.

MUHAMMAD AAMIR
(2019-PE-12)

GM PIPES &
CABLES
Document Report
 GM Pipes and Cables Introduction
Introduction
Started by late Mr. M. Jahangir Chaudhary as a small-scale house wiring industry, today GM
Cables & Pipes (Pvt.) Ltd. stands outs as one of the most reliable and recognized manufacturers
of Cables, Pipes and Ducts in Pakistan. Starting from modest organization in year 1975, GM has
come a long way in establishing itself as a leading cable and polymer pipe & ducts industry.
Since inception, GM has been setting standards in quality & safety with all its products. GM
Cables & Pipes (Pvt.) Limited plant located at Ferozpur Road, Lahore, is equipped with the most
sophisticated manufacturing and testing equipment. Quality is the hallmark of GM products,
which has been sustained throughout the period.

Lead by visionary leadership, the organization realized that the growing population and power
needs in Pakistan would demand more power consumption and generation. Power Cables being
exponentially related to power generation, GM has been continuously enhancing its product
ranges, while maintaining its traditional quality.

Figure 1 GM CABLES & PIPES LOGO

In 1990 we GM started manufacturing power cables for power and industrial infrastructure. In
2000 a new product PVC Granular was started to become self-sufficient in indigenous demand
and to serve the others cable industry.

In 2009 we GM added U-PVC Pipes & Accessories for electric cables, offering total solution to
house electrification. In 2011 it started sewerage and pressure pipes to complete its pipes range.
In 2018, a further addition of PPRC pipes is on the way to offer safe and reliable potable water
distribution system to households of Pakistan.

GM Cables & Pipes (Pvt.) Limited is committed and geared-up to match the customer
satisfaction by manufacturing and supplying cables & pipes/ducts conforming to national and
international standards. Continuous improvements through R&D cell and technological
excellence with vigorous trainings of employees are the features to meet its stringent quality
policy.

GM Product Range and Varieties

They have a wide range of products in cables, pipes and different types of plastic fittings.

GM Wires and Cables:

 General wiring electric cable
 Power cable low voltage ( unarmored/armored )
 Power cable low voltage ( unarmored/armored )
 Flexible cables
 Grounding conductor
 Indoor telecom pair cable
 Coaxial cables RG type

GM U-PVC Pipes and Fittings:

GM conduits and fittings are manufactured in pearl white color and bear GM engraved
marking in golden color.
 Electrical Conduit Pipes (1/2 “to 6”)
 Sewerage Pipes (1-1/2” to 8”)
 Super Sewerage Pipes (3” to 8”)
 Sewerage Pipe Fittings
 Pressure Pipes (1/2” to 12”)
 Electrical Fittings
 Other Pipes (According to customer’s requirement)
GM PPRC Pipes and Fitting:
GM PPRC products are manufactured in warm gray color.
 PPRC Pipes (PN16 TO PN25)
 PPRC Pipe Accessories (25 mm to 63 mm)

GM Ducts and Fitting:

GM ducts are manufactured in various sizes in our conventional pearl white color and
offer similar features of quality as of our other U-PVC products.

 Slotted Ducts (16×16 mm to 100×100 mm)

 Non-Slotted Ducts (16×16 mm to 100×100 mm)

Figure 2 GM PIES PICTURE

 Extrusion Production House

U-PVC manufactured products Machine:

The machines on which U-PVC manufactured products are seven extrusion machines in the
extrusion production house.

First & Machine

First extrusion machine produce the U-PVC Electrical Ducts and in both form plain and slotted
form according to the standard of BS 4678. The range of size GM U-PVC Electrical Ducts
16*16mm to 100*100mm and its supply length is 10 feet. First machine is 55 tonnage machine.

Second Machine
Second extrusion machine produce the U-PVC Electrical Ducts and in both form plain and
slotted form according to the standard of BS 4778. The range of size GM U-PVC Electrical
Ducts 16*16mm to 100*100mm and its supply length is 10 feet. Second machine is 65 tonnage
machine.

Third Machine
Third extrusion machine produce the U-PVC Electrical conduits pipes according to the standard
of BS 6099 and PS 1905. The range of nominal size of GM Electrical Conduit pies ¾ inch and
its outer diameter 21.2 to 21.5mm and its wall thickness range is 1.09 to 1.29mm. Third machine
is 55 tonnage machine.

Forth Machine
Forth extrusion machine produce the U-PVC Electrical conduits pipes according to the standard
of BS 6099 and PS 1905. The range of nominal size of GM Electrical Conduit pies 1 inch and its
outer diameter 25.75 to 26.5mm and its wall thickness range is 1.16 to 1.36mm. Forth machine is
65 tonnage machine.
Fifth Machine
Fifth extrusion machine produce the U-PVC sewerage pipes according to the standard of BS
6099 and PS 1905. The range of nominal size of GM Electrical Conduit pies 1/2 inch to 2inch.
Fifth machine is 65 tonnage machine.

Sixth Machine
Sixth extrusion machine produce the U-PVC Sewerage and Pressure pipes according to the
standard of PS 1905 and BS 6099. The range of nominal size of GM Electrical Conduit pies
3inch to 6inch. Sixth machine is 60 tonnage machine.

Seventh Machine
Seventh extrusion machine produce the U-PVC Sewerage and Pressure pipes according to the
BS 6099 and PS 1905. The range of nominal size of GM Electrical Conduit pies 3inch to 6inch.
Sixth machine is 80 tonnage machine.

PPRC manufactured products Machine:

The machines on which PPRC manufactured products are three extrusion machines in the
extrusion production house.

All of these machines produce the GM PPRC water supply pies for house hold usage. PPRC
pipes are made according to the standard of DIN-8077 & 8078. The size range of GM PPRC
pipes are 25mm to 63mm and pressure bearing capacity range is PN16 to PN25. The two
machines are 65 tonnage and third one is 75 tonnage machine.
 Figure 3: PPRC MACHINES

Extrusion:
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile by pushing material
through a die of the desired cross-section.

Its two main advantages over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very
complex cross-sections; and to work materials that are brittle, because the material encounters
only compressive and shear stresses. It also creates excellent surface finish and gives
considerable freedom of form in the design process

Extruder Machines:
Extruder machines press solid and viscous media through a die. Metal and plastic can be formed
in an extrusion process. Continuous inkjet printers and laser marking machines can apply
alphanumeric text and codes on a variety of extruded products including wire, cable and pipe.

It's one of the most common ways to produce sheets and strips of stock metal, plastic and rubber
shapes. An extruder is simply the machine used to complete the extrusion process. Using a
system of barrels and cylinders, the machine heats up the product and propels it through the die
to create the desired shape.
Types of Extrusion:
Extrusion is a manufacturing process that involves forcing base metal through a pre-shaped die
to create objects with a specific shape and profile. As the metal passes through the die, its shape
changes to reflect the die’s shape. There are different types of extrusion processes, however,
including cold, hot, friction and micro.

Cold Extrusion
With cold extrusion, metal is forced through the die while at or near room temperature. The
metal used in cold extrusion typically comes in slugs, which are poured into the die’s feeder
where pressure joins them together to create a solid object in a new shape. Some of the most
common metals used in cold extrusion include the following:

 Aluminum
 Copper
 Niobium
 Steel
 Lead
 Tin

Hot Extrusion
Hot extrusion, on the other hand, involves heating metal at high temperatures and then forcing it
through the die while in a molten state. Depending on the type of metal, temperatures may range
from 650 degrees Fahrenheit (magnesium) all the way to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit (steel). It’s
important for manufacturers to use the right temperature when performing hot extrusion. If the
base metal isn’t heated to its recrystallization temperatures, it may struggle to pass through the
die. When heated the metal is heated to the appropriate temperature, however, hot extrusion is an
accurate and effective way to reshape metal.

Some of the most common metals used in hot extrusion include the following:

 Magnesium
  Copper
 Steel
 Aluminum
 Nickel

Friction Extrusion
There’s also friction extrusion. Invented by The Welding Institute in the 1990s, this modern
extrusion process involves the automatic rotation of the metal slugs or billets based on the
position of the die. As the die rotates, it produces heat from the metal-on-metal friction around
the entry of the die. This heat allows the metal to pass through the die more easily. Friction
extrusion is an effective, efficient process that’s gaining popularity among manufacturers.

Micro Extrusion
Finally, micro extrusion is a relatively new type of extrusion process that’s characterized by the
ability to create small, micro-sized objects. Specifically, the cross-section of the die supports
base metal measuring just 1 millimeter. But because of the highly technical nature of creating
such small dies that can withstand such pressure, it hasn’t gained the same level of popularity as
its friction counterpart. Of course, this may change as new advancements are made with micro
extrusion.

Extrusion Machine Components:

Motor:
The extruder motor is responsible for loading the material into the hot-end. Extruder drives
generally consist of an electric motor and a gear unit, the so-called extruder gear. Most usually
modern extrusion systems use asynchronous or synchronous motors. Originally, DC motors with
a downstream two or three-stage spur gear, to adjust the speed, were used in extruder
applications. However, energy-optimized extruders today predominantly use three-phase AC
drives consisting of a standard asynchronous motor with a frequency converter. These drives are
low-maintenance and they offer higher protection classes.
Voltage range: from 400 V to 11000 V (11 kV)
 Power range: from approx. 100 to 6000 kW (6 MW)
Cooling types: IC81, IC 86, IC 71, IC 416, IC 37
Number of poles: 04 to 12 poles
Degrees of protection: IP23, IP55

Working principal of Motor:

A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The basic working principle of the DC motor is that whenever a current carrying conductor
places in the magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.

2-Pole Motor:

2-pole motor has produce 1.5 feet per pound of torque per horsepower.
At 60 Hz, A 2-pole motor rotating at a speed of 3600 rpm.
2-poles motor has north-south configuration.
Its rotor complete one cycle for every cycle of source.
It’s a 2 phase motor.

4-Pole Motor:

4-pole motor has produce 3 feet per pounds of torque per horsepower.
At 50Hz, A 4-pole motor rotating at a speed of 1800 rpm.
4-pole motor has north-south, north-south configuration.
Its rotor complete half cycle for every cycle of source.
It’s a 2 phase motor.

6-Pole Motor:

6-pole motor is 3-pahse motor.

6-pole motor has north-south, north-south, and north-south configuration.
Six-pole motors run at 1200 RPM unloaded and between 1050 and 1175 RPM loaded.

Gear box:
The Gearbox (Transmission) is a mechanical device used to increase the output torque or to
change the speed (RPM) of a motor. The shaft of the motor is connected to one end of the
gearbox and through the internal configuration of gears of a gearbox, provides a given output
torque and speed determined by the gear ratio. Gear box runs at a speed of 40 or 60 RPM.

Purpose of using Gear Box:

The purpose of a gearbox is to increase or reduce speed. As a result, torque output will be the
inverse of the speed function. If the enclosed drive is a speed reducer (speed output is less than
speed input), the torque output will increase; if the drive increases speed, the torque output will
decrease.

Ratio of Gear Box:

A gear ratio is the ratio of the number of rotations of a driver gear to the number of rotations of a
driven gear.

A colon is often used to show a gear ratio:

Gear ratio = rotations of a driver gear: rotations of a driven gear.

For every rotation of the 45-tooth gear, the 15-tooth gear must rotate 3 times.

Screw:
A screw extruder is a type of mixer which moves the components through a cylinder using a
screw which turns. Small plastic pellets are fed into the hopper of the screw extruder where they
are conveyed through the extruder by the rotating screw. A screw extruder is a type of mixer
which moves the components through a cylinder using a screw which turns.

Flow Mechanism:
The screw consists of a cylinder of steel with a helical channel cut into it. This screw rotates
inside the extrusion barrel and conveys the plastic material from the hopper to the die along the
screw channel (the open section between the flights of the screw). In the ideal case, as the screw
rotates, the material slips on the screw and adheres to the inside the barrel, producing a purely
axial (forward) movement of the polymer. If the material sticks to the screw and slips on the
barrel then there will be zero output, as the material and the screw rotate together. In practice, the
flow behavior lies between these two extremes since the material adheres to both the screw and
the barrel.
Basic Screw Design:
The basic extrusion screw has three distinct parts, each engineered to do a specific task.
 The feed section is in the rear of the screw, where plastic pellets are gravity fed from
above and conveyed forward. The length to diameter ratio of the feed section is typically
four or five to one, which is sufficient to build up the pressure needed to transport the
plastic. However, the friction between the barrel wall and the plastic must be greater than
that between the screw and the plastic in order for lateral movement to occur. 
Feed section length ratios can be increased to eight or ten to one for plastics with a low
coefficient of friction. This extra length gives the plastic more time to heat up to a higher
temperatures, creating more friction at the barrel. From here, the plastic is channeled into
the transition section of the screw.
 In the transition section, the plastic is transformed into its liquid state through two
concurrent methods. Barrel heaters provide some initial melting, while the shear caused
by the motion of the plastic against the barrel completes the process. In this stage, the
root of the screw increases while the flutes, or “flights,” subsequently decrease in size.
This leaves less space for the plastic mass that has been compacted in the feed section.
As pressure, shear and friction increases, the plastic begins to melt and flow. The
transition section typically occupies five to ten diameters of the cycle. 

 In the metering or pumping section, the molten plastic is guided into a die. The root
diameter of the screw and the size of the flights remain constant in this stage, and its
length varies from four to eight diameters, depending on the application.

L/D Ratio:
The L/D ratio is the ratio of the flight length of the screw to its outside diameter. The ratio
calculation is calculated by dividing the flight length of the screw by its nominal diameter.
Although several injection molding machine manufacturers now offer a choice of injection units,
most injection screws use a 20:1 L/D ratio.

The effect of changing the L/D ratio:

 More shear heat can be uniformly generated in the plastic without degradation.
  Greater the opportunity for mixing, resulting in a better homogeneity of the melt.

 Greater the residence time of the plastic in the barrel possibly permitting faster cycles of
larger shots.

Compression Ratio:
The ratio of the volume of the flight in the feed zone to that in the metering zone gives the
compression ratio. This reduction in volume compensates for the reduction in volume of the feed
(solid material + air) which occurs as the plastic melts and fuses together. Compression ratio is
related to channel depth so if the depth is 0.373” at the hopper and 0.125” at the screw tip, then
the compression ratio is said to be 3:1. A typical compression ratio is 2.0/1 (or 2.5/1) and the
length to diameter ratio (L/D) is about 20:1.

Barrel:
The barrel of an extruder is a hollow chamber in which the screw (or screws) operates.

If one screw is used the barrel has a cylindrical cross-section: if two screws are used, the barrel
has a figure eight cross section. It is the screw and the barrel, which interact to melt, convey, and
generate pressure on a polymeric material within an extruder. It is essential that this be done
under controlled conditions since the extruder must produce a uniformly plasticized material, of
constant composition, at the required rate. To achieve this, the barrel must be made very
accurately. A barrel is generally rated in terms of its diameter (D) in inches or millimeters.

Barrel Construction
Because the pressures generated within an extruder can reach very high values (up to 10,000 psi
or 70 Mpa), the barrel is constructed to withstand these high pressures without distortion. The
barrel, therefore, is made from thick walled alloy steel tubing or pipe and is usually designed to
operate safely at twice the estimated operating pressures. Wear and corrosion resistance are often
provided by ion nitriding, although a bimetallic barrel is preferred for wear resistance. The feed
throat, cut through the barrel wall, is approximately the same size as the barrel diameter. It is
very important that adequate provision is made to cool the barrel in this region, as otherwise the
extruder will not feed properly.
Barrel Heating and Cooling
Most extruders are electrically heated and use resistance coils, bands, or cuffs that are strapped
or bolted around the barrel. Upon demand, initiated by a thermocouple, electrical current is
passed through the resistance wire, inside the coil. The resistance produces heat that causes the
temperature to rise. If a PID controller is used, as the set point temperature is approached the
power is progressively reduced and then finally turned off completely at the set point.
For a given machine, the actual barrel settings required to achieve a desired melt temperature
will depend on the screw rotational speed, the pressure within the system and the polymer
throughput. As it is very easy to exceed the extrusion set point temperature, many machines are
equipped with cooling systems.
Air cooling systems are the simplest to install and consist of fans that circulate air around the
efficient as liquid cooling systems. A popular system is based on a closed loop, heat exchanger
that uses distilled water contained inside a sealed coil surrounding the barrel. When the set point
is exceeded, the vapor from this water is cooled by water flow so that the distilled water vapor
condenses to absorb more heat.

Zoned Heating
A zone is a part or section of an extruder barrel. For ease of control, the barrel is divided into
zones or regions. Zoned heating is the separate heating, and temperature control, of each zone of
a machine. The smallest machines usually have three zones while larger machines may have as
many as twelve. A temperature sensor and its associated electronics, controls each of these
zones.

Barrel Residence Time

This is the average time during which a material resides within the extruder barrel. It is important
because time at temperature controls of the rate of decomposition of plastics. A plastic may be
degraded by a short exposure to a high temperature or by a longer exposure to a lower
temperature. How long the plastic is in the barrel is therefore important. The actual residence
time may be determined experimentally by measuring the time taken for colored plastic to pass
through the extruder.
Barrel Zone:
Machines can have four or more barrel zones, but the basic zones are: feed, rear, middle, and
front.

Thermocouple:
Tell about the temperature.

Relay:
Precisely control the current temperature.

DIE:
Extrusion dies are essentially thick, circular steel disks containing one or more openings to create
the desired profile. They are normally constructed from H-13 die steel and heat-treated to
withstand the pressure and heat of hot aluminum as it is pushed through the die.

While it may appear that aluminum is a very soft metal, the reality is it takes a tremendous
amount of pressure to push a solid log (billet) of aluminum through a thin, multi-holed die to
create the desired shape. In fact, it takes 100,000-125,000 psi of force to push a billet through an
8” inch press.

Die Profile Categories

While there are a multitude of shapes that can be created using aluminum extrusions, the dies
used fall under three categories:

 Solid Dies
A solid die creates a final shape that has no enclosed voids/openings, such as a rod, beam
or angle. As such, a solid die is typically less expensive to manufacture than other die
types.
To produce a solid profile requires a set of parts called a “die stack.” This stack is made
up of:
 Feeder plate controls the metal flow through the die orifice.
 Die plate forms the shape.
 Backer plate supports the tongue of die to prevent collapse or distortion.
 Hollow Dies
 A hollow die produces profiles with one or more voids, such as a simple tube with one
void or a complex profile with many detailed voids. To produce a hollow shape requires a
different die set, which includes:
Mandrel is located inside the die and has two or more port holes to generate the internal
features of the profile and to control the flow of metal. During extrusion the aluminum
billet separates into each port and rejoins in the weld chamber prior to entering the
bearing area. The ports are separated by webs, also known as legs, which support the core
or mandrel section. Because of these extra components, a hollow die has a higher
44material and tooling cost, and typically get more expensive the more voids are
included.
 Die Cap is a multi-piece die which makes the shape.
 Bolster supports the extrusion load transmitted from the die cap and mandrel.
 Semi-Hollow Dies
A semi-hollow die extrudes a shape that is nearly hollow, partially enclosing a void.
Similar to a hollow die, a semi-hollow die set includes a mandrel with port holes, but
without cores to make a complete void, as well as a die cap and bolster.
While a solid die may also partially enclose a void, the difference is the ratio of the area
of the void to the size of the gap where the tongue is connected to the main body of the
die. This ratio is called the tongue ratio. For semi-hollow dies, the tongue ratio is larger
than in a solid die, which creates more complexity when manufactured, and in turn more
cost.

Cup & Nozzle:

Material extrusion is an additive manufacturing technique which uses continuous filament of
thermoplastic or composite material to construct 3D parts. The material in the form of plastic
filament fed through an extruding nozzle, where it heated and then deposited onto the build
platform layer by layer. Nozzle make the inner diameter of pipe while cup make the inner
diameter.

Cooling Section:
A series of sizing fixtures are cooled with chilled water. As the extruded profile moves through
the fixtures, the final shape is maintained while heat is removed and the plastic solidifies.
Like many other processes, plastic extrusion requires a substantial amount of cooling capacity.
During processing, the plastic is heated, melted and extruded through the die. It then must be
cooled so that it will solidify into its new shape.
In profile extrusion, the process used to make siding and other plastic shapes -- the heat removal
takes place in sizing fixtures and cooling tanks downstream from the die. Other extrusion
processes use chill rolls or even cool air. Regardless of the cooling method and location, one
basic fact remains: The faster the heat can be removed, the faster the extrusion line can run. For
this reason, rapid heat transfer is crucial to plant efficiency and profitability.

Solenoid valve
A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. Solenoid valves differ in the
characteristics of the electric current they use, the strength of the magnetic field they generate,
the mechanism they use to regulate the fluid, and the type and characteristics of fluid they
control. The mechanism varies from linear action, plunger-type actuators to pivoted-armature
actuators and rocker actuators. The valve can use a two-port design to regulate a flow or use a
three or more port design to switch flows between ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed
together on a manifold.

Conveyor:
A conveyor system is a fast and efficient mechanical handling apparatus for automatically
transporting loads and materials within an area. This system minimizes human error, lowers
workplace risks and reduces labor costs among other benefits. They are useful in helping to
move bulky or heavy items from one point to another. A conveyor system may use a belt,
wheels, rollers, or a chain to transport objects.

Typically, conveyor systems consist of a belt stretched across two or more pulleys. The belt
forms a closed loop around the pulleys so it can continually rotate. One pulley, known as the
drive pulley, drives or tows the belt, moving items from one location to another.

The most common conveyor system designs use a rotor to power the drive pulley and belt. The
belt remains attached to the rotor through the friction between the two surfaces. For the belt to
move effectively, both the drive pulley and idler must run in the same direction, either clockwise
or counterclockwise.
Hydraulic jacks Valve
A hydraulic jack creates pressure by moving oil through two cylinders via a pump plunger. The
pump plunger is drawn back, which opens the suction valve and draws oil into the pump
chamber. As the plunger is pushed down, the oil is transported through an external discharge
valve and into the cylinder chamber. The suction valve then closes, resulting in pressure being
built up within the chamber; causing the piston in the chamber to rise and lift your heavy object.
This process can be repeated many times, allowing your load to be lifted higher, and higher.

Cutter:
Once a product has been extruded through a die, extruder cutters are used to cut it to size. This is
done by a cutting machine or additional cutting equipment that is positioned immediately after
the die exit. Critical factors of an extruder cutter are the cutting mechanism or method, blade
shape, blade thickness and cutting speed. Cutting is intrinsic to overall process design and may
also contribute to the shaping of the final product.

Extrusion cutting machine can help enable users to optimize their processing streams and create
more consistent final products. While we’re always ready to help our customers create a custom
cutting solution focused on their specific application, we do have a few specific categories of
machines for material cutting.

Rotary Die Cutters: when mounted and hinged to an  extruder, this rotating blade will slice
materials being pushed through a die with neatness and precision to give you an ideal product.

Offset Rotary Die Cutter: operates under the same principles at the rotary die cutter, but is
better suited for cutting through tougher materials that require more torque to achieve an optimal
cut.

Guillotine Cutter: uses a downward guillotine motion to neatly cut through materials at a

predetermined length for a high rate of consistency and maximum packaging appeal.

Problem & Trouble Shooting in Extrusion:

Problem Causes Trouble Shooting

 Surging  Equipment Or Setting  Take off puller irregular

  Motor speed varies
 Uneven feed
 Bridging in hopper
 Orange Peel  Over heating  Raise die temperature
Surface  Decrease the speed

 Un-melted  Screen pack, false  Raise the temperature in the

particles in the temperatures, compression and metering zones
extrudate contamination  Lower the die temperature if the
material seems cross linked.
 If particles melt on high plate, raise
the temperature
 Uneven flow  False temperatures,  Raise the temperatures in the heating
contamination, or melt zones Remove the internal mixer if it
conveying problems is used
 Lower the feed zone temperature in
the case of bridging
 Check for plugging in the hopper
 Excessive  Too much Stress  Cool Slower
Shrinkage  Deceases Speed
 Design die with lower draw down
 Die pressure drop  Plugging or unfinished  Replace screen packs or use screens
too high melting with larger openings
 Raise the temperatures
 Bubbles  Degradation, Moisture  Dry the resin at 220F for one hour
 Check for an odor and if present,
lower the temperatures of the melt

Injection Production House

There are 27 injection machine in Injection production house.
In First Section of injection production house, there are seven injection machine that made the U-
PVC Fitting like Elbow and Bend (45 and 90 degree).

In second section of injection production house, there are ten injection machine that made the PP
fittings products like Fan box, JB box and DL Regular box both small and large etc.

In third section of injection production house, there ten machine that made PPRC and ABS
fitting products like Switch Box and etc.
Injection Molding:
Injection molding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material
into a mold, or mold. Injection molding can be performed with a host of materials mainly
including metals (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections,
and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a
heated barrel, mixed (using a helical screw), and injected into a mold, where it cools and hardens
to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial
designer or an engineer, molds are made by a mold-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually
either steel or aluminum, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part.
Injection molding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest
components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology,
using photopolymers that do not melt during the injection molding of some lower-temperature
thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection molds.

Components of injection Molding:

Hydraulic Motor:
A hydraulic system is a key feature in plastics injection molding machines. The system may be
running around-the-clock and must provide consistent operation through its many years of
continuous use. Nozzle approach, injection of the plunge screw, extruder screw rotation, plus the
closing of the mold require a great number of motion activated sub-circuits. Granular plastic
material requires an extremely steady motion to move smoothly through the heated plasticized
state as it flows into the mold, during the screw rotation and plunge phase. The quality of the
molded product could come into question if there are any irregularities caused by the hydraulic
motions.

The mechanism for the screw which is moved by the hydraulic motor, coupled with the cylinder
that propels the screw forward, make up a complex mechanism that require exacting hydraulic
seals during the injection and packing process of the mold. Improvements in modern seal
technology produce leak-free hydraulic machines suitable for molding plastic products that can
even be used in the medical and food industries.

Hopper:
The Hopper is where the plastic material is poured into the machine before the injection molding
process can begin. The Hopper usually contains a dryer unit to keep moisture away from the
plastic material.

In raw material processing, the hopper dryer blows a constant high-temperature wind into the
drying drum through the drying fan. After the raw materials are baked, the original moisture of
the raw materials in the barrel is taken away to achieve the purpose of removing moisture
contained in the raw materials.

Hopper loaders (1-phase) for automatic conveyance of free-flowing, granule-formed raw

material. The 1-phase MFD motor hopper loader is designed for automatic conveying of free-
flowing, granule shaped plastics raw material from bag or container, to the hopper of a
processing machine or another hopper.

Barrel:
Barrels are normally made in four materials. Nitro-alloy nitride, D2, CPM 10V and Carbide.
These materials handle just about any resins that can be used in the plastics industry. Nitralloy
Nitride is the most common because it is used on all General Purpose application and normally
comes standard on all OEM machines. The Nitalloy is very good on any mild material
application without fillers or corrosives.

Barrels made from D2 are also very good for any application but also allows a better protection
from pitting caused by PVC or Poly Carbonate. The D2 material will stop the black specking
caused by resin sticking that can come from a Nitride barrel.

CPM 10V like the screw material works very well in higher wear applications such as glassed
filled, talc filled or fire retardant materials. The CPM material will give about twice the life of
the barrel against the Nitralloy barrel.

Carbide Barrels will again last twice as long as the CPM barrel but at a much higher cost &
delivery time. But if you are running 50% Glass filled material and really need the wear
protection the carbide is a very good option.

Screw Section
A screw is composed of three sections

 The feed zone:

Often half the screw flight length, this section augers and compacts the granules coming
in from the feed throat and perhaps conducts a bit of preheating before the transition
zone. Feed-section flights are deep, and as the granules fall in there is air between them.
This air needs to be vented out the feed throat or it will cause problems such as splay.

 The transition/compression zone:

This usually comprises 25% of the screw flight length. Here material is melted for the
shot.

 The metering section:

This also is typically 25% of the screw flight length. This section pumps the plastic
forward and generates the backpressure.
Setting of Zone Components:
Setting the feed zone:

Starting at the beginning of the melting process, the feed zone has to act as a vent, but
you don’t want the granules to stick together. It should be PID controlled like the other
zones, and for the semi-crystalline resin in this scenario I suggest 140 F (60 C). This is
warmer than most would consider, but it provides venting, will not result in
condensation of volatiles, is well below the softening point of the resin, and will not
cause bridging.

Setting the rear zone:

Remember, in our scenario we are running a semi-crystalline resin, so you must

consider shot size. If the shot is greater than roughly 50% of the barrel capacity, keep in
mind that the feed section actually shortens because of the large shot size; that is, the
time before the resin sees the transition or melting zone shortens. You also have to
consider that the transition zone has to pump in a lot of energy and may not be able to
get it done. Thus, if the shot is a large portion of the barrel capacity, I set the rear zone
high, perhaps 490 F (255 C). If the shot is less than 40% of the barrel, the rear zone
would be lower, 465 F (240 C), to ensure there is no melt formed in the feed section to
block venting. For an amorphous resin I do not raise the rear zone.

Setting the center and front zones:

To achieve melt uniformity these are both set at the target melts temperature, 485 F
(250 C). The goal is to have the front zone at the same temperature as the melt coming
out of the metering zone. If the front zone temperature is different there will be a
problem with melt uniformity. Review the details of the cycle and you will realize the
shot—a cylinder of plastic and reasonably thick—does not reside in the front zone very
long—only seconds. If the front zone is a different temperature than the melt, some
portion of that cylinder of plastic will be at a different temperature, as plastic is a poor
heat conductor.
Screw:
Injection molding, in a reciprocating screw injection molding machine, material flows under
gravity from the hopper onto a turning screw. The mechanical energy supplied by the screw,
together with auxiliary heaters, converts the resin into a molten state. The screw runs through the
center of the barrel on an injection molding machine, it displaces the inner core of raw material,
thereby eliminating one source of unequal heating. The presence of the screw in the barrel
eliminates a region of cooler plastic in the core.

The flights on the reciprocating screw perform several important functions.

First, they help to move the plastic through the barrel. As the pellets are fed from the hopper into
the barrel the screw is rotated, driving the material forward while more pellets are added.
Secondly, the flights provide a continuous mixing action that distributes heat evenly throughout
the mass. Not incidentally, this mixing also helps to purge the mechanism of different material
and color left behind from any earlier production run on the same machine.
The reciprocating screw is responsible for providing the majority of heat to the
thermoforming plastic. This is because the diameter of the screw increases as it approaches the
tip. Plastic pellets being pulled along by the flights are compressed into a tighter space and
sheared, or cut, by the action of the turning flights. This action creates friction that mixes the
pellets to a uniform consistency and heats them to the proper temperature. By the time the plastic
reaches the tip, 60% ~ 90% of the heat required to melt it has come from the screw, not the
heated barrel.
The injection unit melts the polymer resin and injects the polymer melt into the mold.
Its screw rotates and axially reciprocates to melt, mix, and pump the polymer. A hydraulic
system controls the axial reciprocating of the screw, allowing it to act like a plunger, moving the
melt forward for injection.

Factors Effecting on Screw:

Screw Rotation Speed

The screw rotation speed in plastic injection molding is the speed of rotations of the screw for
mixing the pellets. Its unit is rpm (revolutions per minute).If the screw rotation speed is too high,
air gets mixed inside the molten plastic which can make gas generation to occur easily. Also, if
the screw rotational speed is too low, sufficient kneading will not be made and the material
quality can fluctuate.

Screw Back Pressure

The screw back pressure is the pressure at the time that the screw moves back for measuring the
material. Its unit is MPa or kgf/cm2. The kneading state of the material changes due to changes
in the back pressure.

Heater:
Some heaters which are used in injection molding machine:

 Coil heaters are straight or pre-formed electrical heating elements with a metallic sheath.
Once they are formed, they have a defined shape. They have a round or square or
rectangular cross section and are available in a variety of shapes and sizes.
 Band heaters are used to heat pipes, nozzles, barrels, and other cylindrical parts. These
fast-heat band heaters electrically warm the external surface of a cylindrical part to
provide indirect heating. They have mica or ceramic insulation that helps ensure high
dielectric strength and effective heat transfer. Band heaters are ring-shaped heating
devices that clamp around a cylindrical element. Heat transfer from band heaters occurs
via the conductive method. Most band heaters clamp around the outer diameter of a
cylindrical element and heat the element from the outside.
 Cartridge heaters are most frequently used for heating dies, platens, molds, and other
metal parts by insertion into drilled holes. They can also be used in liquid immersion
applications.

Nozzle:

An often overlooked part of the injection molding process is the nozzle tip.  The nozzle tip is the
point where the molten plastic leaves the injection unit and enters the mold. The interface of the
sprue bushing of the mold and the nozzle tip of the injection unit is intended to help insure the
two are properly aligned.  Severe misalignment can result in damage to the nozzle tip and/or
sprue bushing, as well as leaking of plastic during injection.  Proper alignment also allows for
plastic to be injected into the mold with a clear path into the runner system.  A properly selected
and properly aligned nozzle tip should allow for a robust processing window.

There are three types of nozzle tips based on their design in the injection molding process,
including general-purpose, reverse taper and free flow. The method of mold filling depends upon
the creation of the nozzle tip and size.

Mold:
Injection molding is a method to obtain molded products by injecting plastic materials molten by
heat into a mold, and then cooling and solidifying them. The method is suitable for the mass
production of products with complicated shapes, and takes a large part in the area of plastic
processing.

CLAMP PLATES

Mold halves are attached to the molding platens by the clamp plates. Mold clamps use large bolts
to hold them in place; other machines hold the mold onto the platen with magnets.
NOZZLE/SPRUE BUSHING

Liquefied plastic is pushed through the nozzle of the barrel of the molding machine. The nozzle
seats against a surface on the mold called the sprue bushing and locating ring, which help center
the nozzle to the mold.

FEED SYSTEM

Plastic flows through the sprue bushing in a sprue, then to individual runners which take the
material to the gates - the entry point of the material to the individual cavities. The sprue and
runners can be reground (chopped up) and reused. They can be eliminated by using a hot runner
system.

CAVITIES

The sequence of events during the injection mold of a plastic part is called the injection molding
cycle. The cycle begins when the mold closes, followed by the injection of the polymer into the
mold cavity. Once the cavity is filled, a holding pressure is maintained to compensate for
material shrinkage. Whether you need a single or a multi-cavity mold depends on the number of
products you want to produce within a certain timeframe, and the cost advantage. If your product
has a cycle time of one minute, you will never be able to produce one million products a year
with a single cavity mold by injection molding. After all, there are only 525.600 minutes in a
year. On top of that, it takes time to optimally set up the injection molding process. We also
calculate time to conduct preventative maintenance to the mold. If your goal is to produce a
million products per year, you will need a multi-cavity mold, e.g. a four- or eight-cavity mold.
Rompa’s experts can help you make the right choice.

The difference between single-cavity and multi-cavity molds a single-cavity mold produces a
single product per cycle, while a multi-cavity mold produces more than one product per cycle. At
this moment Rompa has a thirty-two-cavity mold that produces circa thirty-four million plastic
components per year.
The core is the male part which forms the internal shape of molding. The cavity is the female
part which forms external shape of molding.

GUIDE PILLARS/BUSHINGS

Cavity and core mold halves are insured to be in proper alignment during mold close by the use
of guide pins (or pillars) and guide bushings (or sleeves).

COOLING SYSTEM

The aim of the cooling system of a plastic injection mold is to provide thermal regulation in
the injection molding process. When the hot plastic melt enters the mold cavity, it cools down
and solidifies by dissipating heat through the cooling system. There are two standard methods for
cooling systems: air cooled or fluid cooled. Air cooled molds are not frequently used as they
take a long time to reduce the heat in the injection mold via heat transfer dissipation to the
surrounding air. Plastic is injected hot and is cooled by cooling channels that allow conduction to
cool the part. Working fluid is typically water, although oil can be used in high temp
applications. This system is used to cool the tooling. Chilled water is channeled through the
molds and tooling to remove heat as quickly as possible from the injected plastic. Cooling is
most often the longest part of the production cycle, so any reduction in wait time is beneficial.

Desirable attributes of the mold cooling design include:

 Constant mold temperature for uniform quality

 Reduced cycle time for productivity
 Improved surface finish without defects
 Avoiding war page by uniform mold surface temperature (war page caused by no
uniform cooling)
 Long mold life

Methods:
 Cavity plate cooling by drilled holes—The cavity plate is drilled around the cavity insert
and plugged with copper or aluminum taper plugs at the ends of openings. Using pipe
connected at the inlet and outlet ports, water is circulated to cool the mold.
 Direct cooling of core insert (baffle system)—the core is drilled by keeping sufficient
wall thickness. A baffle plate is located between the drilled holes, dividing the hole into two
halves, allowing the water to contact the maximum area in core so cooling may take place.
 Annular cooling of cavity inserts—a circular groove is made on the core for water
circulation. To prevent leakage, O-rings are used above and below the cooling channel.
 Core is moving, side & cavity is fixed side in a mold.

EJECTOR SYSTEM

Parts are pushed off of the core using a series of pins or bars. These series are called the Ejector
System. The function of an ejection system is to enable the removal of the molded component
from the mold once solidified. Ejection mechanisms vary enormously, both in function and
design.

Design considerations

 Draft: Required in both the core and cavity for easy ejection of the finished component
 Shrinkage allowance: Depends on shrinkage property of material core and cavity size
 Cooling circuit: In order to reduce the cycle time, water circulates through holes drilled in
both the core and cavity plates.
 Ejection gap: The gap between the ejector plate face and core back plate face should hold
dimension within the core. It must allow component to be fully removed from the mold.
 Air vents: Removes gases entrapped between core and cavity (usually less than 0.02 mm
gap), because excessive gaps can result in flash defects.
 Mold polishing: The core, cavity, runner and sprue should have good surface finish and
should be polished along material flow direction.
 Mold filling: The gate should be placed such that the component is filled from the thicker
section to thinner section.
Ejection System Types:

 Pin ejection—Cylindrical pins ejects the finished component. In the case of square and
rectangular components, a minimum of four pins (at the four corners) are required. In the
case of cylindrical components, three equidistant pins (i.e. 120° apart) are required. The
number of pins required may vary based on the component profile, size and area of ejection.
This ejection system leaves visible ejection marks on the finished component.
 Sleeve ejection—this type of ejection is preferred for (and limited to) cylindrical cores,
where the core is fixed in the bottom plate. In this system, the ejection assembly consists of a
sleeve that slides over the core and ejects the component. No visible ejection marks are
apparent on the component.
 Stripper plate ejection—this ejection is preferred for components with larger areas. This
system calls for an additional plate (stripper) between the core and cavity plates. To avoid
flash, the stripper plate remains in contact with the cavity plate and a gap is maintained
between the cavity and core plate. Visible ejection marks are usually not noted on
components.
 Blade ejection—this type of ejection is preferred for thin, rectangular cross sections.
Rectangular blades are inserted in cylindrical pins (or cylindrical pins are machined to
rectangular cross sections) to create an appropriate ejection length for the component. For
easy accommodation of the ejection pin head, a counter bore is provided in the ejection
plates.
 By rotation of core (internal threaded components)—Used for threaded components,
where the component is automatically ejected by rotating the core insert.
 Air ejection—Used to actuate the ejection pin fitted in the core using compressed air.
The ejection pin is retracted using a spring
Runners:
Hot runner is a term used in injection molding that refers to the system of parts that are
physically heated such that they can be more effectively used to transfer molten plastic from a
machine’s nozzle into the various mold tool cavities that combine to form the shell of your part.
Sometimes they are called “hot sprues.” You can contrast the term “hot runner” with its opposite,
and the historically more common Cold Runner. Cold runners are simply an unheated, physical
channel that is used to direct molten plastic into a mold tool cavity after it leaves the nozzle. The
primary difference is that hot runners are heated while cold runners are not.

The advantage of hot runners is that, if designed properly, the plastic will flow from the
machine’s nozzle more uniformly into the gate locations. A gate location is the point at which
molten plastic enters the injection mold tool cavity. Gate location, plastic temperature, the design
of internal mold cavities, and the material properties of the plastic itself as well as that of the
mold tool all have an important impact on the success or failure of the injection molding
process. 

Gates
Injection molding involves forcing molten plastic material into a mold cavity, where the
material solidifies to form a part. During this process, the molten plastic travels through
channels called sprues and runners until it reaches a gate, an opening that allows the
plastic to enter the mold cavity.

Not all gates are the same. Gates can be located at various points around the mold
cavity, depending on the part and material, and they can take different forms: some are
wide, some are narrow; some are tapered, some maintain a consistent diameter.

The injected molten plastic solidifies inside the mold cavity to form the part, but
plastic also solidifies at the gate, which leaves a solid protrusion sticking out of the part.
The gate must therefore be trimmed — a process called degating — either automatically (by
the injection molding machine) or manually once the part has been ejected.

The importance of gate placement is even easier to discern. First and foremost, gates
leave behind a blemish where they have been removed, so placing a gate on a visible area of
the part can result in cosmetic issues. Gates also need to be located at a safe distance from
pins and cores, and ideally near thick-walled areas to facilitate flow and prevent defects like
weld marks.

Gate placement tips:

  Keep away from cores and pins

 Allow space for degating

 Minimize flow path length

 Use multiple gates if necessary

Two Types of Tending: Manually and Automatically Trimmed Gates

There are two types of gates that are used in plastic injection molding: manually trimmed and
automatically trimmed gates. With manually trimmed gates, an operator must separate the parts
from the runners after every cycle. Manually trimmed gates are used when the material used for
the part must not be exposed to the forces of automatic shearing or when the gate is too thick to
be separated automatically.

With automatically trimmed gates, no human intervention is needed to separate parts from

runners. When the tool opens to eject the part, it is automatically sheared from the
runner. Robots and other automation equipment used with automatic trimming can also reduce
scratching and labor content.  This also eliminates the need for manual separating as an
additional operation and ensures that cycle times remain constant.

Gates Types:
Some basic gates that are used in injection molding machines are:

Edge gate
The edge gate is the most common gate type in injection molding. It is placed along the
edge of the part, leaving a visible mark at the parting line.

Edge gates are suitable for:

 Flat parts
 Medium or thick sections

Tab gate
The tab gate is another common gate style that contains an auxiliary tab section where shear
stress can safely be absorbed without affecting the quality of the part.
Tab gates are suitable for:

 Thin and flat parts

 Materials like PC, ABS, and acrylic

Direct/sprue gate
The direct gate, sometimes known as the sprue gate, can almost be thought of as the absence
of a gate: the sprue carries material directly into the mold cavity. Direct gates are easy to
implement but produce high tensile stress around the gate.

Direct gates are suitable for:

 Single-cavity molds
 Non-aesthetic parts
 Automatic trim gates

These three gate types are designed to be removed automatically by the injection molding
machine as it rejects the finished part from the mold.

Hot tip gate

The hot tip gate is a gate style exclusively used with a hot runner system: an injection
molding setup with a heated nozzle. A hot tip gate is usually found at the top of a part
instead of the parting line; it leaves a small nub on the surface.

Hot tip gates are suitable for:

 Round and conical shaped parts

 Hot runner systems

Pin gate
The pin gate is a gate type that, unusually, is found on the B-side of the mold, where the
ejector pins is located, making it more difficult to implement than other gate types. It is torn
from the part when the mold cavity opens at the parting line.

Pin gates are suitable for:

 Some cosmetic parts that would be negatively impacted by other gate types
  Fast-flowing resins
 When multiple gates are required

Submarine gate
The submarine gate is an injection molding gate-type used in two-plate molds. It uses an
angled and tapered channel that meets the cavity near the parting line, filling the cavity from
underneath the parting line.

Submarine gates are suitable for:

 Hiding gate blemishes

Clamping Unit:
The function of clamping unite is to clamp the injection mold. The clamping pressure is set more
there the injection pressure, so that the mold doesn’t open during plastic melt injection.

Manual Clamping:
Manual clamping in only seen in the case of manual or hand injection molding machine or some
time in pneumatic injection molding machine. The proper clamping is depending on the skill of
the operator. The clamping force is direct and not measured. The position of the sprue with
respect to nozzle axis is critical. The injection of the part from the mold is difficult.

Toggle Type Clamping:

To toggle is mechanical device to amplify force. In a molding machine, which consist of two
bars joined, together and to end with a pivot. The end of one bar is attached to a stationary
platen, in the other end of a second bar is attached to movable platen. When the mold is opened,
the toggle is in the shape of a V. when the pressure is applied to the pivot, the two bars for a
straight line.

Advantages:

 Low cost and lower horse power needed to done.

 Positive plan of the mold

Disadvantage:

 Do not read the plan force

 Clamping is more difficult

 Higher maintenance has lubricant is provided

Hydraulic Clamping:
A clamping unit actuated by hydraulic cylinder, which is directly connected to the moving,
closed the mold; in this case RAM of hydraulic system is attached to moving platen. There are
two halves in hydraulic cylinder, which is actually inlet and outlet of oil.

When oil goes to the cylinder with pressure, oil pushes the RAM to forward direction by which
moving platen moves and mold closed. And when oil comes from the cylinder the RAM
comeback and mold is open.

Advantages:

 Clamps speed easily controlled and support at any point

 Direct read out of clamp force

 Easy adjustment of clamped force and easy mode set up

 Low maintenance has part is self-lubricated

Disadvantage:

 It is a higher cost and more expensive then toggle system

 Noun positive clamp

Hydro-Mechanical:
This clamping system is combination of toggle and hydraulic clamping system to move the
toggle a hydraulic cylinder is operated.
Factors affecting on injection force
 Resin viscosity
 Temperature
 Runners size
 Runners length
 Gate type and size
 Cold-/hot-runner system
 Cavities depth
 Heuristic: AP (1 in2) = CF (350 lb.)

Sizing injection molding machines

 Short size: To calculate the injection stroke or shot size, we can put all values in the
formula of shot volume, i.e., Shot Volume = π x r2 x Shot Size
 Clamping Force: Clamping force refers to the force applied to a mold by the
clamping unit of an injection molding machine. In order to keep the mold closed, this
force must oppose the separating force, caused by the injection of molten plastic into the
mold.
Clamping force is the force exerted by the clamping unit of an injection molding machine
on the mold. The clamping force is also known as clamping tonnage because the force is
measured in tons. The injection molding machine of 200 tons can exert 200 tons of
clamping force.

Problem & Trouble Shooting in Injection Molding:

Problem Causes Trouble Shooting

Flow line defects are caused  Increase injection speeds and

Flow Lines by the varying speed at which
the molten plastic flows as it
changes direction through the
contours and bends inside the
mold tool.
Short Shot  Short shots can be caused by
pressure to the optimal level,
 Locate the gate at a spot in the
tool cavity with thin walls.
 Select a less viscous plastic with
 a number of things. Incorrect higher flow ability. This plastic
calibration of the shot or will fill the hardest-to-reach
plasticizing capacities can cavities.
result in the plastic material  Increase mold or melt temperature
being inadequate to fill the so as to increase flow ability.
cavities 
Surface Delamination Foreign materials that find  Pre-dry the plastic properly before
their way into the molten molding.
plastic separate from the  Increase the mold temperature.
finished product because the  Smooth out the corners and sharp
contaminant and the plastic turns in the mold design to avoid
cannot bond. sudden changes in melt flow.
Burn Marks Burn marks are caused either  Reduce injection speeds.
by the degradation of the  Optimize gas venting and
plastic material due to degassing.
excessive heating or by  Reduce mold and melt
injection speeds that are too temperatures.
fast.
Flash  Flash can occur when the  Increase the clamp pressure to
mold is not clamped together ensure that the mold parts remain
with enough force which shut during shots.
allows the plastic to seep  Ensure that the mold is properly
through. maintained and cleaned.

Theoretical Knowledge
Transition Temperature:
Transition temperature is the temperature at which a material changes from one crystal state
(allotrope) to another. More formally, it is the temperature at which two crystalline forms of a
substance can co-exist in equilibrium.

When an amorphous polymer is heated, the temperature at which the polymer structure turns
“viscous liquid or rubbery" is called the Glass Transition Temperature, Tg. It is also defined as a
temperature at which amorphous polymer takes on characteristic glassy-state properties like
brittleness, stiffness and rigidity (upon cooling).

The glass transition temperature (TG) is the temperature of amorphous polymers at which

increased molecular mobility results in significant changes in the thermal properties.

Glass transition temperature is the temperature, below which the physical properties of plastics

change to those of a glassy or crystalline state. The value of the glass transition temperature
depends on the strain rate and cooling or heating rate, so there cannot be an exact value for TG.

Figure 4 transition Temperature

Glass Transition Temperature vs. Melting Temperature

At the molecular level, at TG, the chains in amorphous (i.e., disordered) regions of the polymer
gain enough thermal energy to begin sliding past one another at a noticeable rate. The
temperature where entire chain movement occurs is called the melting point (Tm) and is greater
than the TG

1. Glass Transition is a property of the amorphous region while melting is the property of
crystalline region
2. Below TG, there exists disordered amorphous solid where chain motion is frozen and
molecules start wiggling around above TG. The more immobile the chain, the higher the
value of TG.
3. While, below Tm it is an ordered crystalline solid which becomes disordered melt above
Tm.

Glass Transition Temperature vs. Processing Temperature

Glass transition temperature describes the transition of a glass state into a rubbery state while
processing temperature is a temperature at which any process operates/ running.

PDI:
The dispersity is a measure of the heterogeneity of sizes of molecules or particles in a mixture. A
collection of objects is called uniform if the objects have the same size, shape, or mass. A sample
of objects that have an inconsistent size, shape and mass distribution is called non-uniform.

The dispersity (Đ), formerly the polydispersity index (PDI) or heterogeneity index, is a measure

of the distribution of molecular mass in a given polymer sample. Đ (PDI) of a polymer is
calculated:

PDI = Mw/ Mn

Where Mw is the weight average molecular weight and  Mn is the number average molecular

weight. Mn is more sensitive to molecules of low molecular mass, while Mw is more sensitive to
molecules of high molecular mass. The dispersity indicates the distribution of
individual molecular masses in a batch of polymers. Đ has a value equal to or greater than 1, but
as the polymer chains approach uniform chain length, Đ approaches unity (1). For some natural
polymers Đ is almost taken as unity.
 Figure 5 PDI GRAPPH

Coupling
The coupling is an overload protection device. It’s installed between the machine motor and
gearbox. When the machine was overload or some error occurred, it will limit the
transmission system driving by sliding or disengaged way to protect machine motor and gearbox.
After the overload was eliminated, reset the coupling by the only place in a circle to continue
working.

Working Principle of Coupling

 Working: When the equipment works under the rated load, the torque limiter is working
properly. A number of balls inlaid in the groove on average. The ball is tightly connected
to the groove without a gap. And no signal output of proximity switch.
 Overload: When an overload occurs, the ball draws the groove, active and passive
transmission is completely disengaged.  The limit plate doing the axial movement to give
the sensor a signal to the electronic control device, control and cut off the power to
protect the equipment.
 Reset: After eliminated the overload error, an external radial pressure is applied at the
reset engagement position to engage.
DIE & Mold Difference
DIE MOULD
A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that While Dies are used to cutting objects from
is filled with a liquid or pliable material such media. Dies are useful because they can cut
as plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw many objects at once, increasing productivity.
material. The liquid hardens or sets inside the
mold, adopting its shape
Die are used to making 2D shape. Mould are used to making the 3-D shape.
Used for continuous process. Used for batch process.

PVC
PVC is the world's third-most widely produced synthetic plastic . About 40 million tons of PVC
are produced each year.

PVC comes in two basic forms rigid and flexible. The rigid form of PVC is used in construction
for pipe and in profile applications such as doors and windows. It is also used in making bottles,
non-food packaging, food-covering sheets, and cards. It can be made softer and more flexible by
the addition of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates

Appearance

Pure polyvinyl chloride is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol but slightly soluble
in tetrahydrofuran.

 Elongation at break 20-40%

 Notch Test 2-5 KJ/m2
 Glass Transition temperature 82C
 Specific Heat 0.9 KJ/ Kg.K
 Melting Temperature 100-260C.

Application of PVC:

PVC is a versatile material that offers many possible applications, these include; window frames,
drainage pipe, water service pipe, medical devices, blood storage bags, cable and wire insulation,
resilient flooring, roofing membranes, stationary, automotive interiors and seat coverings,
fashion and footwear, packaging, cling film, credit cards, vinyl records, synthetic leather and
other coated fabrics. 

Types of PVC
There are four types of PVC pipes:

 Un-plasticized PVC (PVC-U)

 Chlorinated PVC (C-PVC)
 Molecular oriented PVC (PVC-O)
 High Impact PVC (PVC-Hi)
Un-plasticized PVC
PVC-U is a pipe created without a plasticizer. A plasticizer is a substance, typically phthalates,
manufacturers add to the material to make it flexible and softer.
In other words, plasticizer increases plasticity, decreases viscosity, or decreases friction. A PVC-
U pipe is also commonly known as rigid PVC.

Un-plasticized PVC is usually used for:

 Pipes and fittings

 Drinking water, waste, and soil transportation.
 Sewage
 Industrial drainage
 Industrial applications
Chlorinated PVC
Chlorinated PVC, or C-PVC pipes, are pipes with higher chlorine content. They are made by
chlorination of PVC resin.

Manufacturers introduced them to the water distribution systems in the 1960s, but their
manufacturing process did change a bit.
There are many additives in chlorinated PVC, such as pigments, lubricants, stabilizers, and
impact modifiers.

C-PVC pipes have many advantages to un-plasticized PVC pipes. Due to this, they are a popular
choice for:
 Pipes and fittings
 Drinking water transportation
 Carrying water with a wider range of temperatures
 Handling of industrial liquids
Molecularly Oriented PVC
One of the many different types of PVC pipes is PVC-O or molecularly oriented PVC. (Source)
Manufactures produce molecularly oriented PVC by turning the amorphous PVC-U structure
into a much more layered form. This makes it an enhanced version of un-plasticized PVC.

People usually use molecularly oriented PVC pipes for:

 Pipes and fittings where strong pressure is expected

 Sewer systems in unstable grounds
 Irrigation pipes
 Sewer pumping mains
High Impact PVC
High impact PVC, or PVC-Hi, is the newest type of PVC pipes. Manufacturers make them by
inserting various chemicals into PVC-U, increasing their resistance to impact. While standard
PVC has many advantages, it had limited usages as it wasn’t stable enough. To solve this
problem, professionals alloyed PVC with polycarbonate.

Tonnage
250 Tonnage 300 tonnage
Clamp Force 250KN Clamp Force 300KN
Mould opening stroke 490 mm Mould opening stroke 580mm
Maximum Mould thickness 600mm Maximum wall thickness 655mm.
On 60 diameter screw, Shot weight 690 grams On 60 diameter screw, Shot weight 771 grams
On 60 diameter screw, injection pressure On 60 diameter screw, injection pressure 227
135Mpa. Mpa.
Pump motor is 22kW. Pump motor is 30KW.

Cooling Time
The cooling rate is the speed of the temperature drop on an injection molding part when it (the
plastics) is cooled, during an injection molding process cycle, from injection melt temperature to
an assigned ejection temperature upon which the mold is opened and the molded part is ejected.
Cooling typically makes up 80 to 85 percent of the overall cycle time. When you consider that
the cooling part of the cycle is the counterpart to the immense amount of heat required to liquefy
the plastic resin during the injection process, this 85 percent figure makes a lot of sense.

Blister
Blisters are an injection molding defect that presents as a raised defect on the surface of a
molded part.  Like with many other injection defects, there are several things that can be linked
to the root cause of the defect including Mold, Material, and Process.  Blisters are areas of
trapped gas that develop near the outer skin of the molded part that could not escape through the
normal venting process.

Troubleshooting:

General-purpose screws with dimensions of 18:1 L/D or lower can be the culprits for a bubble or
blister. One solution is to raise the backpressure to 1000 to 1500 psi melt pressure. Another
solution may be to pull a vacuum on the mold just before injection, so that air is pulled out.
 Laboratory Testing

Izod-Charpy Impact Testing

Introduction:
The Charpy and Izod tests are two well-known methods for studying the toughness of materials.
Many industries use either of the two for testing material strength. The tests measure the amount
of energy absorbed by a notched sample when it gets hit by a weighted pendulum. The computed
energy serves as a measure of the specimen’s toughness. Testers use a pendulum impact testing
machine to perform the Charpy or the Izod impact test.
A pendulum impact testing machine or a pendulum impact tester is an apparatus with a
swinging pendulum that gets released to impact a secured specimen. The pendulum has a
weighted hammer at its end, which hits the sample material.
Specimens for impact testing can be metals, metallic alloys, or plastic materials. The
specimen will either have a V or a U shaped notch in it. Specimens may get deformed if there are
no notches in them. There may also be inconsistencies in the test results when there are no
notches in the material. Testers use a broaching machine or a notch cutter to make the notches on
the sample material. The depth for a V shaped notch is 2mm deep and 5mm deep for a U shaped
notched specimen. Materials are often heated up or cooled down before testing. This is for
testing specimens exposed at different temperatures. The specimens may undergo a series of tests
at specific temperatures. Sometimes, test results are the average of five specimens.
To perform the impact test, the operator first raises and locks the pendulum at a fixed
height. The tester then places the specimen on a support in the striking anvil. Tester makes sure
that the specimen is well secured. An indicator or dial is then reset. After some safety checks, the
tester releases the pendulum to impact the specimen. The tester can use a heavier hammer if
there is no breakage.
 Figure 6 Izod Charpy Apparatus

After impact, the tester computes the energy absorbed by the material. This is the difference
between the height of the pendulum at the start and its height after the impact blow.
The Charpy impact test is still one of the most popular impact test methods. The main reason for
this is because samples for the test are easy to prepare. Results are also very easy to compute.
The equipment for the Izod impact and Charpy tester are almost identical. But, there are
differences such as the orientation of the material in the impact tester.

Position of the Sample Material

In the Charpy impact test, the sample lies flat on the test bed as a simple beam. Both ends of the
specimen get secured before the moment of impact. In the Izod impact test, the sample is in a
vertical cantilevered position. Only the bottom end of the specimen gets locked in place. The
pendulum hammer strikes the unlocked end of the specimen at a specific point.

Notch Facing
For the Charpy tester, the notch is facing away from the pendulum arm. In the Izod impact test,
the notch is facing the pendulum.

Point of Impact
For the Charpy impact test, the hammer strikes the middle part of the specimen. For the Izod
impact test, the hammer strikes the specimen at a certain point above the notch.
Striking Hammer Type
Older Charpy machines have a rounded hammer pin. The Izod impact testing machine uses a
farming hammer styled striker.

Type of Specimens
Charpy impact tests are for steel products. Izod impact tests are for plastic specimens.

Specimen Dimensions
The basic specimen size for Izod tests is 63.5 x 12.7 x 3.2 mm bar (for plastics) and 127 x 11.43
mm (round metal bar).The standard specimen size for Charpy tests is 10 mm x 10 mm x 55 mm
(metal bar)
International Standard:
A Charpy impact test must conform to ASTM A370 standards. ASTM A370 covers a set of
procedures for testing steel products. Besides impact test specifications, the standard also
includes testing definitions for tension, bend and hardness.
An ASTM A370 Charpy Impact test involves instructions for testing steel. Stainless steel and
other alloy products are also covered by the ASM A370.
ASTM E23 describes test methods for both Charpy and Izod testing of notched bar samples. Izod
impact tests should conform to ASTM D256 specifications. ASTM D256 covers test methods
that determine impact resistance for plastics
Applications of Izod-Charpy Impact Test:
 In forging industry, the Charpy impact test can be used to determine the malleability and
ductility of a material that is being forged.
 In the rubber industry, the test can be used for determining the shock absorbing ability of
a type of rubber so that its proper application could be decided.  
 In plastic industry, the test is used for analyzing the breaking strength of a sample when it
is subjected to a high impact from a pendulum. This helps in ensuring that the material is
best for an application where it is subjected to such impacts.

Melt Flow Index:

Introduction
Melt flow index (MFI) or Melt Flow Rate (MFR) is a measure of a given polymers’ flow
characteristics also known as the Rheological properties in the molten state under a known applied
pressure. The MFI value quoted on many datasheets refers to the amount of polymer that is
extruded through a known given orifice (die) and expressed as quantity in g/10 mins or for Melt
Volume Rate in cm3 /10mins.  
Since polymers are made up of varying lengths of polymer molecular chains, the length of the chain
determines the flow characteristics. Since it is difficult to control the exact chain length during
polymerization, the resulting mix or distribution of chain lengths (long and short) also known as the
molecular weight distribution, affects the resulting flow properties. This molecular weight
distribution is also an important contributor to the physical and mechanical properties of the
resulting polymer amongst other items.  

Figure 7 Melt Flow Apparatus

The basic principle of MFI is a simple one. Polymer resin, flake or powders are introduced in to a
heated barrel at the bottom of which is a die with a known bore diameter. The standard bore die size
is 2.095mm in diameter. It is important to ensure that when the polymer granules are introduced to
the barrel that all entrapped air is removed by tampering down the granules, as any air entrapment
will give erroneous results. Once the bore is full a piston is placed in the barrel with a known dead
weight on top of it. For very basic machines the Extruded samples are cut and the weighed from
which the MFI value than calculated.  
MELT FLOW INDEXER
Melt flow indices are often listed on data sheets of thermoplastic materials. In general, a higher
MFI indicates a lower material viscosity, and when comparing polymers of the same class, a
lower melt flow rate corresponds to a higher molecular weight and/or less branching.
Melt flow rate is an indirect measure of molecular weight, with high melt flow rate
corresponding to low molecular weight. At the same time, melt flow rate is a measure of the
ability of the material's melt to flow under pressure. Melt flow rate is inversely proportional to
viscosity of the melt at the conditions of the test, though it should be borne in mind that the
viscosity for any such material depends on the applied force. Ratios between two melt flow rate
values for one material at different gravimetric weights are often used as a measure for the
broadness of the molecular weight distribution.
The melt flow indexer is the most popular device in the plastic industry to determine material
viscosities and is often used to test batch-to-batch consistency. However, it is also the least
accurate method. To obtain more accurate and meaningful viscosity data, a capillary or a cone
and plate rheometer should be used.

Melt Flow Index Formula

Formerly MFI (currently MFR) = Weight (gram) of Melted samples in 10 minutes
International Standards 
The two common standards used worldwide for MFI testing are listed below. It is very important to
read and understand the standard that you wish to use to ensure that the tests are conducted in total
compliance with the specified standard.  
ASTM D1238 – Standard Test Method for Melt Flow Rates for Thermoplastics  
ISO 1133 – Determination of Melt Mass Flow Rate (MFR) and Melt Volume Flow Rate (MVR) of
Thermoplastics ISO 1133 was updated in 2011 – it now specifies tighter tolerances on the
temperature in the cylinder and on the time duration over which the material is subjected to that
temperature. Some older models of MFI units no longer comply with this change. 
Application of MFI:
 It is frequently used to compare grades of the same polymer, as it gives an indication of
the molecular weight present in that batch or grade.
 Quality control with MFI
 The role of MFI is very prominent in the quality control of the plastic materials and
products. The MFI or MFR has used major criteria for material acceptance in industries
for the manufacturing process. The Melt Flow Rate of the specimen is inversely
proportional to the molecular weight of the material. The material with a higher MFI will
be easier to process, but it may lower the other properties of the material such as impact
resistance due to the lower molecular weight of the material. When the MFI of an
incoming material is conducted in the industries, it indicates if there is any degradation in
the quality of the products quality during the transportation process. The melt flow index
test of the material also helps the manufacturers of plastic resins to introduce necessary
changes in the manufacturing process to ensure the best quality of the material.

Coloari-meter

Introduction:
A colorimeter is a light-sensitive device used for measuring the transmittance and absorbance of
light passing through a liquid sample. The device measures the intensity or concentration of the
color that develops upon introducing a specific reagent into a solution.
There are two types of colorimeters — color densitometers, which measure the density of
primary colors, and color photometers, which measure the color reflection and transmission.

Design of Colorimeter
The three main components of a colorimeter are a light source, a cuvette containing the sample
solution and a photocell for detecting the light passed through the solution.
The instrument is also equipped with either colored filters or specific LEDs to generate color.
The output from a colorimeter may be displayed by an analog or digital meter in terms of
transmittance or absorbance.
In addition, a colorimeter may contain a voltage regulator for protecting the instrument from
fluctuations in mains voltage. Some colorimeters are portable and useful for on-site tests, while
others are larger, bench-top instruments, which are useful for laboratory testing.
 Figure 8 Colorimeter Apparatus

Working Principle
The colorimeter is based on Beer-Lambert's law, according to which the absorption of light
transmitted through the medium is directly proportional to the medium concentration.
In a colorimeter, a beam of light with a specific wavelength is passed through a solution via a
series of lenses, which navigate the colored light to the measuring device. This analyzes the color
compared to an existing standard. A microprocessor then calculates the absorbance or percent
transmittance. If the concentration of the solution is greater, more light will be absorbed, which
can be identified by measuring the difference between the amount of light at its origin and that
after passing the solution.

Spectrophotometer
Spectrophotometry is a branch of electromagnetic spectroscopy concerned with the quantitative
measurement of the reflection or transmission properties of a material as a function of
wavelength. Spectrophotometry uses photometers, known as spectrophotometers that can
measure the intensity of a light beam at different wavelengths. Although spectrophotometry is
most commonly applied to ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation, modern
spectrophotometers can interrogate wide swaths of the electromagnetic spectrum, including x-
ray, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and/or microwave wavelengths.
Spectrophotometers measure light intensity as a function of wavelength and are commonly used
to measure the concentration of a compound in an aqueous solution. Depending on the type of
spectrophotometer, different wavelengths of light can be analyzed.
Colorimeter vs. Spectrophotometer
Like colorimeters, spectrophotometers are used to measure the color absorbing properties of a
substance. The key difference between the two is that the spectrophotometer measures the
transmittance and reflectance as a function of wavelength, whereas the colorimeter measures the
absorbance of specific colors.
Spectrophotometers measure the transmittance and reflectance for all colors of light and show
how they vary as the color is changed. Colorimeters operate only in the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum whereas spectrophotometers work with infrared as well as visible
light. Spectrophotometers will produce valid results for Beer’s law and can effectively be used as
colorimeters but are much higher in cost and complexity.
Applications
Colorimeters have many practical applications such as testing water quality by screening
chemicals such as chlorine, fluoride, cyanide, dissolved oxygen, iron, molybdenum, zinc and
hydrazine. They are also used to determine the concentrations of plant nutrients such as
ammonia, nitrate and phosphorus in soil or hemoglobin in blood. Colorimeter is also used in
color printing, textile manufacturing and paint manufacturing for precise quality inspection.

Opacity Test Cabinet:

Introduction
Pipe Opacity Tester is mainly used to determine the opacity of plastic pipes and fittings. The use
of the tube penetrance tester overcomes the subjectivity of the traditional method to test the
impenetrability of the tube, and then obtains the true transmittance of the tube. This instrument is
mainly composed of light source, optical flux collection system, automatic entry and exit control
system, sample automatic moving device, sample frame, touch screen man-machine interface
and micro printer.
 Figure 9 Opacity meter Apparatus

International Standards
The test conduct is according to ASTM D 1003.

Free Fall Impact Test:

Introduction
The Falling Weight Impact Tester is used to determine the energy required to break or rupture
test specimens such as pipe, sheet, laminates, composites, ceramics and nonferrous metals for
material and component evaluation to international testing methods such as ISO6603, ISO3127,
ASTMD2444.
Utilizing both pneumatic and electrical functions, the apparatus is extremely versatile. The
standard machine is supplied with a 2-meter variable drop height system which can reach impact
velocities up to 6.26 m/s. With an impact energy range of up to 314 joules, even the toughest of
materials can easily be tested.
The apparatus has a full electrical interlock system preventing operation of the apparatus if a
safety guard is open. It is supplied as standard with a solenoid operated carrier release
mechanism for simple operation and a unique pneumatic carrier return system to ensure the
carrier is safely returned to its set drop height for the next test to be performed. A twin guide rail
system is used to ensure a smooth repetitive drop of the load carrier perpendicular to the sample
being tested. Load carriers are available for different energy ranges and are fitted with low
friction bearing guides which prevent velocity and potential energy being lost as the carrier
descends. Impact tups are supplied to international test standard methods, or to customers own
individual requirements. On the standard machine pipe diameters of up to 400mm can be tested
easily.

Figure 10 Free Fall Impact Test Apparatus

Basic Principal
Determination of impact resistance due to impact hammer free fall in samples of plastic pipes
between 20 and 630 mm in diameter.

Design of free fall Impact Test

The test equipment is composed of a base with housing of the steel sample holders of dimensions
800 x 600 mm, and of a guide frame through which the hammer that provides the impact is
vertically slid, with a lifting system motorized. The sample holders are easily interchangeable
with simple adjustment of their height.

 Maximum impact capacity 16 Kg of mass from 2 meters high

 Maximum magnet energy: 300 Joules
 DIGITAL Control and Touch Screen Module with push-buttons and programming the fall drop
height, you can choose the one you want between 0 and 2000 mm, and reset it to zero.
 Base supports to choose from 20 and 630 mm nominal pipe diameter.
  Safety device of the shot before the opening of the front door.
 Impact hammers and “V” supports to choose according to tube diameters.
 Elevation of the impact hammers by electric drive.
 Guided impact hammer support Retention of the impact hammer by electromagnet. Briefcase
with the game of additional masses

International Standards
ASTM D2444, DIN 11173, EN 11173, ISO 11173 and ISO 3127.

Specific Gravity Test:

Introduction:
The most common method for the determination of the density of solid plastics is the immersion
method. A test specimen is weighed in air and its mass is being recorded. It is then immersed in a
liquid and its apparent mass upon immersion is recorded. The specific gravity (mass ratio) and
the density (mass ratio x the density of the liquid) is then calculated. Density is mass or weight of
a substance per unit volume under normal temperature and pressure.
Formula of density:
D=M/V

Figure 11 Specific Gravity Test

The difference of Density & Specific Gravity
"Density" has its own unit of measurement, 1 g/cm3 or 1 kg/m3, in contrast, specific gravity has
no unit of measurement goes with it; nevertheless, although they don't have the same meaning,
they have the same value because density of water is quite close to 1g/cm3.
International Standards:
ASTM D 792 and ISO 1183-1.

Tensile Test:

Introduction:
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials
science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.
Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, breaking
strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. Uniaxial tensile testing is the most
commonly used for obtaining the mechanical characteristics of isotropic materials. Some
materials use biaxial tensile testing. The main difference between these testing machines being
how load is applied on the materials.

Figure 12 Tensile Test Apparatus

Tensile tests are used to determine how materials will behave under tension load. In a
simple tensile test, a sample is typically pulled to its breaking point to determine the ultimate
tensile strength of the material. The amount of force (F) applied to the sample and the elongation
(∆L) of the sample are measured throughout the test. Material properties are often expressed in
terms of stress (force per unit area, σ) and strain (percent change in length, ε). To obtain stress,
the force measurements are divided by the sample’s cross sectional area (σ = F/A). Strain
measurements are obtained by dividing the change in length by the initial length of the sample (ε
= ∆L/L). These values are then presented on an XY plot called a stress-strain curve. Testing and
measuring procedures vary based on the material being tested and its intended application.
Test Properties of tensile Test:

Yield Strength
The yield strength is the point at which plastic deformation occurs under stress. This is
determined during testing over a measured gauge length via the use of devices known as
extensometers. The devices may be either be mechanical clip on or video where non-
contact is a limitation, e.g. elevated temperature testing.

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

The UTS is the maximum stress that a specimen is exposed to during testing. This may
differ from the specimen's strength when breaking depending on if it is brittle, ductile or
has properties of both. These material properties can change depending on environment,
for example in extreme hot or cold conditions.

Ductility
Ductility relates to the elongation of a tensile test. The percentage of elongation is
calculated by the maximum gage length divided by the original gage length. It is
commonly described 

Strain Hardening
How much it hardens with plastic deformation.

Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity also known as Young's modulus measures the stiffness of a
specimen whereby the material will return to its original condition once the load has been
removed. Once the material has been stretched to the point where it no longer returns to
its original length and permanent deformation is shown, Hooke's Law no longer applies.
This is known as the elastic or proportional limit (also the yield strength).
Stress and Strain
These are basic dimensions of material science. Stress is the amount of force per unit
cross sectional area. Strain is the ratio of the change in length to the original length,
sometimes expressed as a percent. Tensile tests use plots of stress vs. strain to display
results.

Elastic Deformation
Elastic deformation is the region on the stress-strain curve where deformation can be
reversed by removing stress. It is also the region where stress is mostly proportional to
strain. It can be identified on a stress-strain curve as the initial linear section of the graph.

Plastic Deformation
Strain beyond the material’s yield point induces strain hardening, which permanently
deforms the material and causes changes to its mechanical properties.

Yield Point
The yield point marks the end of the elastic deformation region and the beginning of the
plastic deformation region. It is characterized by a sharp bend in the stress-strain curve at
the end of the elastic region. Materials that exhibit no definitive end to the elastic region
do not have a yield point. In those cases, yield is approximated by the offset method.
However, it can only be determined experimentally by loading and unloading, gradually
increasing stresses to find where plastic deformation begins.

Proportional Limit
The first instance on the stress-strain curve where the plot begins to deviate from the line
marking Young’s modulus. This deviation is often gradual and is dependent on the
material.

Elastic Deformation
Elastic deformation is the region on the stress-strain curve where deformation can be
reversed by removing stress. It is also the region where stress is mostly proportional to
strain. It can be identified on a stress-strain curve as the initial linear section of the graph.
Young’s Modulus
Young’s modulus, also known as the elastic modulus, is the constant which relates the
proportion of stress (σ) to strain (ε) under elastic deformation. On a stress-strain curve, it
is the initial slope of the linear region of the graph. This relation is represented by the
equation σ =E•ε. This relation is referred to as Hooke’s Law, which was developed to
represent the behavior of springs.

Figure 13 Elastic Modulus Graph

International Standards:
Tensile testing is most often carried out at a material testing laboratory. The ASTM D638 is
among the most common tensile testing protocols. The ASTM D638 measures plastics tensile
properties including ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and Poisson's ratio.
Application of tensile Test:
Tensile testing is used to guarantee the quality of components, materials and finished products
within a wide range industries. Typical applications of tensile testing are highlighted in the
following sections on:
 Aerospace Industry
 Automotive Industry
 Electrical and Electronics Industry
 Packaging Industry
  Paper and Board Industry
 Pharmaceuticals Industry
 Plastics, Rubber and Elastomers Industry
 Textiles Industry

Compression Test:

Introduction:
Compression tests are used to determine a material's behavior under applied crushing loads, and
are typically conducted by applying compressive pressure to a test specimen (usually of either a
cuboid or cylindrical geometry) using platens or specialized fixtures on a universal testing
machine.
A compression test is any test in which a material experiences opposing forces that push
inward upon the specimen from opposite sides or is otherwise compressed, “squashed”, crushed,
or flattened. The test sample is generally placed in between two plates that distribute the applied
load across the entire surface area of two opposite faces of the test sample and then the plates are
pushed together by a universal test machine causing the sample to flatten. A compressed sample
is usually shortened in the direction of the applied forces and expands in the direction
perpendicular to the force. A compression test is essentially the opposite of the more common
tension test.

Figure 14 Compression Test Apparatus

A compression test is any test in which material experiences the opposing forces inward
upon the specimen from opposing side or otherwise compressed, crushed, and flattened. The
specimen is generally placed between two plates which are the compression test fixture; the load
is distributed among the test sample surfaces and is compressed by applying force using the
universal test machine. The test material while then experiences shortening in the applied forces
direction and expanding in the perpendicular direction toward the applied force.
The goal of compression testing is to determine the behavior or response of a material
while it experiences a compressive load by measuring fundamental variables, such as, strain,
stress, and deformation. By testing a material in compression the compressive strength, yield
strength, ultimate strength, elastic limit, and the elastic modulus among other parameters may all
be determined.
International Standards:
ASTM D575 Compression Test of Rubber
ASTM D6641 Compression Testing for Polymer Matrix Composite Laminates
ASTM D695 Compression Testing for Rigid Plastics

Methylene chloride test:

Introduction
The Methylene Chloride Test is meant to check the gelation in rigid PVC pipes. This method is
based on international standards ISO 580, BS 3505 and ISO 9852, where specified test
temperature and duration concludes resistance of un-plasticized PVC pipes against
dichloromethane.
A piece of PVC-U pipe of specified length, chamfered at one end to an angle dependent on its
thickness, is immersed for a fixed period of time in a thermo controlled dichloromethane bath in
order to verify that the PVC-U is not attacked at the temperature specified in the product
standard. The test pieces are dried in air and then examined to observe whether the PVC has been
attacked or not.
 Figure 15 Methylene Chloride Cabinet

International Standards
BS 3505.

Heat Reversion Cabinet

Introduction:
For longitudinal (heat) reversion testing of plastic pipe samples by means of heated liquid
(glycerin). Glycerin test cabinet is designed specifically to allow safe and easy heat reversion
testing of plastic pipe samples. A method of determining the level of internal stresses in pipes
and shrinkage of pipes.
The cabinet has an easy-to-open access and inspection window, allowing unhindered access to
the sample area. A sample drainage area with water to clean the sample is provided. The sample
tank itself is protected by a linear activated insulated lid, the bath is constantly agitated and
temperature is maintained automatically. There is a fume exhaust which needs to be routed either
to a central evacuation system or to an outside area according to local regulations in force. The
control includes auto timing and lifting of test specimens on completion. The samples are lifted
from the tank using the same linear system that opens the lid. 
 Figure 16 Heat Reversion Cabinet

Safety features
The cabinet has several safety features ensuring a safe work environment. In addition to the
build-in exhaust fan the safety cover enables ensures that fumes are kept inside and removed by
the exhaust fan, while enabling a safe view of the table top and the tank.
International Standards
BS 3505.

Hydrostatic Pressure Tester

Introduction
If plastic pipes are not made properly, hydrostatic pressure can cause them to burst. To determine
the resistance of thermoplastic pipes, a hydrostatic pressure testing system subjects the pipes to
constant internal water pressure at a constant temperature. Hydrostatic Pressure Tester provides
user-friendly and accurate results to test the strength of thermoplastic pipes.
 Figure 17 Hydrostatic Pressure Test Apparatus

Hydrostatic Pressure Tester stands out from the competitive with its state-of-the-art pressure
control unit. For testing either thermoplastic or reinforced thermosetting resin pipes, pressure can
be applied up to a maximum of 20Mpa (200 bar). The test tank is made of stainless steel,
equipped with a heat-protection layer that is 100mm thick, and opens via air cylinder, which
makes these testers very easy and safe to operate.

The purposes of hydrostatic field testing are

 To access the installed structural integrity of the pipeline for acceptability.

 To try to reveal the occurrence of faults or defects in the pipe laying procedures, as
exemplified by damaged pipe or fusion joints non-conforming to the qualified fusion
procedures.
 To try to reveal the occurrence of faults in the assembly procedures for pipeline
components, as exemplified by tapping bands or saddles, flange sets, or Mechanical
Joint assemblies.
 To try to validate that the pipeline will sustain an acceptable level of over-pressure
slightly greater than its design pressure, without leakage.

International Standards:
BS 3505.