MSE 413 Composite Materials Exam 1 Study Guide

 Know the differences in the manufacturing processes of reinforcement fibers (Carbon,

glass, aramid, organic)
 Why is the interface important?
 How do you get psudo-isotropic properties in fibers?
 How do we classify long and short fibers?
 Know how to draw schematics of various things
Use of fibers is based on three characteristics:
1. A small diameter with respect to grain size- this allows a higher fraction of theoretical
strength to be obtained as a result of the size effect: the smaller the size of the material
the lower the probability of having imperfections in the material
2. High aspect ratio(length/diameter) which allows a very large fraction of the applied load
to be transferred via the matrix to the fiber
3. A very high degree of flexibility which is a characteristic of a material that has a low
modulus of stiffness and a small diameter
Flexibility is a function of a materials elastic stiffness and the dimensions of the cross section.
For a given composition and density the flexibility of a material is determined by its shape
(diameter). You can turn brittle materials into flexible fibers by creating a fine fiber with a very
small diameter relative to its length
Flexibility of a fiber is a very sensitive inverse function of its diameter
One can make very flexible fibers out of inherently brittle materials provided one can shape
these brittle materials into a fine diameter fiber
Fiber spinning – process of extruding a liquid through small holes in a spinneret to form solid
filaments
Melt Spinning: the fiber forming material is heated above its melting point and the molten
material is extruded through a spinneret. The liquid jets harden into solid filaments in air on
emerging from the spinneret holes
Dry Spinning: a solution consisting of a fiber-forming material and a solvent is extruded through
a spinneret, the solvent evaporates, and solid filaments are left behind. The solvent is a liquid
with high vapor pressure
Wet Spinning: precursor liquid is a solution which is extruded into a coagulated bath. The jets if
liquid freeze or harden in the coagulating bath as a result of chemical or physical changes. Low
vapor pressure
Generally molecules on the surface region of the fiber undergo more alignment than the
molecules on the interior due to the nature of fiber spinning
Draw ration = initial diameter/final diameter
Skin effect: more crystallinity on the surface of the fiber compared to the core of the fiber due
to interactions with the spinneret hole
More crystallinity- better tensile strength and stiffness and lower moister absorption
Glass Fiber
Common glass fibers are silica based (~50-60% SiO2)
Production:
Raw materials are melted and mixed in a furnace around 2500-3000 degrees F (in a hopper)
and fed into electrically heated platinum bushings or crucibles (each with about 200 holes at
the base). The molten glass flows via gravity through the holes forming filaments which are
quenched and pulled over a roller at speeds around 50mph (covering them with sizing, formula
depends on application).
Forms:
Chopped, continuous strands, roving (a group of parallel strands), woven mats etc
Applications:
Used widely in building and construction, non-load bearing wall panels, window frames, pipes
tanks, and ducts, boat hulls, rail and transportation industry + aerospace applications
Carbon fiber
Graphitic structure!!!!!!
Highly anisotropic- theoretical modulus in the layer plane is approximately 1000GPa while only
approximately 35GPa along the C axis. This is driven by bonding, high strength covalent bonding
in the layered planes and weak van der Waals forces between neighboring planes
A carbon fiber consists of many graphitic lamellar ribbons oriented roughly parallel to the fiber
axis with some interlinking
We want to process the fibers so that the hexagonal planes orient in the fiber direction
Most carbon fiber fabrication takes place in the following steps:
1. A fiberization procedure to make a precursor fiber
2. A stabilization treatment that prevents the precursor from melting during the
subsequent heat treatments
3. Thermal treatment (carbonization) removes most non carbon elements
4. Optional treatment called graphitization (improves properties)
Carbon fibers get their black color from the decomposition of the precursor fibers during the
final stage of treatment
Properties
Degree of order and modulus increase as the graphitization temperature increases
CF’s can be conductive
Compressive strength is about ½ the tensile strength
Used in aerospace (787 fuselage and wings), turbines, compressors, windmill blades etc
Natural Fibers
Spider silk- strong and lightweight, 30x more flexible than nylon, 5x stronger than steel
Sisal- from the leaves of the agave plant, used to make rugs and less temperature sensitive than
most plant fibers,
Jute, hemp, flax, cotton, coir
Boron Fibers
Very brittle material
Commercially made via chemical vapor deposition of boron on a substrate (generally a fie
tungsten wire)
2 methods of chemical vapor deposition”
1. Thermal decomposition of a boron hydride (low temperatures)
2. Reduction of a boron halide (high temperatures which require refractory material)
Temperature gradients and trace concentrations of impurity elements cause process
irregularities, greater irregularities are caused by fluctuations in power
Boron fibers contain inherent residual stresses as a result of chemical vapor deposition
BF’s have applications in US military aircraft (F14 and F15), and space shuttles. Also used in
tennis rackets and bicycle frames
Big advantage- better properties in compression compared to other reinforcement fibers
Disadvantage- Big cost
Aramid Fiber
How to get pseudo-isotropic properties in a composite:
1. Stack sheets in varying directions if continuous fibers are being used
2. Try to get random orientation with shorter fibers
Why can crystalline boron fibers undesirable? They are stiff and brittle. With polymer fibers
you want crystallinity because it increases tensile properties
How does crystallinity affect adhesion? Harder for bonds to form on a crystalline surface
because it is highly ordered
Crystallinity and fatigue resistance? Generally, it improves (strictly with polymers) with an
increase in crystallinity because of an increase in fatigue crack propagation resistance (crystal
structures act as a barrier to crack growth because of the ordered structure)

Matrix materials
Purpose:
Bind the fibers together
Provide rigidity and shape to the structure
Isolates fibers to slow crack propagation
Corrosion and wear protection to the fibers
Polymers
Polymers are structurally more complex than metals and ceramics. Pros: cheap and easily
processed more resistant to chemicals than metals. Cons: lower strength and modulus and
lower use temp limits. Due to covalent bonding they are typically poor conductors of heat and
electricity
When a polymer liquid is cooled, it contracts. The contraction occurs because of a decrease in
the thermal vibration of the molecules and a reduction in free space; that is, the molecules
occupy space less loosely.
In the case of amorphous polymers, there is no fixed melting point Tm. The polymer liquid
continues to contract, below the what would be the melting point of the crystalline phase.
Thermosets: Undergo a curing reaction that involves the cross-linking of polymeric chains. They
harden on curing. Due to the high amount of cross linking they do not soften on heating. EX:
Epoxy, Phenolics, Vinyl Esters, Cyanate Esters
Epoxy: a polymer that contains an epoxide group. In general, characteristics such as stiffness,
strength, and glass transition temperature increase with increased cross linking. More
expensive than polyesters, but have better moisture resistance, lower shrinkage on curing, a
higher maximum use temperature, and good adhesion with glass fibers
Thermoplastics: Polymers that soften or melt on heating and are suitable for liquid flow
forming. Characterized by linear chain molecules and can be repeatedly melted or reprocessed.
The cool down time affects the degree of crystallinity of the thermoplastic. A fast cooling rate
will not allow for crystallization to occur bc the atoms need time to rearrange :^) Pros: can to
some extent be recycled. Disadvantages: large expansion and high viscosity
Thermoplastics are tougher than thermosets due to their linear molecules. Thermosetting
resins are highly crosslinked which provides adequate modulus, strength, and creep resistance
but the same cross linking causes brittleness and a low fracture toughness
Amorphous thermoplastic polymers show higher fracture energy values because they have a
large free volume available that absorbs the energy associated with crack propagation
Metals
Most fall into BCC, HCP, FCC
Line imperfections called dislocations represent critically important structural imperfections
that play an important roll in EVERYTHING
THE INTERFACE
- The interface is the region through which material parameters, such as concentration of
an element, crystal structure, atomic registry, elastic modulus, density, CTE, etc. change
from one side to another. The reason that the interface is so important is because the
surface area occupied by the interface is extensive
- The surface area of a fiber or the interfacial area increases as the radius decreases (and
we want thin tiny little fibers so that’s a lot of surface area)
Wettability: the ability of a liquid to spread on a solid surface- thermodynamically a liquid will
spread on a solid only if this results in a decrease in energy of the system
Contact angle is a function of contamination, temperature, roughness of the substrate,
humidity, and the environment- a small contact angle implies good wetting, a contact angle of
180 implies no wetting
Mechanical bonding: a low energy bond that indicated the presence of interfacial compressive
forces
Chemical bonding- dissolution bonding, atomic species dissolve into one another at the
interface
Dissolution bonding: short range- interactions are short range on the electronic scale
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC’s)
Matrix classifications:

Thermoplastic (nylons, polyolefins)

Advantages:

- Refrigeration is not necessary with a thermoplastic matrix

- Parts can be made and joined by heating
- Parts can be remolded and scrap can be recycled
- Thermoplastics have better toughness and impact resistance than thermosets

Disadvantages:

- Processing temperatures are generally much higher than thermosetting polymers (more
energy!)
- They are usually more viscous (bad for processing)
- Thermosets are stiff and lack the tackiness of a partially cured thermoset

The most common way of making a thermoplastic composite involves mixing short length fibers (2-3mm
or less) with a thermoplastic matrix and injection molding a composite. Better composites are produced
using long fiber (LFT composites) with a fiber length greater than 10 mm. LFT composites have better
stiffness and strength.

LFT process: continuous fiber tows are passed through a bath of molten matrix and impregnated. The
impregnated fibers then pass through a die for shaping into a rod or ribbon which is followed by passage
through a chiller to cool. The last stage involves a puller/chopper. The puller pulls the tow at a desired
speed while the chopper cuts the continuous impregnated tow into pellets of the desired length. These
pellets are then suitable for the conventional injection molding process (think about work in MPAD).

Tape Placement: preimpregnated fibers in the form of tape are placed in specific directions. The tape is
heated by a consolidation roll and then cooled

Thermoset (epoxy, vinyl ester, unsaturated polyester):

Manufacturing Methods:

Hand Lay-up: Fibers are laid onto a mold by hand and resin is brushed on (in spray techniques the resin
is sprayed… duh). Curing may occur at room temperature or in an oven. Very basic but labor-intensive
process that results in high resin content and inconsistent quality. Applications include: Boat hulls and
bathtubs, sinks, and parts of 18-wheeler truck cabins.

Filament Winding: A continuous tow or roving of fiber is passed through a resin impregnation bath and
would over a rotating or stationary mandrel. Successive layers are laid on at a constant or varying angle
until the desired thickness is obtained. 2 kinds of winding: wet winding and prepreg winding. Polyesters
and epoxies with viscosity less than 2 Pa s are used in wet winding. For prepreg winding a hot dip or
solvent dip process is used

Advantages:

- Easily reproducible
- High fiber volume is obtained
- Autoclave not necessary
- Size of components are not restricted by oven or autoclave size
- Cost savings!
- Able to orient fibers in the load direction
- Continuous fiber over entire part

Disadvantages:

- Inability to wind a reverse curvature (female feature)

- Inability to change fiber path within one layer
- As wound surface may not be satisfactory for some applications
- Most probable void sites are roving crossovers and regions between layers with different fiber
orientations

Pultrusion: Continuous fiber tows come from various creels and are passed through a resin bath
containing a catalyst. Resin impregnated fibers are then passed through wipers to remove excess
polymer. The part is then pushed through a heated forming and curing die where the part is formed and
the resin cures. At the end of the line the part is cut by a saw into the fixed length. Pultrusion process
requires for the cross-sectional shapes to be constant as well as a constant fiber distribution.
Advantages:

- low labor cost and high part consistency

- low material waste
 - It is possible to fabricate extremely large parts
- It is possible to use a wide variety of reinforcements and resins
- Complex thin walled shapes can be fabricated

Disadvantages:

- Cross sections must be uniform

- It is difficult to maintain tight tolerances (shrinkage and straightness along the length)
- Quick curing resin systems typically have lower mechanical properties
- Complexity of the process

Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM): an open mold is used rather than a closed mold
(open face of the mold is covered and sealed with a vacuum bag). A vacuum is added to the exit of the
molding tool to facilitate resin flow through the part. Basically, just resin transfer molding with an added
vacuum.

Advantages:

- You only need to make a one-sided mold (a lot cheaper!)

- An autoclave is not required
- It is possible to make small and large components using this method

Disadvantages:

- Air leakages can ruin the quality of the part by disrupting resin flow
- Only one side of the part has a nice finish (the mold side)

Resin Transfer Molding (RTM): a closed mold, low pressure process. A preform made from the desired
fiber reinforcement (carbon fiber glass fiber etc.) is placed inside a mold and liquid resin (epoxy or vinyl
ester) is injected into the mold by a pump. The resin is allowed to cure to form a solid composite.
Polymer viscosity should be low (thermosets are commonly used rather than thermoplastics, which
generally have higher melting points and viscosities). Advantages of RTM include:

- It is possible to obtain large and complex shapes

- A higher level of automation is possible than in many other processes
 - Layup is simpler and speedier than in manual processes (hand layup spray etc.)
- By using woven, stitched, or braided forms, fiber volume fractions as high as 65% can be
obtained
- The process involves a closed mold which means that styrene emissions can be reduced

Example of RTM in industry: the automotive industry favors RTM because it is a cost effective high
volume process for large scale processing. The use of RTM for automated parts can lead to
significant weight reduction. Composite parts made by RTM resulted in a 90 kg weight reduction for
the dodge viper.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC’s)

Processing:

Liquid State Process: Metals with melt temperatures that are not high can be incorporated easily as a
matrix. Main difficulties are due to reactions between molten metal and the reinforcement, and issues
with wetting. Coatings can be applied to fibers to increase wetting (disadvantage is the fibers cannot be
exposed to air because the surface will oxidize)

Centrifugal Casting: One disadvantage of ceramic reinforced metal composites is that they are more
difficult to machine than unreinforced alloys. In centrifugal casting, optimal reinforcement placement
can be achieved by inducing a centrifugal force immediately during casting.

Spray forming: a spray gun is used to atomize molten aluminum. Ceramic particles such as silicon
carbide are injected into the stream. This process offers advantages such as the wide variety of
composites that can be made using the process. The biggest drawback is the price (high cost of capital
equipment)

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC’s)

Ceramics have high strength and stiffness at high temperatures, chemical inertness, low density etc.
Their biggest flaw is their lack of toughness. Ceramics are prone to catastrophic failure in the presence
of flaws, are extremely susceptible to thermal shock, and are easily damaged during fabrication and/or
service. The main goal of creating CMC’s is to increase the toughness of the ceramic matrix.

Pros:

- High temperature stability!

- High reliability, corrosion, and wear resistance

Cold pressing and sintering: Matrix powder and fibers can be cold pressed and sintered (like a normal
ceramic). Issues with this method include:

- Considerable matrix shrinkage during sintering, leading to many cracks

- When high aspect ration fibers are used they can inhibit the sintering process
- Hydrostatic tensile stresses may develop in the matrix upon cooling due to different CTE’s

Hot Pressing: simultaneously applying pressure and high temperature can accelerate the
densification rate and lead to the formation of a pore-free and fine-grained compact. A variant of
this is called Slurry infiltration.

Slurry infiltration: 2 stages 1. Incorporation of a reinforcing phase into an unconsolidated matrix. 2.

Consolidation of matrix by hot pressing. Think pultrusion for ceramics. A fiber tow or a fiber
preform is impregnated with a matrix containing slurry by passing through a slurry tank. The slurry
consists of the matrix powder, a carrier liquid (water or alcohol) and an organic binder (burned out
prior to consolidation). This is followed by the cutting and stacking of prepregs and the consolidation
in a hot press.

Advantages:

- Like in PMC’s, the prepregs can be arranged in a variety of orientations

- Well suited for glass ceramics or glass matrix composites because the processing temperatures
for these materials are lower than those for crystalline materials and the glassy phase has good
flow properties
- Generally, results in a fairly uniform fiber distribution
- Low porosity and high strength values can be obtained

Disadvantages:

- Fibers should suffer little to no damage during handling (you have to be super careful)
- Reinforcement can suffer damage from reaction with the matrix at very high processing
temperatures.
- Limitation with complex shapes

Vapor Deposition: also called chemical vapor impregnation. Common ceramics used are SiC, i3N4, and
HfC. A solid material is deposited from gaseous reactants onto a heated substrate. A typical process
would require a reactor with the following parts: 1. A vapor feed system 2. A CVD reactor in which the
substrate is heated, and gaseous reactants are fed 3. An effluent system where exhaust gases are
handled.
Sol-gel processing: this type of processing involves the conversion of fibrous gels , drawn from solution
at low temperatures, into glass or ceramic fibers at several hundred degrees Celsius. 1. A solution
containing metal compounds is reacted to form a sol (a colloid of liquid and solid particles). 2. The sol is
converted to a gel, which is subjected to controlled heating to form the desired product.

Advantages:

- The conversion temperature is typically much lower than that of the conventional sintering
temperature for ceramic materials (saves energy and therefore money)
- There is greater compositional homogeneity in the part
- Potential for producing unique multiphase materials.

Disadvantages:

- High shrinkage and low yield compared to slurry techniques (cracking)

More impregnation is required to get a substantially dense matrix