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d) Parallel, perpendicular or coincident lines

1. Two non-vertical lines 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 with slopes 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 respectively are parallel to each
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
other if
𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 (𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑚)
Rectangular (Cartesian) Coordinates
2. Two non-vertical lines 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 with slopes 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 respectively are perpendicular
to each other if

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏 (𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)

3. Two lines 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 whose equations are 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 = 0 and 𝐴 2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 =

0 are coincident if
𝑨𝟏 𝑩𝟏 𝑪𝟏
= = =𝑲 (𝑲 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑨𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝑪𝟐
e) Angle between two non-vertical lines

𝒎𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝝓 =
a) Distance 𝑑 between 𝑃1 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟏 𝒎 𝟐

𝒅 = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏)𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐 Note: 1. If then tan ϕ > 0, then 0° < ϕ < 90°
b) Slope of line through 𝑃1 and 𝑃2
𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝚫𝒚 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 2. If then tan ϕ < 0, then 90° < ϕ < 180°
𝒎= = =
𝒓𝒖𝒏 𝚫𝒙 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
c) Angle of inclination 𝜃 and slope 𝑚 of a line
𝒎 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽

Note: 1. tan 𝜃 = 0˚, then m = 0.

2. If 0˚< 𝜃 < 90˚, then m > 0.
3. If 𝜃 = 90˚, then m = ∞.
4. If 90˚ < 𝜃 < 180˚, then m < 0.
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f) Division of Line Segment Area of a polygon with given vertices

1. If a point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) divides in the line segment 𝑃1 𝑃2 where 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 ,𝑦2 ) in
the ratio a. Are of a triangle with vertices 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃3 (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 )
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟎
𝒌=
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
𝒙 𝒚𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
the coordinates of 𝑃0 are: 𝑨 = |𝒙 𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝟏|
𝟐 𝒙 𝒚 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑
𝒙𝟎 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒌(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )

𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒌(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )
Note : 1. Since 𝑃1 𝑃0 and 𝑃1 𝑃2 are directed line segments, then 𝑘 > 0 if the two segments
NOTE: 1. The vertices 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃3 must be positively oriented. That is, the perimeter of the triangle
have the same sense of direction. Otherwise, 𝑘 < 0.
can be traced in a counter clockwise motion from 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃3 and back to 𝑃1 .
2. If 𝑃0 lies within 𝑃1 𝑃2, then 𝑃0 divides ides 𝑃1 𝑃2 internally. Otherwise, 𝑃0 divides 𝑃1 𝑃2
externally. 2. If 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃3 are collinear (lie on a line), then
𝑥1 𝑦1 1
2. If 𝑃0 divides 𝑃1 𝑃2 in the ratio 𝑟1 to 𝑟2 such that
|𝑥2 𝑦2 1| = 0
𝑥3 𝑦3 1
𝒓𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟎 b. Area of a polygon with vertices 𝑃1, 𝑃2 ,𝑃3 , ⋯ . 𝑃𝑛
=
𝒓𝟐 𝑷𝟎 𝑷𝟐
the coordinate of 𝑃0 are given by

𝒓𝟐𝒙𝟏 + 𝒓𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏
𝒙𝟎 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐
| 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 |
𝟏 ∙ ∙
𝒓𝟐𝒚𝟏 + 𝒓𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝑨=
𝒚𝟎 = 𝟐 ∙ ∙
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 | ∙ ∙ |
𝒙𝒏 𝒚𝒏
g) Midpoint Formula 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏
If 𝑃𝑚 (𝑥 𝑚 ,𝑦𝑚 ) is the midpoint of the line segment 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 the coordinate of 𝑃𝑚 are given by

𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒙𝒎 = , 𝒚𝒎 =
𝟐 𝟐
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Note: The formula above may also be written in the form 5. Normal Form
1 𝑥1 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 ⋯ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥1 𝒙 ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 + 𝒚 ∙ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 − 𝒑 = 𝟎
𝐴 = |𝑦 𝑦 𝑦3 ⋯ 𝑦𝑛 𝑦1 |
2 1 2
where cos 𝛼 = 𝐴/𝑘 𝑝 = 𝑐/𝑘
The Line
sin 𝛼 = 𝐵/𝑘 k = ±√𝐴 2 + 𝐵2
a. General Equation of a Line
𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪 = 𝟎 NOTE:
a. 𝑝 = perpendicular distance of the line from the origin.
Properties: b. 𝛼 = angle which the perpendicular to the line and through the origin makes with the positive
a. Slope : 𝒎 = −𝑨/𝑩 x – axis.
c. If 𝛼 = 0˚, then 𝑥 – 𝑝 = 0 which is the equation of a line parallel to the y-axis.
b. x-intercept : 𝒂 = −𝑪/𝑨 d. If 𝛼 = 90°, then 𝑦 – 𝑝 = 0 which is the equation of a line parallel to the x-axis.
e. Reduction to the normal form
c. y-intercept : 𝒃 = −𝑪/𝑩
To reduce 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 to the normal form, find the numerical value of the
b. Standard equation of a Line square root of 𝐴 2 + 𝐵2 and give it the sign opposite that of 𝐶. Divide the given equation by
this number and the result if the normal form. In symbol,
1. Two-Point Form 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚𝟏 + 𝑪
=𝟎
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ±√𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏)
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 c. The Perpendicular Distance from a Line to a Point
2. Point-Slope Form
The perpendicular (or directed) distance from the line 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 to the point
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏) (𝑥1. 𝑦1 ) is equal to

3. Slope-intercept Form 𝑨𝒙𝟏 + 𝑩𝒚𝟏 + 𝑪

𝒅=
±√𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃
NOTE 1:
1. The sign of the radical is chosen same that of 𝐵.
4. Two-intercept Form 2. If 𝑑 > 0, then the point 𝑃1 is above of the given line 𝐿.
𝒙 𝒚 3. If 𝑑 < 0, the point 𝑃1 is below the given line 𝐿.
+ =𝟏
𝒂 𝒃
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NOTE 2:
𝑳𝟐 :𝑨𝟐 𝒙 + 𝑩𝟐𝒚 + 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎
1. The sign of the radical is chosen opposite that of C.
2. If d > 0, then the point 𝑃1 and the origin are on the origin 0 are on the opposite sides of
𝑳𝟑 :𝑨𝟑 𝒙 + 𝑩𝟑𝒚 + 𝑪𝟑 = 𝟎
the line L.
3. If d < 0, the point 𝑃1 and the origin are on the same side of the line L.
will be concurrent (pass through a finite point) or be parallel if the determinant of the coefficients is
zero, that is

𝑨𝟏 𝑩 𝟏 𝑪𝟏
|𝑨 𝟐 𝑩 𝟐 𝑪𝟐 | = 𝟎
𝑨𝟑 𝑩 𝟑 𝑪𝟑

THE CONICS

d. System (or family) of Lines

Let the two given lines be

𝑳𝟏 :𝑨𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑩𝟏 𝒚 + 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑳𝟐 :𝑨𝟐 𝒙 + 𝑩𝟐 𝒚 + 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎

The equation of the system of lines through the point of intersection of 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 is given by
a. General Equation of a Conic
𝑨𝟏 𝒙+ 𝑩𝟏 𝒚 + 𝑪𝟏 + 𝒌(𝑨𝟐 𝒙+ 𝑩𝟐𝒚 + 𝑪𝟐 ) = 𝟎 𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

where k is an arbitrary constant called the parameter of the system. The invariant 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 can be used to test the type of conics represented by the
equation above. Thus,
e. Condition that three non-parallel lines shall intersect at a common point.
1. Ellipse if 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 < 0
Three distinct lines whose equations are 2. Parabola (or Intersecting Lines) if 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 = 0
3. Hyperbola if 𝐵2 – 4𝐴𝐶 > 0
𝑳𝟏 :𝑨𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑩𝟏 𝒚 + 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎
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c. System (or family) of Circles

b. The parabola, ellipse and hyperbola are called conic sections (or simply conics) because
they can be obtained geometrically by cutting a cone with a plane. The circle is a special Let the equations of two distinct and non-concentric circles be
case of the ellipse. 𝑪𝟏 : 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝟏 𝒙+ 𝑬𝟏𝒚 + 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟎
c. The degenerate conics (two lines, a line or a point) can also be cut from the cone by a
plane. 𝑪𝟐 : 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝟐 𝒙+ 𝑬𝟐𝒚 + 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟎

The equation of the system of circles passing through the points of intersection of 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2is
The Circle given by

a. General equation of a circle 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑬𝟏𝒚 + 𝑭𝟏 + 𝒌(: 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝟐 𝒙 + 𝑬𝟐 𝒚 + 𝑭𝟐) = 𝟎

𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 where the arbitrary constant k ≠ -1.

Note: If A = C = 1, then the equation above reduces to the form

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

where Center : 𝐶(−𝐷/2, −𝐸/2)

√𝐷 2 + 𝐸 2 − 4𝐹
Radius : 𝑟=
2 d. The two circles 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 given above are said to be orthogonal (they intersect at right angles) if
and only if
b. Standard equation of a circle
𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐 + 𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐 = 𝟐(𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 )

1. (𝒙 − 𝒉) 𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝒌) 𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 e. Tangential Distance from a Point to a Circle

Center : (ℎ, 𝑘)
Radius : 𝑟

2. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐

Center : (0,0)
Radius : 𝑟
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1. When the equation of the circle is given in the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 The line through the points of intersection of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 is called the radical axis of the circles and
its equation is
(𝑫𝟏 − 𝑫𝟐 )𝒙 + ( 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐)𝒚 + (𝑭𝟏 − 𝑭𝟐) = 𝟎
𝒅 = √𝒙𝟐𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐𝟏 + 𝑫𝒙𝟏 + 𝑬𝒚𝟏 + 𝑭

2. When the equation of the circle is given in the form

(𝑥 − ℎ) 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘) 2 = 𝑟 2

𝒅 = √(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒉) 𝟐 + (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒌) 𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐

f. The Equation of a Tangent to a Circle

The equation of the line L tangent to the circle (𝑥 − ℎ) 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘) 2 = 𝑟 2 at the point of

tangency 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is

NOTE: 1. When the circles intersect, the radical axis is their common chord. When they touch
(𝒙 − 𝒉)(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒉) + (𝒚 − 𝒌)( 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒌) = 𝒓𝟐 each other, the radical axis is their common tangent.

2. The line through the centers of the circles is called their line of centers. The radical axis
is perpendicular to the line of centers.

h. Parallel lines and tangent to a Circle

The equations of two parallel lines with slope m and tangent to the circle (x – h) 2 + (y - k) 2 = 𝑟 2
is defined by

𝒚 − 𝒌 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒉) ± 𝒓√𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
g. Radical Axis

Let the equation of two intersecting circles be as follows:

𝐶1 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷1 𝑥 + 𝐸1 𝑦 + 𝐹1 = 0
𝐶2 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷2 𝑥 + 𝐸2 𝑦 + 𝐹2 = 0
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The Parabola b. Standard Equations

a. General Equations 1. (𝑥 − ℎ) 2 = ±4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘) Vertex at (ℎ, 𝑘)

(+) opens upward
(−) opens downward
1. 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 : opens upward or downward
vertical axis (E ≠ O)
Note: If A = 1, the equation above reduces to 2. (𝑦 − 𝑘) 2 = ±4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) Vertex: (ℎ, 𝑘)
(+) opens to the right
(−) opens to the left
𝒙𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

2. 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 : opens to the right or left 3. 𝑥 2 = ±4𝑎𝑦 Vertex: (0, 0)

horizontal axis (D ≠ O) (+) opens upward
(−) opens downward
Note: If C = 1, the equation above reduces to

𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 4. 𝑦 2 = ±4𝑎𝑥 Vertex: (0, 0)

(+) opens to the right
(−) opens to the left

c. Properties of the parabola

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1. Distance from vertex to focus : 𝑎 = 𝑉𝑃 The Ellipse

2. Length of the Latus Rectum : 𝐿𝑅 = 4𝑎
3. Eccentricity : 𝑒 = 1 a. General Equation
4. Equation of the directrix
a) 𝑥 = ℎ ± 𝑎 Vertex: 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎
(+) opens to the left
Where 𝐴 ≠ 𝐶 and 𝐴, 𝐶 > 0
(−) opens to the right
b) 𝑦 = 𝑘 ± 𝑎 Vertex: 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘)
(+) opens downward b. Standard Equations
(−) opens upward
(𝑥−ℎ) 2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
1. + = 1 Center : (h,k)
𝑎2 𝑏2
d. Equations of Tangents Major Axis : horizontal

a. to the Parabola (x − h) 2 = ± 4a(y – k) (𝑥−ℎ) 2 (𝑦−𝑘)2

2. + = 1 Center : (h,k)
𝑏2 𝑎2

(a) at 𝑃1 (𝑥1,𝑦1 ) : (𝒙 – 𝒉) (𝒙𝟏 – 𝒉) = 𝟐𝒂(𝒚 + 𝒚𝟏 – 𝟐𝒌) Major Axis : vertical

(b) with slope m : 𝒚 – 𝒌 = 𝒎 (𝒙 – 𝒉) − 𝒂𝒎𝟐
𝑥2 𝑦2
3. 2
+ = Center : (0,0)
𝑎 𝑏2
b. to the parabola (y – k) 2 = ±4a(x – h) Major Axis : horizontal

(a) at 𝑃1 (𝑥1,𝑦1 ) : (𝒚 – 𝒌) (𝒚𝟏 – 𝒌) = 𝟐𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒙𝟏 – 𝟐𝒉) 𝑥2 𝑦2

4. 2
+ = Center : (0,0)
𝑏 𝑎2
(b) with slope m : 𝒚 – 𝒌 = 𝒎 (𝒙 – 𝒉) + 𝒂/𝒎 Major Axis : vertical

c. Properties of the Ellipse

1. a = semimajor axis = 𝐶𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑉2

2. b = semimajor axis = 𝐶𝐵1 = 𝐶𝐵2
3. c = center to focus = 𝐶𝐹1 = 𝐶𝐹2
4. 2a = 𝑉1 𝑉2 = major axis
5. 2b = 𝐵1 𝐵2 = minor axis
6. 2c = 𝐹1 𝐹2 = focus to focus
7. a>b
8. 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
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2𝑏 2
9. Length of Latus Rectum : LR =
𝑎 (𝑥−ℎ) 2 (𝑦 −𝑘) 2
𝑐 1. to the Ellipse + =1
10. Eccentricity : e = < 1 𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑎 ( 𝑥−ℎ )(𝑥 1−ℎ) ( 𝑦−𝑘 )( 𝑦1−𝑘 )
11. Directrix to Center : d =
𝑎 (1) at 𝑃 1 (𝑥1 𝑦1 ) : + =1
𝑒 𝑎2 𝑏2
12. Area : A = πab
13. Equations of Directrices (2) with slope m : y – k = (x – h) ± √𝑎 2 𝑚2 + 𝑏 2

𝑎 (𝑥−ℎ) 2 (𝑦 −𝑘) 2
(a) x = h ± Center : C(h,k) 2. to the Ellipse + =1
𝑒 𝑏2 𝑎2
Major Axis : horizontal ( 𝑥−ℎ )(𝑥 1−ℎ) ( 𝑦−𝑘 )( 𝑦1−𝑘 )
(1) at 𝑃 1 (𝑥1 𝑦1 ) : + =1
𝑏2 𝑎2
𝑎
(b) y = k ± Center : C(h,k)
𝑒 (2) with slope m : y – k = (x – h) ± √𝑏 2 𝑚2 + 𝑎 2
Major Axis : Vertical
The Hyperbola

a. General Equation

𝑨𝒙𝟐 − 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 − 𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

where 𝐴 ≠ 𝐶
b. Standard Equations

(𝑥−ℎ)2 ( 𝑦−𝑘 ) 2
1. − = 1 Center : C(h,k)
𝑎2 𝑏2
Transverse Axis : horizontal

(𝑦−𝑘) 2 ( 𝑥−ℎ) 2
2. − = 1 Center : C(h,k)
𝑎2 𝑏2
Transverse Axis : vertical

𝑥2 𝑦2
3. 2
− =1 Center : C(0,0)
𝑎 𝑏2
Transverse Axis : horizontal

d. Equations of the Tangents

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𝑥2 𝑦2 2𝑏 2
4. − =1 Center : C(0,0) 11. LR = = length of latus rectum
𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑎
Transverse Axis : vertical
12. equation of Asymptotes
c. Properties of the Hyperbola
𝑏
a. y – k = ± (x - h) Center : C(h,k)
𝑎
Transverse Axis : horizontal

𝑎
b. y – k = ± (x - h) Center : C(h,k)
𝑏
Transverse Axis : vertical

13. Equations of Directrices

𝑎
a. x = h ± Center : C(h,k)
𝑒
Transverse Axis : horizontal

𝑎
b. y = k ± Center : C(h,k)
𝑒
Transverse Axis : vertical

d. Equilateral Hyperbola – a hyperbola whose transverse and conjugate axes have the same length (2a
= 2b)
1. a = semi - transverse axis = 𝐶𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑉2
2. b = semi - conjugate axis = 𝐶𝐵1 = 𝐶𝐵2
3. c = distance from center to focus = 𝐶𝐹1 = 𝐶𝐹2
4. 2a = transverse axis = 𝑉1 𝑉2
5. 2b = conjugate axis = 𝐵1 𝐵2
6. 2c = distance from focus to focus = 𝐹1 𝐹2
7. a < b, a = b, or a > b
8. 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2
𝑐
9. eccentricity : e = > 1
𝑎
𝑎
10. distance from center to directrix : d =
𝑒
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f. Equations of the tangents to a hyperbola

(𝑥−ℎ)2 ( 𝑦−𝑘 ) 2
1. For − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

(𝑥−ℎ)(𝑥1−ℎ) ( 𝑦−𝑘 )(𝑦1−𝑘 )

a. at 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) : − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

b. with slope m : y – k = m (x – h) ± √𝑎 2 𝑚2 − 𝑏 2

(𝑦−𝑘) 2 ( 𝑥−ℎ) 2
2. For − = 1 (conjugate hyperbola)
𝑏2 𝑎2

( 𝑦−𝑘 )(𝑦1−𝑘 ) ( 𝑥−ℎ)(𝑥 1−ℎ)

a. at 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) : − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

e. Conjugate Hyperbolas – the transverse axis of each the conjugate axis of the other. b. with slope m : y – k = m (x – h) ± √𝑏 2 − 𝑎 2 𝑚2
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝐻1 = − =1 In the figure below, 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 are
𝑎2 𝑏2
conjugate hyperbolas.
𝑦2 𝑥2 A General Theorem
𝐻1 = − =1
𝑏2 𝑎2
The equation of the tangent to the locus of

𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

at the point of tangency 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is
𝒙 𝟏 𝒚 + 𝒚𝟏 𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟏 𝒚 + 𝒚𝟏
𝑨𝒙𝟏𝒙 + 𝑩 ( ) + 𝑪𝒚𝟏 𝒚 + 𝑫 ( )+𝑬( )+𝑭 = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
NOTE: The equation of the tangent can be obtained by simply replacing

𝒙𝟐 by 𝒙𝟏 𝒙

𝒚𝟐 by 𝒚𝟏 𝒚
NOTE: For a pair conjugate hyperbolas with eccentricities 𝑒1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒2 respectively, the following
relation exists. 𝒙𝒚 by
𝒙𝟏 𝒚+ 𝒚 𝟏𝒙
𝟐
𝒆𝟐𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐𝟐 = 𝒆𝟐𝟏 𝒆𝟐𝟐
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𝒙 by
𝒙+ 𝒙𝟏 Diameter of a Conic – the locus of the midpoints of a system of parallel chords.
𝟐

𝒚+ 𝒚 𝟏
𝒚 by
𝟐

Tangent, Normal, Sub tangent and Subnormal to a Curve

If m is the slope of the tangent to a curve at the point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) , then

𝑦1 √1+ 𝑚2
(a) Length of Tangent : 𝑃1 𝑇 =
𝑚

(b) Length of normal : 𝑃1 𝑁 = 𝑦1 √1 + 𝑚2

𝑦1
(c) Length of Subtangent : TS =
𝑚

Note: The line segment D’D is not part of the diameter.

(d) Length of Subnormal : SN = 𝑦1 𝑚
a. The diameter of the general conic

𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

which bisects a system of parallel chords of slope m is the line

(𝟐𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑫) + m(𝟐𝑪𝒚 + 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑬) = 0
b. The diameter of a conic in standard form

1. Parabola: Equation of Diameter

𝑦 2 = 4ax y = 2a/m

𝑥 2 = 4ay x = 2am

2. Ellipse: Equation of Diameter

𝑥2 𝑦2
2
+ =1 𝑏 2 𝑥 + 𝑎 2 𝑚𝑦 = 0
𝑦 𝑏2
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Rotation of Axes – the x-axis and y-axis are rotated about the origin 𝑶 through an angle θ to a new
𝑥2 𝑦2 position.
+ =1 𝑎 2 𝑥 + 𝑏 2 𝑚𝑦 = 0
𝑏2 𝑎2
General Conic : 𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎
3. Hyperbola: Equation of Diameter
Rotation Formula
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1 𝑏 2 𝑥 + 𝑎 2 𝑚𝑦 = 0 1. x = x’cos 𝜃 – y’sin θ
𝑎2 𝑏2
2. y = x’sin θ – y’cos 𝜃
𝑦2 𝐵
+
𝑥
=1 𝑎 2 𝑥 + 𝑏 2 𝑚𝑦 = 0 3. tan 2θ =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝐴−𝐶
±1
4. cos 𝜃 =
√1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛22𝜃
Translation of Axes – the x-axis and y-axis are moved their given position to a new position.
Note: The sign (+ or -) must be
chosen so as to agree with that of
tan 2𝜃.

1− cos2𝜃
Translation Formulas: 5. sin θ = √
2
𝒙 = 𝒙’ + 𝒉 1+ cos2𝜃
𝒚 = 𝒚′ + 𝒌 6. cos 𝜃 = √
2

where: x = OB
y = BP Polar Coordinates (r,θ)
h = OA
k = AO a. Transformation Formulas
x’ = O’B’
y’ = B’P’ 1. 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
2. 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
3. 𝑟 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑦 2
4. 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑦/𝑥)
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Note: 3. Line perpendicular to the polar axis

1) The formulas are used to transform equation in rectangular coordinates to equations in polar
coordinates and vice versa.

2) Every point has an infinite number of polar coordinates (r,θ) where r is called the radius vector
and θ is called the vector angle. 𝐿1 : 𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝒑

3) The radius vector r is positive if the point P lies on the terminal side of θ and negative if it 𝐿2 : 𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = −𝒑
lies on the prolongation of the terminal side through the pole 0.

4) The vectorial angle θ is positive or negative as in plane trigonometry.

b. Polar Equation of a Line

4. Line parallel to the polar axis
1. Line not passing through the pole 0

General Form : 𝑟 (𝐴 cos 𝜃 + 𝐵 sin 𝜃) + 𝐶 = 0

Normal Form : 𝑟 cos (𝜃 – ∝) = 𝑝 𝐿1 : 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒑

𝐿2 : 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = −𝒑

c. Distance d between two points 𝑃1 (𝑟1 , 𝜃1 ) and 𝑃2(𝑟2 , 𝜃2 )

d = √𝒓𝟐𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐𝟐 − 𝟐𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )

2. Line through the pole 0 with inclination

𝜃=∝

𝜃 = 𝑘 (𝑘 = constant)
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d. Polar Equation of a Circle 3. Circle with center at the pole

1. Circle with center (𝑟1 , θ1 ) and radius a

𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐𝟏 – 𝟐𝒓𝒓𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 ) = 𝒂𝟐 𝒓 = 𝒂

4. Circle with center on the polar axis and tangent to the normal axis

𝐶1 : 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

𝐶2 : 𝒓 = −𝟐𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
2. Circle through the pole

𝒓 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏)
5. Circle with center on the normal axis and tangent to the polar axis

𝐶3 : 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

𝐶4 : 𝒓 = −𝟐𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
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e. Polar Equation of a Conic a. With Polar Equations:

1. Cardioid
1. A conic with eccentricity e, focus at the pole, directrix perpendicular to the polar axis and p units to
the left of the pole (A) 𝒓 = a (1 + cos θ) (B) 𝒓 = a (1 – cos θ)

(C) 𝒓 = a (1 + sin θ) (D) 𝒓 = a (1 – sin θ)

2. A conic with eccentricity e, focus at the pole, directrix perpendicular to the polar axis and p units to
the right of the pole
𝒆𝒑
𝒓=
𝟏 + 𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

3. A conic with eccentricity e, focus at the pole, directrix perpendicular to the polar axis and p units
below the pole 2. Limacon of Pascal
𝒆𝒑
𝒓= (A) 𝒓 = a + b cos θ
𝟏 − 𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

4. A conic with eccentricity e, focus at the pole, directrix perpendicular to the polar axis and p units
above the pole
𝒆𝒑
𝒓=
𝟏 + 𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Special Curves
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(B) 𝒓 = a – b cos θ 3. Lemniscate of Bernoulli

(A) 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 cos 2θ (B) 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 sin 2θ

(C) 𝒓 = a + b sin θ

4. n-leaved rose

(a) 𝒓 = a cos (n𝜽)

(b) 𝒓 = a sin (n𝜽)

where n = a positive integer (n≥2); determine the number of leaves of loops

a = length of a leaf or loop

(D) 𝒓 = a – b sin θ
Note: The rose has n leaves if n is odd and 2n leaves if n is even.
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5. Spiral of Archimedes – the locus of a point such that its radius vector (r) is proportional to (B) 𝒍𝒏 𝒓 = a𝜽 or 𝒓 = 𝒆𝒂𝛉
its vectorial angle (θ).

𝒓 = a𝜽 (a – constant)

8. Cissoid of Diocles

𝒓 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 (red curve)

6. Hyperbolic Spiral (or Reciprocal Spiral) – the locus of a point such that its radius vector (r) is
inversely proportional to its vectorial angle (θ).
𝒂
𝒓 =
𝜽

Note: The curve of a cissoid has a cusp at the pole or origin.

7. Logarithmic Spiral – the locus of a points such that the logarithm of its radius vector (r) is
proportional to its vectorial angle (θ) The point at which two branches of a curve end and at which they have a common tangent
is called CUSP.
(A) 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒓 = a𝜽 or 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝒂𝛉
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9. Conchoid of Nicomedes 11. Semi-cubical Parabola

(A) 𝒓 = a sec 𝜽 ± b

12. Folium of Descartes

(B) 𝒓 = a csc 𝜽 ± b

13. Strophoid

Note: The locus has 3 different forms according as a > b, a = b or a < b. 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 – 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)
10. Cubical Parabola

𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 tan θ se𝒄𝟐 θ
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14. Trisectrix of Maclaurin 3. Hypocycloid – the locus of the point on a circle of radius b which rolls on the inside of a circle of
radius a (a > b).
𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 –𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽)

𝑎−𝑏
x = (a – b) cos θ + b cos( )θ
𝑏

𝑎−𝑏
y = (a - b) sin θ – b sin ( )θ
𝑏

b. With Parametric Equations 4. Astroid – a hypocycloid of four cusps where a = 4b.

1. Cycloid – the locus of a point on a circle of radius 𝑎, which rolls without slipping on a straight line.

𝒙 = 𝒂(𝜽 – 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽), 𝒚 = 𝒂(𝟏 – 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)

𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

5. Involute of a Circle – the locus of a point of a thread (or string) unwound from a circle plane of the
circle.
2. Epicycloid – the locus of a points on a circle of radius b which rolls of the outside of a circle of
radius a (a > b).
𝑥 = 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

𝑎+𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑎 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 – 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)

x = (a + b) cos θ – b cos ( )θ
𝑏

𝑎+𝑏
y = (a + b) sin θ – b sin ( )θ
𝑏
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6. Trochoid – the locus of a point at a distance b from the center of a circle of radius a which rolls on c. With exponential or logarithmic equations
a straight line
1. Exponential Curve

𝑥 = a𝜃 – b sin 𝜃
𝑦 = a – b cos 𝜃

Note : 1. If a > b, the curve is called a prolate cycloid (see figure above)
2. If a < b, the curve is called a. curtate cycloid

3. If a = b, the curve is called, simply a cycloid. 2. Logarithmic Curve

a. 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑘𝑥
7. Witch of Agnesi
b. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑥

𝑥 = 2𝑎 tan 𝜃
𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

8. Parabolic Arc

x = a 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃

y = a 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃
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3. Hyperbolic Sine Curve d. With Rectangular Equation

Note: Each of the equation below can be obtained from the polar equation of the specified curve
from previous pages.

1. Cissoid of Diocles
𝑦 2 (2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑥 3
2. Cubical Parabola
𝑥 3 = 𝑎𝑦
3. Semi-cubical Parabola
4. Hyperbolic Cosine Curve or Catenary 𝑥 3 = 𝑎𝑦 2
4. Strophoid
𝑦 2 (𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (𝑎 + 𝑥)
5. Folium of Descartes
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 3𝑎𝑥𝑦

6. Astroid
𝑥 2/3 + 𝑦 2/3 = 𝑎 1/2
7. Parabolic Arc
𝑥 1/2 + 𝑦 1/2 = 𝑎 1/2
5. Probability Curve