Introduction to Highway & Railroad Engineering

Importance of Transportation

Transportation – it is all about moving goods ang people. Evolution of human settlement and the
development of transport facilities.

Transportation plays a major role in the development of the human civilization and countries.

 It can greatly boost the economic development of a country.

 Over time, society has put a great expectation on the quality of transport facilities and
standards of living.

 The solution to transportation problems must be analytical, economical, socially credible,

environmentally safe, practically acceptable and sustainable.

 Equally, the transportation solution should be safe, rapid and comfortable for both people
and goods.

Modes of Transport

There are wide variety of modes that can be used for transportation of persons or goods:

 Land, Water and Air

 Highways

Car, Bus, Truck, non-motorized ..etc

 Railways

Passenger and Goods

 Airways

 Aircraft and Helicopters.

 Waterways

Ships, boats…

 Continuous Flow systems

Pipelines, belts, elevator, ropeway…etc

Our environment consists of land, air, and water. These media have provided scope for three
modes of transport—land transport, air transport and water transport.

Two components of land transport:

 Road transport

 Rail transport
  Airways

 •Fastest among all other modes

 •More comfortable

 •Time saving

 •Uneconomical
 Waterways

 •slowest among all other modes

 •It needs minimum energy to haul unit load through unit distance.

 •This can be possible between ports on the sea routes or along the river

 •economical

 Railways

 •The transportation along the railways track could be advantageous by railways between the
stations both for the passengers and goods, particularly for long distance.

 •Safety

 Highways

 •It gives the maximum service to one and all

 •It gives maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction, time and speed of
travel

 •It provide door to door service

 •Other modes depend on it

 •It requires small investment for the government

 •Motor vehicles are cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotive and air transport

 •It saves the time for short distance

 •High degree of accident due to flexibility of movement

Highway Engineering

Is a branch of civil engineering that deals with the planning, design, construction and maintenance of
roads, bridges and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of peoples and goods

What is Highway Engineering?

Highway Engineering considers all aspects related to the design of the roads themselves, as well
as how pedestrians are managed. Highway Engineering has expanded to include a new area of
 focus for this discipline on the implementation and use of intelligent transport systems that will
eventually revolutionize the way humans travel day to day.

What is Road Building?

Road Building is defined as the art and science of construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of
existing roadway facilities.

It is a continuous process of study and research, for up to this time there is no definite solution yet
formulated to avert road failures.

Thickness of the roads 100 mm to 150 mm, width of the lane 3m to 3.35 m

Characteristics of road transport

Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks, pedal cycle and
animal drawn vehicle.

•It requires a relatively small investment for the government.

•It offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to another
and from one road to another according to need and convenience.

•Speed and movement is directly related with the severity of accident.

•Road transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the whole community alike.

Scope of highway engineering

Development, planning and location

•Highway design, geometric and structure

•Traffic performance and its control

•Materials, construction and maintenance

•Economic, finance and administration

ROLE /IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION

Economic role:

Economics involves production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

For e.g., consider a commodity is produced at point A and needed by people of another
community at any point B distant x from A.

The price of the commodity is dependent on the distance x and the system of transportation
between the two points.

With improved system the commodity will be made less costly at B.

Social role:

In the early civilization, people have settled near river banks, as port of intersection of trade route (e.g.
New York and Mumbai).

As populations grew, people needed ways to transport food, and journey to and from work.

The development of automobiles and paved roads transformed the regions into urban centers
of intense travel activity.

Political role:

Governments need ways to effectively communicate with their people, e.g. by rapid movement
of troops in case of emergency and finally movement of persons and goods.

The political decision of construction and maintenance of roads has resulted in the development
of transportation system.

Environmental role:

Safety: Growth of transportation has a very unfortunate impact on the society in terms of accidents and
deaths.

Air pollution: All transport modes consume energy through burning of fossil fuels like coal,
petrol, diesel, etc. Air pollution has been linked to respiratory disease and detrimental effects on
the planet earth.

Noise pollution: Noise pollution is especially an issue in urban areas. For, e.g. operation of large
equipment’s during construction, and noise is generated by the engine and exhaust during
operation.

Energy consumption: The transportation sector consumes more than half of the fuel products
worldwide. These fossil fuels are depleting, and scientists are searching for alternative, more
efficient, energy sources.

Traffic Engineering:

The role of the traffic engineer is to protect the environment while providing mobility of
people and goods, to preserve scarce resources while assuring economic activity, and to
assure safety and security to people and vehicles.

The role of the traffic engineer is to protect the environment while providing mobility of
people and goods, to preserve scarce resources while assuring economic activity, and to
assure safety and security to people and vehicles.

History of highway engineering

A) Ancient Roads

 The first mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways would have been developed for
specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for drinking water etc.
  The next major mode of transport was the use of animals for transporting both men and
materials.

B) Roman roads

 The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who constructed an extensive
system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome. Romans recognized that the
fundamentals of good road construction were to provide good drainage, good material and
good workmanship. Their roads were very durable, and some are still existing.

 The function of these early road systems were: (1) for armies in line with their defense against
any form of invasion; (2) transportation of goods among the neighboring communities.

C) French roads

 The next major development in the road construction occurred during the regime of Napoleon.

 The significant contributions were given by Jerome Tresaguet in 1764 . He developed a cheaper
method of construction than the lavish and locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice.

 Meanwhile, Thomas Telford, a Scottish Engineer and president and founder of Institute of Civil
Engineer improved the construction method proposed by Tresaguet with stones having 3in
thickness (min), 7in height, and 5in breadth. He also employed flat sub-grade allowing variety of
stones to be used in the construction

D) British roads

 British engineer John Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first scientific road
construction method.

 Stone size was an important element of Macadam recipe. By empirical observation of many
roads, he came to realize that 250 mm layers of well compacted broken angular stone would
provide the same strength and stiffness and a better running surface than an expensive
pavement founded on large stone blocks

 E) Modern roads

 The modern roads by and large follow Macadam’s construction method. Use of bituminous
concrete and cement concrete are the most important developments. Various advanced and
cost-effective construction technologies are used. Development of new equipment help in the
faster construction of roads. Many easily and locally available materials are tested in the
laboratories and then implemented on roads for making economical and durable pavements.

Railroad Engineering

The branch of Civil Engineering which deals with the design, construction and maintenance of the
railway tracks for safe and efficient movements of trains is called Railway Engineering
Highway development and planning

Highways in the Philippines and planning difficulties

Brief History of National Roads in the Philippines

Department of Public Works and Highways or DPWH has been long withstanding as the
infrastructure arm of the Philippines. It started during the Spanish Colonial Era. in 1900s when
the transportation depended on roads. At this period, the construction of highways in the
Philippines seemed to be impossible. It was during in the American Period when the roadways
were developed in the Philippines.

Just like any other government agencies, its development depended on the administration as
result of changing of administration policies and organization structure.

Brief History of National Roads in the Philippines

Rehabilitation and construction of roads occurred after the World War II since a lot of roads
were destroyed due to bombs thrown in different areas. It was paid by the Japanese
Government. Philippines was also able to receive grant from the US government.

It was Maximo Paterno who was the first Minister of Ministry of Public Works and
Communications (1899). Since then, it has developed and replicated modern engineering
technologies that ensures safety standards in infrastructure buildings.

Today, the government is still on progress of developing our road networks through its “Build,
Build, Build” Program even though we’re experiencing pandemic.

Transportation in the Philippines

It is relatively underdeveloped partly due to the country's mountainous terrain and archipelagic
state and as a result of the government's under spending on infrastructure.  In recent years
however, especially on our current government, transportation has been improving through
various infrastructure projects. Majority of the projects before the pandemic had been
continued after ECQ.
Jeepneys are a popular and iconic public utility vehicle. They have become a symbol of
the Philippine culture. Another popular mode of public transportation in the country is
the motorized tricycles, especially common in smaller urban and rural areas. The Philippines has
four railway lines: Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1, Manila Light Rail Transit System Line
2, Manila Metro Rail Transit System Line 3, and the PNR Metro Commuter Line operated by
the Philippine National Railways. There are also steam engines found in Visayas which operate
sugar mills such as Central Azucarera. Taxis and buses are also important modes of public
transport in urban areas.

The Philippines has 12 international airports, and has more than 20 major and minor domestic
airports serving the country. The Ninoy Aquino International Airport is the main international
gateway to the Philippines.

DPWH is responsible for planning, designing, constructing, and maintaining infrastructures

such as road networks, bridges, and a lot more gearing towards sustainable growth and
development of the country.

DPWH has also set the classification of roads and highways.

 The Philippines has 216,612 kilometers (134,596 mi) of roads, with 83% being paved and 17%
being unpaved. As of 2014, the road network consists of:

National roads – 33,018.25 kilometers (20,516.59 mi)

Provincial roads – 31,620 kilometers (19,650 mi)

City and municipal roads – 31,063 kilometers (19,302 mi)

Barangay roads – 121,702 kilometers (75,622 mi)

National primary

The national primary roads are roads which form parts of the main trunkline system and directly
connect three or more major cities and metropolitan areas with a population of at least 100,000. They
are further classified into the north–south backbone, east–west lateral, and other roads of strategic
importance. The north-south backbone refers to the main trunkline, the Pan-Philippine Highway (N1,
also designated as Asian Highway 26), which runs from Laoag in the northernmost parts of Luzon
to Zamboanga City in western Mindanao, interconnecting the country's major islands. The east–west
lateral roads are roads that traverse this backbone and runs east–west across the different islands.
Other roads of strategic importance provide access to other areas vital for regional development and
infrastructure.

National secondary

The national secondary roads are roads that complement the primary roads and provide access to other
major population centers. They directly link smaller cities and provincial capitals, airports, seaports, and
tourist centers to the primary roads.

National tertiary

The third classification was introduced in 2014 known as national tertiary roads. They include other
existing roads administered by the DPWH which perform a local function.

Expressways

The Philippines has numerous expressways and most of them are located in the main island of the
country, Luzon. The first expressway systems in the country are the North Luzon Expressway formerly
known as North Diversion Road and the South Luzon Expressway, formerly known as South Super
Highway. Both were built in the 1970s, during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos.

The North Luzon Expressway (NLEX) is a 4 to 8-lane limited-access toll expressway that

connects Metro Manila to the provinces of the Central Luzon region.

The South Luzon Expressway (SLEX) is another important expressway in the country, it serves the
southern part of Luzon. The expressway is a network of two expressways that connects Metro
Manila to the provinces of the Region IV-A in the southern part of Luzon. 

Railways

Rail transportation in the Philippines includes services provided by three rapid transit lines and one
commuter rail line: the Manila Light Rail Transit System (Lines 1 and 2), Manila Metro Rail Transit
System (Line 3) and the PNR Metro South Commuter Line. 

The Manila Light Rail Transit System or the LRTA system, is a rapid transit system serving the Metro
Manila area, it is the first metro system in Southeast Asia

Philippine National Railways (PNR) operates a commuter line that serves a region from Metro Manila
south toward Laguna. PNR, a state-owned railway system of the Philippines, alongside a tramway
system in Manila, were established during the Spanish Colonial period.

Road patterns

Roadway patterns are very essential in the development of the settlements of a city.
However, recent development in cities does not give importance to the study of the road
patterns that give rise to numerous roads that are not interconnected, housing schemes and
commercial developments built far away where roads are very distant from the center of the
town.
Road patterns:

a) Rectangular or block– not convenient from traffic operation.

b) Radial or star and block

c) Radial or star and circular.

d) Radial or star and grid

e) Hexagonal &

f) Minimum travel pattern.

Star and Grid pattern provides inter communication facilities to

each of the villages, towns, district headquarters, state capitals

etc.,
Highway alignment

•The position or lay out of centre line of the highway on the ground is called the alignment.

•It includes straight path, horizontal deviation and curves.

Due to improper alignment,the disadvantages are,

Ø Increase in construction

Ø Increase in maintenance cost

Ø Increase in vehicle operation cost

Ø Increase in accident cost

•Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to
increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structure.

Requirements of Highway alignment

• Short- desirable to have a short alignment between two terminal stations.

• Easy-easy to construct and maintain the road with minimum problem also easy for operation of
vehicle.

• Safe-safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of stability of natural hill
slope, embankment and cut slope also safe for traffic operation.

• Economical total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost should be
minimum.

ISU MODULE
Subject: CE 312 and Highway and Railroad Engineering

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 2: Highway Surveys & Investigation
2. Introduction
This chapter involves studies of the Engineering surveys of highways that were
done by the DPWH.

3. Learning Outcome
 Upon successful completion of this module, students should be able to:

 Learn the importance of highway surveys and its general provision.

 Know & appreciate the common survey and mapping requirements.

4. Learning Content

Topic 1: Engineering surveys

Surveying is the single engineering activity that links all the phases of a project from planning to
design, land acquisition and construction.

Governing Laws, Codes and DO’s:

 DENR AO No. 2007-29
 DENR AO No. 2005-13
 EO No. 45, Series of 1993
 DENR MC No. 2010-13
 MPWH DGCS 1984
 PD No. 399 dated February 28, 1974
 PD No. 748 dated July 16, 1975
 Batas Pambansa Bilang 8
 RA 8560, as amended by RA 9200

Topic 2: Survey and Mapping requirements

A. Reference Datum
 Horizontal Datum: In accordance with EO No. 45, Series of 1993, Philippine
Reference System of 1992 (PRS92) shall be the standard reference for all surveys
and mapping in the Philippines.
 Vertical Datum: Project Elevations shall be referred to the mean sea level as
established by the Coast and Geodetic Survey Department of DENR-NAMRIA.
B. Coordinate System
 Philippine Plane Coordinate System – PRS92 (PPCS – PRS92): standard
coordinate system for all surveys in the Philippines.

C. Project Control Survey

 All project control surveys shall be conducted with the PRS92 as horizontal and
vertical datum.
 Horizontal Datum shall be surveyed using GNSS and/or ETS.
 Vertical Datum shall be surveyed using Leveling Instruments or using
Trigonometric Leveling with the aid of ETS.
D. Project Control Survey Accuracy

E. Calibration of Survey Instruments

F. Quality Control in Survey
 Horizontal Control Network: Shall be connected to at least three (3) existing
PRS92 stations.
 Vertical Control Network: At least two (2) NAMRIA benchmarks should be
recovered

G. Survey Monuments

 Criteria for Location of Monuments:

 Accessibility
 Ground Stability
 Security from Possible Acts of Disturbance
 Proximity of Towers, Structures and Trees that may cause Signal
Interferences (for GNSS/GPS Stations)

H. Survey Monuments
 Fabrication of Monuments:
 Class A Concrete Mix
 10mm Main Bar
 8mm Tie Bar
 Brass Rod or Copper (10cm x 1.20cm)
 I. Survey Monuments Dimension

J. Interval of Monuments

Topic 3: Alternative Surveying and Mapping Technologies

A. Digital Photogrammetry
Remote sensing or otherwise known as photogrammetry is the science and art of
obtaining measurements by means of photography. It is based on aerial photographs for
engineers working on data.

B. Orthophotographs
It is an aerial photographs corrected for scale and tilt. When the center portion are
skilfully matched and copied, they appear to be a single photograph that shows far more
detail than maps.

C. Light Detection and Ranging (LiDaR)

D. Terrestrial Laser Scanner

E. Bathymetric LiDaR

F. Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR)

G. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (AUV)

 H. Geographic Information System (GIS)

Topic 4: Survey Requirements

Factors that are taken into account in the location of any highway project:
 Character and Purpose of the Road
 Nature and Volume of Present and Anticipated Traffic
 Amount of Funds Available

Five (5) well-defined Steps that Engineer must consider:

- Reconnaissance
- Route Selection
- Preliminary Survey
- Office Planning
- Final Location Survey

Topic 5: Field Investigation

A. Proposed Sites for Stream Crossings
B. Road Alignment
 Horizontal Alignment
 Vertical Alignment
C. Existing Utility Services
D. Soil Investigation

Survey Procedures
1. Reconnaissance: Rapid and critical general examination of the terrain with the aid of
maps, airplanes, aerial photographs and ocular inspection of the site on foot.
2. Route Selection: Narrows the choice of routes based on reconnaissance survey.
3. Preliminary Survey: Conducts preliminary survey for the purpose of establishing the
horizontal location of the centerline of the proposed road.
4. Office Planning: Uses CAD and GIS software to obtain the best line.
5. Final Location Survey: After final investigation and approval of the centerline, this is
undertaken for the purpose of staking the centerline on the ground exactly as it has
been finally established on the map.

 Centerline Stakeout
 Profile and Cross-Section
 Surface Drainage Survey
 Right-of-Way Survey (DPWH Infrastructure Right-of-Way Procedural Manual,
2003)
 Parcellary Survey
 As-staked Survey
 As-Built Survey

Survey Output
The following survey outputs shall be required:
 Field Notes in Hard Copy signed by the Geodetic Engineer
 DEM Data (X, Y, Z Coordinates) in File Formats
 Hard Copy and Digital Files of the following plans, drawings and reports.
• Preliminary Survey Plans
• Final Survey Plans
• Parcellary/Right-of-Way Survey Plans
• Survey Report
 A. For Preliminary and Final Survey Plans
 Shall consider the following features and controls:
 Horizontal and Vertical Controls
 Contours
 Profile
 Cross Sections
 Limits of ROW
 Existing Property Lines, Owners and Land Use
 Existing Structures (Man-made and Naturals)
 Azimuth and Distance
 Beginning and End of the Project
 PI Stations
 North Arrow Direction
 Existing Drainage Structure
 Ordinary Water Elevation
 Maximum Experienced Flood Level
 Location of Boring / Test Pit
 Title Block

SAMPLE TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY PLAN

B. For Parcellary / Right-of-Way Survey Plans
 Shall consider the following features and controls:
 Boundaries of Affected Properties
 Traverse and Stations
 Relative Positions of Adjoining Surveyed Properties
 Names of Adjoining Owners
 Improvements
 Boundary Lines (Graph and Tabulated)
 Lot Numbers
 Corner Numbers and Description
 Cover Sheet
 Legend, General Notes, Abbreviations and Symbols
 Vicinity Map / Location Map
 Index Map
 Grid Coordinates
 Name of Geodetic Engineer, PRC License No., Date of Issue, PRC
Expiration Date, PTR No.
 Description and Location of Reference Monuments
SAMPLE PARCELLARY SURVEY PLAN

SAMPLE RROW IMPROVEMENT PLAN

SURVEY OUTPUT
For Survey Report
 Summary of all important items of information:
• Identification and History of the Survey
• Traffic
• Topography, Existing Land Use and Utilities
• Proposed Alignment and Grades
• Drainage
• Construction Materials
• Right-of-Way
• Maintenance of Traffic
• Special Considerations
• Computations and Supporting Documents