe marketas earlyaspossibleto go to their
work). Moreover,the donkeyscongregate aroundthe neighbourhooduntil 10am and theirmanureandurinehave
becomea public nuisance.The DPTO'shavealreadyenteredinto seriousconflict with householdsand businessmen that
live and work aroundYehil Berenda.

The Donkey Owners' Association(DOA)

Some 300 DTPO's have formed a Donkeys Owners' Association (DOA). This associationhas an executive committee
(which follows up its day to day activities) and a managementcommittee (which oversees its activities). It has a draft
by-law, an official stamp, a bank account, and collects a monthly contribution of five birr per member (which is meant
asa saving). Currently, the DOA is striving to get a legal certificate from the Cooperative Promotion Section, Social
Affairs Department of Region 14Administration.

The major advantages which the members foresee from the Association are related to improved sanitation in and around
Yehil Berenda, better security against theft and better prospectsof getting alternative employment opportunities. They
also see it as an important instrument to protect their rights, provide better social security for their members (eg, to
provide assistanceto a member who has lost his donkey in a traffic accident), and to better bargain with the local
govermnent and other organised groups that operate in and around the grain market.

The DOA has, for instance, started negotiating with the RDC on the possible relaxation of the restriction imposed by the
RDC on their entry into Yehil Berenda before 10 am. The DOA and the RDC have also reached some understanding on
the need to arrange for an adequate open spacewhich can serve asa parking area for donkeys until 10 am.

New trends that have inflnencedthe business

The magnitudeof graintransportedby donkeyswithin the city, andhencethat of the serviceprovidedDTPO's is
reckonedto haveincreasedoverthe pastfewyearsassociated with the recentliberalisationof the graintrade.

It is alsoworth noting the possibleimpact,onthe donkeypack-transportbusiness,of the integrationof somefunctions

which previouslyusedto be undertakenasseparate businesses.An increasingnumberof grainwholesalersin Yehil
Berenda,for example,havestartedto purchasetheir ownmini-truckswhich theyuseto bring grain fromthe rural
marketsto their shops,andto transportgrainto retail shopswhicharetheir majorcustomers.Similarly,somegrain mill
operatorswhichhavetheirgrain storessideby sidewith theirgrainmilling businessnow sellthe grain in the form of
flour ata reasonable discount.Someconsumerswhichusedto regularlybuygrain from Yehil Berenda(andwho were
gettingtheir graintransportedby donkeys)nowdirectlybuythe flour fromthegrain millers-cum-grain traders.

Concluding remarks
A largeproportionof the peopleand of the economyof Addis Ababadependon donkeypack-transport
for the
movementof grain from Yehil Berendato retailtradeandindividualhouseholds.It is alsoan essentialsourceof
livelihood andincometo the manyhouseholdswith donkeyenterprises. The activityalsohasa significanteconomic
multiplier effectfor thosewho collectthe dungof donkeysandwho work asdaily labourers.

The amountof grain whichis estimatedto be transportedduringthe majormarketdaysis equivalentto a one-time

loading capacityof 100mini-trucks(assumingthe loadingcapacityof a singlemini-trucksis 60 quintals).This is
importantasthe operationof the donkeypack-transportactivitydoesnotrequireforeignexchangeto buy donkeysand
food andto constructand maintainasphaltroads.

Althoughthe donkeypack-transport serviceis cheap,flexible andreadilyaccessiblein most partsof the city, it is

associated
with certainnegativeexternalitiessuchas deterioration
of the sanitaryconditionsandtraffic congestionin
andaroundthe grainmarket.

Although the use of motorised transport is increasing it is likely that donkeys will continue as an important mode of
urban freight transport in many parts of the city. The cheapprice of using donkey pack-transport services will tend to
encourage their use where there are many urban poor who cannot afford motorised transport.

Althoughthe donkeypack-transport servicehasenonnousopportunities,it facesvariousconstraints.The mainproblems

arerelatedto shortageoffood, municipalregulations,andharassment. As a result,DPTO'sare in a precariousposition
to claim for damagesthey might sustaindueto traffic accidents.In addition,no financialsupportand extensionservices
(eg.,onthe importanceof properfeeding,modemhealthcareandtechnologicalinnovations)areprovidedto DPTO's
working in urbanthe areas.

DPTO's shouldbe encouraged to fonn moreassociations

whichcouldserveas importantinstitutionalchannelsthrough
whichthe governmentand non-government organisations(NGO's)couldprovidethem with varioustypesof assistance,
and which will contributeto a bettermanagement of donkeysandhenceimprovements in the way in whichthe activity
is undertaken.

The importance of the donkey pack-transport service is well-recognized by the generalpublic and DPTO's who are the
direct beneficiaries of such services. Government officials and planners, on the other hand, tend to see it as an inferior
occupation and they do not readily support such activities.

Finally, it is worth pointing outthe needto carry outfurther researchin the following areas:

identifying andassessing
the typeandvolumeof activitiesundertakenin urbanareaswith the helpof donkeys
(includingtaking censuses
of donkeysthat existin urban areas)

assessingthe possibilityto introducetechnologicalinnovationsto improvethe productivityof donkeypack-

transportactivities

assessing
the potentialrole of community-based
organizationsin improvingthe bargainingpowerofDPTO's

identifying andassessing
institutionalconstraintsbesettingtheperformanceof donkeypack-transport
activities

assessing
the attitudeof the public,local governments
andDPTO'sthemselvesonthe utilisationand management
of
donkeys

assessing
negativeexternalitiesassociated
with the donkeypack-transport
activityandfmding waysof regulating
them,particularlyin an urbancontext.

References

Legal Notice, 1954.No. 192,Governmentof Ethiopia.

Legal Notice, 1962.No. 261, Governmentof Ethiopia.

Tesfahunegne M, 1989. Rural Transport Systemsin Ethiopia. A paper presented at a National Workshop on Food Strategies for
Ethiopia, ONCCP, Ethiopia.