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Robotic forklifts for intelligent warehouses: Routing, path planning, and

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DOI: 10.1109/ICIT.2010.5472487 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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 Robotic Forklifts for Intelligent Warehouses:
Routing, Path Planning, and Auto-localization
Kelen C. T. Vivaldini, Jorge P. M. Galdames, Thales S. Bueno, Roberto C. Araújo, Rafael M. Sobral, Marcelo Becker, and
Glauco A. P. Caurin
USP – EESC - Mechatronics Lab – Mobile Robotics Group, São Carlos – SP, Brazil.
{kteixeira}{galdames}@sc.usp.br; {thales.bueno}{roberto.carlos.araujo}{rafael.sobral}@usp.br;
{becker}{gcaurin}@sc.usp.br

reliability, availability robustness, and productivity for the

Abstract - Today, robotic systems are bridging the gaps between
global economy, social needs, and logistics focusing on
sustainable development solutions. Everyday new robotic
applications can be found in literature and media. Some of them
are basically entertainment toys. Nevertheless, the great majority
of them is used inside industries, performing several tasks
(painting, welding, moving materials, etc.). In a scenario of global
economy growth, any sustainable solution that can reduce the
product final cost is welcome. This article presents researches on
robotic forklifts for intelligent warehouses developed at the
Mechatronics Lab at USP–EESC in Brazil. We show three key-
routines that determine the Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV)
behavior: the routing algorithm (that computes the overall task
execution time and the minimum global path of each AGV using a
topological map of the warehouse), the local path planning
algorithm (based on A* it searches for the local minimum path
between two nodes of the warehouse topological map), and an
auto-localization algorithm (that applies an Extended Kalman
Filter – EKF – to estimate the AGVs actual positions). In order to
validate the algorithms developed, several tests were carried out
using the simulation software Player/Stage. The results obtained
were encouraging and the router developed was able to solve
traffic jams and collisions, before sending the final paths to the
robots. In a near future all algorithms will be implemented using
mini- robotic forklifts and a scaled environment built in our lab.
I. INTRODUCTION
The world globalization is considered an on-going process
that started centuries ago. Since the end of World War II, the
so called modern globalization produced several effects that
affect us today in different ways (financial, industrial,
economic, political, cultural, etc). Nowadays, thanks to the
great development in several areas of knowledge, this process
can have benefit from various new technologies in
telecommunication, computer, robotics, etc. Logistics
Corporations are trying to achieve better results, increasing
their productivity and reducing their costs, by looking for the
use of new reliable technologies (including the use of robotic
systems).
Only now automated logistics systems are reaching their
full capabilities. Frequently, automated logistics systems, like
warehouses, industries, seaports, and container terminals are
adopting AGVs - Automated Guide Vehicles (Fig. 1) as a
flexible and scalable alternative to optimize transport tasks,
and other hazardous tasks in inhospitable environments (e.g.:
nuclear power plants, mines, industrial freezers, etc). More
recently, a new generation of AGVs has provided better
logistics sector, offering significant advantages when
compared to conventional material manipulation equipment
[1]. Therefore, one of the main purposes of AGVs routing
systems is to minimize the time spent in cargo transportation.
Since then, many authors have focused their efforts on this
issue Ravizza [2], Broadbent [3], Kim and Tanchoco [4]
Möhring [5], Liu [6] and Vis [7] present a literature review
on routing problems and methods of resolution.
Fig. 1. AGV – Automated Guided Vehicle working in an Intelligent
Warehouse in Germany [2].
Based on this scenario, our paper describes the work in
progress at the Mechatronics Lab at USP-EESC, Brazil. In
Section II we shortly present the methodology developed. We
briefly describe three key-routines that determine the AGVs
behavior in the warehouse: routing, path planner, and auto-
localization algorithms. In Section III, the simulation
environment is presented. Section IV focuses on the
simulation results and in Section V we summarized the
conclusions.
II. METHODOLOGY
In this work we used system architecture (Fig. 2) that
allows robotic forklifts to execute transportation tasks in an
intelligent warehouse-like environment. The system is
composed of 3 interdependent sub-systems: global path
planner (routing system), auto-localization, and local path
planner (navigation and obstacle avoidance). It is important
to highlight that each robotic forklift has its own sensor, auto-
localization, and local navigation systems running
independently and informing regularly the routing system all
local decisions taken. Thanks to this, the routing system can
verify globally the overall system safety.

978-1-4244-5697-0/10/$25.00 ©2010 IEEE 1463

 The routing system receives information about the
transportation tasks needed (pallet quantity, priorities, etc.).
Based on this information, it selects the minimum quantity of
robotic forklifts necessary to execute the tasks. Then, based
on a topologic map of the environment, it calculates the
routes for the necessary forklifts, checking possible
collisions, traffic jams, etc. After that, it sends the routes to
each robotic forklift and regularly verifies the progress of all
tasks. Taking into account the global route, each forklift
calculates its own local path necessary to reach its goal and
monitors its surrounds looking for dynamic or unexpected
obstacles during the execution of planned path.

Fig. 3. The Routing System Algorithm.

The warehouse model adopted in the simulation purposes

has a fleet of six forklifts that move in a bi-directional circuit
composed of 360 nodes interconnected by 652 arcs, as shown
in Fig. 4.

Fig. 2. Overall System Architecture proposed.

At a certain frequency, based on sensor data and

environment map (a two-layer map: metric and topological)
each robotic forklift auto-localization system updates its
position estimates and informs these data to the global and
local navigation systems. Its local navigation system
compares actual position with the desired one. If the robot is
away of the route, the local navigation system sends
commands to correct its positioning. The methodology
implemented is described in the following sections.
A. Routing System Fig. 4. Mapping model considered in the simulations: (a) the warehouse 2D
The routing task may be understood as the process of model ; (b) the topologic map with the nodes, and (c) final graph used in the
simulations.
selecting appropriate paths simultaneously for the AGVs
among different possible solutions using cost functions in
There are special nodes that we called stations. In these
order to increase the system productivity [8].
positions the robotic forklifts are able to release and receive
In the proposed model, our routing algorithm performs the new load (4 Production - A, B, C, and D, 11 Shelves and 6
selection of optimized routes for the robotic forklifts along Charging Platform), charge batteries (6 Depot). We
the network nodes, and it sends information from the origin considered that the Central Control Unit (CCU) calculates the
to the destination positions for all AGVs. Each AGV routes using the routing algorithm and sends them to the
executes the task starting in an initial position and orientation robotic forklifts. They navigate through the warehouse
and moving to a pre-established position and orientation, connected by a communication system (wireless). It is
generating a minimum path. This path is a continuous necessary to highlight that the proposed algorithm calculates
sequence of positions and orientations of the AGVs. The the route, represented by check-points (nodes in a topological
algorithm is based on Dijkstra's shortest-path method [5] and map). In order to apply Dijkstra’s algorithm [5], it is
was implemented in C/C++ (Fig. 3). necessary to have the environment mapped previously (Fig.

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4a) and an estimation of the robotic forklifts position
(provided by the localization system). Then, the environment
topological map is used (Fig. 4b). On this map, the relevant
environment features are modeled as check-points (nodes).
We assumed that the stations (Shelves, Platform Charging,
and Production) are placed in nodes belonging to our
warehouse topological map. This is to certify that each
robotic forklift in the warehouse is on a node. Based on these
assumptions, each node of the graph used in the simulations
(Fig. 4c) has its address represented by coordinates (x, y),
where x and y represent in the map, respectively, the row and
column of address in meters.
This map is modeled for graph G(N,E), where N is the set
of nodes and E the set of edges. The NxN nodes of the graph
represent the connection of nodes, edges represent two paths
between two adjacent intersection nodes. The length of each
edge is a constant value in meters. The attribution of loading
and unloading tasks will be omitted in this work. We assume
that the time can be divided into discreet units and that each
forklift always arrives at the intersection node at some
discreet time. Based on the forklift routing model of the map,
we have formally define that: a Storage task is identified by
an ordered pair of initial and final nodes ((Ix,Iy),(Fx,Fy)),
where (Ix,Iy ) represents the origin address, (Fx,Fy) represents
the destination address, and (Ix,Iy )≠(Fx,Fy). Assuming that a
task has a distinct origin and also a distinct (but different)
destination and each task has only one handled forklift, each
forklift begins its activities. The Dijkstra’s shortest path is
used in this work to calculate the routes of the forklifts
considering the cost. Basically, the method of routing time
window [10] consists in verifying traffic jams and deadlocks
in order to improve the route. Next, we verify the route
optimization reducing the quantity of curves using again
Dijkstra’s algorithm with time-window [11].
The routing system interacts with the other systems as
presented in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Interaction of the routing system with navigation, control, and
localizations systems.
B. Local Path Planning System
The robotic forklift local path is based on the global path
data provided by the routing algorithm. These data are
basically a sequence of nodes of a topological map that is
used to model the environment. The local planner converts
these nodes into a sequence of initial and final positions that
must be reached to complete the task. In order to find the
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minimum path between these positions, we applied the A*
algorithm [12].
The A* algorithm is based on a graph that has nonnegative
arcs and it considers two variables while searching the
minimum path: the travelled distance and an estimative of the
distance to reach the goal position. Due to this, the algorithm
can direct its search to obtain the minimum path spending a
minimum computer cost. After that, the navigation controller
executes the actions necessary to move the robot according to
the desired path.
The robotic forklift kinematic model is essential to control
its own movements (wheel angular speeds). As we are using
differential driven robots to simulate the robotic forklifts, we
decided to develop a parameterized model using the relevant
constructive parameters necessary to control wheel speeds.
To model a differential mobile robot, we consider that the
wheel-soil contact points are placed in xy plane. The global
coordinate system {M} is located in the environment at O
and oriented by the orthogonal versors I 1 and J 1 :
M = {O, I 1 , J 1 } (1)
A mobile coordinate system is fixed at the midpoint
between the driven wheels axis (P), and will be guided by the
orthogonal versors J2 and I2, which is parallel to the axis of
the wheel:
N = {P, I 2 , J 2 } (2)
Therefore, representation of points A, B and C can be
written in a simpler manner using the system N:
A = {0,−c}N (3)
B = {− l ,0}N (4)
C = {l ,0}N (5)
Finally, the point coordinates may be expressed in any
coordinate system through equations 6 and 7:
AN = RMN (θ) . ( AM − {x, y,0}T ) (6)
AM = −1
RMN (θ) . ( AN + {x, y,0} )
T
(7)
Fig.6. Global and mobile coordinates system and the position robot
components
 It must be highlighted that the robot modeling will be
used in real robot control applications. Due to the use of
Player/Stage simulator, that already has a model for control
system implemented, the first developed model was not used
for simulations.
C. Auto-Localization
Localization is the problem of finding out robot’s
coordinates relative to its environment, assuming that one is
provided with map of the environment [13]. Localization is
also a key component of the project. It provides the estimated
position of the robot using a localization algorithm. The
algorithm is based on the model that describes robot motion
as a function of the odometry, where the robot motion is
approximated by a rotation δROT1, followed by a translation
δTRANS and a second rotation δROT2. There are several
techniques and algorithms in literature used to localize
mobile robots. In this work the Extended Kalman Filter
(EKF) was adopted to obtain an estimate of the localization
of the robot during the simulation. The EKF is a non-linear
version of the Kalman Filter that basically substitutes linear
predictions by non-linear generalizations.
The EKF is divided into two main parts: prediction and
correction. In the prediction stage an estimation of the
position using the information odometry is made. Then, in
the correction stage, characteristics extracted from the
environment are compared with estimate measurements.
They are calculated according to the map and estimated
position. In the sequence, the estimate of robot’s position is
updated. The EKF follows General Diagram to Location of
Mobile Robots (Fig. 7) proposed by [14].
Fig. 7. General Diagram to Location of Mobile Robots. Adapted from
Siegwart and Nourbakhsh [14]
In order to simulate the EKF, landmarks were included in
the simulated environment in a structured way and assuming
previously known location. The landmarks are detected by
the robotic forklift during the simulation. The positioning
information of the landmarks (mj,x, mj,y, mj,s) regarding the
robot are processed during the execution of the EKF’s
algorithm. The Algorithm 1(adapted from Thrun et al. [15])
shows in details the equations of the Extended Kalman Filter.
Prediction:
µ t = g (ut , µ t −1 ) (8)
Σ t = Gt Σ t −1GtT + Rt (9)
Correction:
K t = Σ t H tT ( H t Σ t H tT + Qt ) −1 (10)
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µ t = µ t + K t ( z t − h( µ t )) (11)
Σ t = ( I − K t H t )Σ t (12)
Return µt, ∑t
Where:
µ t state vector mean ( x t , y t , θ t )
g (u t , µ t −1 ) state transition function
u t control vector (δROT1, δTRANS, δROT2)
Σ t state vector covariance
G t Jacobian of g (u t , µ t −1 )
Rt noise model
K t Kalman gain
H t Jacobian of h ( µ t )
Qt measurement noise
i i i
z t measurement vector ( rt t , φ t , s t )
h ( µ t ) measurement prediction function ( rˆtit , φˆti , sˆti )
∂h( µ t ) ∂g (u t , µ t −1 )
Ht = Gt =
∂xt ∂xt −1
Functions g (u t , µ t −1 ) and h ( µ t ) details:
g (u t , xt −1 ) = xt −1 + δ TRANS ⋅ cos(θ t −1 + δ ROT 1 )
g (u t , y t −1 ) = y t −1 + δ TRANS ⋅ sin (θ t −1 + δ ROT 1 )
g (u t , θ t −1 ) = θ t −1 + δ ROT 1 + δ ROT 2
rˆti = (m j , x − µ t , x )2 + (m j , y − µ t , y )2
φˆti = a tan 2(m j , y − µ t , y , m j , x − µ t , x ) − µ t ,θ
sˆti = m j , s
III. SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT
The simulated environment is an intelligent warehouse.
The simulation of this environment aims to find the best
solution for this context. In other words, a viable, reliable,
and robust solution. The simulations were implemented in
Linux Operating System using the Player/Stage simulation
software [16]. The development of simulation environment
was divided into two stages: 1). implementation of
warehouse’s virtual model and its limits based on its draft
(CAD file); 2). virtual modeling of robotic forklifts (physical
characteristics, controllers, etc.).
The first stage is basically the generation of an image file
from a warehouse draft. The 2D Stage simulator recognizes
this file and creates a virtual map similar to the real one. This
virtual map has information concerning the warehouse
frontiers and inaccessible areas to the robot.
In the second stage the robotic forklift and environment
virtualization and the router algorithm are integrated by the
Player software. Player supports the virtual forklift
commands control based on an algorithm written in C
language.
 IV. RESULTS
In order to verify the efficiency of the algorithms, several
simulations were carried out using the virtual warehouse
developed by the Player/Stage Simulator. Our algorithms
were applied to control this warehouse. Simulations were run
using two test scenarios (as shown below). Each robotic
forklift has one loading and unloading task to perform.
(Table I and Table II, task #1).
TABLE I
INFORMATION DEALT IN THE PROPOSED MODEL
Forklift Depot Task #1 Depot
Origin Destination (a)
1 Depot # 1 Shelf_I_16 Changing_D Depot # 1
TABLE II
INFORMATION DEALT IN THE PROPOSED MODEL
Information Depot Task #1 Depot
Origin Destination
1 Depot # 1 Shelf_A_02 Production_B Depot # 1
2 Depot # 2 Shelf_A_06 Changing_D Depot # 2
3 Depot # 3 Shelf_A_14 Changing_B Depot # 3
4 Depot # 4 Shelf_A_13 Changing_B Depot # 4

Therefore, in the proposed scenario, the route is a set of 3

sub-routes automatically generated by the routing algorithm
(Fig. 8). We tested the two stages of routing (A – One (b)
Robotic Forklift and B – Four Robotic Forklift), in each one
the robotic forklift(s) left its (their) depot(s) and returned to
it(them) after finishing the task(s).

(c)
Fig. 9. Routing task applied to four Robotic Forklifts - positions on x-y plane
vs. time. The nodes of table II are represented by circles. Collisions and
traffic jams are represented by blue stars and emphasized by arrows.
Fig. 8. Routes for one forklift. In (a) the minimum route was calculated for
the desired tasks; in (b) routes without dead-locks and traffic jams after the In Fig. 10 one may observe the final path calculated by the
rerouting task (one may observe that for one forklift the routes were the
same); and in (c) the path was optimized, reducing the total maneuver navigation controller for the forklift #1 using the A*
quantity. algorithm. This algorithm gives the robotic forklift the
parameters that will be used by the controllers to execute the
The results show that in Fig. 9-a the Forklift # 3 had two route.
routing problems: a traffic jam with Forklift # 4 (detail
represented by a grey arrow) and a deadlock with Forklift # 4
(detail represented by a black arrow). In addition to this, in
the conflict-free stage (Fig. 9-b), the time and distance costs
can be higher than the previously calculated (Fig 9-a),
because the algorithm is avoiding traffic jams and dead-
locks. Finally, in the stage of maneuvers optimization (Fig. 9-
c) the best results for the calculated routes were obtained.
Next, the best solution provided by the routing algorithm is
simulated using the Player/Stage. We used the A* and the Fig. 10. 2D warehouse model: final path executed
Extended Kalman Filter algorithms to obtain a more realist
simulation of the real robotic forklift behavior.

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 During the implementation of the EKF in the modeled V. CONCLUSIONS
environment, it was necessary to include cumulative random We briefly presented the approach developed in order to
errors in the robotic forklift odometry and laser sensor data, route robotic forklifts in an intelligent warehouse
because Player/Stage software uses data without sensor environment. Several simulations were carried out using the
errors. The EKF showed enough robustness with respect to Player/Stage tools to test the algorithms. As a result, we
odometry errors during the simulation because the robot did could solve many bugs and refine the algorithms.
not collide with walls. It managed to keep the route and The router developed was able to solve traffic jams and
position, and the values generated by the filter did not collisions, before sending the final paths for the robots. The
diverge. A* algorithm was a simple way to control the robot
Table III presents the maximum error, mean, and the maneuvers, and the EKF was sufficient to avoid the position
standard deviation between the simulated position (without error propagation. Our next step will be a real
error) and the position estimated by the EKF. These values implementation using mini-robotic forklifts and a scaled
were obtained while simulating the task presented in Fig. 11. environment built in our lab. We also plan some
8,530 EKF updates were used to calculate the values of Table improvements on the algorithm, to refine the routing task
III. planner and consider more parameters (e.g.: velocity changes
while maneuvering, load and unload times).
TABLE III
VALUES OF THE ABSOLUTE ERROR EKF VS. SIMULATED POSITION. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
X(m) Y(m) Theta(rad)
Max 0,03836 0,03950 0,01751 The authors would like to thank FAPESP (Processes
Mean 0,01252 0,01971 0,00063 2008/10477-0, 2008/09755-6 and 2009/01542-6), CAPES
Standard Deviation 0,01365 0,01314 0,00086 (Process 33002045011P8) and CNPQ (Process 134214/2009-
9) for the financial support given to this research.
A. One Robotic Forklift
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