Professional Documents
Culture Documents
STUDIES
PART 1
Organizing concepts
What is a nation?
A country considered as a group of people with the same language, culture, and history, who live
in a particular area under one government.
What is national identity?
National identity involves identification with representations of shared experiences and history as
told through stories, literature, popular culture and the media.
What is a state?
In terms of a political entity, a state is any politically organized community living under a
single system of government. States may or may not be sovereign.
What is a nation-state? Distinguish nation-state from other forms of social organization
such as tribe, city-state, empire, theocracy, etc.
A nation-state is a specific form of sovereign state (a political entity on a territory) that is
guided by a nation (a cultural entity), and which derives its legitimacy from successfully
serving all its citizens. The nation-state implies that a state and a nation coincide.
Tribe: A tribe is viewed, developmentally or historically, as a [social group] existing
before the development of nation-states, or outside them. A tribe is a group of distinct
people, dependent on their land for their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient, and not
integrated into the national society. It is perhaps the term most readily understood and used
by the general public to describe such communities.
City-state: A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent
country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories. Historically, this
included cities such as Rome, Athens, Carthage,[1] and the Italian city-states during
the Renaissance. Today only a handful of sovereign city-states exist, with some
disagreement as to which are city-states. A great deal of consensus exists that the term
properly applies currently to Singapore, Monaco, and Vatican City. City states are also
sometimes called micro-states which however also includes other configurations of very
small countries.
Empire: An empire is defined as "an aggregate of nations or people ruled over by
an emperor or other powerful sovereignor government, usually a territory of greater extent
than a kingdom, as the former British Empire, Persian Empire, French Empire, Russian
Empire, Byzantine Empire or Roman Empire".
Theocracy: Theocracy is a form of government in which a deity (God) is the source from
which all authority derives.
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Britain was often described as being in 'Splendid Isolation'
from the rest of Europe. Britain had a huge empire and ruling this empire was its priority. The key
to Britain's power was India with its vast resources of manpower. Britain relied heavily on Indian
troops to control the empire. The highest priority for Britain was protecting the trade routes
between Britain and India. Britain's large navy protected trade links with India and with the rest
of the world.
Despite this focus on the empire, Britain was interested in events in Europe. To start with, other
European countries had rival empires. Belgium and France both had large empires in Africa.
There was a strong rivalry between Britain and France over possessions in North Africa. By the
early 1900s, Germany also had colonies in Africa and was beginning to show an interest in North
Africa.
Another concern was Russia. For much of the 19th century, Russia wanted to take control of the
Dardanelles, the area where the Black Sea opened out into the Mediterranean Sea. This would
allow Russian warships and trading ships to sail easily around Europe. Russia had other ports in
the north, but these tended to freeze over in winter. The problem was that the Dardanelles were
owned by Turkey. Turkey and Russia had long been enemies. Britain supported Turkey against
Russia. This was because Britain did not want Russian ships in the Mediterranean. The
Mediterranean was part of Britain's most important trade route to India.
Until the early 1900s, Britain was more concerned about Russia and France than Germany.
Relations between Britain and Germany were very good. This began to change, however. When
Kaiser Wilhelm II took control of Germany, he was anxious for Germany to be a great power. He
felt that Russia to the east and France to the west were encircling Germany. As a result, he built
up his armed forces. France and Russia feared Germany and did the same. During the 1900s, all
of the great powers in Europe began to build up their armies and navies.
British policy in Europe intended that no country in Europe should become completely dominant.
If Russia, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary worried about each other, then they would be
less of a threat to Britain. By about 1907 it was becoming clear to Britain that the greatest
potential threat to Britain was going to be Germany. The strong economy, large population and
powerful armed forces of Germany seemed to be capable of dominating Europe. As a result,
Britain began to support Russia and France. Britain joined the Triple Entente.
Despite being part of the Triple Entente, Britain was not committed to going to war in 1914. The
Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, spent much of the summer of 1914 furiously trying to
reassure Russia and Germany and prevent a war happening. Even when German troops invaded
France and Belgium as part of the Schlieffen Plan, Britain did not have to go to war.
Germany hoped Britain would stay out of the war altogether. However, the Germans knew that
Britain had promised to defend Belgium under the Treaty of London of 1839. The Germans
wanted the British government to ignore the Treaty of London and let the German army pass
through Belgium. The British government made much of their duty to protect Belgium. Belgium's
ports were close to the British coast and German control of Belgium would have been seen as a
serious threat to Britain. In the end, Britain refused to ignore the events of 4 August 1914, when
Germany attacked France through Belgium. Within hours, Britain declared war on Germany. The
Kaiser said how foolish he thought the British were. He said that Britain had gone to war for the
sake of a "scrap of paper".
Within a few more days, Britain, France and Russia (the Allies) were all officially at war with
Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers). What had started as a small, local problem
in the Balkans was turning into the biggest and most brutal war the world had ever seen.
The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years
of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from
an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected
that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish
Americans, German Americans and Scandinavian Americans, as well as among church leaders
and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out,
American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in
Europe. Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following
the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American people increasingly came
to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe.
As U.S. President, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while
the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez-fair basis, with American banks
making huge loans to Britain and France — funds that were in large part used to buy munitions,
raw materials and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations
for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing
demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the United States Navy.
In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there
over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper
hand in Europe, while Germany's ally, the Ottoman Empire, clung stubbornly to its possessions in
the Middle East. In the same year, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine
warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into
surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United
States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in
the Mexican–American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which
was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just
as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then
asked Congress for "a war to end all wars" that would "make the world safe for democracy", and
Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria-Hungary.
U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918.
Who was the US president during the war?
Woodrow Wilson
Did the US join the League of Nations?
No. the US Senate did not ratify the treaty.
Roaring Twenties
What war ended right before the start of the Roaring Twenties?
World War I
What is often said about the spirit of the Roaring Twenties?
The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general feeling of novelty associated
with modernity and a break with traditions. Everything seemed to be feasible through
modern technology. New technologies, especially automobiles, moving pictures, and radio,
brought "modernity" to a large part of the population. Formal decorative frills were shed in favor
of practicality in both daily life and architecture.
In the US, what style of music became popular during the Roaring Twenties?
Jazz and dancing rose in popularity
What event brought the Roaring Twenties to a grinding halt?
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 ended the era, as the Great Depression brought years of worldwide
gloom and hardship.
World War II
In what years was the war fought?
1939 – 1945
How did the UK enter World War II?
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Since Great Britain had pledged military support
to Poland if it were attacked by the Germans, it subsequently declared war against Germany on
September 3, 1939, hence beginning World War II.
Who was the British Prime Minister during the war?
Winston Churchill
How did the US enter WWII?
Again neutrality was the initial American response to the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939. But
the bombing of Pearl Harbor naval base in Hawaii by the Japanese in December 1941 brought the
US into the war, first against Japan and then against its allies, Germany and Italy.
What happened to the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945,
respectively?
The United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on
August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively.
Name the conference where the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were established.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Monetary
Fund (IMF) were established by delegates at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 and
became operational in 1946.
Name the conference where United Nations was formulated and negotiated among
international leaders.
The Dumbarton Oaks Conference or, more formally, the Washington Conversations on
International Peace and Security Organization was an international conference at which
the United Nations was formulated and negotiated among international leaders. The conference
was held at Dumbarton Oaks, in Washington, D.C., from August 21, 1944, to October 7, 1944.
Education systems
What is educationalization?
‘Educationalization’ can be used á the general concept to identify the overall orientation or trend
toward thinking about education as the focal point for addressing or solving larger human
problems.
According to David Labaree (1997), what are the three goals of the American education
system? Illustrate each goal with examples of educational practices in the US.
Democratic equality: is the perspective of citizen, from which education is seen as a public
good, designed to prepare people for political roles.
Social efficiency: is the perspective of taxpayer and the employer, from which education is
seen as a public good designed to prepare workers to fill structurally necessary market
roles.
Social mobility: is the perspective of the individual educational consumer, from which
education is seen as a private good designed to prepare individuals for successful social
competition for the more desirable market roles.
How did the 1944 Education Act change the education system in England and Wales?
The Education Act (the Butler Act) in 1944 reorganized state primary and secondary
schools in England and Wales.
State schooling became free and compulsory up to the age of 15 and was divided into 3
stages: primary schools, secondary schools, and further post-school training.
=> decentralized system: a Ministry of Education drew up policy guidelines and local
education authorities (LEAs) decided which formed of schooling would be used in their
areas.
2 types of state schools:
+ County: provided by LEAs in each county
+ Voluntary: founded by religious and other groups and which were now partially financed
or maintain by LEAs, retained their religious affiliation.
Most secondary schools in England and Wales were effectively divided into
+ Grammar schools: new and state-funded, equated with better education, a socially more
respectable role; and qualified children for better jobs and entry to higher education and
the profession.
+ Secondary modern schools: old foundations now received direct state-funding (grant-
maintained schools), emphasized basic schooling, initially without national examination.
+ Technical schools: old foundations now received direct state-funding (grant-maintained
schools), educated more vocationally inclined pupils.
Eleven-plus examination: linguistics, mathematical and general knowledge, taken in the
last year of primary school at the age of 11 => to select between academic and non-
academic children and introduce the notion of “selection” based on ability.
Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19 th century and has
persisted in various forms to the present. What was/were characteristics of progressive
education?
Introduce physical education, music and fine arts, and vocational subjects as electives
(optional courses)
Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, expeditionary learning, experiential
learning
Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units
Integration of entrepreneurship into education
Strong emphasis on problem-solving and critical thinking
Group work and development of social skill
Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote knowledge
Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
Education for social responsibility and democracy
Highly personalized learning accounting for each individual's personal goals
Integration of community service and service learning projects into the daily curriculum
Selection of subject content by looking forward to asking what skills will be needed in
future society
De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources
Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills
Assessment by evaluation of child's projects and productions
The Supreme Court unanimous decision overturned provisions of the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson
decision, which had allowed for “separate but equal” public facilities, including public schools in
the US. Declaring that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal,” the Brown v.
Board decision helped break the back of state-sponsored segregation, and provided a spark to the
American civil rights movement.
Affirmative action in the United States is a set of laws, policies, guidelines, and administrative
practices "intended to end and correct the effects of a specific form of discrimination. In
education, it aimed to improve women’s and minority groups’ access to education.
+ Upward Bound: supplies remedial teaching, private tutoring and work-study programs
for older children => suffered repeated funding restrictions.