Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the different readings which will be deemed

important and related to the present study.

Related Literatures

These serve as links between the readers and the studies already

done, tells about aspects that have been already established or concluded by

other authors and researchers. Moreover, it also give chances to appreciate

the evidences that have already been collected by previous researches, and

projects the current research work in the proper perspective.

Women Rising: The Unseen Barriers

Many CEOs who make gender diversity a priority—by setting

aspirational goals for the proportion of women in leadership roles, insisting on

diverse slates of candidates for senior positions, and developing mentoring

and training programs—are frustrated. They and their companies spend time,

money, and good intentions on efforts to build a more robust pipeline of

upwardly mobile women, and then not much happens. The problem with

these leaders’ approaches is that they don’t address the often fragile process

of coming to see oneself, and to be seen by others, as a leader. Becoming a

 18

leader involves much more than being put in a leadership role, acquiring new

skills, and adapting one’s style to the requirements of that role. It involves a

fundamental identity shift. Organizations inadvertently undermine this

process when they advise women to proactively seek leadership roles

without also addressing policies and practices that communicate a mismatch

between how women are seen and the qualities and experiences people tend

to associate with leaders.

A significant body of research shows that for women, the subtle gender

bias that persists in organizations and in society disrupts the learning cycle at

the heart of becoming a leader. This research also points to some steps that

companies can take in order to rectify the situation. It’s not enough to identify

and instill the “right” skills and competencies as if in a social vacuum. The

context must support a woman’s motivation to lead and also increase the

likelihood that others will recognize and encourage her efforts—even when

she doesn’t look or behave like the current generation of senior executives

(Herminia Ibarra, 2013).

 19

Women Business Leaders: Why So Few And How To Have More

The just released report, Women in the Workplace 2018, recognizes

how women have begun to make their claims for leadership but often

encounter a workplace culture that makes the challenges severe. The report

also suggests that male leaders may not be fully aware of or able to

recognize these obstacles. They minimize the obstacles or find it hard to

understand why women find these obstacles so upsetting, making it more

difficult for women to address them. Any organization that seeks to benefit

from the great contribution of women’s energy and capabilities must respond

to and facilitate women’s determination to succeed. As men and women grow

and continue their education, they have equal ambitions to pursue a

successful professional career, with roughly equal levels of achievement —

though some studies suggest that women do slightly better. As they move

into their work careers however, women are generally paid less for similar

work, do not ascend to the highest levels of leadership and often lose their

ambition and opt out. There is no simple reason for this and no simple

solution. The loss of so many capable women from the higher levels of our

workforce takes a toll on organizations, especially as we seek leaders who

are capable of navigating organizations through high levels of change and

uncertainty (Dennis Jaffe, 2018).

 20

Women Leaders have it Good in PH

In its recent policy note titled “Filipino Women in Leadership:

Government and Industry,” the Philippine Institute for Development Studies

(PIDS) says that the country, generally, is doing well when it comes to gender

equality. Female students, for one, are more likely to complete their tertiary

studies compared to the boys; and when it comes to the workforce, more

women take on higher-paying positions compared to men. Even the gender

pay gap here is considered to be smaller than that of more developed

nations. Still, there is something lacking, which the study highlights: that of

greater female representation in some of government’s and industry’s highest

positions, or the posts which allow them to be directly involved in making

important decisions and setting directions. “In the government, these

positions include elective and appointive positions across the legislative,

executive, and judicial branches. In the industry, they include chief-level

positions, board memberships and director positions,” states the report

penned by University of the Philippines College of Mass Communication

professor Clarissa David, PIDS senior research fellow Jose Ramon Albert,

and PIDS research analyst Jana Flor Vizmanos (Annelle Tayao-Juego,

2018).
 21

Women Leaders Driving Philippine Economic Growth

On March 8, the world will once again celebrate International Women’s

Day (IWD) and toast the achievements of women across social, economic,

cultural and political arenas. Unlike the #MeToo campaign which grabbed

headlines last year as women came together to break their silence about

sexual harassment, IWD is not a new movement. Its roots date back to 1908

when some 15,000 women marched through New York City demanding

shorter hours, better pay and voting rights. A year later, the first National

Woman’s Day was observed across the United States. Here at home, with

the leadership of the Philippine Commission on Women, IWD will be

observed month-long with activities designed to engage many stakeholders

and showcase inspiring women. The 2018 celebration is anchored around

the theme “We Make Change Work for Women” and will highlight the

empowerment of women as active contributors to and claimholders of

development. In this two-part series, get to know the women who are driving

the country’s growth as private citizens and public servants. In their work,

they are shaping the present and the future of the Philippine economy

(Aneth-Lim,2018).
 22

Views on the State of Gender and Leadership and Obstacles for Women

A majority of Americans would like to see more women in leadership

positions in business and politics, but many are skeptical that there will ever

be gender parity in these positions, even as more women move into

management roles and run for office. The public largely says it’s easier for

men than it is for women to get top executive positions in business and to get

elected to high political offices – a majority of men and women say this is the

case – but there is little consensus between the two genders about what is

holding women back from these positions. For example, 72% of women – vs.

48% of men – point to women having to do more to prove themselves as a

major reason why their gender is underrepresented in higher political offices.

And while about six-in-ten women (59%) see gender discrimination as a

major obstacle for women in politics, 36% of men share this view. These

patterns are repeated when the public is asked why there aren’t more women

in top executive positions in business. Women are also more likely than men

to see benefits to female leadership for Americans overall and for women and

men in particular. Large majorities of men (71%) and women (82%) say that

having more women in top leadership positions in business and government

would improve the quality of life for women (Juliana Menasce, 2018).
 23

Women and Leadership 2018

There are wide gender gaps in views about women in leadership.

About seven-in-ten women say there are too few women in high political

offices and in top executive business positions; about half of men say the

same. And women are far more likely than men to see structural barriers and

uneven expectations holding women back from these positions. About seven-

in-ten women – vs. about half of men – say a major reason why women are

underrepresented in top positions in politics and business is that they have to

do more to prove themselves. And while about six-in-ten women say gender

discrimination is a major obstacle to female leadership in each of these

realms, smaller shares of men say this is the case in the corporate world

(44%) or in politics (36%). To a large degree, these gender gaps persist

within parties. Among Republicans and Democrats, women are more likely

than men to say there are too few women in political and corporate

leadership positions, and there are substantial gender differences,

particularly among Republicans, in views on the obstacles holding women

back from these positions. Despite the surge of female candidates this year,

women are increasingly doubtful that voters are ready to elect more female

leaders. A growing share cite this as a major reason why women are

underrepresented in high political offices: 57% of women now say voters not
 24

being ready to elect women is a major reason, compared with 41% in 2014.

Men remain much less likely to see this as a major impediment (32% of men

do so (Kim Parker, 2018).

Few Women in Leadership Roles

It's an unpleasant fact, but women are much less likely to hold

leadership positions than men, and they're still having trouble gaining ground.

"Despite gains in every profession, women remain underrepresented at all

levels of leadership," according to a new report from the American

Association of University Women. "In Congress, on corporate boards, and in

our nation's colleges and universities, male leaders outnumber female

leaders by considerable margins." How considerable? According to the

report, Barriers and Bias: The Status of Women in Leadership, women make

up just 19 percent of Congress and just 28 percent of corporate executives.

Another study showed that less than 14 percent of non-profit organizations

had boards with at least 50 percent women last year. "For Asian, black, and

Hispanic women, the problem is even more acute," the AAUW report states.

For example, women of color make up less than three percent of board

directors at Fortune 500 companies, while Asian, black, and Hispanic women

represent just 17 percent of workers in S&P 500 companies and fewer than

four percent of executive officials and managers. Why, then, with so many
 25

talented and qualified women ready and willing to fill leadership roles does a

gender leadership (Jillian Kramer, 2016).

Women's Leadership Important in our World

Female leadership matters. All other considerations aside, it results in

better performance. Studies have shown that companies with greater gender

diversity, not just among the workforce as a whole but specifically among

senior leaders, are more profitable. So, the answer to the question “why is

women’s leadership important in our world?”, the answer is simple: it gives us

better results. But when it comes to stepping into our power as leaders, it’s

clear that we face some pretty big challenges. Today I want to share some

current research into women’s leadership, as well as an angle on it that I

think you’ll find incredibly motivating – whether or not you think of yourself as

a leader in the traditional sense. Women leaders have a measurable impact

on the bottom line. Well, it won’t surprise you to know that the answer to this

is complicated. As we all know, women are a diverse bunch and the

individual decisions and choices we make – or have made for us – about

stepping up to more senior roles are as unique as we are (Joanna Martin,

2014).
 26

Insights Learned from the Related Literatures

As we all know, women are a diverse bunch and the individual

decisions and choices we make – or have made for us – about stepping up to

more senior roles are as unique as we are. One of them is the cultural

paradigm, the social context most of us have been raised in, which continues

to promote certain gender stereotypes. Changing our culture when it comes

to the stereotypes we have of each gender would be a great place to start. As

a future social worker, we are passionate about ensuring the next generation

isn’t raised with these outdated ideas of women and men’s roles and

characteristics. But we think this also offers us a real opportunity to change

things right now when it comes to modelling what effective leadership looks

like. With courage and confidence, it’s time to change not only the diversity

among our leadership teams but to create a new form of leadership. If you

want to be relevant in the future, you have no choice but to change and

evolve. Leaders have a responsibility to build and support a culture where

breaking down ingrained habits and old standards is recognized as an

important part of rebuilding and creating a stronger, more successful

organization. They not only see the need for change, they work hard to

identify and manage resistance in order to push the needed change forward.
 27

Related Studies

Often, women share that they’ve been surprised to uncover some very

negative entrenched views of being called “girly” or “like a woman”. Being told

you “throw like a girl” or comments like “typical woman driver” spring to mind.

We’re rightly outraged when we hear these comments being made, and yet

however hard we try to resist them, they have an impact. We internalize a

certain set of associations with being a woman compared to being a man,

and that has a real impact on our confidence when it comes to stepping into

leadership roles.

Former At-Risk Women Who are Now Serving in Successful Leadership

This study is about women leaders in the Belizean society, and the

way a few of them were able to overcome cultural, gender, traditional,

political, and societal barriers. Eight women were purposefully selected to

participate in this study. Of the eight women selected, four were potentially

at-risk which, within the context of this study, was defined as not being able

to complete high school in a traditional setting, becoming pregnant as an

adolescent, and having limitations due to financial hardship. The remaining

four participants were never at-risk in their adolescence. Although only four of

the eight women selected were truly at-risk during their adolescence, all the

women encountered numerous obstacles as they pursued their journeys to

 28

success. The study considered these eight women by evaluating in which

mechanisms of resiliency they engaged, if any, while on their journeys to

success. Each participant chronicled her life’s experiences through personal

interviews and key factors were considered which identified the relevant

models of resiliency. This study utilized qualitative methodological design.

Interviews were used as the primary data collection tool, and analysis of the

resulting text was used to examine the impact of the following factors:

dropping out of high school, earning a standard education, political

victimization, and gender discrimination. All three models of resiliency were

evident in the life stories of each participant; however, those at-risk of not

being able to finish high school seemed to make stronger use of the

protective model and the compensatory model, whereas those who went on

to choose public life seemed to reflect responses more in the challenge

model (Amelia Williams, 2009).

A Study of Empowering Women Senior Leaders in Higher Education

The number of women in senior administrative and leadership roles in

higher education is minimal compared to the number of women in higher

education jobs in general. This phenomenological study explored pathways

women took to advance in their careers and barriers that prevent more

women from gaining senior administrative and leadership roles. Research

 29

questions addressed perceived barriers participants faced while trying to

advance their careers, mentoring and other support strategies women in

higher education employed to help them move up the career ladder, and

actions female leaders took in order to help establish gender equity. Data

were triangulated through member check, debriefing, iterative questioning,

and reflective commentary.

Titchen’s thematic data analysis and the hermeneutic circle were used

to analyze data; analysis was validated by an independent auditor. Mentoring

and networking were identified as effective tools for gaining executive skills.

Political savvy, determination, and serendipity were factors to which

participants attributed success. Based on study results, higher education

institutions should focus on succession planning to bring more women into

senior leadership roles. The age gap for female senior leaders in higher

education is an area for further study. This study may support positive social

change by providing female leaders the opportunity to understand the nature

of higher education and subsequently to develop strategies and to gain

constructive experiences that can improve their status (Mila Cselenszky,

2012).
 30

Experiences of Multiracial Female Leaders in Independent Schools

This qualitative study examined the experiences of 11 multiracial

female leaders in independent schools. Three qualitative methods were used

to explore their experiences: in-depth, semi-structured interviews; participant

diaries; and the researcher’s field notebook. Two primary themes emerged

from the data. The first: Multiracial females are uniquely positioned as

leaders due to their ability to hold and consider multiple perspectives, being

perceptive and good listeners, acting as bridges between groups, and

building strong connections with diverse groups of people. The second:

Independent schools currently are not designed to be supportive of diversity,

equity, and inclusion. Participant observations and stories indicated that

independent schools were shown to be a microcosm of the greater United

States society preventing equity and inclusion from happening due to the

cycle of socialization (Harro, 2013). Helms’s (1990) White racial identity

development theory provides a possible framework for understanding

independent schools. This study contributes to the literature on independent

schools by providing a multiracial female leader’s perspective and to the

literature on professional women of color in leadership as it adds the unique

viewpoint of multiracial females (Julie Puanani, 2018).

 31

Women Pygmalion, Transformational, and Transactional Leaders

New challenges in achieving effective leadership have arisen as

women rapidly enter a team based workforce, especially because they not

equally represented in top leadership positions. The current study assess the

relative effectiveness of three leadership styles utilized by women in

leadership positions: pygmalion, transformational, and transactional. The

secondary qualitative analyses show that, overall, the findings indicate that

women are the most effective as transformational leaders and as producing

the highest level of perceived leadership effectiveness and performance in a

project-based team environment. In conjunction with previous research, the

current study shows that women transformational leaders are able to

motivate employees to perform, create positive perceptions of themselves,

and tap into their own strengths as transformational leaders. Overall, the

findings suggest that women should use transformational and pygmalion

leadership for project-based teams. In addition, the current study

recommends more exploration on pygmalion leadership to understand to

mediation relationships around team potency (Joleen Archibald, 2015).

 32

The Barriers, Fears and Motivations Encountered by Women Leaders

With the number of women holding leadership positions in higher

education organizations increasing, women are being expected to exhibit the

same leadership styles as male colleagues. The result is frustration and

obstacles that women must overcome. The current study attempts to better

understand the motivations that account for why women are taking leadership

positions in higher education organizations and the concerns associated with

them. Using a qualitative phenomenological method allowed for the

exploration of the personal experiences of these women. The study finds that

women are motivated internally and externally when in leadership roles, and

most barriers are externally imposed by the organization and colleagues.

Findings support previous research regarding the barriers women encounter

as well as the importance of mentorship programs and other similar

development programs. Based on the findings of the current study,

recommendations are provided for implementation of women specific

leadership development opportunities within higher education organizations

(Audrey Rabas, 2013).

 33

Women Still Unable to Achieve Leadership Roles in the Workplace

The purpose of this paper is to review the challenges that females face

when it comes to leadership. This paper takes a closer look at the results of

several movements, the stereotypes that are present in the workplace, and

the various leadership styles that are commonly practiced. Further, an

expansive review of the different characteristics between men and female

leaders will be presented. The knowledge gained from this paper will identify

the challenges that females Women in Leadership Challenges 5 face when

embarking on or fulfilling leadership roles.

Results revealed that women comprise almost 50 percent of the

workforce, but continue to face challenges when aspiring to be leaders.

Stereotypes, leadership styles, and obvious gender differences, continue to

place women at a disadvantage in achieving their goals. Several initiatives

have taken place over the years, such as the Women’s Liberation Movement

and the National Organization for Women, yet the numbers of female leaders

throughout all industries continue to lag. Research suggests that in some

cases the numbers are worse off than when the initiatives were implemented.

Continued efforts are needed on both the part of women and the hiring
 34

industry to create a level playing field and increase the representation of

women in leadership (Rachel Peterson, 2012).

Female Leaders Being Pushed Toward the Edge

The glass cliff effect describes a real-world phenomenon in which

women are more likely to be appointed to precarious leadership positions in

poorly performing organizations, while men are more likely to be appointed to

stable leadership positions in successful organizations (Ryan & Haslam,

2005). This effect represents a subtle, yet dangerous, form of gender

discrimination that may limit workplace diversity as well as women’s ability to

become successful leaders. Importantly, research exploring why women are

preferred for more perilous leadership positions is lacking. The main focus of

this dissertation is to systematically organize previous theory and empirically

examine processes underlying the glass cliff effect. Data was collected

through an online study in which participants evaluated fictional leadership

candidates for an open leadership position (Study 1) as well as a media study

in which coders content analyzed media perceptions regarding CEO

appointments using a matched sample of 84 male and female Fortune 500

CEOs (Study 2). Findings from both studies most strongly demonstrate that

females are likely to be preferred over males when being promoted to a

precarious position as a way for the organization to signal change.

 35

Theoretical implications of the study findings regarding gender and

leadership as well as practical implications regarding organizational

procedures and women’s careers are discussed (Yael Oelbaum, 2016).

Advancing the Status of Women in Society

This project will explore the probability of activism among older women

in the baby boomer generation. There is, however, a small but growing camp

of researchers that I chose to be a part of that looks at aging from a woman’s

perspective. The thesis of this research is that women of the baby boom

generation are a political resource for organizations seeking to advance the

status of women in society. Previous research has shown that higher

education and work force experience are strong precursors for activism that

improves the lives of women and the communities in which they live. This

study, therefore, explored the probability of activism among these older, self

actualized women through a review of the literature and case study of the

Red Hat Society and the Older Women’s League (OWL). The findings

suggest that women of the baby boom generation are a political resource and

those organizations seeking to engage these women in activism need to

develop strategies that help them make connections between what happens

in their own lives and government policy and empower them with tools to

affect change in the world around them (Laura Traynor, 2006).

 36

Insights Learned from the Related Studies

Women’s leadership is more than important in today’s world, it’s

imperative. Whether it’s the public or private sector, organizations that are led

by inclusive leadership teams make better decisions that deliver better

results. The qualities that are required to lead in the 21st century include the

ability to connect, collaborate, empathize, and communicate—all qualities

that tend to be “female” in nature. Women in leadership roles position

organizations in a way that makes them fit for the future. Why is Women’s

Leadership So Important? Because the world needs feminine and masculine

traits to solve problems of the world. The world needs women to lead more

than ever to economically thrive, and become more sustainable and peaceful.

Moreover, women are half the talent of the human race, we’re

especially crucial right now because we don’t have our “masculinity” to prove,

and violence against females normalizes all other violence. Significantly,

women bring a perspective that values not only competition but also

collaboration to organizations and teams. Additionally, feminine values are an

operating system of a modern, social, open economy and with women’s

leadership, we can improve not only society, but business as well.