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Journal of Petroleum Geology,Vol. 44(3), July 2021, pp 385-412 385

STRATIGRAPHY, SEDIMENTOLOGY AND

GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE OLIGOCENE – LOWER
MIOCENE MAIKOP GROUP IN DAGESTAN,
NE CAUCASUS

Yu.Gavrilov*#, R. Nedumov*, E. Shchepetova*, E. Shcherbinina*,

E. Kozlova**, O. Golovanova* and B. Pokrovsky*

A relatively complete section of the Maikop Group (Oligocene – lower Miocene) is exposed
along the Sulak River valley in Dagestan (NE Caucasus) and contains a depositional record
for this part of the Eastern Paratethys. At the Sulak River outcrop, the Maikop Group is ca.
1200 m thick and can be divided into six lithologically-defined formations: these are from
the base up the Khadum Formation (Rupelian), the Miatly Formation, the Lower Clayey
Formation, the Mutsidakal Formation (Chattian), the Riki Formation and the Zuramakent
Formation (lower Miocene). The Khadum Formation rests on the upper Eocene Belaya Glina
Formation and the boundary is marked by a sharp lithological transition from pale-coloured,
bioturbated limestones below to black organic-rich shales above.
Biostratigraphic studies of calcareous nannoplankton in samples from the Sulak River
section allowed the position of the Eocene – Oligocene boundary at the base of the Maikop
Group to be defined. The boundary occurs within the CP16 Zone near the division between
the CP16a and CP16b subzones.This is consistent with the age of the boundary at a reference
outcrop along the Kheu River in Kabardino-Balkaria in the Central North Caucasus, some
200 km west of Dagestan. A positive oxygen stable isotope anomaly occurs at the top of
the Belaya Glina Formation.
Samples of the Maikop Group are characterized by variations in TOC content ranging
between 0.14 and 11.06 wt. %.The highest values were measured in both carbonate- and
clay-rich samples from the Khadum Formation, and the lowest (less than 0.5 wt.%) in
sandstones from the overlying Oligocene Miatly, Lower Clayey and Mutsidacal Formations.
Samples of the lower Miocene Riki and Zuramakent Formations have moderate TOC values
(on average more than 1.5 wt.%). Results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis show that Maikop samples
contain kerogen Types II and III which is distributed unevenly throughout the formations.
Clay-rich rocks in the upper part of the Khadum Formation (Solenovian Member) with
Type II kerogen have the greatest oil-generating potential, with initial hydrogen index values
estimated at 400-600 mg HC/g TOC. The Miatly Formation sandstones and siltstones
contain migrated bitumen which is recognized from increased values of Rock-Eval S1 and
the high Production Index (S1/(S1+S2). Overlying Oligocene – lower Miocene rocks contain
mainly Type III kerogen, although increased TOC values obtained from samples of the Riki
Formation indicate that it may have minor gas source potential.

* Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences,

Moscow, Russia.
** Center for Hydrocarbon Recovery, Skolkovo Institute
of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia.
#
Corresponding author, email: yugavrilov@gmail.com
Key words: Dagestan, Russia, Greater Caucasus,
Maikop Group, Paratethys, Oligocene, Miocene, anoxia,
geochemical proxies, stagnation coefficient.

© 2021 The Authors. Journal of Petroleum Geology © 2021 Scientific Press Ltd

Gavrilov.indd 385 19/06/2021 13:55:02

 386 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus

N
Khasavyurt ak

S ul
u
Kyzylyurt Q u K ois
Kur

Ng 2
Caspian
Sea
1
Miatly Ng 1
Ng 1 en
Dubki Oz
ra 43° 00′
Pg 3 +N 1 hu
Makhachkala

S
2 Chirkey
Pg 2 resevoir
Chirkey
3
Kaspiysk
Pg 3 +N 1 Q
Cr 2

Buinaksk
ak

J2 J1
S ul

Pg 2 Ng 1
Gi
m
o isu ry
n K Karabudakhkent
d ea
rid
A v ar K

n ge Cr 2
Pg 3 +N 1 42°40′
A

o
J1
Cr 1
is u

J2 Pg 1
J2
47° 00′
km 10 5 0 10 20 30 km tectonic Khadum
faults anticline

1 Sulak 2 Chirkey 3 Buinaksk

section section Pass

Fig. 1. Location of the studied outcrop sections (labelled 1 and 2) of the Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE
Caucasus; geological map after Nalivkin (1978). 1: Outcrop along the Sulak River valley at which the entire
Maikop Group is exposed; the base-Maikop Khadum Formation crops out near Miatly village (the “Miatly
section” of this paper). 2: “Chirkey section” to the NE of the Chirkey reservoir. Also marked is the Buinaksk
Pass outcrop location (see text).
Samples of Maikop Group sediments from the Sulak sulphides as well as uranium and rare earth elements
section were analysed for their contents of Mo, S, Fe, (Formozova, 1959; Kalinenko and Shvemberger, 1963;
Mn, V, Ni and other elements. A stagnation coefficient Kalinenko, 1990; Stolyarov and Kochenov, 1995). The
(Mo/Mn x 100) was calculated and was interpreted Maikop Group has also attracted particular attention
as a measure of the intensity of anoxia in the Maikop as an organic-rich source rock for oil and gas, and in
palaeobasin. Anoxic conditions are interpreted to have addition contains sandstone reservoir intervals which
reached a maximum in the Rupelian and Aquitanian host commercial accumulations of hydrocarbons
during deposition of the Khadum and Riki Formations (e.g. Prokopov, 1938; Vassoevich, 1955; Brod, 1958;
respectively. However, geochemical conditions were Aleksin et al., 1970; Ternovoi, 1976; Erofeev, 1978;
unstable and the oxygen concentration in the bottom Krylov, 1987; Orel, 2001; Sokolov and Khramova,
waters varied widely over time. Thus, the Zuramakent 1989; Sachsenhofer et al., 2017a and b; 2018).
Formation at the top of the Maikop Group was largely Despite almost a century of investigation into the
deposited in normally oxygenated conditions. Maikop Group, important questions relating to its
depositional history remain unresolved. In Dagestan
INTRODUCTION (Fig. 1), the Maikop Group has a number of distinct
sedimentological and palaeontological characteristics
Oligocene – early Miocene sedimentation in the Central which correlate poorly if at all with outcrop sections
and Eastern Paratethys resulted in the widespread elsewhere in the North Caucasus, where Maikopian
deposition of a thick, predominantly claystone-rich deposits are better dated in terms of their faunal
unit known as the Maikop Group (e.g. Zhizhchenko, content. The detailed lithological and geochemical
1958; Grossgeim, 1960; Akhmetiev and Benyamovsky, studies reported in this paper therefore attempt to
2003). High concentrations of metallic elements occur investigate the Maikopian depositional environment
at particular stratigraphic levels in this unit including in Dagestan and in addition to elucidate its evolution
sedimentary manganese ores, oolitic iron ores and iron through time.

Gavrilov.indd 386 19/06/2021 13:55:02

 Yu. Gavrilov et al. 387

Formation
Series
Stage
Lithology

Miocene
middle

Tarkhan-
Chokrak
ТОС CaCO3
1200m Samples % %

Zuramakent 474
Aquitanian, Burdigalian

470
lower Miocene

465

460

1000 455
450

445
Riki

440

800
435

430

425

420
600
Mutsidakal
upper Oligocene
Chattian

415

400 410
Lower Clayey

405

400

395

390
200
385
Miatly

380

375
370
365 1- 5 / 2019
Priabonian Rup.
upper lower

11.06
Eocene Olig.

59,68
Khadum 48 - 58
360
1- 9
0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Belaya
Glina

limestone marl claystone calcareous claystone

sandstone concretions olistolith 390 sample position

Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphy of the Maikop Group in the Sulak River valley succession with sample numbers (see
text for details) and variations in TOC and CaCO3 contents. Most TOC values were obtained by wet chemical
oxidation; however those for the Khadum Formation (TOC up to 11 wt%) were obtained by Rock-Eval pyrolysis.

A continuous Maikop Group succession is exposed on lithological features which are recognizable in
at outcrop along the Sulak River in Dagestan near the the field; biostratigraphic ages were not determined
village of Miatly (Fig. 1). Here the Maikop Group in early studies due to a general paucity of fauna in
has a total thickness of ca. 1200 m and can be divided most intervals.
into six formations following the lithostratigraphic Beluzhenko et al. (2018) proposed a subdivision of
scheme of Shatskiy (1929) and Shatskiy and Menner the Riki Formation at the Sulak River succession into
(1926). The formations are from bottom to top (Fig. the Alckun, Assa and Sulak Formations on the basis
2): the Khadum Formation (Rupelian), which is of lithostratigraphic correlations with outcrop sections
subdivided into the Pshekha and Solenovian Members; to the west where the formations were originally
the Miatly Formation; the Lower Clayey Formation; distinguished and dated by microfossils. The age of
the Mutsidakal Formation; the Riki Formation; the formations in Dagestan has not been corroborated
and the Zuramakent Formation (Chattian – lower by palaeontological means (e.g. nannoplankton
Miocene). Identification of the formations is based data); thus an accurate dating of the Riki Formation

Gavrilov.indd 387 19/06/2021 13:55:03

 388 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus
and its detailed subdivision is still under discussion
although an early Miocene age for part of it seems
probable (Fig. 2). Other stratigraphic divisions of the
Maikop Group were proposed during later studies
of the Paleogene succession in the North Caucasus.
However, these schemes were based on the study of
Maikopian successions located at some distance to the
west or north of Dagestan (Zhizhchenkо, 1953,1958;
Grossgeim, 1960; Popov et al., 2019; Zastrozhnov
et al., 2019). These stratigraphic schemes are not
reviewed here because their correlation with the fossil-
poor succession in Dagestan is still somewhat tenuous.
Over several years of fieldwork, the present
authors have studied the Maikop Group succession
in the Sulak River valley. The outcrops are in general
stratigraphically complete and contain a record of
Maikopian deposition in this part of the Eastern
Paratethys. This study had the following general
objectives: (i) to date the base of the Maikop Group
by analysing calcareous nannofossils across the
Eocene–Oligocene boundary (in the absence of other
stratigraphically important fauna); (ii) to investigate
the lithology, sedimentology and geochemistry of
Maikopian deposits in the study area; and (iii) to
reconstruct the depositional environment including
the redox conditions in the Maikopian palaeobasin.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample derivation
Two surface sections of the Maikop Group in the
Sulak River valley, some 40 km west of Makhachkala
(Fig. 1), were studied. The complete Maikop Group
succession is exposed along the west bank of the Sulak
River beginning near the village of Miatly (43°04’54”;
46°49’44”) and extending north for about 4 km (Fig.
1). A stratigraphic column for this succession (“Sulak
section”) is shown in Fig. 2. The bottom part of this
succession is referred to here as the “Miatly section”
and comprises the base-Maikop Khadum Formation
which is 55 m thick at this location.
The Khadum Formation is also exposed in a surface
section to the NE of the Chirkey reservoir, ca. 14 km
SE of Miatly (Fig. 1) (the “Chirkey section”). Here
the Khadum Formation is about 200-220 m thick.
The Sulak and Chirkey sections are separated by the
Khadum anticline.
Field studies of the Maikop Group in the Sulak
River valley have been carried out by the present
authors between 1985 and 2019. Detailed studies of the
Khadum Formation in the Miatly section by Gavrilov
(1985) were based on the analysis of a total of 69
samples (samples 48–58: see the sampling scheme in
Fig. 2). Sampling distance was about 1 m. Additional
samples from the boundary zone between the Belaya
Glina and the Khadum Formations (samples 1 to 9)
Gavrilov.indd 388
and the upper part of the Khadum Formation (samples
1 - 5/19) were collected in 2018 and 2019, respectively.
A lithological description of the entire Maikop
Group in the Sulak River section was made by
R. Nedumov (2005-2006; Fig. 2). Samples 360-
475 were taken by Nedumov from all six Maikop
formations, which were distinguished on the basis of
the lithostratigraphic schemes of Shatskiy (1929) and
Shatskiy and Menner (1926). Within each formation,
samples were collected at stratigraphically regular
intervals and included all rock types, with more
detailed sampling taking place at the boundary intervals
between the formations.
In the Chirkey section, field studies of the Khadum
Formation were carried out in 2010 to 2015 (samples
212-553; see Fig. 10 below); results were published
by Gavrilov et al. (2017) and are included here for
comparison purposes.
Archived samples of the Maikop Group in the
Sulak River valley from the Gavrilov and Nedumov
collections were available for this study. Also
available were samples from a Paleogene reference
section exposed along the Kheu River, located in
Kabardino-Balkaria in the Central North Caucasus
(Gavrilov et al., 2000). Samples from the Eocene–
Oligocene transitional interval here were taken from
the collection of N. Muzylöv stored in the Laboratory
of Micropaleontology of the Geological Institute of
the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Research methods
Detailed mineralogical and geochemical studies were
carried out on ca. 200 rock samples collected from the
Sulak River valley (including the Khadum Formation
at the Miatly section), whose lithological features
were examined in petrographic thin sections using an
optical microscope (Carl Zeiss Axioscope 40). Mineral
compositions were determined by X-ray diffractometry
(XRD) in powdered rock samples using a D8 Advance
diffractometer (Bruker), utilizing Cu-Kα radiation.
More than 170 analyses of chemical composition were
carried out.
Carbonate contents and total organic carbon (TOC)
contents were determined following Strakhov (1958).
For the measurement of carbonate contents, carbonate
minerals were decomposed using hydrochloric acid
and the resulting CO2 was quantified using a Knopp-
Fresenius apparatus. For TOC measurements, organic
carbon was converted into CO2 using wet chemical
oxidation. Sulphuric acid in a concentration of 3:2
was used as an oxidant. TOC measured in this way is
referred to in this paper as TOCchem. Other elements
were analysed by X-ray fluorescence using a Bruker
S4 Pioneer spectrometer and Spectra-Plus software.
For the Miatly section, samples 1-9 (Fig. 2)
collected by Yu. Gavrilov in 2018 were selected for
19/06/2021 13:55:03
 Yu. Gavrilov et al.
nannofossil study of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary
interval. Samples of this interval from the Kheu River
section were likewise analysed. Smear slides for
nannofossils study were prepared from unprocessed
rock samples according to standard procedures (Bown
and Young, 1998) using Norland Optical Adhesive
61 as the optical medium. Nannofossils were studied
under an Olympus BX41 polarization microscope.
To investigate δ13С and δ18О variations across the
Eocene-Oligocene transition (EOT) interval, bulk
carbonate in 75 samples from the Miatly and Chirkey
sections was analyzed, together with 10 samples
from the Kheu River section. The carbon and oxygen
isotope compositions were determined using a Delta
V Advantage mass spectrometer and a Gas-Bench-II
system (Thermo Electron Corp.). Digestion of the
samples and reference specimens KH‑2, IAEA C-O‑1
and NBS‑19 was carried out with 100% H3PO4 at 50°
C. The δ13C and δ18O values obtained are reported in per
mil (‰) relative to the V-PDB standard. The accuracy
(reproducibility) of δ18О and δ13C values was better
than ± 0.2 ‰ and ± 0.1 ‰, respectively.
The analytical work was carried out at the
Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of
Sciences (Moscow) in the laboratories of Chemical
and Analytical Research, Isotope Geochemistry and
Geochronology, and Physical Methods of Rock-
Forming Minerals Studies.
Fifty rock samples from the R. Nedumov and Yu.
Gavrilov collections were analysed for their organic
matter content. The samples represented all six
Maikop Group formations equally. Analyses used a
HAWK Resource Workstation (Wildcat Technology)
according to established procedures for Rock-Eval
pyrolysis (Espitalié, 1993; Tissot and Welte, 1984).
The following parameters were measured: S1, S2, S3
and Tmax (°C). Values of TOC (total organic carbon,
wt. %), hydrogen index (HI, mg HC/g TOC), oxygen
index (OI, mg CO2/g TOC), and production index (PI
= S1/ (S1+S2) were calculated. (S1+S2) represents
the hydrocarbon generation potential and for immature
organic matter is equal to the initial generation potential
of the rock. The parameter S2 characterizes the residual
hydrocarbon generation potential.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND
SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE
MAIKOP GROUP
Khadum Formation
The Khadum Formation at the base of the Maikop
Group is 55 m thick at the Miatly section in the Sulak
River valley (Fig. 2, Fig. 3A). The Khadum Formation is
separated from the underlying carbonates of the Belaya
Gavrilov.indd 389
389
Glina Formation by a sharp lithological and colour
boundary (Fig. 3B) although a disconformity was not
observed. The Belaya Glina Formation comprises
alternating light grey to pale yellow limestones and
marls with a wide variation of CaCO3 contents ranging
from 20 to 80%. Abundant bioturbation is present. At
the top of the formation, an 0.5 m thick interval of
brownish-grey shaly marl is overlain by dark brown to
black, organic-rich shales of the Khadum Formation.
Depth profiles showing variations in TOCchem
content, carbonate content and the abundance of
selected elements including Fe, Mo and Mn in the
Khadum Formation are shown in Fig. 4. In the Miatly
section, the lower part of the Khadum Formation
consists mostly of dark brown to black, organic-rich
shales and marls (3.0-22.5 m; Pshekha Member; Fig.
4). The 5 m thick “Ostracoda horizon” (22.5-28.0
m) forms the base of the upper part of the Khadum
Formation, which is dominated by claystones (22.5-
67.0 m; Solenovian Member; Fig. 4).
Three limestone beds (samples 49-5, 50-4 and 51;
Fig. 4), several tens of cm thick, occur in the Pshekha
Member. A fourth limestone (52-5) forms the base
of the Ostracoda horizon (Fig. 4). These limestone
beds together with the marls of the Ostracoda horizon
(between samples 52-5 and 52-11) are classified as
planktonic foraminiferal mudstones to wackestones
(Fig 5A). Ostracod fragments were not observed in
sample 52-7 (Fig. 5C) in spite of the name “Ostracoda
bed” given to this interval by Shatskiy (1929) and
Shatskiy and Menner (1926).
Another prominent limestone bed (0.6-0.7 m
thick) is observed in the upper part of the Solenovian
Member, about 30 m above the top of the Ostracoda
horizon (Fig. 3C, Fig. 4). This bed consists of two
cycles in each of which massive limestones are overlain
by dark, laminated organic-rich marls (several cm
thick). In contrast to underlying limestones of the
Pshekha Member, the limestones are composed of
bioclastic wackestones dominated by ostracod debris
(Fig. 5D).
The presence of ostracod-rich limestones at two
different levels in the Khadum Formation was reported
by Zhizhchenko (1953) but was questioned in later
publications (Vyalov, 1964; Semenov and Stolyarov,
1970). Observations by the present authors suggest
that the upper limestones may not be present in outcrop
sections in the west and central North Caucasus
(Vyalov, 1964; Semenov and Stolyarov, 1970).
The uppermost limestone in the upper Solenovian
Member is overlain by carbonate-free claystones with
a variable silt component (Fig. 4). This interval (7 m
thick, between samples 56 and 57) consists of dark silty
clay- or mudstones and shales, and is characterized
by a distinct cyclicity which can be recognized at
outcrop due to the characteristic weathering relief
19/06/2021 13:55:03
 390 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus

Fig. 3. Outcrop photographs of the Khadum Formation at the Miatly section (location 1, Fig. 1).
A. General view of the Miatly section; the Priabonian Belaya Glina Formation is overlain by the Rupelian
Khadum Formation at the base of the Maikop Group, above which is the Chattian Miatly Formation.
B. Contact between the Belaya Glina Formation and the Khadum Formation marked by an abrupt lithological
and colour change.
C. Limestone bed in the upper Solenovian Member of the Khadum Formation (hammer for scale).
D, E. Carbonate-free shale- and claystone-dominated interval in the Khadum Formation (Solenovian Member)
showing distinct cyclicity; in D, Roman numerals (I-V) mark intervals with a gradually increasing cycle thickness.
F. Soft sediment deformation (slumps and slides) in the lower part of the Solenovian Member of the Khadum
Formation.

Gavrilov.indd 390 19/06/2021 13:55:05

 Yu. Gavrilov et al. 391

Formation

Member
upper Oligocene Series
Stage

ТОС СaCO3 Fe Mn Ti Mo V Cu Ga KS
% % % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm
58
57-8
57-7
m
57-6
Chattian

65
57-5
Miatly

? 57-4
57-3
57-2
60 57-1
? ? ? 57
56-5
56-4
56-3 5 / 2019
55 56-2 4
56-1
56
3
55 1b
54-14
54-13
50 54-12
54-11
54-10
54-9
54-8
45 54-7
54-6
54-5
Solenovian

54-4
54-3
40
54-2
54-1
54
53-6
53-5
lower Oligocene

35 53-4
53-3
Rupelian
Khadum

53-2
53-1
53
30
52-13
52-12
52-11
Ostracoda

52-10
horizon

52-9
25 52-8
52-7
52-6
52-5
52-4
52-3
20 52-2
52-1
52
Pshekha

51
50-8
50-7
15 50-6
50-5
50-4
50-3
50-2
10 50-1
49-6
49-5
49-4
49-3
5 49-2 9
8
49-1 76
5
Priabon.

48
Eocene

Belaya

4
Glina
upper

3
2 0 2 4 6 0 20 40 60 80 0 2 4 6 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 40 80 0 100 200 300 0 100 200 0 20 40 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 1

Fig. 4. Lithotratigraphic column for the Khadum Formation in the Miatly section with depth profiles and sample
numbers, showing variations in TOCchem, CaCO3 and selected chemical elements.The column at the far right
shows variations in KS, the stagnation coefficient (see text for details). Key to lithologies in Fig. 2. TOCchem: TOC
measured by wet chemical oxidation.
(Fig. 3D, E). In general, the lower parts of cycles The Solenovian Member at the Miatly section
consist of dark brown, massive mudstones, while shows soft sediment deformation structures such as
the upper parts are formed of laminated black shales. slumps and slides and bedding-parallel translations
Cycles range in thickness from 5-7 cm to 20-30 cm (Fig. 3F). The deformation is probably related to the
or more. Petrographic studies (Fig. 5E, F) show that presence of high concentrations of organic material
the microstructure of the black shales is dominated in the sediment which resulted in the retention of
by the occurrence of OM-rich laminae containing high pore water saturations during burial. The water-
clusters of framboidal pyrite. Within silty claystones, saturated non-lithified sediments were then more easily
by contrast, planar laminae are less well developed deformed during palaeoseismic activity, resulting in
and OM is represented by poorly-defined lenticular the soft-sediment deformation structures observed
aggregates. Pyrite framboids are dispersed within the (Gavrilov, 2017).
OM aggregates, and the total pyrite content is reduced The upper boundary of the Khadum Formation is
compared to that of the black shales. less easily defined than its base but is marked by the
The Khadum Formation is interpreted to have appearance of cross-bedded sandstones and siltstones
been deposited in a basinal setting with a relatively with ripple marks (Fig. 4, 5G), indicating a transition
low input of siliciclastic material, and the small-scale to a depositional environment with a more active
cyclicity within it is interpreted to have been caused hydrodynamic regime and greater input of siliciclastic
mainly by variations (or “pulses”) in the intensity of material. The upper boundary of the Khadum
OM accumulation. In the studied region, the overlying Formation in the Miatly section is placed at the base
Maikopian succession has a greater siliciclastic content of the first relatively thick (2 m) sandstone bed above
and in general lacks evidence of cyclicity. sample 58 (Fig. 4) overlying the transitional interval.

Gavrilov.indd 391 19/06/2021 13:55:05

 392 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus
0.2 mm
1 mm
0.1 mm
1 mm
Miatly Formation
The Miatly Formation (Fig. 6) is composed of grey and
dark grey claystones intercalated with coarse-grained
siltstones and fine-grained sandstones (Fig. 5H).
Multiple sandstone beds were observed in the lower
half of the formation, while the upper part is dominated
by clays with subordinate thin sandstones. At the Sulak
River valley outcrop, the Miatly Formation is up to
ca. 120 m thick; it is significantly thinner or thicker
in other locations. The “Miatly sandstone” occurs in
the middle of the formation and ranges in thickness
from a few metres up to 10-15 m. The sandstone
is extensively faulted with low-angle thrust planes
doubling its thickness, and exhibits widespread soft
sediment deformation structures such as slumps and
slides (Fig. 6B, C).
A characteristic feature of the formation is the
presence of olistoliths which vary in size from a few
metres up to several tens of metres (Fig. 6A). The
olistoliths are composed of pre-Oligocene (Paleocene
– Eocene and Upper Cretaceous) sedimentary rocks
(Shatsky et al., 1929; Sharafutdinov, 2001). During
growth of the Khadum anticline, the olistoliths are
Gavrilov.indd 392
Fig. 5.Thin sections (PPL) of samples
from the Khadum Formation and
lowermost Miatly Formation in the
Miatly section; sample numbers
correspond to those in Fig. 4.
A. Sample 49-1: calcareous wackestone
with planktonic foraminifera tests filled
with sparite and occasionally pyrite;
0.1 mm
rare glauconite grains are present.The
sample is from ca. 2 m above the base
of the Khadum Formation.
B. Sample 52-3: black shale enriched in
amorphous OM with an admixture of
fine-grained siliciclastic material and
glauconitic grains; Pshekha Member,
below the Ostracoda horizon.
C. Sample 52-7: organic-rich bioturb-
0.2 mm ated planktonic foraminiferal wacke-
stone; marl overlying the limestone
bed within the Ostracoda horizon.
D. Sample 55: bioclastic wackestone
with thin shell fragments; Solenovian
Member, upper ostracod bed.
E. Sample 56-1a (Solenovian Member,
(lower part of cycle): massive organic-
rich claystone, moderately bioturbated,
with poorly-defined lenticular OM
0.1 mm
aggregates and diffused framboidal
pyrite.
F. Sample 56-1b (upper part of cycle):
black shale with parallel OM-rich
laminae defined by framboidal pyrite.
G. Sample 57-3: coarse-grained
siltstone with flasers of clay; ca. 5.5 m
below the base of the Miatly Formation.
H. Sample 57-8: fine-grained sandstone
typical of multiple sandstone beds in
0.2 mm
the lower part of the Miatly Formation.
interpreted to have become detached and slid down
the steepening depositional slope on the northern limb
of the structure.
Lower Clayey Formation
The Miatly Formation is overlain by the Lower Clayey
Formation which is 180–200 m thick in the Sulak River
valley succession (Fig. 2). The boundary between
the two units is defined at a level where sandstones
are replaced by claystones (Fig. 7A). The Lower
Clayey Formation in general comprises brownish-grey
claystones with a variable silt content which are non-
to indistinctly-bedded, sometimes thinly laminated
and enriched in organic matter (Fig. 7B-E) with
occasional fish scales. The upper part of the formation
is dominated by brown, massive claystones without fish
debris. Some intervals contain lenses of fine-grained
sandstones up to 0.4 m thick and 10-12 m long.
Mutsidakal Formation
The boundary between the Lower Clayey Formation
and the overlying Mutsidakal Formation (280-300 m
thick) in the Sulak River valley succession is marked by
19/06/2021 13:55:07
 Yu. Gavrilov et al. 393

0.2 mm 0.05 mm

0.1 mm 0.2 mm

Fig. 6. Field photographs and thin-section photomicrographs of the Miatly Formation, Sulak River succession.
A. Outcrop view of the Miatly Formation; the white area at the left is an olistolith of pre-Maikopian limestone.
B, C. Field photographs of sandstone beds deformed by a subaqueous slide indicating instability of the
depositional slope.
D-G.Thin sections (PPL) of samples from different parts of the Miatly Formation (sample numbers correspond
to those in Fig. 2):
D, E, Sample 385: laminated claystone to mudstone with organic material derived from terrestrial higher
plants; (E) close-up view showing the structure of the organic material.
F. Sample 383a: organic-rich claystone with poorly-defined lenticular OM aggregates and diffuse framboidal
pyrite, moderately bioturbated.
G. Sample 372: Fine-grained sandstone with carbonaceous plant debris deformed due to compaction of sandy
sediment.
a 2 m thick sandstone bed with a sharp base. Above it thick intervals (up to 40-50 m) of regular claystone-
in the section are two equally-thick sandstone intervals. sandstone alternations divided by a thick sandstone
In general the Mutsidakal Formation is composed bed (at about 590 m in Fig. 2). The claystones in the
of dark-coloured claystones with thin (0.2-0.5 m) lower Mutsidakal Formation consist of fissile to thinly
interbeds of fine-grained sandstones (Fig. 8A, B) which laminated shales with little or no fish remains, and
locally show wavy to lenticular bedding and sometimes more compact and massive claystones or mudstones
contain bitumen. containing fish scales and bones. The upper parts
Above the three sandstone beds occurring near the of the formation are dominated by brown, massive
base, the majority of the formation consists of two very sandy claystones. The occurrence of numerous clastic

Gavrilov.indd 393 19/06/2021 13:55:09

 394 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus

1 mm 0.2 mm

0.1 mm 0.05 mm

Fig. 7. Outcrop photographs and photomicrographs of the Lower Clayey Formation in the Sulak River valley.
A. General view showing the upper Miatly Formation in the foreground (with whitish olistoliths) and the
claystones of the Lower Clayey Formation in the background.
B–E. Thin section photomicrographs (PPL) of samples from the Lower Clayey Formation; sample numbers
correspond to those in Fig. 2 . B is from the lower part of the formation, C-E from the upper part.
B. Sample 404a: claystone slightly enriched in terrigenous OM with lamination disrupted by bioturbation
(mottling);
C. Sample 396a: mudstone moderately enriched in terrestrial OM; thin lamination is preserved with slight
bioturbation. D, Sample 396b: Claystone with alternating clay- and OM-rich laminae.
E, Sample 396c: close-up view of clay- and OM-rich laminae; the OM lacks any primarily structure.
dikes is interpreted to indicate palaeoseismicity in the nodules were observed in the uppermost parts of the
depositional environment. formation.
Beluzhenko et al. (2018) divided the Riki Formation
Riki Formation into three formations – Alckun, Assa and Sulak –
Overlying the Mutsidakal Formation is a thick (300– assuming that the major part of the Riki Formation is
350 m) clay-rich unit referred to as the Riki Formation early Miocene in age.
which is composed mainly of chocolate-brown to dark
grey claystones (Fig. 8C, D) containing abundant fish Zuramakent Formation
remains. Some thin (a few cm) beds and lenses of fine- At the top of the Maikop Group, the Zuramakent
grained sandstone are present (Fig. 8E, F). The lower Formation (150 m thick) is composed of dark brown
part of the formation contains several levels of large and greenish-brown claystones which are moderately
(2-4 x 0.5-0.8 m) dolomitic concretions with septarian bioturbated with indistinct, thin bedding. Several
fissures filled with yellowish calcite. Numerous siderite levels with large concretions of dark grey mangano-

Gavrilov.indd 394 19/06/2021 13:55:10

 Yu. Gavrilov et al. 395

0.1 mm 0.1 mm

1 mm 0.1 mm

1 mm 0.1 mm

Fig. 8.Thin section photomicrographs (PPL) of samples from the lower part of the Mutsidakal Formation
(A and B) and the upper part of the Riki Formation (C - F) from the Sulak River valley succession; sample
numbers correspond to those in Fig. 2. A. Sample 415: claystone with scattered marine and terrigenous
palynomorphs and very fine carbonaceous debris. B. Sample 412: fine-grained sandstone with authigenic
calcite cement. C. Sample 443a: typical claystone enriched in terrigenous OM with lamination disrupted by
bioturbation (mottling). D. Sample 443b: alternation of clay- and OM-rich laminae; the OM shows no primary
structure. E. Sample 450a: thin-bedded heterolithic claystone-siltstone slightly disrupted by bioturbation
(mottling). F. Sample 450b: fine-grained fragments of terrigenous OM in clay-rich siltstone of sample 450a.

siderite (Gavrilov, 1982) (Fig. 9A) are present. In the
uppermost part of the formation, the clays become
dominantly dark grey, finely bedded with scarce
burrows and are slightly enriched in terrigenous OМ
(Fig. 9C-D) with some diagenetic siderite (Fig. 9E-F).
Some relatively thin (0.1-0.2 m) beds of sandstone
are present.
In the Sulak River valley succession, the contact
between the Zuramakent Formation and the overlying
Middle Miocene Tarkhan and Chokrak Formations (up
to 500 m thick) is covered with talus, but the contact
can be observed at outcrop in the Buinaksk Pass
some 30 km to the SE (Fig. 9B; see location in Fig
1). Although the uppermost ca. 10 m of sediment is
severely dislocated, there is a sharp boundary between
the Maikop Group and the Middle Miocene succession.
THE EOCENE – OLIGOCENE
BOUNDARY INTERVAL
Biostratigraphy
Calcareous nannofossils from the transitional zone
between the uppermost Belaya Glina Formation and the
lower part of the Maikop Group (Fig. 2) were studied
in detail. Fig. 10 shows nannofossil stratigraphy for
the Eocene–Oligocene transition at the Chirkey section
previously studied by Gavrilov et al. (2017) and the
Miatly section (locations in Fig. 1). Also shown is a
stratigraphic column for this interval at a reference
exposure of the Maikop Group along the Kheu River
in Kabardino-Balkaria in the Central North Caucasus.
In the Belaya Glina Formation, nannofossil
assemblages are abundant and diverse (ca. 35 species)

Gavrilov.indd 395 19/06/2021 13:55:12

 396 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus

0.1 mm 0.1 mm

0.1 mm 0.1 mm

Fig. 9. Outcrop photographs and photomicrographs of the Zuramakent Formation.

A. Field photograph of dark-coloured claystones with lenticular nodules of mangano-siderite.
B. Contact between the Zuramakent Formation and the overlying Middle Miocene succession at the Buinaksk
Pass outcrop (see location in Fig. 1).
C-F. Thin section (PPL) photomicrographs; sample numbers correspond to those in Fig. 2.
C. Sample 457: claystone with dispersed, laminar organic material and framboidal pyrite; lower part of the
Zuramakent Formation.
D. Sample 460: close-up view of laminar oganic material (which has no internal structure) and occasional
clusters of framboidal pyrite; middle part of the Zuramakent Formation.
E. Sample 455: scattered clusters of siderite in claystone; lower part of the Zuramakent Formation.
F. Sample 464: close-up of authigenic siderite in claystone; middle part of the Zuramakent Formation.

Gavrilov.indd 396 19/06/2021 13:55:14

 Yu. Gavrilov et al. 397

Fig. 10. Nannofossil stratigraphy for the Eocene – Oligocene transition at the Chirkey section (Gavrilov et al.,
2017) and at the Miatly and Kheu River sections, together with average nannofossil abundance per field of view
(f.v.). The Kheu River section is a reference section for the North Caucasus at which a continuous succession
through the Eocene – Oligocene transition is exposed with a well-defined nannofossil distribution across the
boundary. Note the similar stratigraphic position of the boundary between the Belaya Glina and Khadum
Formations in all three outcrops; the boundary is located in the interval with the Clausicoccus subdistichus acme.
Key to lithologies in Fig. 2.

but are poorly preserved due to the presence of calcite
overgrowths. Nannofossils in the Maikop Group
are of lower total abundance and species diversity
(ca. 20 species) but display better preservation.
The nannofossil assemblages of the entire interval
are dominated by eurytopic Reticulofenestra and
Coccolithus, while both cool-water Chiasmolithus
and warm-water Discoaster are scarce, especially in
Maikopian deposits.
Chirkey section
At the Chirkey section (Gavrilov et al., 2017), a
stratigraphic interval from the middle part of the
Belaya Glina Formation to the uppermost Khadum
Formation was studied (Fig. 10). The occurrence of
Chiasmolithus oamaruensis, Isthmolithus recurvus
and Reticulofenestra isabellae in the lower part of
the succession indicates the upper Eocene NP19-20
(Martini, 1971) and CNE19 (Agnini et al., 2014)
Zones and CP15b subzone (Okada and Bukry, 1980).
The highest occurrence (HO) of Reticulofenestra
reticulata a few metres above the base of the studied
section defines the base of the CNE20 Zone (Fig. 10)
(Agnini et al., 2014). The sporadic occurrence of the
stratigraphic marker Discoaster saipanensis does not
allow the base of the NP21, CP16 and CNE21 Zones
to be located precisely. However, the last occurrence of
this species, ca. 17.5 m above the base of the section,
gives an approximate indication for these boundaries.
A significant increase in the abundance of Clausicoccus

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 398 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus
subdistichus (acme) occurs at the transition between
the Belaya Glina Formation and the Pshekha Member
at the base of the Maikop Group. The base of this
bioevent marks the lower boundary of the CNO1
Zone of Agnini et al. (2014). The base of the Rupelian
stage (Oligocene) corresponds to the extinction of
Hantkeninidae planktonic foraminifera (Speijer et al.,
2020). This GSSP level was identified ca. 1 m below
the base of the C. subdistichus acme in the Massignano
section (Premoli Silva and Jenkins, 1993). Thus, in
the Chirkey section, the base of the Oligocene occurs
in the uppermost part of the Belaya Glina Formation.
At the base of the Pshekha Member, many
nannofossil species disappear from the assemblage or
their abundance decreases dramatically. This interval,
whose facies characteristics at outcrop indicate a
likely drop in relative sea-level, contains common
redeposited Cretaceous species. The end of the C.
subdistichus acme defines the base of the CP16b
subzone ca. 1.0 m above the base of the Pshekha
Member (Fig. 10).
Nannofossils occur at particular levels in the
Pshekha Member. A relatively higher CaCO3 content
in some intervals is in general caused by the presence
of abundant micrite. The redeposited Cretaceous
nannofossil taxa are commonly present in these
intervals, likely indicating episodes of sea-level
fall. The in situ nannofossil assemblages are widely
dominated by reticulofenestrids with closed central
areas (Dictyococcites), indicating a response to specific
environmental conditions (possibly lower salinity).
The HO of Coccolithus formosus ca. 22 m above
the base of the Pshekha Member marks the bases of
the NP22 and CNO2 Zones and CP16c subzone (Fig.
10). No more than ten nannofossil species remain
above this level, and only Cyclicargolithus floridanus,
Reticulofenestra bisecta and Coccolithus pelagicus
are common. This trend towards lower diversity and
dominance by a few taxa indicates an environment
unhabitable for nannoplankton, probably related to
the lower salinity of the water column. The HO of
Reticulofenestra umbilicus defines the bases of the
NP23, CP17 and CNO3 Zones.
Miatly section
In the Miatly section, nannofossil studies were
restricted to the transitional interval between the
Belaya Glina Formation and the Pshekha Member.
Sediments in this interval lack D. saipanensis, and the
C. subdistichus acme is the only bioevent observed (Fig.
10). The acme interval at the Miatly exposure is twice as
thick as that at the Chirkey section, possibly suggesting
a higher sedimentation rate. The nannofossil abundance
begins to decrease a few metres above the acme
interval, suggesting a rapid environmental change (and
probable shallowing) in this part of the basin.
Gavrilov.indd 398
Kheu River section
Similar trends in nannofossil distribution are observed
in the Kheu River reference section (Fig. 10), which is
exposed a few kilometres south of the town of Nalchik
and ca. 300 km to the west of the Sulak River area in
Dagestan. These trends include a C. subdisticus acme
at the EOT and decreases in both nannofossil total
abundance and species diversity toward the top of
the NP21 Zone. The gradual nature of the transition
between the formations in the Kheu River section may
be a result of the greater depth of the basin in this area
and of the very minor siliciclastic input, with a less
dramatic decrease in nannofossil abundance at the
base of the Maikop Group. This in turn resulted in the
greater thickness (and probably the larger stratigraphic
range) of the C. subdistichus acme which extended into
the lowermost part of the Maikop Group. The reduced
thickness of the C. subdistichus acme in the Chirkey
section may indicate the effects of more prominent
environmental changes at the base of the Maikop
Group at this location and/or a short-term hiatus.
Comparison of the nannofossil distribution in
the three sections (Miatly, Chirkey and Kheu River)
indicates synchroneity of the facies changes related
to a large-scale sea-level fall at the transition between
the Belaya Glina Formation and the base of the
Maikop Group. Environmental variations were most
pronounced in shallower parts of the basin.
Stable carbon and oxygen isotope variations
The C and O stable isotope records of the Maikop
Group at the Chirkey and Miatly sections reflect both
global signals and more regional effects specific to
the Eastern Paratethys. To investigate δ13С and δ18О
variations over the Eocene – Oligocene transition
(EOT), bulk carbonate in 75 samples from the above
two sections were analyzed, together with 10 samples
from the Kheu River section. A series of large-scale
excursions of oxygen and carbon stable isotope ratios
of different duration were recorded.
δ13C variations
In samples from the Chirkey section, δ13C ranges
between 1.5 and 2.0 ‰ in the Belaya Glina Formation,
showing a trend to more negative values at the top of
the formation (Fig. 11). The negative δ13C values in the
terminal Eocene (between 11.5 and 18 m) correspond to
a similar negative excursion which has been recorded
in many other areas worldwide (Barrera et al., 1993;
Salamy and Zachos, 1999; Zachos et al., 2001; Pälike
et al., 2006; Coxall and Pearson, 2007; Armstrong et
al., 2016; Messaoud et al., 2020) and therefore likely
represents a global-scale signal. The Eocene-Oligocene
transition, covering the uppermost Belaya Glina
Formation and the basal part of the Maikop Group, is
characterized by a short-term positive shift in δ13C by
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 Yu. Gavrilov et al. 399

Fig. 11. Stratigraphic columns showing the transition from the Eocene Belaya Glina Formation to the Oligocene
Pshekha Member of the Khadum Formation (base-Maikop) in the Chirkey section (after Gavrilov et al., 2017)
and in the Miatly and Kheu River outcrop successions, and depth profiles showing the variations of TOCchem,
CaCO3, d13Cand d8O across the boundary interval at these locations. Key to lithologies in Fig. 2.
EOT = Eocene – Oligocene transition.
about 0.8 ‰. This excursion is then rapidly followed indicates an overprint by regional environmental
by a recovery to pre-shift values. factors.
A similar pattern of δ13C variations in the EOT Smoothed variations in δ13C documented in the
interval is documented in samples from the Miatly and upper part of the Pshekha Member (NP22 Zone) are
Kheu River sections (Fig. 11). In all three sections, the of similar magnitude to those measured in open-ocean
most positive δ13C values in the interval correspond to settings (Salamy and Zachos, 1999; Zachos et al.,
the Clausicoccus subdistichus acme. These variations 2001; Pälike et al., 2006; Coxall and Pearson, 2007;
align with global trends in δ13C values (Salamy and Armstrong et al., 2016).The very negative δ13C values
Zachos, 1999; Zachos et al., 2001; Pälike et al., 2006; found at the base of the Solenov Member (between
Coxall and Pearson, 2007; Armstrong et al., 2016). 56.0 and 58.5 m in Fig. 11) are interpreted to reflect
Above this interval, the δ13C record for the Pacific, isolation of the Paratethys (Rögl, 1998) with a related
Atlantic and Southern oceans (Salamy and Zachos, decrease in primary productivity and/or a change in the
1999; Zachos et al., 2001; Pälike et al., 2006; Coxall rate of organic carbon burial in organic-rich sediments.
and Pearson, 2007; Armstrong et al., 2016) and
the southern NeoTethys (Tunisia: Messaoud et al., δ18О variations
2020) tend towards positive values during the early The δ18О record in the Belaya Glina Formation at
Oligocene. In the Chirkey section, this interval is the Chirkey section varies between -4.7 and -5.5 ‰
marked by abrupt fluctuations in δ13C of about 1.2 ‰, (Fig. 11). A prominent positive excursion of about
indicating environmental instability. The long-term 3.5 ‰ in the late Priabonian indicates significant
prominent negative δ13C excursion (ca. 1.3 ‰) in the climatic cooling. The base of this shift corresponds to
upper part of the lower half of the Pshekha Member an abrupt decrease in nannofossil diversity and total
(CNO1 Zone, see Fig. 11) is larger than the coeval abundance, both of which recover in the later phases
negative shift detected worldwide, and probably of the excursion.

Gavrilov.indd 399 19/06/2021 13:55:15

 400 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus
The subsequent negative δ18О excursion in the EOT
recorded at the Chirkey section is hard to interpret.
The oceanic δ18О record shows a positive oxygen
isotope excursion during this period corresponding to
significant climatic cooling. In the Chirkey section,
the negative δ18О values correspond to a significant
decrease in nannofossil total abundance and an increase
in micrite content that could be due to a fall in salinity
resulting from enhanced weathering and river discharge
during sea-level fall. This may suggest an initial
environmental perturbation prior to the apparent facies
change at the base of the Maikop Group. Restoration
of the nannofossil assemblage occurs during a period
when δ18О values were still negative, suggesting cool
climatic conditions during the late EOT, i.e. in the
topmost Belaya Glina Formation. The short-term
positive δ18О shift above the EOT is accompanied by
a significantly reduced nannofossil abundance and
then their disappearance from the Maikop succession
a little above, and a related decrease in CaCO3 content.
In the shallower Miatly section, the gradual negative
trend in δ18О values in the EOT (more than 4 ‰ from
base to top) is accompanied by a gradual decrease in
nannofossil total abundance and a significant input
of redeposited Cretaceous taxa which likely indicate
sea-level fall and/or other hydrological changes. The
Kheu River section, the deepest of those studied,
demonstrates a very gradual negative trend in δ18О
composition of ca. 1.5‰ in magnitude. Nannofossil
abundance varies little at the beginning of this shift
but is reduced greatly by the later stage of the EOT.
Thus, observed variations in δ 18О and in the
abundance of calcareous biota at the Eocene –
Oligocene transition showed that a significant biotic
response in the Chirkey section is related to an abrupt
change in δ18О composition, whatever its causes.
However, the rapid restoration of the nannofossil
assemblage in this section during a negative δ18О
excursion and the gradual decrease in nannofossil
abundance suggests that there is a poor correlation
between variations in oxygen isotope composition and
calcareous biota abundance.
The very negative δ 18О values in the middle
Pshekha Member corresponds to the negative δ13C
shift observed in an interval with low carbonate
content, where nannofossils are absent and the
carbonate component of the sediment is represented
by micrite. The disappearance of nannoflora from the
basin may have been caused by reduced salinity which
negatively affected the calcareous biota. Higher in the
section, the more positive δ18О values correspond to a
relatively abundant but taxonomically poor nannofossil
assemblage which may also indicate relatively low
salinity conditions. The barren interval in the stable
isotope analyses in the upper Pshekha Member is
related to CaCO3 depletion in sediments in this interval.
Gavrilov.indd 400
The lowermost Solenovian Member is characterized
by very negative δ18О values ranging from -4.6 to -6.5
‰ and scarce nannofossils, suggesting low salinity.
GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE
MAIKOP GROUP
The Khadum Formation
The Khadum Formation differs markedly from
sediments in the overlying Maikop succession in terms
of its lithological characteristics. Its geochemical
characteristics were therefore studied in detail, and
biogenic carbonate content and organic matter (OM)
characteristics were investigated as indicators of the
depositional and geochemical conditions.
Variations in carbonate content
in the Khadum Formation
Variations in carbonate content in the Khadum
Formation at the Miatly section are shown in Fig. 4. Thin
sections observations and XRD results demonstrate
that carbonate is mainly represented by calcite although
some samples contain subordinate dolomite (Gavrilov
et al., 2017). Carbonate in the Pshekha Member is
mostly derived from foraminifera and calcareous
nannoplankton (Fig. 5A). Some biogenic carbonate
was reworked from pre-Oligocene strata (lower to
middle Paleogene and Upper Cretaceous). The Belaya
Glina Formation contains elevated amounts of Mn
(0.2–0.4%: authors’ unpublished data) which may
be incorporated into the calcite structure. A similar
increase in Mn content is found in carbonates in the
Pshekha Member, possibly caused by reworking and
redeposition of Belaya Glina sediments.
The lower part of the Pshekha Member in the Miatly
section has a high content of biogenic carbonate (Fig. 4)
which progressively decreases (to 0%) at the top of the
unit. A carbonate-free shale member rich in TOC (up to
4%) occurs in the top-most Pshekha Member (i.e. the
interval with samples 52 to 52-4 on Fig. 4). A similar
carbonate-free interval was found in this member in
the Chirkey section by Gavrilov et al. (2017), and has
also been recognised (Grossgeim, 1960; Somov, 1965)
in different parts of the North Caucasus. Moreover a
similar carbonate-free horizon at this stratigraphical
level has been traced in central Europe. Thus Schulz
et al. (2002) described a carbonate-free black shale
unit below the Dynow Marlstone in the Molasse
Basin (Austria) which is a time-equivalent of the
Ostracoda horizon. The shale horizon was discussed
by Sachsenhofer and Schulz (2006) and Sachsenhofer
et al. (2017). Sachsenhofer et al. (2018) and Pupp et
al. (2018) demonstrated that this carbonate-free shale
interval also occurs in the western Carpathians, in the
western Black Sea and in the Rioni Basin of western
Georgia. Thus, this carbonate-free horizon can be
19/06/2021 13:55:15
 Yu. Gavrilov et al. 401

Fm. Lithology
Tarkhan-
Chokrak

m
TOC Mo S Fe Mn P Ni V As U Zn Nb Al2O3
1200 % ppm ppm % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm %

474
Zuramakent

470
465
460

1000 455
450

445
Riki

440

800
435

430

425

420
600
Mutsidakal

415

400 410
Lower Clayey

405

400
395

390
200
385
Miatly

380
375
370
11.06
365
Khadum
360
Belaya 0
120
0,0

0,5

1,0
1,5

2,0
2,5

3,0

Glina

Fig. 12. Profiles versus depth of variations in TOC content (wt.%) and of selected elements in Maikopian
sediments at the Sulak River section. TOC values obtained by wet chemical oxidation are given by the solid
line, and those obtained by Rock-Eval pyrolysis by the dashed line.

traced over a very large area stretching from Dagestan Variations in molybdenum content
to Austria, a distance of almost 1500 km. in the Khadum Formation
The Ostracoda horizon consists mainly of marls The Mo concentration is widely used for the
with a high carbonate content and has relatively high reconstruction of the oxygen regime in marine settings.
TOC contents. Above this horizon, the carbonate In the samples analysed from the Miatly section (Fig.
content is <10% (or carbonate is absent) in the clay- 4), there is a positive correlation between variations in
rich Solenovian Member (Fig. 4). Mo and V concentrations and TOC content. A positive
correlation between Fe and S was also demonstrated.
Organic material Mo concentrations in the Khadum Formation
TOCchem variations in the Khadum Formation at the significantly exceed the Mo content of “average”
Miatly section are shown in Fig. 4. The lower part claystones, which is ca. 2.6 ppm (Turekian and
of the formation (Pshekha Member) has a TOCchem Wedepohl, 1961) or 3 ppm (Vinogradov, 1962). In the
of 1-5%, but values of ~2% occur in the Ostracoda Khadum Formation, the Mo content is variable with
horizon at the base of the Solenovian Member. The the highest values occurring in the Pshekha Member
middle part of this member (ca. 20 m) has lower and the lower part of the Solenovian Member (Fig.
TOCchem (<1%), but values increase to 8% above the 4). The Mo concentration decreases in the middle part
upper carbonate bed then gradually decreases to <1% of the latter unit but is still several times higher than
in the overlying 7-8 m. These variations coincide that of “average shale” (Vinogradov, 1962; Turekian
with a thickening of depositional cycles (Fig. 3D) and Wedepohl, 1961). Sharp increases of both TOC
which indicate a generally increased sedimentation and Mo concentrations by 1–1.5 orders of magnitude
rate. Organic material in claystones from the Khadum over “average shale” values occur in claystones in the
Formation is visible in thin section (Fig. 5). upper part of the Solenovian Member. A significant
At the Chirkey section (Gavrilov et al., 2017), decrease of TOC accompanied by a notable reduction
the Khadum Formation includes similar OM-rich of Mo concentration occurs at the transition to the
lithofacies but they are intercalated with thick intervals Miatly Formation (Fig. 4).
of mudstones with low organic content resulting in an
increase in the total thickness of the formation. In the Post-Khadum sediments in the Maikop Group
Miatly section by contrast, a more condensed section Variations in the geochemical characteristics of the
of the Khadum Formation is present with a generally various post-Khadum formations in the Maikop Group
higher content of organic carbon. allow changes in the depositional environment to be

Gavrilov.indd 401 19/06/2021 13:55:16

Gavrilov.indd 402
Table 1. Average values of elemental contents in clay-rich rocks from different formations of the Maikop Group (Sulak section). Elemental contents: upper line gives
402

range of values in individual samples; lower line gives average. TOCchem:TOC measured by wet chemical oxidation. KS : stagnation coefficient (Mo/Mn x 100)
(see text for details).

Forma�on name and TOCchem Mo S Fe Mn Ti P Cr Ni V Cu Co

in brackets below
the number of
samples analyzed

% ppm ppm % % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

1-27 141-2182 1.98-8.92 0.008- 0.47-0.63 0.02-0.07 93-153 31-124 168-236 35-97 6-31
Zuramakent Fm
0.74 5.5 705 5.20 0.294 0.52 0.04 129 85 203 73 16
(17)
0.10
1-124 345- 1.9-6.01 0.008- 0.49-0.64 0.01-0.08 92-132 22-141 171-272 34-159 6-51
Riki Fm.
1 25.4 15773 2.64 0.116 0.56 0.02 112 55 201 75 20
(17)
3418 0.026
1-66 154-2626 2.3-5.47 0.008- 0.53-0.62 0.01-0.13 94-118 21-89 136-207 11-51 9-22
Mutsidakal Fm.
0.34 13.0 775 3.65 0.139 0.58 0,04 105 41 158 30 14
(13)
0.038
1-65 124-6079 1.44-6.43 0.008- 0.39-0.64 0.01-0.08 62-120 23-177 104-248 3-87 6-28
Lower Clayey Fm.
0.52 10.7 1493 3.30 0.201 0.58 0.03 106 48 169 34 13
(17)
0.068
1-53 226-8465 1.55-8.41 0.008- 0.44-0.67 0.02-0.06 82-122 19-44 105-221 3-88 6-15
Miatly Fm.
0.9 9.9 1587 3.41 0.015 0.58 0.03 104 26 160 25 11
(10)
0.011
15-66 4848- 2.84-4.67 0.015- 0.26-0.58 0.02-0.11 58-109 41-89 181-228 9-86 10-26
Khadum Fm.
1.3 44.0 10038 3.64 0.07 0.34 0.08 76 72 194 38 20
(7)
8257 0.045
Element content: upper line is range in different samples of clay-rich rocks; lower line is average.

Forma�on name and

in brackets below Pb As U Th Zn SiO2 Al2O3 CaO Sr KS*
the number of
samples analysed
ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm % % % ppm
Zuramakent Fm 12-22 3-17 2.6-8.6 6.1-9/3 53-189 53.88-64.92 18.38-24.34 0.06-0.52 56-158
0.7
(17) 18 8.3 4.6 7.4 1.6 57.67 21.49 0.29 78
Riki Fm. 7-27 6.5-59 4,2-26 7.5-10 74-185 58.04-66.57 17.27-21.23 0.07-0.72 71-138
11.4
The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus

(17) 13 24.1 9.9 9.1 123 63.73 19.63 0.21 85

Mutsidakal Fm. 6-25 2.5-16 2.6-14 8.5-11 67-144 59.72-64.73 17.22-20.49 0.07-0.75 78-168
7.8
(13) 17 8.9 4.4 9.5 116 62.64 19.25 0.31 98
Lower Clayey Fm. 8-35 3-22 1-11 8.1-12 56-160 29.95-65.25 11.73-21.87 0.07-2.08 80-278
5.2
(17) 18 9.2 4.6 9.8 104 60.96 19.44 0.28 127
Miatly Fm. 7-24 2.5-14 1-12 6.1-13 51-112 53.81-66.12 16.04-20.01 0.11-3.23 81-183
12.6
(10) 14 6.7 4.3 10.0 87 62.93 18.75 0.52 111
Khadum Fm. 19-25 2.5-9.6 1-14 11-15 50-93 25.53-62.35 9.8-19.08 0.43-38.8 139-1185
20.2
(7) 22 9.0 2.8 13.3 76 34.04 11.85 26.65 860
E

19/06/2021 13:55:17
 Yu. Gavrilov et al.
Fig.13. Field photograph showing the position of sample 3/2019 which has a TOC content of up to 11.06 wt % as
determined by Rock-Eval pyrolysis. The sample was collected from above the upper ostracod bed within the
Solenovian Member of the Khadum Formation in the Miatly section; hammer lengh 85 cm. See sample position
in Fig. 4.
evaluated. Table 1 shows the average concentrations
of a range of elements and oxides in Maikop Group
claystones, and the data is presented in the depth
profiles in Fig. 12.
In the Sulak River valley succession, the upper
Oligocene – lower Miocene sediments overlying the
Khadum Formation in general have low carbonate
contents or are carbonate-free. Biogenic carbonate
occurs sporadically in the upper part of the Maikop
Group e.g. in the lower Chattian Virgulinella layers and
the Alckun Formation. Carbonate may initially have
been more widely present in the Alckun Formation
(Beluzhenko et al., 2018) but was removed during later
diagenesis and reprecipated as carbonate-rich nodules.
In the post-Khadum Maikop succession, OM
concentrations vary significantly with the highest
values occurring in the Riki Formation (Fig. 12,
Table 1). Underlying formations have a 2-3 times
lower average OM content, and TOC concentrations
increase only at particular levels. Similar trends are
demonstrated by the Mo, S and Co concentrations.
The Riki Formation claystones also have high
concentrations of As and U.
The transitional interval from the Riki to the
Zuramakent Formation demonstrates multidirectional
changes in the concentrations of trace elements. Thus,
the Fe, Mn, P, Cr, Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn and Sc contents
increase up-section, while TOCchem, S, Mo, As, U,
Th, Nb, Ti and Rb decrease (Fig 12, Table 1). These
variations are prominent in the lower part of the
Zuramakent Formation and elemental concentrations
then decrease up-section and approach “average
shale” values (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961). These
differences indicate that palaeoenvironmental and
Gavrilov.indd 403
403
geochemical conditions varied significantly during
deposition of this part of the Maikop Group.
ROCK-EVAL PARAMETERS
OF THE MAIKOP ROCKS
Rock-Eval parameters for 49 samples covering all
six formations of the Maikop Group and a single
sample from the Belaya Glina Formation in the Miatly
section are given in Table 2. The studied samples are
characterized by significant variations in TOC values
ranging between 0.14 and 11.06 wt. %. In general, TOC
contents determined by Rock-Eval pyrolysis agree with
those determined by wet chemical oxidation (TOCchem).
Khadum Formation
High TOC values were recorded in both carbonate-rich
samples (limestones, marls and calcareous shales) and
clay-rich shales and claystones-to-mudstones from
the Khadum Formation. In this formation, with the
exception of one sample of fine-grained sandstone,
TOC values are greater than 1 wt.% and up to 11.06
wt % (sample 3/2019: see Fig. 13) with an average
of 2.5-3 wt.%. There is no correlation between low
organic carbon concentration and increased mineral
carbon that is commonly observed in sedimentary
carbonates (Ghassal et al., 2016). Rock-Eval Tmax
(average: 440°C) and the production index (PI;
average: 0.18) correspond to the middle part of the
oil window. High HI values (up to 531 mgHC/g
TOC) and Type II kerogen (Fig. 14A) indicate the
presence of marine organic matter with good source
rock characteristics (c.f. Peters, 1986). The average
HI value is 300 mg HC/g TOC, which correlates with
19/06/2021 13:55:17
 404 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus

Table 2. Rock-Eval data for analysed samples of the Maikop Group from the Sulak River section. See sample
positions inTable 2.and
Figs 2 Rock-Eval
4. data for the analysed samples of the Maikop Group from the Sulak section.
№ Forma�on, S1 S2 S1+S2 PI Tmax TOC HI OI
(S0+S1) mg HC/g mg HC/g Produc�on °C wt% Hydrogen Oxygen
sample
mg HC/g rock rock Index, Index, Index,
number rock (S1/S1+S)2 S2/TOC*100 S3/TOC*100
Zuramakent
1 469 0.09 0.32 0.41 0.22 429 1.33 24 63
2 468 0.04 0.3 0.34 0.12 436 1.41 21 70
3 466 0.06 0.37 0.43 0.14 434 1.15 32 59
4 465 0.21 3.18 3.39 0.06 434 2.52 126 42
5 461 0.08 0.59 0.67 0.12 437 1.40 42 77
6 456 0.02 0.51 0.53 0.04 448 0.69 74 200
Riki
7 452 0.07 0.38 0.45 0.16 431 0.59 65 104
8 451 0.1 0.75 0.85 0.12 428 1.35 56 50
9 450 0 0.04 0.04 0.00 434 0.24 17 142
10 447 0.09 0.71 0.8 0.11 434 1.28 56 61
11 445 0.07 0.58 0.65 0.11 433 1.36 43 61
12 444 0.15 1.06 1.21 0.12 424 1.95 54 42
13 442 0.15 1.29 1.44 0.10 427 1.77 73 38
14 440 0.03 0.15 0.18 0.17 425 0.34 44 118
15 438 0.18 1.96 2.14 0.08 423 2.62 75 18
16 433 0.1 1.61 1.71 0.06 432 1.39 116 42
Mutsidakal
17 426 0.03 0.21 0.24 0.13 438 0.63 33 84
18 421 0.03 0.19 0.22 0.14 442 0.24 80 302
19 419 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.25 429 0.35 9 117
20 417 0.04 0.3 0.34 0.12 438 0.64 47 108
21 416 0.02 0.11 0.13 0.15 443 0.29 38 79
22 414 0.03 0.16 0.19 0.16 439 0.17 95 451
23 412 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.17 433 0.14 36 343
Lower Clayey
24 403 0 0.99 0.99 0.00 436 0.68 146 43
25 402 0.03 0.21 0.24 0.13 431 0.70 30 53
26 399 0.03 0.24 0.27 0.11 438 0.66 36 105
27 398 0.08 0.55 0.63 0.13 433 0.95 58 51
28 397 0.03 0.38 0.41 0.07 440 0.84 45 73
29 393 0.17 1.66 1.83 0.09 434 1.77 94 41
30 390 0.15 0.4 0.55 0.27 434 0.93 43 69
Miatly
31 387 0.03 0.11 0.14 0.21 443 0.49 23 94
32 385 0.24 1.97 2.21 0.11 435 1.66 119 42
33 383 0.02 0.1 0.12 0.17 444 0.56 18 98
34 379 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.40 429 0.69 31 103
35 377 2.09 1.87 3.96 0.53 nd 1.53 122 31
36 374 0.07 0.23 0.3 0.23 433 0.61 38 82
37 369 0.07 0.22 0.29 0.24 450 0.59 37 264
38 366 0.04 0.11 0.15 0.27 438 0.26 42 85
Khadum
5/19
46 (~56-3 in Fig.4) 0.54 7.01 7.55 0.07 441 3.36 208 10
4/19
47 (~56-2 in Fig.4) 0.17 1.34 1.51 0.11 437 1.78 75 17
3/19
48 (~56 in Fig.4) 1.4 58.73 60.13 0.02 445 11.06 531 5
3/19-bis
48 (~56 in Fig.4) 0.56 50.16 50.72 0.02 442 10.24 490 9
1b/19
49 (~55 in Fig.4) 0.67 8.54 9.21 0.07 440 3.00 285 15
39 364 0.77 8.48 9.25 0.08 439 2.73 311 13
40 362 0.12 0.11 0.23 0.52 nd 0.33 34 98
41 360 0.51 6.98 7.49 0.07 440 2.51 278 13
42 9a 0.09 0.69 0.78 0.12 444 1.29 53 64
43 9 0.59 3.93 4.52 0.13 443 2.71 145 14
44 8 0.25 1.44 1.69 0.15 444 1.54 94 34
45 7 0.76 3.89 4.65 0.16 442 2.99 130 16
Belaya Glina
50 4 0.09 0.17 0.26 0.35 nd 0.56 31 111

Gavrilov.indd 404 19/06/2021 13:55:18

 Yu. Gavrilov et al.
Fig. 14A. Plot of hydrogen index (HI)
A
versus Rock-Eval Tmax showing the
kerogen type and maturity in the
studied samples;
(B) plot of the production yield
versus TOC showing the hydrocarbon
generation potential of the Maikop
Group samples (after Peters, 1986).
Note that sample 3/2019 from the
Solenovian Member of the Khadum
Formation (Fig. 13) with high HI
and Tmax was measured twice (see
samples 3/2019 and 3/2019-bis in
Table 2), giving two separate data-
points.
an assumed initial source-rock potential of 400–600
mg HC/g TOC (according to the transformation ratio
parameter of Jarvie, 2012). Relatively high production
yields (Rock-Eval S1+S2) indicate that some samples
from the Khadum Formation contain a good or even
excellent hydrocarbon potential (Fig. 14B).
Post-Khadum sediments in the Maikop Group
In non-carbonate rocks of the Miatly, Lower Clayey
and Mutsidakal Formations, average TOC values
are low (about 1 wt.% on average). The lowest TOC
values (less than 0.5 wt.%) are characteristic of
samples dominated by siliciclastic material (sandstones
and siltstones), excluding one sandstone from the
Miatly Formation (sample 377, Fig. 2) with a very
high PI (0.53) indicating the presence of migrated
hydrocarbons. In the Lower Miocene Riki and
Zuramakent Formations, TOC values increase by more
than 1.5 wt.% on average and demonstrate a fairly
uniform distribution across the section with only minor
variations (from 0.6 to 2.6 wt.%).
Average Tmax values for samples from the Lower
Clay and Mutsidakal Formations (436°C and PI = 0.13)
Gavrilov.indd 405
405
correspond to the beginning of oil generation (early oil
window). For the samples of the Riki and Zuramakent
Formations, the Tmax (432°C) and PI = 0.1 suggest that
the organic matter is marginally mature.
Samples from the post-Khadum formations
in general contain low amounts of pyrolyzable
hydrocarbons (Rock-Eval S1 and S2), and are
characterized by low HI values (typically less than
100 mg HC/g TOC). They contain kerogen Type
III which consists mainly of terrigenous organic
matter (or oxidized aquatic organic matter). These
characteristics indicate that the samples have little oil
source potential. However, moderate gas generation
potential can be predicted for samples from the Riki
Formation (Fig.14B).
Thus in summary, the results of Rock-Eval
pyrolysis show that carbonate-free mudstones of the
Khadum Formation have the greatest oil-generating
potential, with Type II kerogen at oil window maturity;
the initial HI is estimated at 400-600 mg HC/gTOC.
The Miatly sandstones and siltstones contain migrated
bitumen, as indicated by the elevated S1 and PI; and
overlying Oligocene – lower Miocene formations
19/06/2021 13:55:19
 406 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus
in general contain Type III kerogen with little oil
potential, although the relatively high TOC values in
samples of the Riki Formation indicate its minor gas
source potential.
In 30 samples of the Khadum Formation from the
Chirkey section previously analyzed (Gavrilov et al.,
2017), the relatively low hydrogen index values (HI
= 52–351 mg HC/g TOC) and Rock-Eval Tmax (433-
452°C) corresponded to moderately mature OM. The
samples predominantly contained Type III kerogen
which originated either from terrigenous higher plants
or from marine OM which had been degraded by
aerobic processes. Only the marls and calcareous shaly
clays from the Ostracoda horizon (5 m thick) contained
marine Type II kerogen. Considering that the kerogen
in the samples of the Khadum Formation analysed is
mature, any generated hydrocarbons may have been
lost as a result of catagenetic processes which could
have decreased the HI values. Hence, initial HI values
in the Khadum sediments may have been higher.
This is consistent with petrographic observations
which indicate an insignificant content of organic
components of terrigenous origin in the formation but
high proportions of amorphous OM and the presence
of algal and spore material (Gavrilov et al., 2017).
GEOCHEMICAL PROXIES FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
IN THE EASTERN PARATETHYS
The Maikop Group sediments at outcrops in Dagestan
have poor faunal and trace fossil contents indicating
unfavourable palaeoecological conditions, and this
tends to be corroborated by geochemical data. The
link between OM accumulation and anoxia began
to be discussed following the discovery of anoxia
and related high concentrations of free H2S in the
Black Sea in 1890 by a Russian Geographical Society
expedition. Arkhangelsky (1927) investigated oil
generation in the North Caucasus, and proposed that
liquid hydrocarbons had formed from organic matter
which had been deposited in anoxic environments
with high levels of free H2S. The presence of anoxic,
H2S -rich bottom waters during Maikopian deposition
in the Eastern Paratethys was subsequently studied
by researchers including Zhizhchenko (1953, 1958),
Nedumov (1998), Popov and Stolyarov (1996) and
Stolyarov (1996). However, anoxia in the area around
the Sulak River was variable, and the upper surface of
the zone with free hydrogen sulphide was sometimes
close to the top of the water column but at other times
was at considerable depth.
To a s s e s s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n o x i a ,
sedimentological observations (e.g. the preservation
of lamination or bioturbation) can be used. However,
neither sedimentological nor palaeoecological signs
Gavrilov.indd 406
of oxygen deficiency allow the oxygen regime in the
water column to be recognised reliably, nor can they be
used to determine the onset or end of anoxia. Variations
in the concentration of elements which are sensitive
to redox fluctuations may, however, give a better
indication of the occurrence of anoxic conditions. Thus
Hallberg (1974) suggested that the (Mo+Cu)/Zn ratio
may serve as a proxy for anoxia, while Emelyanov
(1977, 1981) used ratios of molybdenum, copper,
selenium, zinc and manganese for this purpose.
A pronounced response to changes in the oxygen
regime in the bottom waters is given by variations in
the concentrations of Mo and Mn, and a “stagnation
coefficient” (Mo/Mn x 100) was therefore proposed
by Kholodov and Nedumov (1991) and Nedumov
(1994, 1998). Molybdenum is precipitated under
anoxic conditions with high H2S concentrations and
co-precipitates with authigenic sulphides (Korolev,
1958). In a normally oxygenated environment,
however, Mo remains in solution. Manganese, by
contrast, precipitates as an oxide in normal oxygen
concentrations but enters into solution in anoxic
conditions. Analysis of a large data-set on Mo and
Mn concentrations in recent and ancient sediments
has shown that values of the stagnation coefficient <1
indicate oxidizing depositional conditions whereas
values >1 (or even ˃10) by contrast imply anoxia.
The Miatly section
The stagnation coefficient (Mo/Mn x 100) was
determined for claystone samples from the Miatly
section, and the results suggest that Maikopian
sediments were deposited in oxygen deficient
conditions (Table 1). However depositional conditions
periodically fluctuated, facilitating or hindering
development of an anoxic bottom water zone with high
free H2S concentrations.
Khadum Formation
The lithological and geochemical characteristics of
the Khadum Formation are variable, showing that the
depositional environment changed significantly over
time. This is indicated by changes in the TOC, CaCO3
and Mo and Mn contents through the section (Figs 4, 12).
At the transition from the Belaya Glina Formation
to the Khadum Formation at the base of the Maikop
Group, a significant increase in Mo and other element
concentrations (Fe, S, Mo, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Ba,
Th, U: Gavrilov et al., 2017) is observed, accompanied
by a reduction or complete disappearance of benthic
fauna and trace fossils. This suggests that ecologically
unfavourable, dysoxic-anoxic conditions developed
in the bottom waters during deposition of the base-
Pshekha Member. This is corroborated by values of the
stagnation coefficient. However planktonic organisms
such as foraminifera and nannofossils continued to
19/06/2021 13:55:19
 Yu. Gavrilov et al.
thrive in well-oxygenated near-surface waters as
indicated by the photomicrographs of the Khadum
Formation samples in Fig. 5.
During deposition of the Ostracoda horizon
limestones and the overlying marls and calcareous
clays in the Solenovian Member, there was an apparent
retreat of the zone of anoxia to deeper parts of the basin.
The widespread lateral extent of the limestones and
marls of the Ostracoda horizon, which is a prominent
marker bed, suggests that oxic conditions in the water
column were dominant at this time.
Depositional conditions then changed significantly
during deposition of the Solenovian Member, with an
abrupt increase in the input of clay with an admixture
of silt-grade siliciclastics to this part of the basin which
had previously been dominated by the deposition of
mixed planktonic carbonate- and clay-rich sediment.
OM accumulation decreased, coinciding with reduced
precipitation of Mo indicating dysoxic-anoxic
conditions. The end of the interval was also marked
by environmental changes which are recorded in the
deposition of highly OM-rich shales and claystones
(ca. 7 m thick) above the upper ostracod bed in the
uppermost part of the Solenovian Member. The sharp
increase of Mo concentrations and the high values of
the stagnation coefficient indicate the onset of anoxic
conditions.
The following period of sediment deposition was
characterized by low rates of OM accumulation.
Increased input of siliciclastics was accompanied by an
increase in hydrodynamic activity and the restoration of
normal aeration in the water column. The appearance of
thick intervals of alternating claystones and sandstones,
as well as changes in geochemical characteristics,
indicate the end of Khadum Formation deposition.
The Miatly, Lower Clayey and Mutsidakal
Formations: upper Oligocene – lower Miocene
Contrasting with the depositional record of the lower
Oligocene Khadum Formation, the upper Oligocene
Miatly, Lower Clayey and Mutsidakal Formations
demonstrate an absence of prolonged episodes of
concentrated OM accumulation, although TOC values
may be up to 1.5-2%. In general the three formations
are composed of claystones, although the Miatly and
Mutsidakal Formations in the Miatly section contain
numerous sandstone beds.
Compared to the Khadum interval, sedimentation
rates during the late Oligocene progressively increased,
and the input of siliciclastic material is interpreted to
have increased by almost an order of magnitude. The
high sedimentation rates resulted in the deposition
of relatively low-OM deposits. The changes in
depositional history may be explained by factors
including accelerated uplift and unroofing of the Greater
Caucasus and an increase in regional subsidence and
Gavrilov.indd 407
407
slope instability as suggested by the gravity-controlled
displacement of large-scale olistoliths.
The low concentrations of redox-sensitive elements
in samples from the Miatly, Lower Clayey and
Mutsidakal Formations (Table 1, Fig. 12) suggest that
geochemical conditions during the late Oligocene were
unstable and dysoxic conditions prevailed. Oxygen-
free conditions occurred occasionally but for relatively
short time periods.
Riki Formation
Deposition of the Riki Formation marked a new stage
in the depositional history of this sector of the Eastern
Paratethys. The formation is composed of a single
almost uniform unit of chocolate-brown, laminated
claystones intercalated with thin (several cm) beds
of fine-grained sandstone. The sedimentological
characteristics of the formation indicate that it was
deposited in a stable, low-energy environment.
Claystones in the Riki Formation, in contrast to
those in the underlying Miatly, Lower Clayey and
Mutsidakal Formations, are characterized by increased
amounts of organic matter (Table 1). Together with an
enrichment in Mo, S, As, U and Co and a depletion in
Mn, these geochemical characteristics indicate anoxic
depositional conditions.
In general, biogenic carbonate is not present in the
Riki Formation. It may initially have been present in
the lower part of the formation before being removed
and reprecipitated in the form of carbonate (dolomite)
concretions. The lower part of the Riki Formation could
therefore corresponds to the Alckun Formation of the
western North Caucasus (Beluzhenko et al., 2018).
Zuramakent Formation
Depositional conditions in the study area evolved
again during deposition of the Zuramakent Formation.
The presence of abundant burrows which are
absent from underlying Maikopian deposits indicate
normal aeration in the bottom waters and abundant
benthic fauna. An aerobic regime is also suggested
by a depletion in Mo and an enrichment of Mn in
Zuramakent Formation samples (Fig. 12).
Early diagenetic processes in the formation were
also modified. Thus claystones in underlying Maikopian
deposits are commonly enriched in framboidal pyrite
whose concentration correlates with that of OM, and
maximum framboidal pyrite concentrations occur in
the Khadum and Riki Formations. By contrast the
Zuramakent Formation is characterized by diagenetic
siderite containing Mn (Fig. 9E-F), resulting in the
typical occurrence of mangano-siderite concretions
(Gavrilov, 1982). Enhanced Mn accumulation resulted
in the formation of the Labinsky manganese ore
deposits in the Central Caucasus (Kalinenko, 1990;
Strakhov et al., 1968).
19/06/2021 13:55:19
 408 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus
High Mn concentrations may be related to a change
in redox conditions between the underlying Riki and
the Zuramakent Formations. While Mn accumulated
in the anoxic water column in the Riki palaeobasin
(similar to the modern Black Sea: Dekov et al., 2020),
Mn was precipitated in the oxic to suboxic Zuramakent
palaeobasin.
Another cause of the enrichment of the Zuramakent
Formation with elements such as Fe and Mn (Fig.
12) may be related to the erosion of Oligocene ore-
bearing sediments from the opposite (i.e. eastern) side
of the palaeobasin (Stolyarov and Kochenov, 1995,
Formozova, 1959). This may have been a result of a
fall in relative sea level and the east-to-west transport
of erosional products by submarine currents.
In the uppermost part of the Zuramakent Formation,
there is some sedimentological and geochemical
evidence for stagnation accompanied by the temporary
occurrence of dysoxic conditions. This suggests that
there were multiple turnovers of redox conditions
in this part of the NE Paratethys during the Early
Neogene, including a transition from relatively stable
anoxia during deposition of the Riki Formation to
predominantly oxic conditions in the Zuramakent
palaeobasin, with short dysoxic episodes during the
final stages of its depositional history.
INFLUENCE OF REGIONAL AND GLOBAL
FACTORS ON THE DEPOSITION OF
MAIKOP GROUP SEDIMENTS
The depositional characteristics of the Maikop Group
sediments in the NE Caucasus was influenced by
various factors including: episodic freshening of this
part of the Eastern Paratethys as a result of freshwater
flows from rivers draining the Russian Platform (e.g.
Nedumov, 1993, 1994; Muzylev et al., 1992); uplift and
subaerial emergence of the Greater Caucasus providing
a significant sediment provenance area; increased basin
subsidence; eustatic sea level variations; periodic
isolation of the Paratethys or re-connection with the
global ocean; and local climatic changes, including a
general cooling trend in the Oligocene. The combined
effect of these factors influenced depositional processes
in the study area and resulted in a complex facies
distribution.
During the Paleocene and Eocene, a humid tropical
climate prevailed in Southern Russia and adjacent
areas. Cooling began in the mid- early Oligocene,
and by the end of the Oligocene the average annual
temperature had fallen by 10-15°C in the southern
Paratethys. At the same time, the climate became
more continental (Sinitsyn, 1965; Yasamanov, 1978;
Akhmetiev et al., 2017).
Sea level fluctuations in the Eastern Paratethys have
been discussed by Krasheninnikov and Akhmetiev
Gavrilov.indd 408
(1996) and Popov et al. (2009, 2010). In this study,
the Paratethys sea level is estimated to have fallen by
100-150 m at the Priabonian–Oligocene boundary; a
sea-level fall of only 50 m is estimated for the global
ocean at this time (Haq et al., 1987). A sea level fall of
several tens of metres also occurred at the end of the
early Oligocene. Other episodes of sea level fall and
rise during Maikopian time were probably of a smaller
amplitude but had a significant impact on patterns of
sedimentation. A high-magnitude in sea level fall also
occurred at the very end of Maikop deposition.
In terms of Maikop Group thickness, the succession
at the Sulak River is almost twice as thick as that at the
Belaya River in the NW Caucasus (Popov et al., 2019;
Sachsenhofer et al., 2017). However depositional rates
of Maikopian sediments at the Sulak River valley
location varied significantly through time; they were
lowest during deposition of the Khadum Formation
but later increased substantially. An increase in the
sedimentation rate during the second half of the
Oligocene by almost an order of magnitude was
reported by Popov et al. (2009). This changes was
caused by a number of factors, including acceleration
in the uplift and unroofing of the Greater Caucasus
which supplied an increasing load of clastic debris
to the surrounding foreland basins; and increased
basin subsidence (Mikhailov et al., 1999) which
was necessary to provide accommodation space for
the deposition of the thick (>1 km) upper Oligocene
– lower Miocene succession. Uplift of the eastern
Greater Caucasus in Maikopian time and slope
instability is indicated by observations of gravity-
controlled deformation. These include soft sediment
deformation structures in the Khadum Formation,
numerous olistoliths composed of pre-Maikop rocks
together with subaqueous slumps and slides in the
Miatly Formation (Fig. 6A-C), and large rafted slabs
of the Riki Formation sediments enclosed within the
sediments of the Zuramakent Formation.
CONCLUSIONS
This study investigated the Oligocene – lower Miocene
Maikop Group at a well-exposed outcrop succession
along the Sulak River in Dagestan (NE Caucasus),
with particular focus on the boundary between the end-
Eocene Belaya Glina Formation and the base-Maikop
Khadum Formation. Major conclusions of the study
are as follows:
• The results of biostratigraphic studies of
calcareous nannofossils allowed the Belaya Glina
Formation – Khadum Formation boundary to be
defined. The boundary occurs within the CP16 Zone
near the division between the CP16a and CP16b
subzones. This definition matches the age of the
boundary in a reference section along the Kheu River
19/06/2021 13:55:19
 Yu. Gavrilov et al.
in Kabardino-Balkaria to the west of the study area in
the Central North Caucasus.
• The oxygen stable isotope record for the
transitional Eocene – Oligocene interval demonstrates
a marked decrease of δ18О in the studied outcrop
sections, probably caused by a change of water column
salinity.
• Results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis show that
the samples of the Maikop Group analysed contain
kerogen Types II and III which is unevenly distributed.
Carbonate-free rocks from above the upper ostracod
bed in the Khadum Formation have the greatest oil-
generating potential with Type II kerogen at mid-
oil window maturities; the initial hydrogen index
is estimated at 400-600 mg of HC/g. The Miatly
sandstones and siltstones contain migrated bitumen,
as indicated by elevated values of S1 and the high PI.
Samples from overlying Oligocene – Lower Miocene
formations mainly contain Type III kerogen with little
oil potential, although samples of the Riki Formation
may have minor gas potential.
• The depositional environment in this sector
of Neotethys changed markedly during Maikopian
deposition, as did the geochemical conditions. The
accumulation of organic matter varied over time, and
the highest TOC contents occur in the lower Oligocene
Khadum and the uppermost Oligocene – lower
Miocene Riki Formations.
• G e o c h e m i c a l a n d p a l a e o n t o l o g i c a l
observations suggest that environmental conditions
were largely unfavourable for bottom-dwelling fauna
during Maikop deposition. This was largely caused
by long periods of oxygen deficiency in the bottom
waters, particularly during deposition of the Khadum
and Riki Formations. However, the intensity and
stability of dysoxic-anoxic conditions fluctuated and
was controlled by local hydrodynamics factors.
• Depositional rates varied significantly in the
study area during the Oligocene – early Miocene.
Reduced sedimentation rates led to the deposition of
the relatively condensed Khadum Formation which
is enriched in biogenic carbonate and organic matter.
The input of siliciclastic material then progressively
increased and appears to have stabilized during
deposition of the Riki Formation. These changes may
be explained by factors including accelerated uplift and
emergence of the Greater Caucasus and an increase
in local subsidence rates with accompanying slope
instability, as suggested by the observation of large-
scale slumps, slides and olistoliths.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Reinhard Sachsenhofer for a careful
reading of a previous version of the manuscript and
for useful comments and recommendations which
Gavrilov.indd 409
409
improved the paper significantly. JPG editorial staff
are acknowledged for assistance with the English
language presentation.
Funding
This study was carried out following research
projects of the Geological Institute of the
Russian Academy of Sciences: project numbers
АААА-А20-120030490100-6 and АААА-А21-
121011590055-6. Pyrolysis studies were supported
by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of
the Russian Federation under agreement No. 075-10-
2020-119 within the framework of the Development
Programme for a World-Class Research Center.
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