Sedimentary Basins

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

 Gerhard Einseie

SEDIMENTARY BASINS
Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget

Second, completely revised and enlarged edition

With 354 Figures

, Springer
Professor Dr. Gerhard Einseie
University of Tuebingen
Department of Geology and Palaeontology
Sigwartstrasse 10
72076 Tuebingen
Germany

ISBN 978-3-642-08544-4 ISBN 978-3-662-04029-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-04029-4

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Einseie, Gerhard.
Sedimentary basins: evolution, facies, and sediment budget/Gerhard Einsele.-2nd , completeley
rev. and enl. ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Sedimentary basins. 2. Sedimentation and deposition. 3. Facies (Geology)
I. Title. QE571. E36 2000

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Preface

The modem geological sciences are characterized by extraordinarily rapid prog-

ress, as well as by the development and application of numerous new and refined
methods, most of them handling an enormous amount of data available from all the
continents and oceans.
Given this state of affairs, it searns inevitable that rnany students and profes-
sionals tend to become experts in relatively narrow fields and thereby are in danger
of losing a broad view of current knowledge. The abundance of new books and
symposium volumes testifies to this trend toward specialization. However, many
geologie processes are complex and result from the interaction of many, seemingly
unrelated, individual factors. This signifies that we still need generalists who have
the broad overview and are able to evaluate the great variety of factors and pro-
ces ses controlling a geologie system, such as a sedimentary basin. In addition, this
also means that cooperation with other disciplines in the natural sciences and engi-
neering is increasingly important.
Modem text books providing this broad overview of the earth sciences are rare.
Some are written by several authors together to make sure that all topics are treated
properly. When individual authors write a book, they run the risk of creating a text
that is less balanced, because they cannot avoid indulging their own preferences
for specific topics and field examples. However, this disadvantage can be compen-
sated for by the fact that just one author can produce a more concise and uniform
text and include appropriate cross references.
In this one-author book I have tried to put much information into a considerable
number of figures. Once the reader has acquired some basic knowledge and has
read the text, he should be able to recall it easily by looking at these composite il-
lustrations, for example the various facies models demonstrating both the
depositional environment and the resulting vertical sequences. Many of these fig-
ures may be regarded as a kind of summary of the chapter in question; therefore, I
did not give written summaries at the end of each chapter as found in many other
textbooks.
This book addresses both qualitative and quantitative aspects of basin analysis,
including topics such as various flux rates, diagenesis, and fluid flow, in the con-
text of plate tee tonics and sedimentary geology. Tectonic subsidence and uplift are
prerequisites for basin formation and terrigenous sediment supply, but sedimentary
processes in a basin are govemed by other factors, including water circulation and
recycling of nutrients, sediment transport, deposition, and redistribution. The sedi-
mentary facies of a basin are largely controlled by the interrelationship between
subsidence, sedimentation rate, and relative sea level change. Basinal sediment
budgets are a topic which has been rarely treated in textbooks. Large-scale pro-
ces ses, facies associations, and especially sedimentary sequences are stressed in
the book, rather than srnall-scale sedimentary structures, texture, petrographie
characteristics, or detailed descriptions of biogenie sediment components and trace
fossils. The latter phenomena are sufficiently described in a number of modem
books. Finally, brief sections address the application of basic knowledge to explo-
ration for hydrocarbons, coal, minerals, and deep groundwater.
This book is written for advanced students and professionals who require a
comparatively straightforward, elementary treatment of sedimentary basin pro-
ces ses and evolution. The reader should already be familiar with general geology
VI Preface

and geologic principles and have some basic knowledge of sedimentology. Quanti-
tative aspects are described by simple equations and idealized examples. The book
emphasizes broad, large-scale features of sedimentary basins and their facies asso-
ciations. It provides only a limited number of case studies, which are chosen
mostly from Europe and North America, but from other continents as weH. Many
experts will probably find that their specific topics are not treated thoroughly
enough and that important datails have been omitted. Others may criticize that not
all publications relevant to their fields are cited in the reference list. J would be
grateful if these colleagues were to inform me when important points are missing
or not treated properly.
All books bear the personal stamp of the author. In keeping with this unavoid-
able tradition, this book is influenced by my experience in studies of both modern
marine sediments and ancient sedimentary rocks on land. Furthermore, I have done
some work on mass physical properties and the mechanical behavior of soft and
overconsolidated sediments, as well as in the area of groundwater behavior. This
volume is based partially on courses which I have taught for many years, as well as
on an intensive literature study, particularly of papers and topical volumes pub-
lished during the past three to four years. Nevertheless, I am afraid and even cer-
tain that I have missed a great number of important publications, especially those
written in languages I cannot read, such as Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and others.
I apologize for these omissions, but then, one person is no longer able to evaluate
the enormous literature which is published today, even in a limited field of geol-
ogy.

Finally, I wish to express my thanks to a number of coHeagues who reviewed spe-

cific chapters of this book and provided me with invaluable comments: Thomas
Aigner (Tübingen), Erwin Appel (Tübingen), Robin Bathurst (Liverpool), R.
Langbein (Greifswald), Stefan Kempe (Hamburg), Hanspeter Luterbacher
(Tübingen), Ulrich von Rad (Hannover), Werner Ricken (Tübingen), Rüdiger
Stein (Bremerhaven), Jobst Wendt (Tübingen), Jan Veizer (Bochum), and Andreas
Wetzel (Basel). Nevertheless, only I can be taken to task for any shortcomings or
errors in this text.
Linda Hobert and Susanne Borchert reviewed the English text and helped clar-
ify many points. Hermann Vollmer produced most of the text's figures. Wolfgang
Engel and Susanne Fink of Springer-Verlag, among others, assisted me in many
ways in the production of this volume. All this help is gratefully acknowledged.
Last but not least I wish to thank my wife Ruth and my family, who with great
fortitude tolerated my incessant work on weekends and in the evenings and did
their best to spare me from the usual house chores and many other obligations
which I should have taken care of.

Gerhard Einsele

Tübingen, November 1991

Preface to Second Edition

This is a completely revised, updated, and enlarged version of the first edition of
Sedimentary Basins ... published in 1992. The chapters related to sediment budget,
especially those dealing with the flux rates of terrestrial material and basin filling
(Chaps. 9 and 11) have been entirely rewritten and considerably enlarged. It was
one of the major aims of this book to introduce quantitative aspects in sedimentary
geology. "Denudation-sediment accumulation systems" is a topic which does not
appear in comparable textbooks, although it has recently received much attention.
The rapid progress in the fields of sequence stratigraphy, cyc1e and event stra-
tigraphy of silicic1astic and carbonate rocks made it imperative to completely re-
vise and extend Chapter 7. Most of the other chapters have been supplemented by
new topics, such as cool water carbonates, paleosols, paleooceanography, global
sediment cyc1ing, some new concepts and examples in basin evolution, and the
impact of long-distance subsurface flow in diagenesis. These few remarks may
indicate my efforts to further widen the range of the book as a text for students and
a source of information on sedimentary geology and basin analysis.
A general principle of this book is its actualistic approach. Processes operating
in modem depositional environments are used for the interpretation of ancient sed-
imentary systems. Results of modem marine geology and sedimentology, inc1uding
neighboring fields, are therefore introduced in some detail. To indicate a largely
contrasting situation, some nonactualistic depositional scenarios are briefly de-
scribed in Chapter 6. Most of the examples supplementing the general principles
were taken from the younger geologie past (Mesozoic to Recent), because older
depositional systems and basin settings become increasingly difficult to decipher.
The examples come from all continents, but due to the great number of case stud-
ies, I may have rnissed some examples which are better suited than those I have
chosen.
The general organization and style of the book have been kept unchanged.
However, the structure of most of the chapters has been revised and refined to im-
prove the clarity of the text. All chapters and major seetions have been provided
with brief summaries (marked by boxes). From these, a busy reader or less experi-
enced student can gain first information (or repetition) about a certain topic of his
interest. On the other hand, phenomena and examples of more specific, local or
regional interest are printed in small print. The same has been done with most of
the references to avoid too many names in the normal text. These modifications
may prove useful for different groups of readers. Less advanced students, inter-
ested mainly in the general principles, may ornit the paragraphs in small print,
whereas professionals often want to obtain more details and become acquainted
with specific examples. Much information has again been put into a considerable
number ofnew, mostly composite figures in order to keep the text concise.
Since 1992, an enormous body of new articles has been produced in the earth
sciences. Of these, mainly those published in international journals in the English
language have been evaluated up to the year 1998 and early 1999. Nevertheless,
only a fraction of these publications could be cited in this text. I am aware of hav-
ing rnissed a great number of excellent papers which should also have been men-
tioned in the revised version of the book. I apologize to all those colleagues who
rightly fee I that their work should have been cited. Even a specialist in his or her
field is presently confronted with the problem of finding the papers most relevant
to her/his study, despite modem methods of data presentation and distribution.
VIII Preface Second Edition

Finally, I would like to thank again a number of colleagues who checked indi-
vidual chapters of this second edition and/or assisted me by providing publications
which were difficult to obtain: Tom Aigner, Reinhard Gaupp (Jena), Matthias
Hinderer, Hanspeter Luterbacher, and Wemer Ricken (Cologne), Rüdiger Stein
(Bremerhaven). Sedimentologists from many countries gave me reprints of perti-
nent articles which otherwise I rnight have missed. Further acknowledgments, in-
cluding those to Wolfgang Engel and his team at Springer-Verlag, are expressed in
the Preface of the first edition. Frauke Asprion carefully produced the final,
camera-ready version of the text.

Gerhard Einsele

(January 2000, Tuebingen)

Contents
(Overview, detailed contents are listed at the headings ofindividual chapters)

Part 1 Types of Sedimentary Basins ................................. 1

1 Basin Classification and Depositional Environments ...................... 3
1.1 Introduction.................................................... 3
1.2 Tectonic Basin Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
1.3 Tectonics and Basin Filling ....................................... 10
1.4 Basin Morphology and Depositional Environments ..................... 10

Part 11 Depositional Systems and Facies Models .................... 17

2 Continental Sediments .............................................. 19
2.1 Glacial Deposits of Lowlands, Lakes, and in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
2.2 Fluvial Sediments, Alluvial Fans and Fan Deltas ....................... 29
2.3 Eolian Sediments ............................................... 52
2.4 Volcaniclastic Sediments (Tephra Deposits) .......................... 64
2.5 Lake Sediments ................................................. 75

3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments (Including Carbonates) ............... 94

3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
3.2 Sediments ofTidal Flats and Barrier Island-Lagoon Complexes .......... 109
3.3 Sediments of Shallow Seas (Siliciclastics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 125
3.4 Carbonate Buildups and Reef-Lagoon Complexes ..................... 134
3.5 Sediments ofMarine Delta Complexes ............................. 153

4 Sediments of Adjacent Seas and Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166

4.1 Introduction.................................................. 166
4.2 Water Circulation and Sediments .................................. 166
4.3 Sedimentary History of Some Modem Adjacent Seas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173
4.4 Summary (Adjacent Seas) ....................................... 181

5 Oceanic Sediments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182

5.1 Introduction .................................................. 183
5.2 Water Circulation in the Oceans ................................... 183
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Deep-Sea Sediments ....................... 188
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow Deposits and Turbidites ......................... 210
5.5 Erosion and Redeposition ofDeep-Sea Sediments .................... 235
5.6 Paleoceanography .............................................. 238

6 Special Depositional Environments and Sediments ...................... 249

6.1 Green Marine Clays ............................................ 249
6.2 Oolitic Ironstones .............................................. 252
6.3 Red Beds ..................................................... 254
6.4 Marine Evaporites ............................................. 258
6.5 Nonactualistic (Precambrian) Depositional .......................... 283
x Contents

7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy ....................... 291

7.1 General Characteristics of Cyclic Sediments ......................... 292
7.2 Sequence Stratigraphy: Basic Concepts ............................. 297
7.3 Sequence Stratigraphy of Coastal and Shallow-Marine
Siliciclastic Systems ............................................ 313
7.4 Marine Deltas, Deep-Sea Fans, and Oceanic Sediments ................. 325
7.5 Sequence Stratigraphy ofMarine Carbonate Systems ................... 328
7.6 Sequence Stratigraphy ofTransitional Systems ....................... 337
7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy ................................. 345
7.8 Hierarchy of Sedimentary Cycles, Their Superposition and Causes ........ 354
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy ..................................... 359
7.10 General Discussion (Sequence and Event Stratigraphy) ................ 381

Part III Subsidence, Flux Rates, and Sediment Budget ............. 385
8 Subsidence ........................................................ 387
8.1 General Mechanisms Controlling Subsidence ......................... 387
8.2 Methods for Determining Subsidence of Sedimentary Basins ............ 393
8.3 Subsidence ofModel Basins and Observed Subsidence History .......... 400
8.4 Subsidence Related to Tectonic Loading, Subduction, and
Strike-Slip Motion .............................................. 411

9 Denudation: Solute Transport and Flux Rates of Terrigenous Sediment .... 414
9.1 Weathering, Soils, and Formation ofTerrigenous Sediments ............. 414
9.2 Chemical Denudation (Quantitative Aspects) ......................... 424
9.3 Mechanical Denudation .......................................... 434
9.4 Modem Chemical vs. Mechanical Denudation Rates ................... 442
9.5 Long-Term Denudation Rates from Landform Reconstruction ............ 443
9.6 Steady State and Dynamic Denudation Systems ....................... 447
9.7 Denudation Rates, Summary ...................................... 454

10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter in Various Depositional

Environments ........................................................ 455
10.1 General Aspects ................................................ 455
10.2 Sedimentation Rates in Various Depositional Environment. ............. 459
10.3 Production of Organic Matter in Various Environments ................. 463
10.4 Organic Matter in the Oceans ..................................... 466
10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments ..................... 469

11 The Interplay Between Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill ....... 480
11.1 Introduction ................................................... 480
11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation (DA) Systems .................... 482
11.3 Dynamic Denudation-Accumulation (DA) Systems .................... 494
11.4 Chemical Sediments (Evaporites) in Basin Filling ..................... 512
11.5 Distribution of Clastic Sediments in Water-Filled Basins ................ 517
11.6 Consequences for Stratigraphic Sequences and Facies Associations
(Overview) .................................................... 533
11.7 Preservation and Recycling of Older Sediments ....................... 536

Part IV Basin Evolution ........................................... 541

12 Basin Evolution and Sediments . ...................................... 543
12.1 Rift Basins ..................................................... 543
12.2 Continental Margin and Slope Basins ............................... 561
12.3 Mega-Rifting and Mesozoic Sediments in Europe (Overview) ............ 571
12.4 Intracontinental Sag Basins ....................................... 574
Contents XI

12.5 Deep-Sea Trenches, Forearc, Backal'c and Retroarc Basins .............. 579
12.6 Remnant and Foreland Basins .................................... 606
12.7 Collision-Related Basins ........................................ 622
12.8 Pu li-Apart Basins .............................................. 630
12.9 Basin-Type Transitions (Polyphase Basins) .......................... 637

Part V Diagenesis and Fluid Flow 645

13 Mechanical and Chemical Diagenesis ................................. 647

13.1 General Aspects ofMechanical and Chemical Diagenesis .............. 647
13.2 Compaction, Compaction Flow, and Other Flow Mechanisms ........... 653
13.3 General Processes in Chemical Diagenesis .......................... 668
13.4 Early Diagenesis ofMajor Sediment Types .......................... 685
13.5 Late, Deep-Burial Diagenesis ..................................... 689
13.6 The Transition from Diagenesis to Metamorphism ................... 697
13.7 Thermal History ofBasin Fills .................................... 697
13.8 Special Methods and Processes in Diagenesis ........................ 700
13.9 Summary (Chemical Diagenesis) .................................. 705

14 Hydrocarbons and Coal ............................................ 706

14.1 Source Rocks, Kerogen Types, and Hydrocarbon Potential .............. 706
14.2 Generation and Migration ofHydrocarbons .......................... 709
14.3 Examples ofHydrocarbon Habitats ................................ 713
14.4 Evolution of Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 723

References .......................................................... 729

Subject Index . ....................................................... 781

Part I

Types of Sedimentary Basins

1 Basin Classification
and Depositional Environments (Overview)
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Tectonic Basin Classification
1.3 Tectonics and Basin Filling
1.4 Basin Morphology and Depositional Environments
1.4.1 General Aspects
1.4.2 Different Methods in the Study ofModem
and Ancient Sediments
1.4.3 Depositional Environments (Overview)
1.4.4 Elementary Principles for Basin Filling
1.4.5 Some General Trends for Sediment
Accumulation and Facies
1.4.6 Facies Architecture
1.4.7 Summary (Basin Classification)
1.1 Introduction
Sedimentary basins are, in a very broad sense, all those
areas in which sediments can accumulate to consider-
able thickness and be preserved for long geologie al
time periods. In addition, there also exist areas of long-
persisting denudation, as well as regions where ero-
sional and depositional processes more or less neutral-
ize each other (creating what is known as non-deposi-
tion or omission).
In plan view sedimentary basins can have numerous
different shapes; they may be approximately circular
or, more frequently, elongate depressions, troughs, or
embayments, but often they have quite irregular bound-
aries. As will be shown later, even areas without any
topographie depression, such as alluvial plains, may act
as sediment traps. The size of sedimentary basins is
highly variable, though they are usually at least 100 km
long and tens of km wide.
We can distinguish between (1) active sedimentary
basins still accumulating sediments, (2) inactive, but
little deformed sedimentary basins showing more or
less their original shape and sedimentary fill, and (3)
strongly deformed and incomplete former sedimentary
basins, where the original fill has been partly lost to
erosion, for example in a mountain belt.
As many workers have pointed out, the regional de-
position of sediments, non-deposition, or denudation of.
older rocks are controlled mainly by tectonic move-
ments. Hence, most of the recent attempts to c1assify
sedimentary basins have been based on concepts of
global and regional tectonics which will be briefly dis-
cussed below. In spite of obvious advantages, however,
this approach has some serious shortcomings if it is not
supplemented by additional criteria. One ought always
bear in mind that the characteristics of sediments filling
a basin of a certain tectonic type are pre-dominantly
controlled by other factors and can be extremely vari-
able. With few exceptions (also discussed later), there
is hardly such a phenomenon as a "tectonic sedimen-
tary facies". For example, the broad concept of "geo-
sync1inal sediments", often postulated in the past, was
more misleading than helpful.
In addition to tectonic movements in the basinal area
itself, sedimentary processes and facies are controlled
by the paleogeography of the regions around the basin
(peri-basin morphology and c1imate, rock types and
tectonic activity in the source area) , the depositional
environment, the evolution of sediment-producing or-
ganisms, etc. Many sedimentologists therefore prefer a
c1assification scheme based mainly on criteria which
can be recognized in the field, i.e., the facies concept
and the definition of the depositional environment (flu-
vial sediments, shelf deposits etc.). A further approach
is the subdivision of sediments into important lithologic
groups, such as silicic1astic sediments of various gra-
nulometries and composition, carbonate rocks, eva-
porites, etc. Having established the facies, succession,
and geometries of such lithologic groups, one can pro-
ceed to defme the tectonic nature of the basin investi-
gated.
In this book an attempt is made to combine some
principal points of these different c1assification systems
and to show the interaction between tectonic and envi-
ronmental characteristics of depositional areas.
1.2 Tectonic Basin Classification
Basin-generating tectonics is the most irnportant pre-
requisite for the accumulation of sediments. Therefore,
a tectonic basin c1assification system is briefly intro-
duced at the beginning of this chapter. Such a c1assifi-
cation must be in accordance with the modem concept
of global plate tectonics and hence will differ from
older c1assifications and terminology.
4 Chapter 1 Basin Classification

interior sag basins, however, major fault systems fonn-

In reeent years, several authors have summarized our eurrent
knowledge on the interaction of plate tectonics and sedimen-
ing the boundaries of the depositional area or a central
tation (e.g., Diekinson in Diekinson and Yarborough 1976;
rift zone rnay be absent. Subsidenee occurs predomi-
Kingston et al. 1983; MiaU 1984; MiteheU and Reading 1986;
nandy in response to moderate crustal thinning or to a
Foster and Beaurnont 1987; Klein 1987; Perrodon 1988) and
slightly higher density of the underlying erust in com-
proposed basin classifieation systems. Although basieaUy
parison to neighboring areas. In addition, slow thermal
identieal, these systems differ somewhat and do not use ex-
decay after a heating event and sedimentary loading
aetly the same terms. In this text we essentiaUy use the system
can promote and maintain further subsidenee for a long
deseribed by MiteheU and Reading, but add some minor mod-
ifieatiollS. time (Sect. 8.1). Altematively, it was recently suggested
that long-tenn subsidenee of intracratonie basins may
The different types of sedimentary basins can be be related to a decrease ofthe mantle heat flow (abnor-
grouped into seven categories, which in turn may be mal cooling) above a "cold spot" (Ziegler 1989). In
subdivided into two to four special basin types (Table general, rates of subsidence are low in this geodynarnie
1.1 and Figs. 1.1 through 104): setting (cf. Sect. 12.3).

Intracratonic or interior sag basins (Fig. l.la). Bas- Continental graben structures and rift zones fonn
ins on continental crust are mainly generated by diver- narrow elongate basins bounded by large faults (Fig.
gent plate motions and resulting extensional structures l.1b and c). Their cross seetions rnay be symmetrie or
and thermal effects (cf. Sect. 8.1). In the case of large asymmetrie (e.g., halfgrabens, see Sects. 11.4 and

Table 1.1 Tectonic basin classification. (After Kingston et al. 1983; Mitchell and Reading 1986)

Basin eategory Special basin Underlying Style <?f Basin

type or synonymes) erust teetomes eharaeteristies

Continental or inte- Epieontinental basins, Continental Divergenee Large areas, slow subsi-
rior sag basins intra-eratonie basins denee

Continental or inte- Graben struetures, rift Continental Divergenee Relatively narrow basins,
rior fraeture basins valleys and rift zones, fault-bounded, rapid
aulaeogens subsidenee during early
rifting

Basins on rassive Tensional-rifted bas- Transitional Divergenee Asymmetrie basins

eontinenta margins, ins, tension-sheared + shear partly outbuilding of
margin sag basins basins, sunk margin sediment, moderate to
basins low subsidenee during
1ater stages

Oeeanie sag basins Naseent oeean basin Oeeanie Divergenee Large, asymmetrie, slow
(growing oeeanie ba- subsidenee
sm)

Basins re1ated to Deep-sea trenehes Oeeanie Convergenee Partlyasymmetrie,

subduction greatly varying
Foreare basins, Transitional, Dominantly degth and
backare basins, oeeanie divergenee su sidenee
interare basins

Basins related to Remnant basins Oeeanie Convergenee Aetivated subsidence

eollision due to rapid sedimentary
10ading

Foreland basins (Pe- Continental Crustal Asymmetrie basins,

riphera1), retroarc bas- flexuring, loca1 trend to increasing subsi-
ins (intramontane), convergence or dence, up1ift and subsi-
broken foreland bas- transforrn mo- dence
ins, tions

Terrane-re1ated basins Oeeanic. Simi1ar to backare basins

Strike-slip/ wreneh Pull-apart basins Continental andlor Transforrn mo- Relatively smalI, elon-
basins (transtensional) and oeeanic tion, ± diver- gate, rapid subsidenee
transpressional basins gence or eonver-
gence
1.2 Tectonic Basin Classification 5

a INTRACRATONIC SAG BASIN

CONTINENTAL AND
LOW RELIEF SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS

THINNING OR HIGHER DENSITY (MINERAL PHASE TRANSITION)

b GRABEN, C RIFT ZONE, +-I I--,)

ONGOING
SPREAOING

HALFGRABEN AULACOGEN

d MARGIN SAG BASIN

SEDIMENT OF
CONTINENTAL
RISE

OCEANIC CRUST

'~~I~ifEj~t:~~~ SEDIMENTS
: SPREAOING OF INCIPIENT
TROUGH

e OCEANIC BASIN PLAIN

AND FAULT -BOUNDED BASIN
CRUST
RIF T VALLEY
OEPOSITS

Fig. 1.1a-f. Tectonic

classification for exten-
sional basins on conti-
f OCEANIC SAG BASIN DEEP nents, continental mar-
gins, and on oceanic
_ __ ____ _______ _ SEA FAN
__ ___ _ SEA LEVEL;
_ _ _ _ ...L _ _ _ ....
crust. See text for ex-
~

r::-:-~'__=~"""- ------- -- - - ------ ------ - -- - -- ..,...I planation. (After

Dickinson and
Yarborough 1976;
Kingston et al. 1983;
1oIL....._ __ _ 1.:.: o:..:::o.::.o..:..:k""
m.:..-_ _ _ _..... Mitchell and Reading
1986)

12.1). If the underlying rnantle is relatively hot, the
lithosphere may expand and show updoming prior to or
during the incipient phase of rifting. Substantial thin-
ning of the crnst by attenuation, which is often accom-
panied by the upstrearning of basaltic magma, thus
forrning transitional crnst, causes rapid subsidence in
the rift zone. Subsequent thermal contraction due to
cooling and high sedimentary loading enable continu-
ing subsidence and therefore the deposition of thick
sedirnentary infillings.
Failed rifts and aulacogens (Fig. l.lc). If divergent
plate motion comes to an end before the moving blocks
are separated by accretion of new oceanic ernst, the rift
zone is referred to as "failed". A certain type of such
failed rifts is an aulacogen. Aulaeogens represent the
failed arm of a tripie junction of a rift zone, where two
arrns eontinue their development to form an oceanie
basin. Aulacogen floors eonsist of transitional ernst,
whieh may include sorne oceanic ernst, and allow the
deposition of thick sedimentary sequences over rela-
tively long time periods. These sedimentary fills are
6 Chapter 1 Basin Classification

SUBDUCTION-RELATED BASINS
a INTRAOCEANIC INTERARG (BAGKARG) BASIN
VOLGANIG ISLAND ARG REMNANT ARG (INACTIVE)

FOREARG BASIN

- -k lr:SPREA()ING CENTER
INTERMEDIATE CRUST
(ARC STRUCTURE)
ACCRETION
B· SI,IBOUCTION COMPlEX ( M~lANGE)

b ~ INTRA·ARG BASINS
100Kl1' VOLGANIG ARG
AT CONTINENTAL MARGIN

OCEAN IC
CRUST Fig. 1.2a,b. Tectonic
classifieation of sub-
duetion related basins
(Fig. 1.1 eontinued).
BATHOLITH BELT See text for explana-
tion

often affeeted by subsequent convergenee along fault subsided transitional erust ean ereate deep plateaus
zones. Basins similar to aulaeogens mayaiso be initi- (sunk basins). In general, subsidenee of these marginal
ated during the closure of an oeean and during basins tends to deerease with passing time, unless it is
orogenies. reaetivated by heavy sediment loads.

Passive margin basins (Fig. l.1d). The initial stage of
a true oeeanie basin setting (or a proto-oeeanie rift sys-
tem) is established when two divergent eontinents sepa-
rate and new oeeanie ernst forms in the intervening
spaee. This does not neeessarily mean that such a basin
type fills with oeeanie sediments, but it does imply that
the eentral basin floor lies at least 2 to 3 km below sea
level. When such a basin widens due to eontinued di-
vergent plate motions and aeeretion of oeeanie ernst
(drifting stage), its infilling with sediment tends to
more or less lag behind oeean spreading. Terrigenous
sediments are deposited predominantly along the two
eontinental margins of the growing oeean basin. The
marginal "basins" are eommonly not bordered by mor-
phologieal highs. They develop on top of seaward thin-
ning eontinental ernst with seaward inereasing (differ-
ential) subsidenee (Seet. 8.4). They therefore represent
asymmetrie depositional systems in whieh sediments.
eomrnonly build up in the form of a prism (Fig. 1.ld
and Seet. 12.2). Some ofthese marginal basins may be
affeeted and bordered by transform motions (tension-
sheared basins). In a sediment-starved environment,
Oceanic sag basins or nascent ocean basins oeeupy
the area between a mid-oeeanie ridge, including its rise,
and the outer edge of the transitional erust along a pas-
sive eontinental margin (Fig. 1.11). They eommonly
aeeumulate deep-sea fan or basin plain sediments. Due
to the advaneed eooling of the aging oeeanie erust, sub-
sidenee is usually low, unless it is aetivated by thiek
sedimentary loading near the eontinental margin. Fault-
bounded basins of limited extent are eommon in eon-
junetion with the growth of mid-oeeanie ridges
(Fig.l.1 e).
Basins related to subduction. Another group of bas-
ins is dominated by eonvergent plate motions and
orogenie deformation. Basins related to the develop-
ment of subduetion eomplexes along island ares or ae-
tive eontinental margins include deep-sea trenehes,
foreare basins, backare basins (Fig. l.2a and b), and
smaller slope basins and intra-are basins.
Deep-sea trench j/oors are eomposed of deseending
oeeanie erust. Therefore, some of them represent the
deepest elongate basins present on the globe. In areas
1.2 Tectonic Basin Classification 7

COLLISION-RELATED BASINS
REMNANT BASIN INTRA MONTANE BASIN'

COLLISION-RELATED BASINS

l
FORELAND PANNONIAN-TYPE FOLD-THRUST ZONE

+ ....
BASIN BASIN (INTRAMONTANE B.)
b FOLD-THRUST
ZONE
MARINE _-----

--- --- ~~~~

C-::~

Fig. 1.3a,b. Tectonic

classification of
eolliss ion-re lated
basins (Fig. 1.2 eon-
tinued). See text for
explanation

of very high sediment influx from the neighboring con-
tinent, however, they are for the most part filled up and
morphologically resemble a eontinental rise. Deep-sea
trenehes eommonly do not subside as do many other
basin types. In fact, they tend to maintain their depth
whieh is eontrolled mainly by the subduction meeha-
nism, as weil as by the volurne and geometry of the
aeeretionary sediment wedge on their landward side
(Seet. 12.5.2).
Foreare basins oeeur between the treneh slope
break of the aeeretionary wedge and the magmatie front
of the are. The sub stratum beneath the center of such
basins usually eonsists of transitional or trapped oee-
anie ernst older than the magmatie are and the
aeeretionary subduetion eomplex (Seet. 12.5.3). Rates
of subsidenee and sedimentation tend to vary, but may
frequently be high. Subsequent deformation of the sed-
imentary fill is not as intensive as in the aeeretionary
wedge.
Backarc and interare basins form by rifting and
oeean spreading either landward of an island are, or
between two island ares wh ich originate from the split-
ting apart of an older are system (Fig. l.2a). The evolu-
tion of these basins resembles that of normal oeean
basins between divergent plate motions. Their sedimen-
tary fill frequently refleets magmatie aetivity in the are
regIOn.
Terrane-related basins are situated between miero-
continents consisting at least in part of eontinental erust
(Nur and Ben-A vraham 1983) and larger continental
blocks. The substratum of these basins is usually oee-
anie erust. They may be bordered by a subduetion zone
and thus be assoeiated with basins related either to
subduetion or eollision.
Basins related to collision. Partial collision of eonti-
nents with irregular shapes and boundaries wh ich do
not fit eaeh other leads to zones of crustal over- or
8 Chapter 1 Basin Classification

a STRIKE -SLIP /WRENCH BASINS DEXTRAL (RIGHT -LATERAL)

MOVEMENT
/\..

Fig. 1.4a,b. Strike-

CONTINENTAL slip/wrench basins
OR OCEANIC (Fig. 1.3 continued).
CRUST
See text for explana-
tion
PULL-APART BASIN

underthrusting. Along strike, however, one or more During crustal collision, some foreland and retroarc
oceanic basins of reduced size rnay still persist (Fig. basins are broken up into srnaller blocks, whereby
1.3a). strike-slip motions mayaiso playa role (Fig. l.3a).
These remnant basins tend to collect large volurnes
of sediment from nearby rising areas and to undergo Some of the blocks are affected by uplift, others by
substantial synsedimentary deformation (convergence, subsidence, forrning basinal depressions. The mechan-
also often accompanied by strike-slip motions). ics of such tilted block basins were studied, for exam-
Foreland basins and peripheral basins in front of a pIe, in the Wyoming Province of the Rocky Mountain
fold-thrust belt are generated by depressing and fore land (McQueen and Beaumont 1989). So-called
flexuring the continental crust ("A-subduction", after Chinese-type basins (Bally and Snelson 1980) result
Ampferer, Alpine-type) under the load ofthe overthrust from block faulting in the hinterland of a continent-
mountain belt (Fig. 1.3a and Fig. 1.3b). The length of eontinent collision. They are not directly associated
these asymmetric basins tends to increase with time, with an A-subduction margin, but it appears unneces-
but influx of c1astic material from the rising mountain sary to c1assify them as a special new basin type (Hsü
range often keeps pace with or eJiceeds subsidence and 1989).
thus causes basin filling (Sect. 12.6). Collision of two
continental blocks rnay lead to "continental escape" of Strike-slip and wrench basins (Fig. 1.4a and b).
parts of the overriding plate as weH as produce Transform motions may be associated either with a ten-
extensional graben structures or rifts perpendicular to sional eomponent (transtensional) or with a com-
the strike ofthe fold-thrust belt (Fig. 1.3a). pressional component (transpressional). Transtensional
fault systems locally cause crustal thinning and there-
Retroarc or intramontane basins (Figs. 1.2b and
fore create narrow, elongate pull-apart basins (Sect.
1.3a) occur in the hinterland of an arc orogen ("B-
12.8). If they evolve on continental crust, continuing
subduction" zone). They rnay affect relatively large
transform motion rnay lead to crustal separation per-
areas on continental crust. Limited subsidence appears
pendicular to the transform faults and initiate accretion
to be caused rnainly by tectonic loading in a backarc
of new oceanic crust in limited spreading centers. Until
fold-thrust belt.
this development occurs, the rate of subsidence is usu-
Pannonian-type basins originate from post-orogenic ally high. Transpressional systems generate wrench
divergence between two fold-thrust zones (Fig. l.3b). basins of lirnited size and endurance. Their com-
They are usuaHy associated with an A-subduetion zone pressional component can be inferred from wrench
and are floored by thinning continental or transitional faults and fold belts oflirnited extent (Fig. lAb).
erust.
1.2 Tectonic Basin Classification 9

c
-- - ......
POST -DEPOSITIONAL BASIN
ERODED
...
' , LAKE ...-~-
--..... "
....
SEDIMENT ..... ...-"'--- _
- FLUVIAL
...- ...-

(
UTTLE LATEAAL CHANGE PALEO·CUAAENT
IN FACIES AND THICKNESS DIRECTION

b SYN-DEPOSITIONAL BASIN
PALEO·CUAAENT
DIAECTION

.:....~.~ . . ;~:- .. -"' .. '-.. 0:~_ ...... ::..~ . . .

• .. ·· ·.o·~·-o- __ it-· • • • o .• ~ · . .
, •• _a .fII·OOG"". · · ..

UTTLE VEA TICAL

Fig. 1.5. a Rapid, pre-depositional
( SIGNIFICANT LATEAAL CHANGE )
IN THICKNESS, SOME CHANGE IN FACIES FACIES CHANGE tectonies creates a deep morphologi-
cal basin which is later filled up with
post-teetonic sediments. The geome-
try of former basin can be derived
from transport directions and facies
distribution. b Syn- depositional tec-
a PRE-DEPOSITIONAL BASIN tonic movements control varying
AEEF thickness of fluviatil and shallow-
marine sediments an generate a
basin-fill strueture, although a mor-
DISTINCT phological basin barely existed.
PALEO· c Post-depositional basin-like struc-
SHALLOWING SLOPE
UPWARD ture ereated by teetonic movements
after the deposition of sheet-like
fluvial and lake sediments; part of
< the syntectonic basin fill is removed
by subsequent erosion

In order to identify these various basin eategories, oneThey offer a starting point for the study and evaluation
must know the nature of the underlying erust as weil as of basins, but there are no type basins which can be
the type of former plate movement involved during ba- used as a complete model for any other basin
sin formation, i.e., divergence or eonvergence. Even in (Burchfiel and Royden 1988). Even within a single
the ease of transform movement, either some diver- broad tectonic setting, the development of smaller indi-
gence or convergence must take place. Small angles of vidual basins may display great variation. As soon as
convergence show up as wrenching or fold belts, and basins are analyzed in greater detail, the broad tectonic
small angles of divergence appear as normal faulting or basin classification listed above becomes less useful. In
sagging. addition, over long time periods, a sedimentary basin
may evolve from one basin type into another
One should bear in mind that all these basin types rep- (polyhist'Jry basins) and thus exhibit a complex tec-
resent proto-types of tectonically controlled basins. tonic and depositional history (Sect. 12.9).
10 Chapter 1 Basin Classification

1.3 Tectonics and Basin-Filling 1.4 Basin Morphology and Depositional

Environments
Although basin-generating tectonic movements and
basin-fllling depositional processes generally interact, 1.4.1 General Aspects
one can distinguish three different modes (partially
end members) of this relationship (Fig. 1.5, based on The geometry of an ultimate basin fill is controlled
Selley 1985a): mainly by basin-forming tectonic processes, but the
morphology of a basin defmed by the sediment surface
Pre-depositional basins. Rapid tectonic movements is the product of the interplay between tectonic move-
predate significant sediment accumulation and create a ments and sedimentation. Therefore, as already men-
morphological basin, which is filled later by post-tec- tioned, a purely tectonic classification of sedimentary
tonic sediments (Fig. 1.5a). The water depth in the basins is not sufficient for characterizing depositional
basin decreases with time, although some syn- areas. It is true that a sedimentary basin in a particular
depositional subsidence due to sediment loading is tectonic setting often experiences a specific develop-
likely (Sect. 8.1). Sediment transport as well as vertical ment and subsidence history (Chaps. 8 and 12), but its
and lateral facies associations are substantially influ- morphology, including water depth, may be controlled
enced by the basin morphology. largely by other factors, such as varying influx and dis-
tribution of sediment from terrigenous sources (Chap.
Syn-depositional basins. Sediment accumulation is 11 ).
affected by syn-depositional tectonic movements, e.g.,
differential subsidence (Fig. 1.5b). If the sedimenta- For example, a fluvial depositional system ean develop and
tion rate is always high enough to compensate for persist for eonsiderable time on top of subsiding ernst in vari-
ous tectonic settings (Miall 1981). Fluvial deposits are known
subsidence, the direction of transport and the sedimen- from eontinental graben struetures, passive continental mar-
tary facies largely remain unchanged, but the thick- gins, foreland basins, foreare and baekarc basins, pull-apart
nesses of certain time slices varies. In Figure l.5b they basins, ete. Fluvial sediments aeeumulate as long as rivers
increase toward the center of the basin. In this case, reaeh the depositional area and supply enough material to
the basin structure is syn-depositional, but there was keep the subsiding basin filled. Although the basin-forming
hardly a syn-depositional morphological basin control- processes and subsidenee histories of these examples differ
ling the sedimentary facies of the basin. If sedimenta- fundarnentally from each other, the sedimentary faeies of their
tion is too slow to fill up the subsiding area, a morpho- basin fills display no or only minor differences. In order to
distinguish between these varying tectonic settings, one has to
logical basin will develop. Then, the distribution and take into aceount the geometry of the entire basin fill, as well
facies of the succeeding sediments will be affected by as vertieal and lateral facies ehanges over long distances, in-
the morphology of the deepening basin (transition to cluding paleoeurrent direetions and other eriteria.
the situation shown in Fig. 1.5a). Syndepositional tectonic movements manifested by variations
in thiekness, small diseonformities, or faults dying out upward
Post-depositional basins. The deposition of sedi- (cf. Fig. 1.5b) may indicate the nature of the tectonic pro-
ments largely predates tectonic movements forming a ces ses involved.
distinct basin structure. Hence, there is no or little
relationship between the transport, distribution, and The erosional base level and hydrographie regime
facies of these sediments and the later evolved basin within a basin are additional important factors control-
structure (Fig. 1.5c). In most cases, however, some ling sediment dispersal and modifying basin morphol-
relationship between a syn-depositional subsidence ogy. They largely determine the development of special
phase and the subsequent tectonic overprint cannot be sedimentary facies as demonstrated in the elementary
excluded. model of Fig. 1.6. In a fluvial environment, sediments
cannot accumulate higher than the base level of erosion
and the elevation added by the gradient of the stream. If
Of course, there are transitions between these simpli-
there is more influx of material into the depositional
fied models of the interaction between basin-generat-
system than necessary for compensation of subsidence,
ing tectonics and basin-filling processes (see Chap.
the sediment surplus will be carried farther downstream
12). Certain basins may show a complex history and
into lakes or the sea.
therefore contain sediments affected by both pre- and
syn-tectonic movements. This signifies that the level up to whieh a basin ean be filled
with sediments may depend on the geographie position ofthe
basin in relation to the erosionaI base. In Tibet, for example,
the floors of present-day fluviaI basins (intramontane basins
and graben structures) are eIevated higher than 3000 m in
eomparison to the coastal fluvial plains elsewhere.
1.4 Basin Morphology 11

SEDIMENT UMIT FOR THE BUILDUP OF SEDIMENT

INFLUX

FLUVIAL 11 LOCAL
SEDIMENTS {} OUTBUlLDING
MASS
SUBSIDENCE MOVEMENTS DEEP
. BOHOM
OUT · " . ; .. . . _~~~C~~~~~,T.S
0, 1,2 . ISOCHRONES
BUILDING . .... ..... .< ....

Fig. 1.6. Base level <?f erosion, hydrodynamic ~egi~e sediments. Note that the model may be modified by sea
in the sea, and gravIty mas~ movements a~ h.mItmg level changes
factors controlling upbuildmg and outbUlldmg of

The morphology of water-filled basins may signifi- 1.4.2 Different Methods in the Study of
cantly change as a result of depositional processes. Modern and Ancient Sediments
Lakes and low-energy marine basins frequently show
prograding deltaic facies, causing pronounced
basinward outbuilding of sediment (Sects. 2.1.1, 2.2.2, Many workers distinguish between recent and anciel~.t
2.5.l, 3.4.l). Consequently, the area occupied by the examples of depositional environme~ts (e.g., pavIs
deeper basin, where finer-grained sediment is depos- 1983' Reading 1986a), because the mterpretatIOn of
ited, decreases with time, although the initial, tectoni- spale~environments from the fossil record is subject. to
cally controlled basin configuration persists. By co~­ greater uncertainties. Furthermore, the met~ods of IJ?--
vestigation and the possibilities of observmg ce~am
trast, high-energy basins are less influenced by sedI-
physical and biological sedimentary structures dlffer
ment outbuilding (Fig. 1.6). between soft sediments and lithified rocks. Soft mate-
rial, for example, is suitable for the determination of
For example, terrigenous sediments transported into high-
primary grain size distribution, whic~ in the case of
energy shelf seas tend to be reworked and swept into deeper
lithified rocks is frequently problematIc. On the other
water by wave action and bottom eurrents, exeept for some hand, any kind of structure is commonly much better
loeal seaward migration of the shoreline. Even on deep sub-
marine slopes and in the deep sea, there is no general out- visible in ancient rocks than in soft sands and muds.
building or upbuilding of sediments, because gravlty mass The surface of recent sediments on land and under wa-
movements and deep bottom currents redistribute large quan- ter can be well observed, but in many cases, for exam-
tities of material. pie in fluvial environments, such temporary surfaces
are rarely preserved in the sedimen~ry record. In co.n-
trast, indurated beds altemating Wlth weaker matenal
These few examples demonstrate that the most appro- frequently show exceUently preserved lower and upper
priate c1assification scheme for sedimentary basins bedding planes with trace fossils, various marks, and
depends primarily on the objectives of the study. If imbrication phenomena which are difficult to observe
tectonic structure and evolution of a region are the in soft sediments. Diagenesis may, however, also ob-
main topics, then basin fiU geometry and subsidence scure primary bedding features. In. addition, there e a:
history derived from the thickness of stratigraphic special sediments in the past, partIcularly far back. m
units (Sect. 8.4) are of primary importance. If, on the the Earth's his tory, for which no present-day analogles
-{)ther hand, the depositional environment, sedimentary are known. Such environments are mentioned in Sec-
facies, and paleogeographic reconstructions are ofma- tion 6.5.
jor interest, then the basin c1assification used should In spite of such various problems between recent and
not be strictly tectonic. Such a c1assification should ancient sediments, the depositional environments of
also take into ac count changes in basin morphology both groups are treated jointly in this book, except for
caused by depositional processes, the chemical and some special deposits. After a brief overvi~~ in this
hydrodynmnic regimes of the basin, and peri-ba~in c~apter, the most im~orta~t ~oup~ of de~OSItIonal e~­
characteristics such as the size and nature of the dram- vIronments are descnbed In sImphfied facles models m
age areas on land delivering terrigenous and dissolved . Chapters 2 through 6.
materials into the basin.
12 Chapter 1 Basin Classification

a CONTINENTAL, LACUSTRINE C ADJACENT SEA BASINS

OF DIFFERENT TECTONIC SETTINGS OF DIFFERENT TECTONIC SETTING AND
SUBSIDENCE

SHALLOW-
SHALLOW DEEP DEEP
SYMMETRie SYMMETRie ASYMMETRie

,~-er
·<~t~

OPENING~ d
b VARYING SUBSIDENCE BASE LEVEL
OF EROSION NARROW, WIDE , VARYING
SHALLOW DEEP
SEDIMENT SOURC~
(PLAN VIEW).---- j ---,
ONE, TWO-OR MULTI- ONE,
NEARBY SOURCE SYSTEM DISTANT
NEARBY

,
BA
SHALLOW
~ -
SEGMENTED BASIN
,I OR DEEP
"
-,'
OPEN DEEP UNDER VARIOUS CLiMATES AND
SEA WITH DIFFERING INPUT OF
TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTS

Fig, 1.7a-d. Overview of various depositional environ- basins are strongly affected by variations in terrigenous
ments, based primarily on basin morphology (a and c) input under differing conditions of relief and climate.
and peri-basin characteristics (b and d)_ All these For further explanation see text

1.4.3 Depositional Environments (Overview) their depositional environment and basin morphology.
However, peri-basin geomorphology and climate also
On the surface of our present-day globe, on land and playa role. One can distinguish between several princi-
below the sea, hundreds of depositional areas are pal groups, for example:
known which meet the defmition of sedimentary bas-
ins as described in Seetion 1.1. If we add to this list - Continental (fluvial, glacial, eolian), lacustrine, and
medium to large ancient sedimentary basins whose fill deltaic environments.
is stilliargely preserved, we have some thousand sedi- - Adjacent sea basins and epicontinental seas of vary-
mentary basins. Taking into account this large number
ing salinity.
and the many factors controlling a sedimentary envi-
ronment, it appears at first glance that an enormous - Marine depositional areas of normal salinity_
number of differing depositional environments should
exist. This is in fact the case, but nevertheless it is pos- As an alternative, a group of "transitional" environ-
sible to subdivide this great quantity into a limited ments may be defined between continental and marine
number of distinct groups which have many character- environments (e.g., Davis 1983). This group includes
istics in common. marine deltas, intertidal environments, coastal lagoons,
estuaries, and barrier island systems (cf. Chap. 3). In
Such depositional environment models have been exten- Part 11 of this book, a more diversified classification is
sively described in several textbooks (e.g., Reineck and used with the following main groups:
Singh 1980; Blatt et al. 1980; Walker 1984a; Walker and
James 1992; Selley 1985a and b; Reading 1986a, 1996; - Continental sediments.
Boggs 1987), and single groups of environments have been
dealt with repeatedly in special publications, memoirs, short . - Coastal and shallow sea sediments (including car-
course notes, etc. (cf. Chaps. 2 and 3). bonates).
- Sediments of adjacent seas and estuaries.
In Figures 1.7 and 1.8 the various types of sedimen- - Oceanic sediments.
tary basins are predorninantly classified according to - Special sediments and environments.
1.4 Basin Morphology 13

a MARINE DELTAS
SEA LEVEL
~"::~i;~q?~'!i;i~;~;!!:~m~UH;i~:!:i~H;!h:·~\-;~~·~~~~~~~~~-iiii-i.ii-~-::- - - - L __ - - - - - - --
FLOODPLAIN WITH LAKES, SWAMPS,
TIDAL AREAS, LAGOONS
'I

b MARINE DEPOSITIONAL AREAS

MARINE TROUGHS AND RIDGES e

C DEEP MARINE, OCEANIC R1DGES, ETC.

(SHELF NARROW OR MISSING)
~=~
(CONT.)RISE DEEp·SEA SEA MOUNTS
DEEP·SEA BASIN
(BASIN PLAIN) FRACTURE
FAN
TROUGH

d DEEP MARINE DEEP SEA TRENCH

WITH WIDE SHELF 9

:tSPECIAL
SHELF BASIN(S)

Fig. 1.8a-g. Marine delta (a) and overview of other marine basins (b through g). For further explanation see
text

In addition, Chapter 7 deals with depositional rhythms filled troughs, which are later filled with water creating
and cyclic sequences which may occur in all groups of short-lived lakes. Similarly, eolian deflation can gener-
depositional environments. ate local depressions in the land surface which, if the
groundwater table rises, may be transformed into salt
pans. However, such erosional features are normally
filled up again with sediments within a short time span.
1.4.4 Elementary Principles for Basin Filling
On the other hand, eolian sand can accumulate large
"sand seas" reaching elevations well above the sur-
The jluvial environment is controlled by its erosional rounding landscape. In addition, wind-blown sand and
base level and sediment supply from more elevated dust can migrate into different directions, partially up-
regions. As long as sediment supply is sufficient to slope.
compensate for subsidence, regardless of the type of
tectonic setting, the river gradient and thus a more or The influence of peri-basin morphology on fluvial-
less constant average net transport direction through lacustrine sedimentation is described in Figure 1.7b.
the fluvial basin can be maintained (Fig. I.7a), and the Terrigenous material entering the basin may come from
sedimentary facies does not change significantly. A nearby or distant sourees. Consequently, the sediment
topographie depression, i.e., a syn-depositional mor- will be texturally immature or markedly mature. Simi-
phological basin (Fig. I .5b) can only develop when larly, its mineralogical composition may be either fairly
fluvial transport lags behind basin subsidence. uniform or mixed. In addition, the climate in the source
This clear relationship between gradient and trans- area(s) exerts a strong influence (Sect. 2.2.4). Where
port direction is modified in the glacial and eolian sediment accumulation cannot compensate for subsi-
environments. Subglacial abrasion often leads to ero- dence, long persisting, deepening lakes or shallow seas
sional depressions, over-deepened valleys, and ice- evolve (see below).
14
Marine deltas represent a transitional, highly vari-
able depositional environment between continental
and marine conditions (Fig. 1.8a). The subaerial part
of such a delta is controlled by fluvial and possibly
lacustrine processes, whereas its coastal and subaque-
ous regions are dominated by the hydrodynamic and
chemical properties of the sea. Large terrigenous sedi-
ment supply causes prograding of the deltaic complex
toward the sea; high sedimentation rates and subsi-
dence enhanced by the sediment load enable the for-
mation of thick, widely extended deltaic sequences.
Marine delta complexes provide a particularly good
example of depositional environments which are con-
trolled predominantly by various exogenic factors
(Sect. 3.4).
Acijacent sea basins and epicontinental seas are
connected with the open sea and therefore exchange
water with the ocean (Fig. l.7c and d). The extent of
this water exchange and thus the salinity of the basin
water strongly depend on the width and depth of the
opening to the ocean. In humid regions, adjacent bas-
ins with a limited opening tend to develop brackish
conditions, while arid basins frequently become more
saline than normal sea water (Sect. 4.2). Adjacent bas-
ins and epicontinental seas on continental crust are
commonly shallow, but basins on oceanic or mixed
crust mayaiso be deep. The shapes of these basins
largely vary; some of them show symmetric or asym-
metric cross sections; some represent basins subdi-
vided by shallow swells into several subbasins (seg-
mented basins). In the latter case, markedly differing
depositional subenvironments have to be taken into
account. Most of these adjacent basins are strongly
influenced by the climate and relief of the peri-basin
land regions (cf. Fig. 1. 7b), which control the influx of
terrigenous material from local andlor distal sources.
In summary, adjacent basins may exhibit a particularly
great variety of sedimentary facies (Sect. 4.3).
The sediments of shallow seas and continental
shelves (Fig. 1.8b) are also considerably affected by
processes operating in neighboring land regions. These
generally provide sufficient material to keep these bas-
ins shallow. Strong waves, surface and bottom cur-
rents usually tend to distribute the local influx of
terrigenous sediment over large areas. Especially in
shallow water, high-energy conditions prevent the de-
position of fine-grained materials, partially including
sands. Therefore, such environments often pers ist over
long time periods without being filled up to sea level
(Fig. l.6). This is also true for widely extended
shallow-marine basins, as long as excess sediment vol-
urne (in relation to space provided by subsidence) can
be stored in special depressions (Fig. 1.8b and d) or be
swept into a neighboring deeper ocean basin. The mar-
gin of such basins is commonly characterized by a
kind of ramp morphology.
Deeper marine basins are usually bordered by a
shelf zone of varying width followed by a wide and
normally gentle slope (continental slope, Fig. l.8c).
Chapter 1 Basin Classification
The foot of the slope in deep water (continental rise) is
still gently inclined basinward; it is built up to a large
extent by redeposited material derived directly from the
slope (slope apron) or by sediments funnelled by sub-
marine valleys and canyons into the deep sea (deep-sea
fans). The terms continental slope and continental rise
are commonly used to describe corresponding features
of the present-day passive, Atlantic-type continental
margins. These terms, however, imply a plate-tectonic
interpretation. Deep-sea basins or basin plains are the
deepest parts of marine environments except deep-sea
trenches and some other special features associated
with the behavior of oceanic crust (see below).
Large volumes of terrigenous material can be co l-
lected by the troughs in a submarine horst and graben
topography bordering the continent (Fig. l.8e). Simi-
lady, deep-sea trenches at the foot of relatively steep
slopes and slope basins are sites of preferential sedi-
ment accumulation (Fig. l.8g). Thick, ancient flysch
sequences are mostly interpreted as depositions in such
basins. Less important sediment accumulation systems
are small basins ("ponds"), which occur along oceanic
ridges, and infillings of narrow troughs due to fractur-
ing ofthe oceanic crust (Fig. l.8f).
The thin, frequently incomplete sedimentary records
on the tops of submarine ridges, platforms, and
seamounts (Fig. J.8j) strongly contrast with all other
marine sediments. These deposits are mostly biogenic,
chemically or biochemically precipitated and usually
contain only very small proportions of terrigenous or
volcanoclastic materials. Although such lirnited sedi-
ment accumulations can hardly be referred to as basin
fills, they do constitute an important and diagnostically
significant part of larger marine depositional environ-
ments.
The direct influence of tectonic basin evolution on
sedimentary facies is only evident in areas, where tec-
tonic movements are rapid and nonuniform, such as at
the basin margins, or where sediment accumulation
lags far behind subsidence faulting, or thrusting. This
situation is common in continental riß and pull-apart
basins during their early stages of evolution, in
subduction-related settings, in renmant and foreland
basins, and in deep marine environments along oceanic
ridges or trans form faults far away from large land
masses. These problems are further discussed in Chap-
ter 12.
1.4.5 Some General Trends for Sediment
Accumulation and Facies
From the previous discussion one can draw some gen-
eral, straightforward rules for the sediment accumula-
tion and facies in various depositional environments:
- The influence of terrigenous sediment sources on
basin fillings decreases in the following order: high-
1.4 Basin Morphology
relief continental environments - lowlands - shallow
seas - deep sea.
Similarly, the sedimentation rate tends to decrease
from highland continental basins to the central parts
of large oceanic basins.
Basins with low sedimentation rates tend to accu-
mulate sediments relatively rich in biogenic compo-
nents. Such basins may persist for long time periods
and are therefore often markedly affected by
synsedimentary tectonic movements.
Chemical sediments (evaporites) of some extent
commonly form in lowlands (lakes) and special
portions of adjacent shallow seas, but rarely in the
other depositional environments.
- The sedimentary facies of rnany basin fills do not
reflect tectonic basin evolution and specific struc-
tural elements. Only in some basin types and/or
during the most rapid phase of basin evolution do
tectonic movements direetly control sedimentary
faeies. However, the geometry of basin fills, sedi-
mentation rates, and syn- and post-depositional de-
formations eharaeterize the tectonic style and evolu-
tion of the basin eonsidered.
1.4.7 Summary (Basin Classification)
Sedimentary basins originate from various
endogenie processes and can be classified on the
basis ofplate tectonie models. The basin-generat-
ing forces also determine the overall geometry of
the entire basin fill.
However, the depositional environments and
sedimentary facies of the basins are to a large
extent eontrolled by exogenic processes (e.g.
terrigenous sediment influx, autoehthonous sedi-
ment produetion, hydrographie regime of the
basin, sediment distribution, ete.).
15
1.4.6 Facies Architecture
The prineipal sediment eharaeteristies of the various
depositional environments include features on different
scales. These range from large-seale phenomena,
relevant to the facies distribution in the total basin, to
micro-seale properties which are studied in a single
rock speeimen. As Allen (1983) and Miall (1985) have
pointed out, the sedimentary basin fill often displays a
certain type of stratigraphic architeeture, i.e., larger
units are built up by a number of srnaller, basic units.
In single outerops, generally only the smaller seale
units can be observed, whieh are often not suffieiently
diagnostie for the reeognition of the true nature of the
total basin fill or a large part of it.
The brief surnmaries for the eommon depositional
environments presented in Chapters 2 through 6 are
largely based on these principles. They preferentially
show field and outcrop phenomena and how these fit
into a larger scale faeies model. Micro-seale features
and processes are only described in special eases.
This means that (I) similar sediment types ean
oeeur in basins of eompletely different tectonic
origin, and (2) an additional basin classifieation
is needed whieh is based on the various
depositional environments.
Certain basin fills refleet pre- and syndepositional
tectonies. To understand both basin-forming
tectonics and depositional environments, basin
fills should be studied at different seales (out-
erops, drillholes, geometry ofthe total basin fill).
Part 11

Depositional Systems
and Facies Models
2 Continental Sediments
2.1 Glacial Deposits
of Lowlands, Lakes, and in the Sea
2.1.1 Continental Glacial Deposits
Introduction
Continental Ice Sheet Deposits
Glaciofluvial Sediments
Proglacial Lacustrine Deposits
2.1.2 Glaciomarine Sediments
2.1.3 Summary (Glacial Deposits)
2.1.1 Continental Glacial Deposits
Introduetion
Glaciers produce and effect numerous types of both
continental and marine sediments. From present-day
glaciated and periglacial regions we know a great
variety of features characteristic of glacial environ-
ments, ineluding many minor structures and patterns
which can be observed at or near the land surface.
Therefore it is barely possible to summarize all these
phenomena in a few simple facies models.
However, if we focus only on glacial sediments of
a high geologie al preservation potential, we can ne-
glect glacial landforms and sediments in highly ele-
vated mountain ranges or periglacial phenomena
such as patterned ground, gelifluction, and other
gravity mass movements on subaerial slopes. Then
the remaining environments to be considered are gla-
ciated and proglacial lowlands, lakes, and the sea.
The following simplified facies models present some
information only on those glacial sedimentary facies
which have a relatively good chance of being pre-
served over long geological time.
In order to understand the sedimentary processes of these
selected environments, a general knowledge of glacial phe-
nomena is, of course, necessary. Useful references are, for
example: Molnia (1983), Grobe (1987), Eyles (1984);
Eyles and Miall (1984), Edwards (1986), Brodzikowski
and van Loon (1991), Eyles and Eyles (1992), Eyles
(1993), Hambrey (1994), Ehlers (1996).
Continental lee Sheet Deposits
A continental ice sheet, advancing over areas of low
relief, carries debris from its usually more elevated
source area and takes up further material at its base.
If the glacier base is cold and frozen to the ground,
more basal debris is generally taken up than by "tem-
perate" glaciers, which have a wet base sliding rela-
tively easily over the substrate.
The debris left behind after the ice melts (Fig. 2.la
and b) is usually poorly sorted and unstratified and, if
its origin is uncertain, described as diamiet (when
unlithified also as diarnicton or mixtum). Such sedi-
ments typically contain boulders and large elasts
floating in a finer grained matrix of silt and sand.
Clays derived from weathered soils are absent (due
to the cold elirnate) or play only a rninor role. If the
debris clearly originates from glacial action, the
terms till (for unlithified material) and tillite (for
lithified material) are common; recently the term
orthotill (in contrast to paratill which has undergone
mass mcvement or is sedimented through a colurnn
of water) was recommended (e.g., Shaw 1985). De-
bris accumulated at the base of glaciers is termed
basal till or lodgement till, because some of the mate-
rial is trapped by obstaeles in the substrate. "Cold-
based" glaciers can cause deformation of the under-
lying bedrock (glaciotectonic structures) and rip up
large slabs or plates from the substrate by shearing.
One can also observe thrust faults and small-scale
folds within the lodgement till. Nearly horizontal or
low-angle shear zones within the till cause some
crude stratification and imbrication of coarser com-
ponents. At wet-based ice margins, these phenomena
are even better developed. The partieles of the rela-
tively thin basal debris layer often undergo intense
abrasion (ice-faceted elasts) their long axes tending
to become aligned parallel to the direction of ice
flow. Continued lodgement of elasts on top of the
substrate rnay lead to the formation of lenticular beds
of coarse grained diarniet.
Melting of glacier ice both at its surface and/or its
base leads to the release and accumulation of debris
in the form of melt-out till (Fig. 2.1 a and b). This
process I.lsually occurs where the entire ice sheet, or
at least its basal part, is stagnant. Hence melt-out till,
if not overridden by a later ice advance, is not inter-
nally deformed. Its elasts mayaiso be striated, but for
20 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

the most part melt-out ti11 is less affected by basal or Glaciofluvial Sediments
internal abrasion and therefore tends to be coarser
grained than lodgement till. Melt-out till mayaiso . Fluvial sediments in the proglacial region usua11y
contain frozen blocks of unlithified substrate which show the same characteristics as deposits of alluvial
are incorporated into the basal zone of a glacier. fans and braided rivers (Sect. 2.2). Large va11ey gla-
Clast orientation is preferentially parallel to the di- ciers and some continental ice sheets release enor-
rection of ice flow, and a considerable number of mous quantities of coarse- and fine-grained debris
elasts dip up glacier. Due to running melt-water, this which is transported by meltwater into the proglacial
type of till also contains locally minor areas of strati- lowlands. Along the ice margin, some of the material
fied sorted beds. If these are deposited on top of ti11 is deposited in outwash fans, and further away in
still holding some ice, they later become contorted or outwash plains (sandur, Fig. 2.la). Outwash deposits
intensely faulted. of alpine glaciers are mostly rich in gravel, whereas
Melt-out till accumulating on top of the ice or at outwash plains of continental ice sheets (for exam-
the slopes of moraines is frequently redeposited by pIe, those of the Scandinavian Pleistocene ice sheet)
mass flows (Fig. 2.1). Such flowti11s, flowed tills or consist predominantly of sand. This results not only
flow (flowed) diamicts are difficult to discriminate from the general downstream decrease in grain size,
from debris flow deposits of other environments but also from the lower proportion of coarse-grained
(Sect. 5.4.1) unless they contain striated elasts and/or material delivered by the continental ice mass. In any
ice-cemented blocks, or unless they show deforma- case, meltwater streams, with their high bedload,
tion characteristics of ice contact. As intercalations tend to accumulate the coarser grained portion of
of a glacial sedimentary sequence, flow tills as we11 their load and may therefore generate comparatively
as grain flows originating from glaciofluvial outwash thick glaciofluvial sequences. Distinctive features of
are easier to identify. At standing ice margins, melt- the glacial environment, in contrast to normal fluvial
out ti11 and supraglacial outwash may form end mo- conditions, are deformation structures formed by
raines of considerable height and length. These mo- post-depositional melting of buried ice (Fig. 2.1 b
raines are frequently overridden and deformed by and d), and the occurrence of "frozen blocks" of ti11
advancing ice (Fig. 2.lc). or sand, wh ich were carried and finally deposited in
Special morphologie al features developed in the this state (Fig. 2.le and f).
subglacial environment are drumlins, eskers, and tun-
nel va11eys. Eskers and drumlins form narrow ridges A special feature of proglacial meltwater sediments are the
or elongate hills on the land surface after the ice has deposits of catastrophic floods, the so-called jökulhlaups,
melted, tunnel valleys may cut deeply into the under- which were described from Iceland and other presentiy or
formerly glaciated regions (e.g., Maizels 1989; Smith
lying bedrock. Tunnel valleys probably result from 1993; cf. Sect. 7.9.6). These floods result form sudden
subglacial meltwater erosion, wherc the channels are drainage of ice-damrned lakes, from landslides on to gla-
completely filled with water and therefore do not ciers, or from subglacial volcanic eruptions. Jökulhlaup
need a continuous gradient. flows may contain very high suspended sediment loads
(hyperconcentrated flows with up to 35% sediment concen-
Deep-cut tunnel valleys are known from North America tration) consisting predominantiy of silt, sand, and gravel.
and Europe. In northem Germany such valleys locally These flows predominantly form thick, more or less homo-
reach depths of 400 to 500 m below the present sea level. geneous, poorly structured massive beds.
They are cut into weakly indurated Neogene sandstones,
have steep side walls, and are infilled by glacial outwash As long as the outwash plains are devoid of vegeta-
diarniet and finer grained water-deposited sediments. They tion, sand and silt sized partieles are easily blown
were investigated by geophysical methods and drillholes.
Such deep tunnel valleys have a very high preservation
away by strong winds. The sand can be deposited
potential in the geologie al record, although it may be diffi- nearby in the form of dunes; the silt is carried farther
cult to identify them as such when only small portions of away and accumulates as loess, often in areas where
the former tunnel system are exposed or preserved by ero- tundra vegetation is present trapping the wind-blown
sIOn. dust (Sect. 2.3.5). On surfaces where neither ac cu-
mulation nor erosion takes place for some time, pat-
Transitional facies between ti11 and glaciofluvial sed- terned ground, ice wedges, and other phenomena
iments are glacial outwash, primarily deposited either typical of the periglacial zone can develop (Fig.
supraglacially on top of the ice (e.g., kame terraces), 2.lg). The accumulations of flood plains may pro-
or englacially in large ice cracks or tunnels at the vide good evidence of alternating colder and warmer
base of the ice (esker). These sediments may show elimates (Fig. 2.2). Cold periods are indicated by pat-
sharp lateral facies changes into other glacial depos- terned ground (cryoturbation), ice wedges, and the
its, because the meltwater streams were originally deposition of loess; warmer periods enable the
bounded by ice. growth of dense and varied vegetation and thus the
formation of soil.
2.1 Glacial Deposits 21

a ESKER RETREATING GLACIER

RETREATING
GLACIER ICE-CONTACT LAKE

OEFORMED

LODGEMENT
TILL

END MORAINE OUTWASH PLAIN LOESS TUNNEL VALLEY

C
b INTERNAL STRUCTURE
e
TlLL SUCCESSION OF PUSH RIDGE OSCILLATING IGE-MARGIN

FLOWED TILL
(partially inversed
grading, irregular
base)
I
E
o gravel
till
glacio·
N fluvial
WASHOUT N fine graind till

E
o
N
(deformed)

MELTOUT -TILL 1 sand

lill
f
frozen
block

N d
F"E~~
' ~~'E
' .~~~
_ p.~ CHANNEL FILL
e;:, ____ 0 . LODGEMENT
TILL
.Q...S-o-~-
<=> <::>

Frn
shear planes

GLACITECTO·
NIZED OR ,oam
ABRADED
BEOt\OCK
-~l 1-" bed-

KAME DEPOSITS GLACIOFLUVIAL

.. ~ ~ ~ rock
(deformed) VERTICAL SUCCESSION ice wedge

Fig. 2.1. a Landforms and deposits of continental ice
sheets. 1,2,3, succession of three glacial periods al-
temating with warmer interglacial or interstadial
times allowing the growth of vegetation and the for-
mation of soil. Note that older glacial deposits and
interglacial soils are only rartially preserved. b Typi-
cal sections in continenta glacial deposits including
periglacial pattemed ground and ice wedges. c-g See
text. (Based on several sources, e.g., Wagenbreth and
Steiner 1982; Eyles 1984; Edwards 1986)
22 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

LOESS SOlL CRYOTURBATION ICE WEDGE GLEY

BEDROCK (MIOCENE LOWER INTERGLACIAL UPPER

SANDS AND SO ME BROWN COAL) GRAVEL BED PEAT AND CLAY GRAVEL BED

Fig. 2.2. Example of fluvial sediments and loess with ice wedging. Coal pit in PleistocenelMiocene depos-
intercalated peat layers and soils indicating periods its of the Lower Rhine Valley, northem Ville, near
of warmer climate. Apart from loess, periglaclal con- Cologne, Germany. (Modified from Woldstedt and
ditions are also shown by a cryoturbated horizon and Duphom 1974

Loess profiles with intercalated soils (paleosols) far away cial strata in places where subsequent erosion is lim-
from the ice margin in a region of little erosion (Fig. 2.2) ited. Smaller glacier-fed lakes usually receive abun-
may provide bett er evidence of the c\imatic history of a dant meltwater and are filled within shorter time peri-
glaciated area than the more directly deposited glacial sedi- ods. They show typical glaciolacustrine deposits of
ments themselves. If such loess is transformed by two types (Smith and Ashley 1985): (1) the lake is
diagenesis into a redbed sequence (Sect. 6.3), its true origin bordered by a calving glacier (ice-contact lakes), or it
may be difficult to recognize, however. is located some distance downstream of a glacier
(non-contact glacier-fed lakes).
Proglacial Lacustrine Deposits - Ice-contact lakes usually are small and highly vari-
able, including changing water levels caused by re-
In glacial or proglacial environments, lakes (and their peated filling and draining. They are characterized by
rapid infillings by clastic sediments) are very com- subaqueous outwash deposits emerging from the
mon. Lakes are generated in different ways: (1) ero- mouth of an ice tunnel (Fig. 2.3). The rapidly depos-
sion of bedrock by valley glaciers and fore land gla- ited coarse grained material near the tunnel mouth
ciers, (2) buildup of dams consisting of moraines or (containing boulders and gravel) grades laterally into
glacial outwash, (3) melting of buried ice. In addi- sand and silt. It may rest on lodgement till and be
tion, the continental crnst may become depressed un- interbedded with ablation till, flowtill, and finer
der the load of large and thick ice caps and inland ice grained lake sediments. Srnall-scale mass flow phe-
due to isostatic compensation, generating lakes of nomena and postdepositional collapse structures due
limited size around the ice margin and large lakes to the melting of buried ice are common. The best
after ice melt. evidence of ice-contact lakes are drops tones derived
Some of the very large glacially-formed Pleisto- from floating ice.
cene lakes, such as the Baltic Sea or the Great Lakes
in North America, may persist for a long time after ,- Glacier-fed, more distallakes (Fig. 2.4) are better
the retreat of the inland ice. Then their basal glacial known and provide more stable depositional condi-
deposits are overlain by non-glacial (Holocene) sedi- tions than ice-contact lakes, which are often overrid-
ments. Repeated advances and retreats of ice may den by advancing ice. Meltwater streams drop their
generate altemating glacial, proglacial, and non-gla- coarse grained bed load in the form of a classical
2.1 Glacial Deposits
\-...
CROSS BEDD\NG
Fig. 2.3. Reconstruction of subaqueous outwash fan
in ice-contact lake. Clast-supported boulder gravel at
the mouth of the ice tunnel passes laterally and verti-
cally into horizontally laminated, planar and trough
cross-bedded sand, and finally into climbing ripple-
drift larnination. The fan may be cut by steep-sided
(Gilbert-type) lake delta, which can rapidly pro grade
into the lake. The sediment is distributed over the
delta front by avalanching, fallout from suspension,
river water underflowing the standing lake water, and
gravity mass movements (Fig. 2.4a). Upper-delta
foresets, if they have not been affected by wave ac-
tion, show steeply inclined coarse-grained beds (Fig.
2.4b). Their grain size may alternate from gravel-
dominated to sandy layers, due to the fluctuating
competence of the meltwater stream. Individual
foresets reflect special storm events during the sum-
mer time rather than annual meltwater conditions.
Mid-delta fore sets are less inclined and finer grained
than the upper-delta foresets. They frequently show
climbing ripple or ripple drift sequences, caused by
high fallout of fine sand from suspension, and draped
lamination (Fig. 2.4c).
23
ICE TUNNEl
..........
-... ......
-...-- -...
---...
-- ........ --
--
...... ......
WITH MASSIVE SAND
CROSS L AMINATION
W ITH BALL AND
PILLOW STRUCTURES
"channels" caused by mass flows. The lost material
can be replaced by massive or stratified sand. Due to
rapid deposition some sand layers are loosely packcd
and therefore affected by dewatering and/or load
casting. (Modified from Shaw 1985)
The lower-delta foresets consist of alternating rip-
ple cross-laminated fine sands and graded beds of
fine sand and coarse silt (Fig. 2.4d). These layers
mainly result from undercurrents or surging currents
which occur during the summer season. They are
often overlain by somewhat darker, millimeter-thick
layers of fine silt and clay deposited during the long
winter period.
The coarser laminae frequently consist of several
sublaminae, indicating aseries of evcnts during one sum-
mer season (Fig. 2Af). The rest of the year is represented
by a thin, fining upward silt-clay lamina. Whereas these
rhythmites may contain a high proportion of randomly oc-
curring, slump-generated, very thin, silty or sandy
turbidites (Fig. 2Ae), there are also rhythmites which are
hardly affected by such depositional events.
24 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

UNDERFLOW
a MELTWATER STREAM (DENSITY CURRENT) _ _ -=1TERFLOW _OV/RFLOW~
_____________
c _____________ -- ------::t.-J'..,.
----------~ I

_ . _ . _ . -._._ ' _ . _ . _ . -~ /
/
/
I
I

DISTAL
MASS FLOW LAKE BOTTOM VARVES

b c d e
UPPER DELTA MID-DElTA l OWER VARVES AND
FORE SETS FORESETS DELTA SURGE DEPOSITS
---t- -
I ... ........ : : :--1-1~~~rl/ ;:Ui~~-~~r:~~~i d iteg
year E DISTAL VARVES

E
....
ci
1_ ~l-- ~f.l
~
winter
layer-
r J_
lyear
",:!~,
_~,." .. "".."..
summer E
layer r
grain

1
ci
lIow .1.
PROX. VARVES
~;~, ~.~
ripple cross.:.J ~~~~_winter
~
layer
(suspension seitling)
bedding
load casts
sand and gravel
(matrix-supported) summer layers
multiple- (seitling Irom over-
gravelly sand graded beds _ lIow, interflOw
01 line sand underllow, and
and sill surge currents)

Fig. 2.4. a Sedimentation in a proglacial (non-i ce varves (e,f,g) which are partiaHy obscured by event
contact), meltwater-fed lake. Note the marked facies deposits, i.e., distinct surge deposits (lake turbidites)
change from the upper to the lower delta fore sets and successions of very thin, graded beds of silt and
(b,c,d), as weH as the different types of annual fine sand. (Modified from Smith and Ashley 1985)

The irregular proximal rhythmites grade into thinner
«1 cm) and better developed rhythmites in the distal
lake basin (Fig. 2.4). These annual varves are more
regularly bedded and devoid of any current structures
(Fig. 2.4g). Their material is delivered by surface
currents (overtlows) or by currents crossing the lake
at middepth (intertlows). The varves are produced
mainly by vertical settling of fine grained particles
and therefore distinctly retlect summer (light
laminae) and winter (dark laminae) conditions.
2.1 Glacial Deposits
The regular bedding of these types of lake bottom sedi-
ments may be disturbed by different processes: mass flows,
load casting (represented, for example, by small-scale ball-
and-pillow structures), and even by burrowing organisms
(bioturbation). Overriding ice can promote compaction of
the clayey bottomsets and deform some of the lake depos-
its.
2.1.2 Glaciomarine Sediments
Glaciomarine sediments or sedimentary sequences
contain facies types which indicate the direct influ-
ence of glaciers. However, this clear relationship
cannot be described by a simple facies model. The
net growth of ice on the continents and the advance
of ice toward the sea during a cold period is accom-
panied by sea level fall and vice versa. Furthermore,
loading of the crust by thick continental ice sheets
causes isostatic subsidence and, after melting of the
ice, uplift. However, both sea level fluctuation and
isostatic adjustment of the crust do not act synchro-
nously, the latter lagging behind the sea level
changes.
If, for example, in a nonglaciated area the global sea level
has reached its eustatic minimum level, a glaciated shelf
sea may still subside due to the isostatic effect of the ice-
load and therefore experience a transgressive sea. When the
global eustatic sea level has again reached its maximum,
the coastline of a formerly glaciated area may still continue
to rise, causing a regression of the sea.
In short, glaciomarine sedimentary sequences are
strongly and complexly affected by migrating co ast-
lines over long distances. Simultaneously, the conti-
nental and lacustrine glacial associations can mi grate
back and forth a shallow sea and alternate with
glaciomarine and normal marine facies types. During
low sea level stands, the glaciers can advance over
the emerging bottom of a shelf sea and deposit a till-
outwash-periglacial-lacustrine facies association on
top ofmarine beds (Fig. 2.6a). The subsequent trans-
gressing sea, in conjunction with a warmer climate,
will in general cause a drastic retreat of the ice mar-
gin, drown the tills and their associated continental
and lacustrine sediments, and enable the deposition
of subaqueous glaciomarine sediments.
As long as the sea is in contact with the ice mar-
gin, subglacial meltwaters can deposit submarine ice-
contact fans (Fig. 2.3a and 2.5a) and release their
suspended loads as plumes into the sea. Floating ice
can drop its solid material over large areas. Its fine
and coarse grained rain of particles forms massive or
stratified diamicts (Fig. 2.5b, c, and d), which locally
may be affected by bottom currents, reworked by
storm waves, or redeposited as grain flows, mud
flows and, in deeper water, as turbidity currents (Fig.
2.5e, f, and g). This facies association is highly vari-
able, depending on the load of the ice, the configura-
25
tion and hydraulic regime of the marginal sea, and
many other factors. The most distinctive features of
glaciomarine sediments are dropstones in stratified
muds which also contain marine fossils and fre-
quently display bioturbation.
During the last decade, repeated layers of ice-
rafted detritus (IRD) of the late Quatemary, so-called
Heinrich Layers present in the North Atlantic be-
tween 40 and 50° latitude, have been intensely stud-
ied (Heinrich 1988; Bond and Lotti 1995; and many
others). These layers are characterized by a relatively
rapid sedimentation rate and may cover a layer rich
in organic carbon. The Heinrich Layers contain a
high proportion of detrital carbonate, are rich in cold
water mikro-organisms but poor in planktonic
foraminifera. These widespread beds are explained
by increased calfing of icebergs and meltwater influx
during periods of deglaciation which may have oc-
curred at time intervals of some thousand years only.
In some modern and ancient glaciomarine environments, a
special carbonate mineral, i.e., calcium carbonate
hexahydrate (ikaite) or pseudomorphs after ikaite were
found, which are referred to as glendonites (Suess et al.
1982; Shearman and Smith 1985; Kemper 1987; Eyles et
al. 1998). This mineral occurs in morgenstern-like or
stellate aggregates, several centimeters in size, and indi-
cates sub-zero temperature conditions in the sediments at
or somewhat below the sea floor. These minerals form from
interstitial solutions of sediments rich in organic matter.
During periods in which no ice reaches the coast of
the sea, outwash streams of nearby glaciers deposit
their bed load as proglacial fans and deltas along the
coast. Their suspended load can be distributed over
large areas of the sea, especially if flocculation of
c1ay particles and their settling as aggregates is dc-
layed. This is generally caused by mixing of
inflowing fresh water with sea water. In this case,
however, the marine sediments carry no direct evi-
dence of glacial influence.
Thus, repeated advance and retreat of the ice
sheets across shelf seas can in principle lead to a cy-
c1ic sequence of altemating (continental) glacial,
glaciomarine and normal marine sediments (Fig.
2.6b-d). Due to glacial erosion and marine current
activity, however, the sedimentary record of these
processes on the shelf is often incomplete.
In regions of very cold climate and huge ice accu-
mulation (as today in the Antarctic), large areas of
the sea can be covered with comparatively "clean"
thick shelf ice. Since most of the debris in these
floating ice sheets is located near their base and
dropped below the ice due to subglacial ablation, the
ice margins and floating icebergs are poor in debris
and therefore leave behind relatively little evidence
of ice action. Neogene and Quaternary proglacial
marine sediments in this environment are often rich
in diatoms, bioturbated, and contain few dropstones.
26 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

PROXIMAL
OUTWASH
DEBRIS FLOWS, MARINE SEDIMENTS,
SUDES GLACITECTONIZED

ICE MARG1N PROXIMAL > DISTAL

b c::::> BOULDER d
t>O 0
c::J C D BIOTURBATION
a []
. ' ..
DIAMICT , j...:...;....:......:---'-...:........;:-.:..:.:~ CLUSTERS
"
MASSIVE, OF DROP·
MATRIX ·
SUPPORTED
STONES
~~I~J- GLENDONITE
DIAMICT, FINE GRAINED
STRATIFIED, MUD WITH
MATRIX · DROPSTONES,
SUPPORTED LAMINATED

GRAVITY MASS
EFFECTS OF CURRENTS AND WAVES MOVEMENTS

e 9
LAG
SEDIMENT f TURBIDITES

STORM
LARGE
WAVE GRAVEL·
MUD FLOW
RIPPLES SAND BEDS
(TEMPESTITES)
CHANNEL DEBRIS
FILL FLOW

Fig. 2.5. Glaciomarine ice-contact environment (a)
and the resulting sediment types (b-g). The advanc-
ing ice-margin can disturb the underlying, relatively
soft marine sediments and release most of its debris
load via tunnels as submarine outwash fans. Sus-
pended material is widely distributed and deposited
as mud. Supraglacial debris drops along the ice-mar-
gin or is carried by icebergs into the sea. Proximal
massive submarine diamicts (b) grade seaward into
stratified diamicts (c) and rhythmic laminated muds
with dropstones (d). Reworking and redeposition of
these facies types leads to lag deposits and large rip-
pies in coarse-grained sands (e), proximal tempestites
(f), or different types of gravity mass movements (g).
(Based on different sourees, including Eyles and
Miall1984)
2.1 Glacial Deposits 27

a
PROGLACIAL MUD
WITH DROPSTONES
OR DIAMICT

SUBMARINE
OUTWASH

LOW
SEA LEVEL
d
PATTERNED
Ij\ GROUND ;} NORMAL MARINE /f\
I MUD AND SAND I
I I
I
GlACIAL I R
RETREAT
AND R
UPLIFT
I TWASH MUD
I I FLOW
OUTWASH I
I .• 0 _ •.~ ••:

I
I I o• _- .0 C>
D
MARINE
I I LODGEM. DIAMICT
l;)
I

i
TlLL Q 0
I p ~

I _ a"
•• _ _ .9• "

l' LOOGEMENT A
....-
.,,-. .>.:-
-
TllL A
A NORMAL
MUD WITH DROPST.
I MARINE
MUD
A, GLACIAL ADVANCE
R, GLACIAL RETREAT

Fig. 2.6. a Glaeial deposits on eontinental shelf, orig-
inating from one advanee and subsequent retreat of
iee, aeeompanied by lowering and raising sea level,
as weIl as some isostatie subsidenee and following
uplift due to the growing and waning iee load. b-d
Simplified sequenees of one glaeial eycle. b Asym-
metrie eycle along the eoast with raised beaeh,
glaeiomarine diarniet representing only a short inter-
val. c Mid-shelf eycle showing several marine and
non-marine subseetions. d FuIly marine symmetrie
eycle where the maximum advanee of iee is repre-
sented by relatively eoarse-grained diamiet. (Based
on several sourees, e.g., Boulton and Deynoux 1981;
Eyles 1984; Edwards 1986)

On the other hand, large and "dirty" valley glaeiers glaeiomarine sequenees in the deep sea or in subsid-
reaehing the sea ean provide great amounts of ing areas.
(mainly silieiclastie) debris and aeeumulate thiek
28
Such sediment accumulations are known from the Barents
shelf (Vorren et al. 1989) and the Neogene in the Gulf of
Alaska (several kilometers; Powell and Molnia 1989).
Deep-sea drilling in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea, e.g. at
550 to 1270 m water depth on the Yerrnak Plateau to the
northeast of Svalbard, has revealed Plio-Pleistocene silty
c1ays and muds of 200 m to more than 500 m in thickness
which contain abundant dropstones (Thiede et al. 1995).
Part of these glacially influenced sediments accumulated at
rates in excess of 100 mlMa, are overconsolidated (due to
ice load?), and show evidence of calcium carbonate disso-
lution as a result ofincreased CO 2 in bottom water.
Icebergs originating from dirty glaciers frequently
carry their debris load over long distances. They are
2.1.3 Summary (Glacial Deposits)
- Glacial and proglacial sediments are extremely
variable both in texture and composition, be-
cause they are usually derived from both extra-
basinal and intra-basinal sources and deposited
in greatly differing subenvironments.
- Although glacial and proglacial sediments cover
wide areas on the present-day land surface, in
particular in the northern hemisphere, it is only a
part of them (predominantly glaciolacustrine and
glaciomarine sediments) which have a good
chance of being preserved in the geological re-
cord.
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
the source of widely distributed dropstones in oce-
anic hemipelagic and pelagic sediments far away
from glaciated regions. Apart from these distinctive
features, glacial and interglacial deep-sea sediments
commonly vary in their contents of biogenic carbon-
ate and opaline silica.
In the North Atlantic, for example, glacial periods are char-
acterized by carbonate dissolution and relatively high pro-
ductivity of biogenic opal, whereas interglacial sediments
tend to be richer in biogenic carbonate (coccoliths, planktic
and benthic foraminifera). These differences mainly result
from changes in the oceanic current systems (Henrich and
Baumann 1995; df. Sect. 5.6).
- Distinctive features of these deposits are
drops tones and sometimes specific deformation
structures, but they often also alternate with
glacier-generated diamicts (tills or tillites),
glaciofluvial and non-glacial sediments. Marine
muds may contain morgenstern-like glen-
donites.
- Flow tills (or tillites) are sometimes confused
with mud flows and debris flows of non-glacial
origin. The true nature of these deposits can
usually be found by studying the under- and
overlying strata.
2 Continental Sediments
2.2 Fluvial Sediments,
Alluvial Fans and Fan Deltas
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Types ofF1uvial Systems (Overview)
2.2.3 Minor Bed Forms and Sedimentary Structures
2.2.4 Basic Facies Elements and Architecture of
F1uvia1 Systems
2.2.5 Alluvial Fans and Fan Deltas
Alluvial Fans
Fan Deltas
2.2.6 Various River Systems and Their Sediments
Overview
Braided Rivers and Braidp1ains
Meandering Rivers
Anastomosed and Mud-Dominated Rivers
2.2.7 Large-Sca1e Lateral and Vertica1 F1uvia1 Facies
Associations
2.2.8 Reservoir Properties ofF1uvial Sediments
2.2.9 Summary (F1uvia1 Sediments etc.)
2.2.1 Introduction
Fluvial sediments constitute a significant part of the
depositional record of the Earth's his tory. At first
glance this seems to be surprising, because rivers act as
transport systems deli vering weathering products from
mountain ranges to lakes and the sea. However, subsid-
ing areas, i.e. sedimentary basins, enable the accumula-
ti on and preservation of fluvial deposits of consider-
able thicknesses.
For many past decades, the origin and interpretation
of fluvial sediments appeared essentially c1ear in
comparison with the deposits of many other environ-
ments. For this reason, fluvial sediments did not
receive much attention from sedimentologists. In the
last 10 to 20 years, however, a considerable number of
geologists and sedimentologists have viewed both
recent and ancient fluvial sediments as interesting
objects of study. This new impetus was initiated not
only by academic scientists, but also by many workers
interested in fluvial deposits as reservoirs for hydrocar-
bons and groundwater.
The body ofnew, detai1ed know1edge gained in this fie1d has
been summarized in severa1 specia1ized vo1umes (e.g., Miall
1978, 1985, 1996; Scholle and Spearing 1982; Galloway and
Hobday 1983; Flores et al. 1985; Ethridge et aI. 1987;
Fielding 1993; Best and Bristol 1993; Marzo and
Puigdefabregas 1993; Heller and Paola 1996; Collinson
1996; Shanley and McCabe 1998).
Partic1e transport, minor bed forms and sedimentary
structures, as described in several text books (e.g. Allen
1982; Collinson and Thompson 1989; Reid and Frostick
1994; Pye 1994), are on1y briefly mentioned here. The
various factors controlling downstream fining trends have
been studied, e.g., by Robinson and Slingerland (1998).
Although much is known about the physics of sediment
transport in rivers and the flow conditions underwhich minor
sedimentary structures are formed, the large-seale, three-
dimensional depositional struetures of fluvial systems are
difficult to describe by simple laws. Likewise, mineralogical
and petrographie aspects of fluvial deposits, inc1uding their
provenance from various rock types, cannot be treated in any
detail (see, e.g., Pettijohn et aI. 1987; Füchtbauer 1988;
Bosellini et aI. 1989; Potter 1994; Bahlburg and Floyd 1999).
In the context of this book, only abrief and therefore
incomplete overview can be inc1uded.
2.2.2 Types of Fluvial Systems (Overview)
The most distinctive features of fluvial systems are
large-scale phenomena, such as the size and geometry
of channels, their sinuosity and ability to migrate,
associated compound bars, and the occurrence of more
or less extended overbank deposits, naturallevees, etc.
In present-day fluvial environments, the channel
system and its sinuosity are the most striking, diagnos-
tic features. With the aid of these criteria, one can
distinguish between several types of fluvial systems,
although there are no sharp boundaries between these
depositional environments (Fig. 2.7):
- Alluvial fans and fan deltas (bedload channels).
- Braided rivers and braidplains (bedload channels).
- Meandering river systems (mixed-load and sus-
pended-load channels).
- Anastomosed river systems (predominantly sus-
pended-load channels).
The factors controlling these large-scale structures are
more complex than those generating small- and
medium-scale phenomena (see below). In the case of
meandering channels, for example, it is a general rule
that the wave length and width of the meanders grow
with increasing river discharge and slope of the river
valley or fluvial plain. Braided stream systems with
channels of low sinuosity tend to form in environments
oflarge sediment supply and relatively steep gradients.
30 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

longitudinal
section

BRAIDED SYSTEM
low sinuosity channels,
mobile, high gradient
and high stream power,
predominantly bed load

MUD-DOMINATED
LOW GRADIENT
SYSTEM channels partly straight,
(±anastomosing) partly sinuous, but
'~ rather stable
OXBOW LAKE SEDIMENT

MEANDERING SYSTEM
low gradient, low stream
power, mainly suspended
and mixed load (ratio
bed load/susp. load< 3)

Fig. 2.7. Principal types of fluvial systems and generalized characteristics of their cross sections (vertical
scale exaggerated)

Another classification (already included above) is muds, and (locally) backswamp carbonaceous muds
based on the mode of sediment transport in the channel and clays. Their channeis are more stable and have a
systems: lower width/depth ratio than those of the bedload
system; they are mainly filled with sand and rninor
(1) Bedload channels typically have steep gradients, proportions of silt and clay. These channel fills are
high width/depth ratios (>40), and channel patterns of flanked by levee sands and silts and crevasse-splay
low sinuosity. These channels tend to migrate laterally, sands (cf. Fig. 2.17b), thus raising the overall sand
and channel fills are coarse-grained and contain little content to about 20% to 40%.
suspended-load material. The total alluvium ofbedload (3) Suspended-Ioad fluvial systems are characterized
systems consists predominantly of channel and by high-sinuosity single channels of great stability and
channel-flank deposits (Figs. 2.7 and 2.8c). Silty and . low width/depth ratio « 10). Their gradient and stream
muddy floodplain deposits playasubordinate role. power are usually low. Their channel fills contain a
(2) Mixed-load fluvial systems preserve a higher high proportion of silts and muds. Silty or muddy levee
percentage of floodplain deposits which consist of silts, deposits are weIl developed, and floodplain deposits
2.2 Fluvial Sediments
consist predominantly of overbank fines or, in humid
climates, of backswamp and lacustrine muds.
Some authors also separate gravel-dominated systems
from sandy fluvial systems, because grain size is an
important indicator of relief (that is, tectonic activity)
as well as climate in the source area. High relief and
arid or periglacial/paraglacial conditions favor the
production of coarse-grained materials and the primary
input into the different fluvial transport systems. In
addition, the resistivity of source rocks exposed to
weathering and erosion processes also plays an impor-
tant role (cf. Sect. 9.3).
In ancient fluvial sediments, it is usually very difficult to
reconstruct the former paleo-channel systems and their
sinuosity from outcrops in the field, unless many large
exposures can be studied. Today, 3 D seismic records can
reveal ancient channel systems. If these means are not
available, it is of some use to analyse the proportions of
bedload and suspended load in the channel fills and in the
total flood basin to determine the mode of sediment transport.
However, this method has its !imitations, and consequently
many workers have attempted to improve the facies analysis
of ancient fluvial environments through other means.
The simplest approach is to subdivide the sedimentary fill
of a fluvial basin into channel sediments and finer-grained
overbank or floodplain deposits. This can be done in systems
where the difference in grain sizes between these two
subenvironments is sufficiently large. A general trend in the
relationship between these two principal facies types is
shown in Fig, 2.7. Thus, for example different types of
Table 2.1. Small-scale facies or bed types in fluvial sediments (Miall 1978)
Facies Description
code
Gms Massive matrix (sand and mud) supported gravel
Gm Massive or crudely bedded gravel
Gt Trough cross-bedded, clast-supported gravel
Gp Planar cross-bedded gravel and/or matrix-supported gravel
Sh Horizontally stratified sand
St Trough cross-stratified sand
Sp Planar cross-stratified sand
Sr Ripple marks and small-scale cross stratification
Fm Massive, fine sandy mud or mud
Fl Laminated or cross-laminated fine sand, silt or mud
P Pedogenic concretions (carbonate)
a Description somewhat changed by the author
31
sandstone reservoir geometries can be distinguished (Fig.
2.8a). One should use caution. however, when deducing
subsurface channel distribution and geometry from the
present-day, active channel type (Fig. 2.8b).
2.2.3 Minor Bed Forms and Sedimentary
Structures
Based on direct observations in present-day streams
and on experimental studies in flumes, the relationship
between hydrodynarnic regime, erosion, sediment
transport, and accumulation is fairly well established.
This allows the prediction of the behavior of particles
of different size, density, and shape, as well as the for-
mation of minor bed forms and their internal
sedimentary structures. The latter are controlled bythe
so-called flow regime (Fig. 2.9).
Erosion at the river bed and particle transport begin
at a certain critical current velocity. In the lower flow
regime, mud is carried rapidly away in suspension,
while fine to medium sand migrates slowly along the
river bed forrning ripples or a plane bed. Gravel is
transported only ifthe current reaches velocities higher
than 70 to 120 crnls (upper flow regime). Then, sand
and gravel can move simultaneously. The resulting
deposits are either horizontally stratified or planar
cross-bedded gravelly sands or, if most of the sand has
been sorted out due to faster sand transport, clast-sup-
ported gravel beds or gravellags which protect under-
Interpretation
Debris flow deposit
Longitudinal bars, lag deposits, sieve
deposits
Minor channel fills
Linguid bars or deltaic growth
Upper flow regime
Lower flow regime
Transverse bars, lower flow regime
a Lower flow regime
Overbank or drape deposits
Overbank or waning flood deposits
Soil formation
32 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

FLUVIAL CHANNELS
NARROW
ISOLATED
a BROAD ISOlA TED
RIBBON
b VERTICAL STACKING
(RAPID $UB$IDENC EI

Fig. 2.8. Main types

OVERlAPPING RIBBONS of sand and sand-
stone reservoir ge-
ometries generated
LA TERAL ST ACK ING by channel tills in
(SLOW SUBSIDENCEI fluvial systems. a
SAND SHEET
Single sandstone
bodies. b Different
,.
&::::::-
.. ,,-,. -.. -:-..~.~.~_~~-:.~~-=-~=-=-~=7---M:.UI L
-,.'~--,:-.-:-,:..~,.:.~,:~-:-,:--:-,-,-- TI . STOREY
types of stacked
channel sands re-
CHANNE LS "jb==~·';]z ...;::;:
'.::Z ··:2 - .l::;;
•.. ::::; . ':2:::::=t..Y
...:=;:-;::; lated to slow or
rapid subsidence.
LA TERAl CHANNEL MIGRA nON Note that the active
tLiTTLE CONTE MPOAANEO US SUBSIDENCEI (SOLATED STACKING channels visible at
the surface do not
necessarily indicate
~
'"-'-'" the nature of the
buried channel
complex. (After
Ethridge 1985;

,;i;j
Miall 1985, modi-
MIXED lOAD CHANNELS SUPENDED· LOAD CHANNELS fied). c Channel
fills of bedload,
mixed-load, and
suspended-Ioad
rivers. (Based on
Galloway 1985)
SAND AND GRAVEL SAND LATERAL ACCRET(ON MUD SAND

lying finer material from further reworking. Gravel Coarse particles such as gravel increase in round-
exposed to currents, which are only capable of eroding ness downstream if they originate from angular rock
and transporting sand, roll into developing scours debris and not from older sedimentary rocks with pre-
pools. Rapid vertical aggradation can occur only if rounded material. They often form characteristic fab-
sediment input into the system is high. This may lead rics in wh ich flat pieces dip upstream, with their long
to climbing ripples and ripple drift cross-stratification. axes perpendicular to the flow direction (Fig. 2.9).
Sand waves and antidunes form in the upper flow Less comrnon is the orientation of gravel and pebbles
regime. They are more or less destructive features and with their long axes parallel to flow. This type of fab-
are associated with sediment loss rather than with ric appears to be restricted to high energy flow condi-
aggradation of fluvial material. Sand waves and tions.
antidunes are rarely preserved because they are fre- Both criteria, the downstream growth of cross-bed-
quently truncated or completely reworked by subse- ding and the imbrication of gravel, indicate the current
quent "normal" current action. direction which was responsible for the formation of
The larger bed forms and their interna I structures the bed. Variations of these directions from a general
result from fluctuating water stages and current veloci- trend are one of the means of discriminating between
ties, and therefore cannot be attributed to certain flow different fluvial systems in the ancient record (see be-
conditions. low).

Fig. 2.9. Relationship between current velocity (hy- depends on water depth. The larger bed forms and
draulic regime), grain-size, minor and medium-sized their internal structures result from fluctuating water
bed forms, and internal sedimentary structures of stages and current velocities. In different river sys-
fluvial deposits (overview). (Drawn after different tems (A through C), certain flow conditions. and bed
sources, e.g., Harms and Fahnestock 1965; Collinson forms prevaiL See text and Table 2.1 for further ex-
1996). The boundary between 10wer and upper flow planation
regime (in terms of mean current velocity) strongly
2.2 Fluvial Sediments 33

INCREASING BED FORMS TRANSPORT LARGER COMPOSITE RIVER

CURRENT ANDINTERNAL BEHAVIOR OF BED FORMS AND SYSTEM
VELOCITY STRATIFICATION SANDANDGRAVEL INTERNALSTRUCTURES

m/s DIRECTION OF FLOW

c:::======> LAG
DEPOSIT

ANTI- GRAVEL BARS

UPPER DUNES FORESETS IN PLANAR
FLOW CROSS-BEDDED GRAVEL
(Gp)
REGIME
~ HIGH-.....-----1
STAGE~
(RARELY ~ 1-10 m ----l CURRENT ~~~~~~
IN DEEP " ..- ---------;.,.- STANDING
C
...'.::------ -- WAVE
WATER)
e---?
~

'" 1.2 PLANE LAG B

BED (Sh)
~

0----?

'I//I///////1Ji. SAND BARS

w;;/)ii;/A
I--- 5 m ------l
0.4 -0.7 DUNES I
WITH
RIPPLES \I I
LOWER PlANAR TABUlAR CROSS-BEDDING (Sp)
IA
FLOW I
REGIME I
I
I
I

0.2-0.3

I~ .
:';;~:~';~": ,.,.
!J.
0 .06
0.6 mm COAR5E SAND GRAVEL BOULDERS
DEPOSITION OF
LAMINATED SILT, MUD (F!) RIVER SYSTEMS
~ SAND TRANSPORT CONTlNUOUS OR INTERMITTENT A , lOW-GRADIENT, MEAND.ERING OR
ANASTOMOSING, PERENNIAL
~ SAND TRANSPORT ONLY INTERMITTENT
0----:. GRAVEL TRANSPORT CONTINUOUS OR INTERMITTENT B , HIGH-GRADIENT, BRAIDED, PERENNIAL
f> GRAVEl ROlLS INTO SCOUR C, HIGH-GRADIENT, EPHEMERAl
34 Cbapter 2 Continental Sediments

LA
FM : FORESET LATERAL ACCRETION
MACROFORMS DEPOSITS

:;~eEiJ- OF : OVERBANK
~ FINES

SG: SEDIMENT GRAVITY

FLOW DEPOSITS CH : CHANNELS

~
~'
Gms

S9 .. .,. - -':" :: ';';.~'. ; ......~..

. ..
~_ ~ ~

CH : CHANNELS
SB : SANDY BEDFORMS

T
SB

__
SB
t
/1~;;;g'ifl
GB : GRAVELLY BARS
AND BEDFORMS

TO,2-2m
1- 100m

Fig. 2.10. Basic architectural elements of fluvial de-
posits. (After MiaU 1985, modified, varying scale.)
Note that there are simple and more complex ele-
ments consisting of several simple units. OF
Overbank fines , predominantly vertical aggradation
of lithofacies Fl, mud or silt with thin lenses or
laminae of cross-bedded silt to fine sand. LS Lami-
nated sand sheets, up to several meters thick, pro-
duced by flash floods, Sh lithofacies, and other sandy
bedforms. SB Sand bed forms, including Sh, St, Sp,
and Sr lithofacies (see Table 2.1) representing trans-
verse bars, crevasse channel and crevasse splay de-
posits (cf. Fig. 2.17). GB Gravelly bars and bedforms
comprising lithofacies Gm and Gp, frequently alter-
nating with SB and MF (in proximal regions). FM
foreset macroforms of the active main channels. LA
Lateral accretion deposits (including point bar depos-
its), with variable internal geometry and lithofacies,
consisting of different smaUer-scale elements. eH
Channel fills of different size and geometry (cf. Fig.
2.8). The total fill may show several episodes of ero-
sion and refilling (multi-storey fills). MF Mass flow
deposits, rnainly Gms lithofacies, frequently associ-
ated with GB. Author's note: the elements FM and
LA are difficult to define clearly. Recent specific
publications distinguish even more elements.
2.2 Fluvial Sediments 35

Many of the common minor bed forms and corresponding 2.2.4 Basic Faeies Elements and Architecture of
internal structures occur in all fluvial environments, but in Fluvial Systems
varying proportions. This is so, because all river systems are
characterized by frequently changing water stages and a wide
In order to describe and reconstruct modem and an-
range of current velocities. For example, small sand ripples
of various shape, larger dunes, various types of cross-bed- cient fluvial systems in more detail than that above,
ding, and flat lamination with or without gravel are observed Allen (1983) and Miall (1985) have proposed subdi-
in nearly all river systems. Consequently, these small-scale vi ding fluvial deposits into eight basic architectural
structures alone have limited diagnostic value. Rather, it is elements (Fig. 2.10). These elements differ, however,
the vertical or lateral succession of such structures, or the in dimension and rank as structural units forming the
proportion of specific structures in the total sediment body, total fluvial sediment body. Single elements are
which can be used to identifY the overall depositional envi- bounded by bed contacts of different order, the most
ronment.
prominent ones being erosion surfaces or bounding
surfaces, such as those at the bases of channels. Large
The grain size distribution of fluvial deposits does not
architectural elements may be composed of several
solely depend on the type of river system or its flow
smaller elements. For example, channel fills can con-
regime. Both small and large streams rnay, for exam-
sist ofup to five subordinate units. It is, however, the
pIe, develop a braided river system, whether they are
smaller elements which we can recognize in outcrops
sand or gravel-dominated. In both cases, the transport
of limited size. Therefore, an approach from smaller to
capacity of channel flow is intermittently sufficient to
larger architectural elements is recommended for the
move gravel as bedload. Hence, the proportion of
study of such compound structures seen in many flu-
gravel in such fluvial deposits reflects rock types, re-
vial sediments.
lief, and weathering conditions in the source area
rather than the depositional environment. On the other Since the introduction of the eight basic architectural ele-
hand, the grain size distribution available in the source ments, some modifications supplements, and subdivisions of
area, including jointed hard rocks, has limited influ- the major elements have been proposed (see, e.g., Miall
ence on the grain size distribution of river deposits 1996). A new element is the fill of scour hollows. Subdivi-
(Walger 1964; Ibbeken 1983). Even after a short trans- sions and refinements mainly deal with different types of
port distance, river sediments show a characteristic channel fills, lateral accretion complexes, and overbank de-
frequency curve resembling a log-normal distribution, posits.
while the material in the source area may significantly Fluvial deposits mayaiso alternate with eolian sediments
when sand is blown out from dry, neighboring alluvial
deviate from this distribution. plains, channels, or land surfaces (Sect. 2.3). Commonly,
The processes generating medium-sized sand bars or such eolian intercalations only form thin beds, frequentlyon
gravel bars are more difficult to study than those re- top of coarser lag deposits, because they are partially eroded
sponsible of the transport of individual particles and by subsequent floods. Modern examples of intercalated flu-
the formation of small-scale sedimentary structures. In vialleolian deposits have been described from several re-
present-day rivers we observe that sand and gravel bars gions, for example from the Great Sand Dunes in Colorado
move during floods, have different shapes (transverse, (Fryberger et al. 1979); ancient examples include parts ofthe
longitudinal, linguoid bars), and are modified and reor- predominantly fluvial Triassie Bunter sandstone in Europe
(e.g., Mader 1985; Marzo 1986; see also Miall 1996).
ganized by repeated changes between lower and higher
water stages in the channel system. As a result, the
bars frequently show composite internal structures
2.2.5 Alluvial Fans and Fan Deltas
(Fig. 2.9), which may be associated with both upper
and lower flow conditions. The bars often contain lag
deposits, gravel beds and sand beds. Alluvial Fans
The most important lithofacies types of fluvial sys-
tems and their terminology are listed in Table 2.1 (cf. Alluvial fans are cone-shaped piles of sediment formed
Figs. 2.8 and 2.10). at the foot of high lands where streams confined by
narrow valleys emerge into an adjacent lowland (Figs.
Clast or Jramework-supported gravel (Gm, Gt, and 2.7 and 2.11). Aseries of overlapping alluvial fans
partially Gp) originates from high energy flow trans- generates a clastic wedge. Fan deltas are alluvial fans
porting and accumulating coarse bedload and keeping that have built into a lake or the sea. The proximal fa-
sand and finer material in suspension. The remaining eies of alluvial fans and the subaerial part of fan deltas
pore space between the gravel is usually infiltrated are essentially the same, but the subaqueous sediments
later by sand, when the flow velocity has decreased. of fan deltas differ strongly from those of their
The matrix-supported gravel results either from debris . subaerial counterparts. Alluvial fans in arid to semi-
flows (Gms), or from the simultaneous transport of arid regions have been frequently deseribed, whereas
sand and gravel in a river with a high flow regime fans in humid regions have reeeived less attention.
(Gp).
36
STREAMFLOOD, OLDER CHANNEL
SIEVE DEPOSITS AND SHEET FLOOD DEPOSITS
SHEET FLOOD AND STREAM
DEPOSITS
General descriptions of alluvial fans include BuH (1977),
Gloppen and Steel (1981), Nilsen (1982). Current directions
are discussed, e.g., by Collinson and Thompson (1989),
Pettijohn et al. (1987). The various factors controlling the
size and sediment mass of alluvial fans are addressed, e.g., by
North et al. (1989), Allen and Hovius (1998). The greatly
varying conditions of fan deltas and their sediments are de-
scribed in many articles and some special volumes (e.g.
Nemec and Steel 1988; several articles in Collela and Prior
1990, including Postma 1990; Blair and McPherson 1994).
Sedimentation on alluvial fans begins where the
strearns leave their confined valleys and lose some of
their transport efficiency. Basically, alluvial fans are
composed of two types of sediment: stream deposits
and sediment gravity jlows (Fig. 2.11a). Current-trans-
ported sediments usually predominate. They are depos- .
ited either from ephemeral or perennial water flow in
the channel system or, after extreme rain storms, from
sheet-floods inundating large parts of the alluvial fan.
Sometimes, gravel is concentrated locallyto formsieve
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
DEPRIS FLOW LEVEE
DEBRIS FLOW
(Gms)
Fig. 2.11. Simpli-
fied facies models
of a alluvial fan
(proximal to mid
fan region) and b
fan delta. See Ta-
ble 2.1 for expla-
nation of symbols
deposits (coarse gravel and boulders devoid of finer-
grained matrix). From time to time, large debris flows
with a muddy-sandy matrix reach the proximal and
mid-fan areas and bury part ofthe pre-existing, radi at-
ing channel system. At their lower end, such debris
flows terminate in characteristic lobes, and they often
concentrate large boulders and gravel at their outer
margin, forming levees. Later, new channels cut into
the mass flow deposits and rework and redistribute
great proportions of their material.
Many alluvial fans are only a few kilometers long,
but some can reach a length of more than 50 km. The
sediment mass of alluvial fans deposited in a certain
time interval mainly depends on the size, relief, and
lithology oftheir source areas. The stream gradients of
fans in arid to semi-arid climates often decrease from
10 to 30 at their heads to 0.1 0 to 0.5 0 at their bases.
Similarly, grain size decreases down fan, and round-
ness of gravel increases.
2.2 Fluvial Sediments 37

In humid regions, alluvial fans have lower gradients into other alluvial deposits, mostly those of a braided
and are dominated by stream processes with marked river system flowing perpendicular or at high angle to
seasonal variations in runoff. The mid and lower fan the outbuilding fans (cf. Fig. 2.7). The lower fan sedi-
areas are vegetated and therefore less susceptible to ments, consisting predominantly of sand and mud, may
reworking. They are cut by a limited number of active, feed wind-blown sand transport systems or be associ-
narrow channels. The sedimentary processes in such ated with eolian sand (Fig. 2.22a). On abandoned fan
fans, particularly those of humid tropical regions, are surfaces, vegetation starts to grow and soil forming
poorly known. processes take place. Distal fans may reach lacustrine
environments, for example, playa lakes in arid regions
One of the largest present-day examples of this type is the (Sect. 2.5).
Kosi alluvial fan in India, draining the area around Mount Paleosols and the interfingering of fan deposits
Everest (Wells and Dorr 1987). This fan has a length ofmore with characteristic other facies types, such as playa
than 150 km, but a very gentle slope (mean value 0.04°). sediments or tillites and glaciolacustrine sediments,
River flow varies greatly due to the monsoonal climate. The
channels are partly braided, and partly meandering and perrnit the recognition of their paleoenvironment. An-
anastomosed, but there are also many abandoned channels cient fan deposits occasionally contain plant relics,
forming oxbow lakes. The dominant grain size is sand and traces ofburrowing organisms, and other fossils which
finer-grained material; sheetfloods and mud flows are absent. may be useful in identification.
Minor primary sedimentary structures are frequently ob-
scured and obliterated by vegetation and bioturbation. The
maximum thickness of these fan deposits is about 900 m. Fan Deltas
The Kosi fan is thought to be analogous to the
depositional environment of ancient fluvial molasse accumu-
lated in the foredeeps ofhigh mountain ranges. Coastal alluvial fans prograding into a lake or into the
sea form fan deltas (Figs. 2.11 band 2.13). As soon as
In all alluvial fan deposits, current directions deduced the streams, carrying a high bedload, reach the stand-
from sedimentary structures show radial flow patterns ing water body, they drop their coarse material at the
from the fan head down fan. If measured in a limited shore face and in pro delta foresets (cf. Sect. 2.5). The
area, these directions display little variation (in com- intensity of reworking, sorting, and redeposition, as
parison to meandering systems). Vertical sequence weil as the transport of material along the shoreline,
profiles may be quite irregular without showing a par- depend on the hydrodynamic regime of the water-filled
ticular trend, because they are controlled by several basin. In the case of lakes and protected marine
factors. Flood events and debris flows are stochastic embayments, fan pro gradation is little influenced by
processes with greatly varying recurrence intervals. these processes. Gravel and sand accumulate at the
Nevertheless, they generate repeated successions mouths of streams until they become episodically un-
which are frequently a few meters thick. stable and move as subaqueous debris flows into
Long-term trends in the evolution ofvertical alluvial deeper water (cf. Sect. 5.4.1). There, they alternate
fan sections are mainly controlled by processes outside with muddy lake or marine deposits. On high-energy
of the depositional area (extrabasinal factors). Such coasts, some of the coarse material is transported from
factors include the amplification or reactivation of re- the river mouth alongshore to adjacent beaches where
lief in the hinterland, climatic changes affecting weath- it forms distinctive beach gravel (cf. Sect. 3.1); some
ering conditions and erosion in the drainage area, or sand and gravel is swept by storrns into deeper water.
the base level of fans entering a lake. Among a variety of phenomena, described e.g. by
For example, coarsening-upward sequences (Fig. Postma (1990), some processes commonly affecting
2.l2a) may reflect fan growth during continuous fault- fan deltas should be briefly mentioned. Figure 2.13
ing, i.e., uplift of the source area or subsidence of the depicts an alluvial fan or braided river entering an ac-
fan region. The fan then progrades toward the lowland. tive tectonic graben occupied by a lake. The normal
Fining-upward sequences are generated if a short facies association in such a basin fill is, from top to
phase of faulting is followed by retreat of the scarp bottom, a succession of topsets, foresets, and bottom
front and lowering of relief in the highlands (Fig. sets. Lateral switching of the river mouth, however,
2.12b). In paraglacial environments, the same phenom- complicates this simple facies pattern and leads to re-
ena can be generated in a different way. Periods of peated displacements of the site where the coarsest
glacial advance lead to coarsening-upward succes- material is deposited. Thus, in conjunction with ongo-
sions, whereas fining-upward sequences result from ing subsidence, several coarsening-upward sequences
glacial retreat. may be generated on top of each other (Fig. 2.13).
Modem alluvial fans are associated with the source, Mass flow deposits, and silty and muddy turbidites
area containing the deposits of a confined stream, as (Sects. 2.5.1 and 5.4.2) reflect the prograding delta
well as with talus or colluvium from the adjacent front in more distal regions. This model also applies to
slopes. In general, these facies types are not preserved proglaciallakes fed by melt-water streams (Sect. 2.1).
in ancient examples. Down-slope, alluvial fans grade
38 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

INCREASING FAULTING RETREAT OF SCARP FRONT

AND UPLIFT AND LOWERING

DECREASING OR
CEASING FAULTING
a PROGRAD ING

b BACKSTEPPING

I
I
I

~
SAND GRAVEL

~ I
AI
I
d
I I
I AL TERNA Tl NG
PROGRADING PROGRADING AND
ALLUVIAL FANS BACKSTEPPING

r-f;
c I
I
I I
I
I
I I
/ I
~~~ -- 100'5 / 1-10
100'5 I to /
1000's I
to I /
1000's I 01 I I
I
01
I meters I
\ 10'5 I
meIers \ 01 I
I
\ meIers
I \ ~-'-....,.... _ __ ::l.. - ~----r-
I \
I \
I \
I
e
\
I
I
\
\ --'1-
I \ // I
I \ / I
I \ / I
I \ I 1--"-( 1- 10
I 'J __
I SAND
I
~

Fig. 2.12. Idealized vertical sequences in alluvial fan
deposits and their possible causes. a Large-scale
coarsening-upward sequence due to continuous fault-
ing and fan progradation (Stages 1-3). b Large-scale
fining-upward sequence caused by retreat of scarp
front and lowering of relief in source area (Stages 4,
5), or lateral shifting and abandonment of fan (not
shown). c,d Small-scale coarsening-upward cycles
due to the prograding of individual fan lobes. e
Small-scale fining-upward cycle with channelized
base generated by bar processes or filling of braided
channel. (After Ethridge 1985)
2.2 Fluvial Sediments 39

eOARSENING
PLANT
~~ ROOTLETS :rOPSETS PHASE
1 MUD
FLOW
UPWARD ~~ 4 1c
(PHASE 4) & SI j '0RESETS r----

rr-
_~___ ~~~ __J~~il~~/ --~-­
------F;~~,,~-2--
Fig. 2.13. Facies assoclatlOns
of fan delta deposits, including
~_
eOARSENING topsets, foresets, and bottom-
UPWARD }FORESETS __ sets of a lake affected by
(PHASE 1) switching river mouth and sub-
es, eOARSE TO MEDIUM siding lake bottom. Note sev-

~
} BOTTOM SAND~GRAVEL eral phases of delta prograding,
SETS FS, FINE SAND coarsening-upward sequences,
SI, SILT and gravity mass movements
SIT, SILT TURBIDITE reflecting the approaching delta
M, BASINAL MUD MT, MUD TURBIDITE front

Fluctuations in the lake or sea level affect both the
subaerial and subaqueous facies of fan deltas (Fig.
2.14). Theyare reflected by fluvial terraces and coarse-
grained river mouth deposits at varying elevations. A
lowering of the lake or sea level causes the emergence
of delta foresets and the subsequent cutting of fluvial
channels into the foresets. These channels are com-
monly filled later with fluvial deposits. A fluctuating
water level also causes characteristic vertical and lat-
eral facies changes in shallow-marine and lake depos-
its (Fig. 2.14; cf. Sects. 7.3 and 7.7).
Tbe thick Oligocene-Miocene conglomerates ofthe famous
Meteora monasteries in Greece represent coarse-grained
foresets ofa fan delta with intercalated channel fiIIs (Ori and
Roveri 1987) which may be interpreted as incised vaIIey fiIIs
during low sea level stands (cf. Sect. 7.6).
2.2.6 Various River Systems and Their Sediments
Overview
Rivers leave behind sediments of some extent and
thickness only after they have entered a subsiding ba-
sin. Then they develop characteristic systems ranging
from the distal part of alluvial fans via braidplains to
rivers of increasing sinuosity (Fig. 2.15). Gravel-domi-
nated proximal sediments are gradually replaced down-
stream by sand, silt and mud. With increasing stream
power and sediment load relative to the discharge ca-
pacity of the river, the channel systems and their bed
forrns change in a way as indicated in Figure 2.15.
Based on these observations, a number offluvial facies
models was established, named after modem represen-
tatives in North America and Asia. Proximal types are
characterized by high proportions of bedload (>50%);
distally, the bedload decreases to a few percent. A
greater number of specific fluvial facies models is pro-
posed by Miall (1996).
40 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

LAKE LEVEL

DELTA FORESETS
(:: DESRIS FLOWS)

LAKE SOTTOM SETS

(CHANGING FAUNA DUE Ta
VARIATIONS IN SALT CONTENT)

CROSS SECTION

LAKE LEVEL
oE- - - - Fig. 2.14. Fluvial
I
terraces, river
CROSS SECTION mouth bars, and
/.....---- - - -- - L ____ _ ___---'). lake sediments
affeeted by fluetua-
.e:./" TI ME
tions in lake level
(Stages 1-4).
(Based on author's
own observations
in Lake Burdur
area, Turkey; also
see Priee and Seott
1991)

Braided Rivers and Braidplains
If we define sinuosity as the ratio betwecn ehannel
length and valley length, braided systems have a low
sinuosity of the order of 1.1 to 1.2, while meandering
ehannels rcaeh values > 1.5 (cf. Fig. 2.7). Braided
strearns usually eonsist of several individual ehannels
separated by bars and islands and thcrefore form a
wide, shallow stream bed (Fig. 2.16a and d). Braided
rivers develop near areas of high relief, which deli ver
relatively large amounts of debris, gravel and sand into
the fluvial system.
A prominent modern example is the Brahmaputra River in
Bangladesh, draining large areas in the High Himalayas
(Bristow 1987). The recent sedimentation of this river pro-
duces a sheet-like sand body approximately 20 km wide and
40 m thick. The channe1s can be subdivided into larger and
smaller ones and have a very high width/depth ratio ranging
from about 50: 1 to as much as 500: I. Medium-sized chan-
nels may move laterally at rates up to 1 kmla (kmlyear). Con-
tinual reworking within the channcl belt and occasional
channel switching generates complex internal structures
within the sand body. The most important depositional pro-
cess is lateral accretion, followed by downstream and up-
stream accretion.
2.2 Fluvial Sediments 41

MUD/SILT FINE SAND COARSE SAND GRAVEL

SUSPENDED·LOAD MIXED·LOAD BED·LOAD
ALLUVIAL FANS - Trollheim SG

.------= BRAIDPLAINS=----
1
!ncrease
In stream
power and - - - RIVERS - - - -- -- - -
sediment
load Platte

Brahmaputra
. SB

~FM
~'====
. ,"
. "' . OF

_• • •• :" • :', _. : - I

Lower Mississippi

~LA
' ·~s:G
~ ARCHITECTUAAL ELEMENTS
. ", • • • 10 ••••• _

GB gravsl bar/bedforms
SB sandy bedforms
Increasing sinuosity FM foreset macroforms
le -:'Z LA lateral accretion
;i"J%S7 Gravel/sand bars SG sediment gravity flows
OF overbank fines
IC isolated channels

Fig. 2.15. Channel types of various fluvial systems loads of the rivers. (Modified after Orton and Read-
(overview) in relation to the gradients and sediment ing 1993). See text for further explanation

Glaeiofluvial outwash rivers also belong to this low-sinuos- Sandy beds develop best at somewhat higher topographie
ity, multiple-ehannel eategory. Both the valley gradient and elevations within the braided system next to the aetive ehan-
the stream power are relatively high, the latter often intermit- nel system. Here, minor channels aetive during floods may
tently so. drop their bedload during waning flow.

From all these characteristics, it can be inferred that
braided systems are dominated by their bedload, i.e.,
they carry and deposit mainly gravel and sands. Their
sediments therefore consist predominantly of channel
and channel-flank deposits, while silty and muddy
floodplain facies are subordinate.
An exeeption to this mle has been deseribed from an Eoeene
fluvial system in the South Pyrenean foreland basin
(Bentham et al. 1993). Here, the ehannel belt was laterally
eonfined and rapid sediment aggradation led to a high per-
eentage of fine-grained overbank deposits.
In eommon types ofmultiple-ehannel bedload rivers, lon-
gitudinal gravel bars are eharaeteristie ehannel bed forms in
proximal reaehes (Fig. 2.16a). They develop as a result of
intermittent elast aeeretion under flow passing obliquely over
the bar. The bars therefore migrate not only downstream par-
allel to the eurrent, but also laterally. The resulting planar
sheets of gravel show indistinet, emde horizontal stratifiea-
lion. The interstiees in the gravel are usually later filled with
sand during low water periods, but in this system sandy beds
are relatively rare in the proximal zone, unless sand is the
dominant grain size delivered by the souree area.
A typical vertical sequence of a proximal braided sys-
tem is shown in Figure 2.16b. The dominant sediments
are multistory gravel units, originating from channel
bars. Many bars are somewhat graded. Interbedded
with the gravels are thin lenses of sand representing
deposition in abandoned channels or sand wedges at
the edge of bars. In places, one can observe repeated
successions offining-upward gravel-sand sequences, 1
to 2 m thick, but in general it is difficult to identify the
bottoms of former channels and the geometry of their
fills. The reason is that the underlying and neighboring
sediments also consist largely of gravel.
Downstream, the predominantly gravelly beds grade
into beds consisting partly of smaller pebbles and sand.
In addition, the bed forms and internal sedimentary
structures progressively decrease in size.
In the lower, more active channels, bar gravels dominate,
whereas sands and pebbly sands are common at higher topo-
graphie elevations. In rarely flooded areas, some silt and mud
may be deposited and preserved. In the total assemblage, the
gravel content varies between 10% and 70%. As a result of
42 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

d
I
I
I
/
I
I
/
I
PROXIMAL
BRAIDED RIVER
(LOWER
ALLUVIAL FAN) DISTAL BRAIDPLAIN

b c f
MINOR SUPRERIMPOSED
CANNEL LlNGUOID
BARS
MINOR SUPER-
CHANNELS IMPOSED
FLOOD
BAR-EDGE
SAND WEDGE
1CYCLES
MAJOR
iDEBRIS FLOW CHANNEL
OR
CHANNEL FINE SAND,
DEPOSIT SILT AND
SYSTEM
CLAY OF
FLOODPLAIN

LONGITUDINAL
BAR
SUPER-
IMPOSED
BARS

SHALLOW. DEEP. SHALLOW, EPHEMERAL,

GRAVEL BEDS GRAVEL BEDS PERENNIAL SHEET FLOODS

Fig. 2.16. Braided river systems. a-c Proximal to linguoid sand bars (d and e), or wide floodplain
middle reaches, gravel-dominated (b), or sand-domi- rarely inundated by flash floods (1). (After MiaU
nated (c) with minor proportion of gravel. d-f Distal, 1985)
sand-dominated system with wide channels and flat,
2.2 Fluvial Sediments 43

Table 2.2. Main characteristics of selected braided river systems. (Some authors identify more types, but there
are no sharp boundaries between the different subenvironments). (After Miall1985)

Subenvironment, general Percentage Prevailing lithofacies and Minor Lithofacies a

description ofgravel internal structure

Proximal braided river Massive gravel Gp,Gt

deposits (including lower > 50 Sp, St
alluvial fans), Sr, Fl
gravel-dominated Fm

Braided river deposits (middle Planar and trough cross-bedded Sh, Sr

reaches), rich in gravel gravel and sand, massive gravel Fl, Fm
10-70

Mainly sandy Trough and planar cross-bedded Sh, Sr

sand SI, Gm
Fl,Fm

Distal braided river <10 Trou~h and planar cross-bedded Sh, Sr

deposits, sand-dominated Mainly sand sand Gm,Fl
Fm

Silt and mud-dominated Silt and mud Massive and fine laminated silt, St
mud and sand

Sandy river plains subject to flash Mainly sand Horizontal and low angle cross- Sp
floods bedded sands Sr

a For explanation of symbols, see Table 2.1

b Fining-upward channel fills cause distinct minor sedimentary cycles

downstream and lateraliy migrating sand and gravel bars, Fluvial cyclicity due to the filling and abandonment
planar and trough cross-bedding are the most important inter- of channels is much less pronounced in the distal re-
nal sedimentary structures. gions than in the medium reaches of this depositional
system. In the most distal parts of outwash rivers, or in
Lateral migration and sudden abandonment of chan- regions which receive mainly fine-grained silts and
nels due to avulsion cause fining-upward channel fill muds from their hinterlands, the river systems are char-
sequences 01 a few meters in thickness (Fig. 2.16c). acterized by low gradients and low-relief channels and
Such autocyclic sequences (cf. Sect. 7.1) are consid- bars. The main sediment types are massive, laminated
ered the most distinctive feature of this type ofbraided and cross-Iaminated sandy silts.
river deposit. Sand-dominated distal braidplain environments,
In distal reaches ofbraided fluvial plains, runoff is common in arid regions, are somewhat different from
distributed by numerous shallow channels. The gradi- the braided systems described so far. Here, runoff and
ent and stream power of the system are lower than in sediment accumulation are controlled by rare flash
proximal areas, and sand is the dominant grain size floods over a broad river plain with very shallow chan-
deposited. nels. Flow may be either channelized or occur as sheet
floods. During waning flow, most ofthe sand is depos-
Typical present-day examples of this situation are the distal ited essentially in sheets, displaying horizontal lamina-
outwash plains of glaciated areas (sandar), but the same type tion resulting from upper flow regime conditions. Such
also occurs in non-glacial river systems.
sands often grade vertically into finer and small-scale
trough cross-bedded layers (Fig. 2.16f).
The channel sands form large linguoid bars (Fig. Characteristic features of some subenvironments of
2.16d), sand waves, and smaller bed forms such as braided river systems are summarized in Table 2.2.
dunes and ripples (cf. Fig. 2.9). In vertical sections, Experts distinguish more types of subenvironments
planar cross-bedding prevails, whereas trough cross- and provide detailed descriptions (e.g. Miall1996). An
bedding is less common (Fig. 2.16e). Gravel may oc-· example of a large-scale facies association is discussed
cur in smallienses, and overbank fines are occasion- in Sect. 2.2.7 (cf. Fig. 2.19a and b).
ally intercalated.
44 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

Meandering Rivers such a "lateral accretion complex", a term which is

preferred by some experts on fluvial sediments, is less
Meandering river systems develop one principal, rela- regular and more variable than the major architectural
tively narrow channel of high sinuosity (> 1.5). They units ofthe fluvial deposition shown in Figs. 2.10 and
are dominated by mixed load or predominantly sus- 2.17.
pended load; their overall sand content therefore often Chute bars result from chute channels which direct
averages 20% to 40%. If meandering rivers are associ- part of the river flow across the surface of a point bar
ated with a wide floodplain, the channel sediments during flood stage. In this way relatively coarse-
may be restricted to a comparatively narrow zone grained bedload material can be deposited as lag or
within the flood basin where they form a meander belt chute bar on the eroded top of a lateral accretion com-
(Fig. 2.17a). plex (Fig. 2.17b and d). While channellag deposits are
The different architectural elements of the fluvial common on the upstream part of the chute, the down-
sediments, shown in Figure 2.10, can be observed best stream part is often characterized by imbricated pebble
in meandering systems. In a sinuous channel segment, sheets and large-scale planar and trough cross-bedded
one can distinguish the following morphological fea- sands.
tures and depositional subenvironments (Fig. 2.17b): Channel plugs are infillings of cutoff meander seg-
ments (oxbow lakes). Since the further influx of
- Channels and channel fills. bedload is terminated, the abandoned channel seg-
- Point bars and lateral accretion complexes. ments are slowly filled with fine-grained material
- Chute bars. washed in from the neighboring floodplain (Fig.
- Channel plugs (oxbow lakes). 2.17f). In humid elimates, organic matter (ineluding
Levee and crevasse splay deposits. peat) may accumulate in the lake or swamp.
- Alluvial floodplain deposits. Levee and crevasse splay deposits. Many mean-
dering channels are accompanied by flat ridges or
The channel Door is usually covered by lag sediments dams sloping away from the channel into the
consisting of the coarsest material transported by the floodplain. These levees are built up during moderate
river during peak flood. This channel lag mayaiso floods which just re ach the elevation of the channel
contain mud elasts or blocks eroded from the banks. bank or ridge. Due to decreasing flow velocity, sand is
Lag sands and gravel usually accumulate between deposited along the channel banks, grading into silt
scour pools and form flat, elongate bars displaying somewhat farther away. Locally, channel water may
either imbrication of gravel or crudely laminated and spill over the levees into the floodplain, forming cre-
planar cross-bedded gravelly sand. vasse splays. The fallout of sand and silt usually ex-
Point bars accumulate on the inner sides of river tends farther into the floodplains than the levees, but
bends, while on the outer side material from the bank such crevasse splays can also contribute to the buildup
is eroded. In this way, the curvature of the meander of the levees. The prevailing internal structures of
tends to become increasingly exaggerated until the these sand sheets may resemble those of thin sandy
river produces short-cuts, leaving behind abandoned turbidites, showing some grading, horizontal lamina-
channel segments (oxbow lakes, Fig. 2.17a). Most of tion and small-scale ripple cross-bedding, ineluding
the point bar material is eroded from the upstream elimbing ripples and occasional convolute or contorted
channel banks. It is deposited in areas of lower veloc- cross-bedding. These structures are, however, often
ity turbulence. Because sediment moves up and out of mashed or destroyed by the roots of vegetation.
the channel onto the bar, cross sections of point bars Whereas distal crevasse splays become interbedded
often show fining-upward sequences, with sands on with fine-grained floodplain deposits, levee sands of-
top of channellags (Fig. 2.17c and d). Similarly, the ten tend to be reworked by subsequent channel migra-
internal structures grade from horizontal bedding (up- tion.
per flow regime) to large- and small-scale trough Floodplain deposits accumulate during rare inun-
cross-bedding (lower flow regime). The most distinc- dations. They consist predominantly of suspended
tive feature of point bars is lateral accretion (low-an- load, i.e., silt and mud, though fine sand mayaiso be
gle, "epsilon" cross-bedding) which may be visible at present in areas where the peak flood currents are suf-
the surface by the development of a ridge-and-swale ficiently strong to transport this grain size (Fig. 2.17e).
topography (Fig. 2.17b). The swales can be filled with The deposits from individuallarge floods reach thick-
mud, and older portions of the point bar are covered by nesses of only a few millimeters or, locally, a few cen-
levee sands and silts or floodplain sediment. timeters. Such thin beds may be either somewhat
This idealized point bar architecture is often modi- graded, or internally finely laminated or cross-bedded.
fied in nature by chute channels cutting into the point' Aseries of flood layers can show distinct lamination.
bars and producing chute bars, small terraces associ- Floodplains may be wetlands and backswamps or areas
ated with different water stages in the main channel, or of dessication and calcrete development. Therefore,
other irregularities. The resulting internal structures of primary sedimentary structures are often destroyed by
2.2 Fluvial Sediments 45

POINT BAR

chute channel
with lag
chute bars

b
. ,
,/ 9 " oxbow
filled
lake

,
1, Sr
contorted
climbing
FLOODPLAIN ,/ ~wale older lateral _g:~ l ripples
DEPOSITS I " flll ! accretion
channel scours complex

r~
, and.lag Sh
i
, I
,
, , " Sp
c d 'e
levee
--r-~ ./
.........
Sh+ St,sm

1
E'===r"'" root s
t

1
chute

h
Sp
1
h
Sp
bar

1
roots
peat

I
St lamin.
t silt
and mud

1
lower
point + Corg
Sh ~~~
bar laminated 2-15
lag 1 silt and m
top of
older
mud
1
point bar

IDEAL POINT BAR OVEABANK ABANDONED

POINT BAR WITH CHUTE FINES ON CHANNEL
SEQUENCE BAR FLOODPLAIN (OXBOW LAKE)

Fig. 2.17. Meandering river system. a Formation of the flood basin. hOne fluvial cycle (autocyclic). See
sandy meander belt within a flood basin. b Different Table 2.1 for explanation of symbols; sm small-scale.
subenvironments of meandering channel. c-g Charac- (Based on different sourees, e.g., Galloway 1985;
teristic vertical seetions of the youngest sediments of Miall1985)

vegetation, mud cracking, salt precipitation, concretion
formation (such as carbonate nodules or caliche), and
other soil forming processes.
Fluvial red beds. Originally gray or brown flood
deposits may become red through time, ifthey contain
little or no organic matter, as for example in arid and
semi-arid regions. In this casc, brownish iron hydrox-
ides deposited with the original sediment can be later
transformed into hematite and thus produce very fine-
grained, evenly dispersed red pigment (cf. Sect. 6.3).
Another mechanism generating red beds is the weath-
ering of iron-bearing silicate minerals within the sedi-
46 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

I \

JREVAS~S~E~~~:;iiii
\
\

: SPLAY
I
\
\
\
\
\
LAKE

PEAT LEVEE
LEVEE
LACUSTRINE
SILT AND
FLOOD· CL AY ---.1'==1

t
PLAIN

ROOTS STACKED
CHANNEL
5-10 CREVASSE
SPLAY OR FILL
m
CHANNEL LEVEE I
r-,--';;:::.-.'L.- FIL L I
FLOOD- I
PLAIN I
CHANNEL I
.. J.....i.,- FILL 1

CREVASSE MUD
SPLAY LUMPS

Fig. 2.18. Anastomosing fluvial system with low to
high sinuosity and branching channels. Channel sedi-
ments form isolated ribbon sand bodies, often ac-
companied by fine sandy to silty levee deposits. Lat-
eral accretion deposits play a minor role. Crevasse
channels and crevasse splays are common.
Interchannel areas accumulate overbank fines
(floodplain deposits) or shallow lacustrine muds and
peat. Note the great differences between the vertical
profiles! (Based on Smith 1983; Miall1985)

ment during shallow-burial diagenesis (Walker 1967;
van Houten 1973; Füchtbauer 1988). Comparatively
unstable minerals, such as biotite, hornblende, and
smectite can release iron which, und er oxic conditions,
slowly forms hematite.
Swamps. In humid climate and on very gently slop-
ing alluvial plains, the groundwater level can reach the
surface. As a result, backswamps and lakes occupy
parts of the interchannel area (cf. Fig. 2.l9c). These
depressions are filled either with sediments delivered
by crevasse splays and peak floods forrning flat,
deltaic sequences and well-Iaminated fine muds, or
they accumulate organic detritus and peat. Nurperous
coal deposits, with individual coal seams usually lim-
ited in extent and thickness, formed on alluvial plains.
Review articles describing these phenomena include, e.g.,
Flores (1981), Galloway and Hobday (1983), Flores et al.
(1985), Lyons and Alpern (1989). Many of these ancient
floodplains were situated not only near the paleo-coastline of
a former sea, but also in more e1evated fluvial environments,
including intermontane basins. In addition to the nonmarine
fauna in the accompanying sediments, abundant siderite con-
cretions often indicate a fresh or brackish water depositional
environment (cf. Sect. 2.5).
2.2 Fluvial Sediments
We can conclude that floodplain deposits are the most
important facies type in meandering fluvial systems, if
the river system is not constrained by nearby valley
slopes.
Anastomosed and Mud-Dominated Rivers
Anastomosed rivers develop an inter-connected net-
work of straight to sinuous channels, which are rela-
tively narrow and deep (Fig. 2.18). Because their
banks are built up of fine-grained sediment, usually
covered with vegetation, channels and islands are re-
markably stable. The channels are filled with sand and
gravel. Since vertical aggradation proceeds compara-
tively rapidly, rather thick and narrow ribbons of chan-
nel sand can form, bounded by the sandy silts of the
levees. Interchannel areas are topographically low rela-
tive to the channellevees and fi1led by crevasse splay,
marsh, and lacustrine sediments. On the widely ex-
tended river plain or in the wetlands between the chan-
nels, laminated silty clays and clayey silts accumulate.
In addition, backswamp deposits and peats containing
large amounts of organic matter and iron sulfides may
develop.
Such systems appear to result from (1) a sediment
source rich in mud, (2) a very low river gradient, and
(3) a seasonal water budget. To accumulate and pre-
serve anastomosed river deposits of some thickness, a
very low gradient in a subsiding basin has to be main-
tained for considerable time. This mechanism is possi-
ble in various tectonic basin settings, but foreland bas-
ins seem to be particularly well suited for the forma-
tion of anastomosed river sediments.
In contrast to the braided and meandering river sys-
tems, anastomosed rivers and their deposits are known
only from a limited number of recent and ancient ex-
amples.
Modern examples of anastomosed rivers have been described
from western Canada and central Australia (e.g. Smith 1983;
Rust and Legun 1983; Rust and Nanson 1989; Nadon 1994;
Gibling et al. 1998).
In the ancient record, one can expect that anastomosed
river systems are often associated with coal seams generated
in low-gradient alluvial plains. Dense vegetation favors soi!
formation and hampers erosion. Thus, the supply of sand and
coarser grained material to the river system is reduced.
Mud-dominated low-gradient rivers are, in contrast
to anastomosed rivers, characterized by mud-rich chan-
nel fills, apart from muddy overbank fines. These
braided or meandering river systems occur in areas of
very low relief with seasonally or perennially hot, dry
climates and deeply weathered clayey soils. In these
cases, the mud occurs in sand-sized pedogenic aggre-
gates, which originate from desiccation at the land sur-
face and on the channel floors during dry periods.
Bioturbation and vegetation within the channels may
47
aid in the generation of aggregates. The aggregates are
transported by running water like sand or small peb-
bles as bed (or traction) load over long distances.
Such conditions are found in the present-day arid to semi-
arid Lake Eyre Basin in Australia, where the deposits ofthe
Cooper and Diamantina Rivers consist predominantly of
muddy material (e.g. Gibling et al. 1998).
The clay content ofthe aggregates may surpass 50%, the
rest being silt and sand-sized particles. As long as the clay
aggregates are moist and exposed to the air, they stick to-
gether. After drying, they form micro-cracks and can be
eroded by running water, in which the aggregates are kept
separate and are remarkably durable, even under upper flow
conditions. Finally, they form porous channel fills simi!ar to
sand bars and replace sandy point bars and lateral
accretionary complexes. After burial and compaction, the
aggregate texture of the muds can be obscured or entirely
destroyed. Floodplain muds tend to be converted to vertisols
(cf. Sect. 9.1.2) displaying desiccation cracks and pedogenic
carbonate or gypsum.
Such mud-dominated river systems are probably present
more frequently in the ancient record than identified so far.
It is likely that a number of red and varicolored claystones
were deposited in this manner. To identify them, a careful
study of their texture and sedimentary structures is necessary.
Muddy river bedloads can also originate from the weath-
ering and erosion of over-consolidated claystones and
mudstones in various climates (cf. Sect. 9.1). In these cases,
sand and gravel-sized lithoclasts can constitute a major part
of the bedload, but these are commonly accompanied by hard
coarse-grained material.
2.2.7 Large-Scale Lateral and Vertical Fluvial
Facies Associations
The cross sections of Figures 2.19 show generalized
large-scale vertical and lateral facies associations of
different fluvial systems. All examples represent sedi-
ments of wide floodplains which are composed of sev-
eral contemporaneous, individual fluvial systems. The
axes of these systems coincide with the centers of the
broad sand beIts including levee and crevasse splay
sands, while the regions between the sand bodies are
occupied by the sediments of floodplains, smaller
channels and lakes. The character of the individual
fluvial deposits varies between braided bedload and
meandering mixed-load systems. The core of a sandy
braided river deposit consists of wide, amalgamated,
vertically stacked, sandy and conglomeratic channel
fills and finer-grained, sandy-silty sheet splay units
(Fig. 2.19b). These grade laterally into interbedded
floodplain deposits punctuated locally by isolated
channel fills.
Figure 2.19a,b shows a cross section ofthe Cenozoic alluvial
coastal plain in Texas (Galloway 1981). Fluvial sheet sand-
stones similar to those in Texas have been described from
many other regions (Miall 1996), e.g. from the Eocene in the
South Pyrenees, Spain (Marzo et al. 1988).
48 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

INDIVIDUAL FLUVIAL SYSTEMS

a FLOODPLAIN, SMALL CHANNELS
AND LAKE DEPOSITS

± UNIFORM SAND/ MUD RATIO UPWARD DECREASE IN SAND / MUD RATIO

I "'-
I "-
I "'-
I "'-
"'-
I "-
I "'- "-
I "'-

/
/
I
b "-
"-
"-
"-
"-
"-

2 ~@'2
MUD TO PEBBLY SAND TO SAND
CLAY SANDY GRAVEL

c
SIMULTANEOUS AGGRADATION
CHANNEL FILL, LEVEE AND PEAT OF CHANNEL AND INTERCHANNEL
CREVASSE SPLAY SANDS AND SILTS (LATER COAL) DEPOSITS

........"::..;: ....... :::-

, .. -, -.,'-. '''::::::::::.

~ 1aOOm -----i
FLOODPLÄIN
LACUSTRINE MARL OR INCISED
LIMESTONE, ± FOSSILS CHANNEL SILTS AND CLAY

Fig. 2.19. Large-scale cross sections of fluvial sys-
tems. a Generalized cross section of Cenozoic
coastal plain, Texas, demonstrating the major
depositional elements. b Close-up of a displaying
bedload river deposits which form a wide sand belt.
(After Galloway 1981). c Idealized channel and
interchannel-backswamp-Iake deposits of a mixed-
load meandering system. (Based on Flores 1981;
Galloway and Hobday 1983). See text for further
explanation
2.2 Fluvial Sediments
In cross-sections of a meandering system, the
interchannel floodplain deposits predominate and
make up the majority of the basin fill. Coal, carbona-
ceous shales and some freshwater limestones accumu-
late in poorly drained backswamps or lakes. Channel
sands are accompanied by levee and crevasse splay
sands. Aggradation of channel fills and floodplain de-
posits occurs either simultaneously {rapidly subsiding
flood basin), or the channels cut into pre-existing flu-
vial sediments.
Immediately after deposition and under the load ofyounger
sediments, these deposits are affected bydifferential compac-
tion (cf. Sect. 13.2). This process leads to considerable defor-
mation of fine-grained floodplain deposits and coal seams
near the channel fills, which themselves are little compacted.
Because compaction begins early in interchannel areas, peat
and subsequent coal seams may become thicker there than
near the channels, where they frequently split up into several
thin bands before pinching out (Fig. 2.19c).
The rate of vertical aggradation is a major factor con-
trolling the total fluvial system. High rates are associ-
ated with abundant supplies of suspended load and
substantial subsidence. They tend to generate vertical
stacking of the channel deposits (point bars, etc., in-
cluding relatively good preservation oflevee deposits,
see Figs. 2.8 and 2.19c). The contrary situation, how-
ever, leads to pronounced channel migration, lateral
stacking of channel deposits, and hence more rework-
ing and removal ofthe levee and floodplain sediments.
The sedimentation rate of floodplain deposits in
terms of vertical upbuilding varies greatly. Some val-
ues mentioned in the literature are in the order of one
to several meters per thousand years (cf. Sect. 10.2).
Finally, we consider the evolution of river systems
from their upper reaches in mountain ranges to low-
lands or to the sea (Fig. 2.20). Along the river courses,
fluvial sediments of some thickness accumulate and
are preserved only in subsiding regions, whereas in
between the river solely acts as transport system. The
gradient of the main channel of a fluvial system tends
to decrease systematically downstream. Thus, a com-
plete idcalized system would include an alluvial fan
(steepest gradient) evolving to a braided stream, then
to a meandering and possibly anastomosing system
(lowest gradient; cf. Fig. 2.15). As part of this evolu-
tion, the bulk of the sediments becomes finer down-
stream where floodplain deposits predominate over
channel fiUs.
However, the rock types and climate in the hinter-
land also strongly control this evolution. The mineral-
ogical composition of fluvial sands, for example, de-
pends on both the nature ofthe source rocks and on the
climate and its change.
The mineralogie al composition of sands and sands tones and
thc degree of their "maturity" is frequently expressed in
quartz/feldspar/rock fragment percentages plotted in triangu-
49
lar diagrams (e.g. Pettijohn et al. 1987; Girty et al. 1988;
Bahlburg and Floyd 1999). If fluvial sandstones have not
been subjected to subsequent significant metamorphism,
such diagrams may be used as indicators ofthe paleoclimate
(e.g., Basu 1985; Suttner and Dutta 1986). Provided that the
petrographie composition of the source rocks was more or
less constant over a 10ng period of time, high feldspar and
rock fragment contents reflect an arid paleoclimate, while a
relative enrichment in chemically stable quartz indicates
warm and wet paleoenvironmental conditions. However,
high relief in thc source area diminishes the intluence of cli-
mate on the composition of sands, unless they have been ex-
posed to extended weathering during alluvial storage
(Johnsson 1990). Other criteria, such as the varieties of'
quartz present, may serve to identifY different source areas.
Humid climates and abundant vegetation in the source
areas generally favor the formation of clay minerals and their
enrichment in fluvial deposits (cf. Chap. 9).
The influence ofthe tectonic and climatic history on an
entire fluvial system is demonstrated by the idealized
example in Fig. 2.20. It shows the large-scale lateral
and vertical facies changes in a subsiding montane ba-
sin and on a sediment-aggrading coastal plain. The
montane basin generally receives sediments from sev-
eral small and medium local sources, indicated by
strongly differing transport directions and material of
possibly greatly varying composition. In contrast,
coastal plains are fed by a limited number of large
point sources, distributing their granulometricaUy and
compositionally mixed sediment load in a fan-like
fashion. This is accomplished by frequent changes in
river course (avulsion) over the plain with the aim to
evenly aggrade the depositional surface. The variation
in mean transport directions of such a radiating distri-
bution system is much less than that of the montane
basin. Humid phases tend to provide more fine-
grained, quartz-rich material to the fluvial system (Fig.
2.20a, Stage 2) than do arid phases. Particularly in
combination with lowered relief and decreasing stream
gradient, such conditions favor mixed-load and pre-
dominantly suspended-load meandering and
anastomosing systems (Fig. 2.20b). High groundwater
levels may generate interchannel swamps and lakes.
This is only one of many other feasible tectonic,
climatic, and depositional scenarios realized in nature.
The above-mentioned general rules may be used to
identify the nature and facies associations of other flu-
vial systems differing from this example.
2.2.8 Reservoir Properties of Fluvial Sediments
Fluvial sediments frequently provide important reser-
voirs for groundwater and hydrocarbons (see, e.g.,
summary in Miall 1996). In this respect, the size and
geometry of sand and sandstone bodies (e.g. clastic
wedges, vaUey fiUs, ribbon and sheet sands) as weU as
their association with other sediment types (i.e. their
tectonic setting) are of major interest.
50
ACTIVE FAULTING
ALLUVIAL FAN DEPOSITS
BRAIDED RIVER (BED-LOAD) DEP.
MEANDERING RIVER (MIXED -LOAD) DEP.
MEAND. RIVER (MAINLY SUSPENDED LOAD)
Fig. 2.20. Evolution (Stages 1-4) of depositional flu-
via I systems. a Active faulting maintains high relief
during either semi-arid (1,3) or humid c1imates (2).
Stages 1 and 3 are characterized by extensive alluvial
fans in the montane basin, as weil as braided bedload
rivers and meandering mixed-load rivers on the
coastal plain. Stage 2 displays a predominance of
mixed-load and suspended-Ioad meandering rivers on
In an unconsolidated state, the porosities and
permeabilities of the different architectural elements
discussed in Sects. 2.2.3 and 2.2.4 vary by about five
orders of magnitude. Sandy channel fills and channel
belts commonly have hydraulic conductivities of 10.6
to 10.4 m/s (~0.1 to 10 m/d) or permeabilities of 100 to
10000 md (millidarcy) and porosities of 15% to 30%
(e.g. Ramon and Cross 1997). Even higher values are
reached in trough cross-bedded coarse sands and in
gravelly fills of scour pools at the base of individual
channels and channel confluences (e.g. Siegenthaler
and Huggenberger 1993). Especially the permeabilities
markedly decrease upward in section to the next scour
base.
The hydraulic conductivities and effectiveporosities
of flood plain deposits are much lower than those of
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
CHANGING RIVER
COURSE
the coastal plain and fewer fan deposits. b Waning
tectonic aCt!vity, lowered relief, and widespread veg-
etation (4) reduce the significance of braided streams
and lead to extensive fine-grained floodplain deposits
of meandering and anastomosing systems, including
interchannellake deposits and peat. Note the various
vertical trends at different locations
the channels fills. Intermediate values (10. 7 to 10.9 m/s)
ofhydraulic conductivity display levees and fine sands
of the flood plain, whereas overbank silts and muds
range from 10.8 to 10. 11 m/s.
The reservoir properties are best in laterally continu-
ous amalgamated channel deposits (gravel and sand)
formed during periods, in which the sediment accom-
modation space was low but sediment supply relatively
high. Under these conditions, most ofthe fine-grained
material is sorted out and carried downstream.
In lithified and semi-lithified channel sandstones,
both the permeabilities and effective porosities are
greatly reduced. Then, fractures act as main conduits
for fluid flow.
2.2 Fluvial Sediments
2.2.9 Summary (Fluvial Sediments etc.)
~ Fluvial deposits displaya variety of large-scale
architectural elements, including channel fills
and overbank fines.
~ The channel fills consist of bedload (gravel and
sand bars), lateral accretion complexes, and sus-
pended load (mud).
Three-dimensional channel geometries and
grain-size distributions show a distinct trend
from proximal (alluvial fans) to distal regions
(meandering and anastomosing rivers).
51
~ Low or strong subsidence (base-level change) is
reflected by lateral or vertical stacking of chan-
nels (cf. Sect. 7.7).
- Minor bed forms and sedimentary structures,
commonly observed in small outcrops, reveal
the temporally and spatially changing flow re-
gimes characterizing fluvial environments.
2 Continental Sediments
2.3 Eolian Sediments
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Source, Migration, and Specific Properties of
Eolian Sands
Sand Sources
Composition of Sand
Color of Eolian Sands
Transport and Texture ofEolian Sands
2.3.3 Bed Forms and Sedimentary Structures of
Eolian Dunes
Inland Dunes
Sedimentary Structures of Inland Dunes
Coastal Dunes
2.3.4 Large-Scale Facies Associations ofEolian Sands
Interaction with Fluvial and Playa Sediments
Thickness of Eolian Sands
Interaction with Shallow-Marine Sediments
2.3.5 Distinctive Features ofEolian Sandstones
(Summary)
2.3.6 Clay Dunes
2.3.7 Eolian Dust, Loess
General Aspects
Dust Deposition
Pleistocene Loess
2.3.8 Remarks to Ancient Eolian Sediments
2.3.9 Summary (Eolian Sediments)
2.3.1 Introduction
Eolian sediments are deposited under the direct influ-
ence of wind without the influence of running or
standing water. They therefore exhibit primary fea-
tures typical of eolian environments. Various other
types of sediments may contain considerable
amounts of wind-blown dust and sand, but they ulti-
mately accumulated in fluvial or subaquatic environ-
ments. Well-known examples of these non-eolian
sediments form on floodplains of desert rivers, in
coastal areas, and even deep-sea muds may contain
significant proportions of air-borne dust.
Ancient eolian sediments have been understood by
geologists for a long time, because their accumula-
tion can be readily observed in the present-day
deserts.
Numerous articles and most textbooks on physical and
sedlmentary geology present descriptions of eolian pro-
ces ses and sediments (e.g., Bigarella 1972; McKee 1979;
Blatt et al. 1980; Galloway and Hobday 1983; Chorley et
al. 1984; Frostick 1987; Pettijohn et al. 1987; Pye and Lan-
caster 1993; Nickling 1994; Kocurek 1996). Climatic as-
pects and shifting of desert belts are dealt with, e.g., by
Leinen and Samthein (1989), Lancaster (1990), Goudie
and Wells (1995). Specific topics such as sorting, sedimen-
tary structures, and reddening of eolian sand are addressed,
e.g., by (Folk 1971), Hunter (1981), Collinson and Thomp-
son (1982), Wopfner and Twidale (1988). Interactions of
eolian and fluvial deposits are described, e.g., by Langford
(1989), Langford and Chan (1989) and many others.
The medium of transport of eolian sediments is the
atmosphere. Planets or moons without an atmosphere
are devoid of eolian processes and sediment, but
even a very thin atmosphere such as that on Mars is
sufficient to produce sand dunes. Deserts constitute
about 20% of the present-day land surface of the
Earth, but only 20% to 45% of the area classified as
arid is covered by "sand seas" (ergs).
The major part of deserts comprises highlands, stony
plains, alluvial fans, and closed depressions (pans
and playas). Many of these depressions have been
formed by the combined action of salt weathering
and eolian deflation (Fig. 2.2la).
Deserts range from low-latitude, hot and arid re-
gions within the zones of trade winds and monsoons
to cold and dry polar regions. Prominent deserts oc-
cur along the western margins of continents which
are affected by cold ocean currents. Furthermore,
land-locked continental interiors, particularly on the
leeward side of the principle wind directions, may
acquire the characteristics of deserts. Beaches with
high sand supply can cause dune fields of limited
extent under various climatic conditions.
Winds are an effective agent for taking up and trans-
porting fine to medium-grained, unconsolidated ma-
terials, if the sediment particles do not adhere to each
other, for example by moisture. Hence, the land sur-
face must be dry and not be protected by vegetation.
Fine silt is whirled up and kept in suspension as long
as the turbulence of the air is sufficiently high to
counteract the settling of particles by gravity (Fig.
2.21). Thus, silt may travel from desert areas over
distances of tens to several hundreds to a thousand
kilometers and reach vegetated land. The larger and
heavier sand grains move near the land surface by
saltation, and therefore migrate much more slowly
than dust. Both dust and sand can, in contrast to flu-
2.3 Eolian Sediments 53

," , JI
:" l~
a
LAYERED ROCK
:
DUST IN
SILT SIZE PARTICLE :/"'.J SUSPENSION
!

GRAVEL TRANS-
PORT

~
PLANE BED
LAMINATION
WIND
DIRECTIONS

b
.,.
I
I UP TO SEVERAL ..
UP TO 1000's km
SEVERAL 100's
TO 1000's m

---+
UP TO SEVERAL
10's km

t
SALTATION
< MODIFIED SALTATION

\
(70-100 flm)

> 500,um 70· 500 )Jm LAND SURFACE

Fig. 2.21. a Various modes of eolian transport of silt, (e.g., in interdune areas, as shown in Fig. 2.22a). b
sand, and gravel; specific features of desert surfaces Modes and distance of eolian particle transport by
including wind abrasion and deflation. Bed forms are moderate storms (wind velocities of 10 to 20 cmls) in
typical of flat surface with limited sand accumulation relation to grain sizes. (After Pye 1987)

vial transport, also migrate upslope, and their move- the dominant wind pattern of the region in the time
ment is not channelized by valleys. Particularly dust period studied.
can easily overcome hilly and mountainous regions
and settle far away from its source area. Thus, eolian
sediments are less controlled by topography than
most other types of deposits. Eolian sediments record
54
2.3.2 Source, Migration, and Specific Properties
of Eolian Sands
Sand Sources
Various sources supply wind-blown sand:
- Fluvial sands of alluvial fans, ephemeral streams
and flood plains which fall dry part of the year or
longer periods.
- Coastal sands of mixed origin inc1uding biogenic
components.
- Weathering of older sandstones inc1uding former
dune sands.
- Weathering of plutonic and metamorphic rocks.
- Sand-sized silt-c1ay aggregates inc1uding salt parti-
cles from deflation pans and playa lakes.
Composition of Sand
Because eolian sands may be derived from different
sources, their composition varies considerably. Many
present-day sand dunes are, however, minera~ogica~ly
fairly mature, i.e., they represent quartz aremtes wlth
minor amounts of feldspar and other weatherable
silicate phases. The thin, platy minerals of mica are
usually rare in eolian sands, because they behave dif-
ferently during air transport than the other, more
compact mineral grains. At first glance, the predomi-
nance of quartz is somewhat surprising because
chemical weathering in arid regions is limited (cf.
Sect. 9.1) and therefore cannot account for the ad-
vanced maturity of most of the desert sands. The rea-
son for the minor importance of immature sands is
that many dune sands are not derived from nearby
sources of the desert region itself, but are transported
by rivers from areas of more intensive weathering
into the desert. In other cases, the sands are recyc1ed
from older, more or less mature sandstones. Coastal
sand dunes composed of carbonate grains or special
dune fields consisting of gypsum grains are fed by
nearby primary sources. Their potential for being
preserved in the geologic record or to become recy-
c1ed is limited.
Color of Eolian Sands
Many recent sand dunes are yellow, light-brown or
reddish in color which is caused by iron hydroxide
impurities, for example limonite on the surface of the
sand grains. Ancient eolian sandstones are commonly
red-colored. The hematite pigmentation of these
rocks usually results from the decomposition of un-
stable, iron-bearing minerals during diagenesis (cf.
Sect. 6.3). The reddening commonly increases with
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
the age of the sands. In the Australian dune fields,
the dunes farthest away from the source area exhibit
the most intensive reddening.
Transport and Texture of Eolian Sands
The capacity of winds to transport solid particles of.a
density similar to that of quartz (2.65 g/cm3) IS
mostly limited to fine and medium sand (grain diam~­
ter 0.125 to 0.5 mm). These size fractions predorm-
nate in coastal sand dunes (mainly fine sand) and
inland sand seas (fine to medium sands). Only very
strong storms (wind velo city on the order of 20 to 30
m/s) can slowly move pebbles and gravel by creep.
These particles are too coarse to be lifted and there-
fore roll along the surface where they suffer impacts
by saltating sand grains. Silt size partic1es, on the
other hand, are transported very fast (Fig. 2.21; cf.
Sect. 2.3.7) and thus sorted out from sand. Hence,
wind is principally very effective in producing and
accumulating well-sorted sands.
Sorting of sand in eolian dunes and particularly in
interdune areas may, however, be also poor. Each
individual storm event can move a certain population
of grain sizes. Thus, sand beds originating from a
number of storms of varying intensity tend to be less
sorted than individual sand laminae. Relatively fine-
grained and very well sorted sand is typically found
in coastal dunes, consisting of pre-sorted beach sand,
and on the crests of large inland dunes. Coarser and
less sorted sand is characteristic of dune flanks and
interdune areas.
Due to saltation transport and continued grain im-
pacts, eolian sands become better rounded th~n sands
accumulating in any other environment, but In many
sand dunes not all of the grains are well rounded.
Generally, smaller grains remain angular longer than
larger ones. The grain surface of young eolian sands
commonly displays frosting and small pits cau~ed ?y
grain impacts. Older eolian sands often lose thls dls-
tinctive criterion due to diagenetic overgrowth and
cementation ofthe pore space (cf. Sect. 13.3).
Wind-blown sands travel with varying velocities.
Sand blown over a flat and smooth surface migrates
fast. As soon as the sand has to overcome obstac1es
of some size and elevation, it tends to settle on the
leeside. The migration of total dune bodies is much
slower than that of single grains. It is a function of
the dune size and sand volume. Small dunes such as
isolated barchans (see below) move relatively fast
(several tens of meters per year), while large sand
dunes and sand seas are fairly stable.
In the trade wind belt of the western Sahara, for example,
the position ofbarchan dunes was repeatedly photographed
from the air, because a railway transporting iron ore from
inland to the coast was endangered by sand dunes. Isolated
dunes migrate with a mean velocity, c, of approximately
2.3 Eolian Sediments
c=3001H (mla) , where H is the height of the dunes mea-
sured in meters (mean value of H=9 m, Samthein and
Walger 1974). In a cross-section perpendicular to the dom-
inating wind direction, a sand volume of approximately
200 m1/a per 1 km width is transported in the form ofbar-
chan dunes seaward to the West African coast. However,
sand drift on flat bottom is significantly more effective for
transporting sand (on the order of 50 000 m l/a per km
width) in this region.
These values indicate that large volumes of sand reach
the coast !ine and the sea in this region. The giant draas of
large sand seas, on the other hand, mi grate at rates as slow
as 1 to 2 cmla.
2.3.3 Bed Forms and Sedimentary Structures
of Eolian Dunes
Inland Dunes
Accumulating eolian sand generates specific bed
forms which are found more or less in all deserts. As
long as the climate is sufficiently arid (precipitation
less than 100 to 150 mmla), vegetation on sand is
virtually absent and the eolian bed forms are mobile.
Dry, sandy bed forms move, but more or less main-
tain their shape. The barchan dunes with their two
horns pointing downwind (Fig. 2.22a) represent a
typical example of this behavior. They lose sand on
the windward side and add about the same amount of
sand on the leeside. The dune migrates by this pro-
cess, but only slowly changes its shape and volume.
Eolian bed forms occur in various shapes and
sizes. Here, only the most important types can be
mentioned. The smallest features are wind ripples on
flat ground (Fig. 2.2Ia). They display a high
lengthlheight ratio (ripple index ~ 15) and commonly
consist of medium to coarse sand, because the finer
sand is sorted out and accumulated in larger dunes.
The largest grains of wind ripples, possibly including
pebble-size grains and heavy minerals, are concen-
trated along ripple crests. Crossbedding is frequentIy
indistinct. These ripples may alternate with plane or
low-angle bedded sand forming thin, sheet-like sand
bodies around the margins of dune fields or
interdune areas (see below). Climbing ripples which
occur on the inclined surfaces of all types of large
dunes are widespread (Fig. 2.22a). They consist of
fine sand, and their direction of migration (perpen-
dicular to the ripple crests) frequentIy deviates from
the dominant wind direction controlling the move-
ment of larger dunes.
The large dunes tend to be oriented either parallel
(longitudinal) or transverse to the prevailing wind
direction (Fig. 2.22a). Many forms, such as the bar-
chan dunes, however, exhibit transverse (the center
of the barchans) and longitudinal components (the
horns). The less elevated horns migrate faster than
the higher center of the dune. Isolated barchans de-
55
velop in areas of limited sand supply at the edge of
larger sand seas. They may be arranged in longitudi-
nal or oblique chains. As a result of growing size and
diminishing space between the barchan dunes, these
may pass into more straight-crested transverse dunes.
Parabolic dunes are mainly known from coastal re-
gions and periglacial environments. In contrast to the
barchans, the lower arms of the parabolic dunes tend
to stick to the moist andlor vegetated ground, while
the higher, central part of the dune migrates or is par-
tially blown away.
Longitudinal sand ridges or seif dunes are the
most widespread form in the present-day deserts, for
example in Australia, but their preservation potential
in the ancient record is presumably limited. Seif
dunes develop parallel or subparallel to the dominant
wind or the resultant of two wind directions (Fig.
2.22a). They grow downwind and tend to be spaced
at equal intervals (often 100 to 300 m). Some oftheir
sand may be derived from their interdune areas from
where it is transported by side winds or so-called
helicoidal flow processes to the dune. Seif dunes typ-
ically reach several tens of kilometers in length and
are 10 to 30 m high.
The largest eolian sand bodies are draas, i.e., elon-
gate sandy hills of considerable height (up to several
hundreds of meters) and wide spacing (some kilome-
ters). They are typical representatives of giant sand
seas. Because draas eonstitute huge volumes of sand,
they move very slowly and rcquire long time periods
to form (on the order of at least 0.1 Ma). Draas may
be regarded as complex dunes resulting from the co-
alescence and growing together of other dune types.
A special feature of draas are the so-called star dunes
or rhourds (Fig. 2.22a) with high central peaks and
radiating arms reflecting multidirectional wind pat-
terns.
Sedimentary Structures of Inland Dunes
Eolian sands display various large and small-scale
sedimentary structures. The most conspieuous fea-
tures are large-scale planar cross beds which charac-
terize transverse dunes and thc central parts of bar-
chans (Fig. 2.22b), but also occur in the other dune
types. The cross beds develop on the lee-side of the
dune crests and dip at angles around 30 degrees. In
the case of trans verse and barchan dunes, their strike
is approximately perpendicular to the dominant wind
direction. The fore sets of the planar cross beds result
from two different processes (Fig. 2.22b):
- Grain fall of sand particles blown over the dune
crest blankets the lee slope. The angle of dip of these
mostly thin, grain-falliaminae is 28 degrees or less.
- A valanching sand flows on steeper slopes create
thicker, irregular foresets. This process is favored by
56 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

a
PREVAILING WIND
DIRECTION
~ PARABOLIC DUNES

LUNETTE

LONGITUDINAL
SEIF DUNES
RELATIVE VELOCITIES OF SAND MOVEMENT
ON FlAT SURFACE AND MIGRATION OF BARCHANS

WIND REVERSAl
UNDERCUTTING OF
PRODUCES CLiMBING LEE-SIDE SLOPE
RIPPLES, OR PARTIAL REWOAKING
OF SLOPE AND RIPPLES ON QUNE CREST GRAIN FALL LAMINATION

c d
EROSION OF PROGRADING
MAJOR PART NEW DUNE
OF OLDER DUNE
\ ;;.;::-._-------
F'-_.~-\- ~~~~,~?:-
. . '''~.:..::;?"!/~" I
~~~" ;....-
- ' ~

OLDER
TAUN CATION
SURFACE
2.3 Eolian Sediments
occasional rain falls providing an additional load to
the normally dry sand. Due to its moisture content,
the avalanching sand gains some cohesion and may
break up into small blocks or display contortions.
These features are distinctive for eolian sands, be-
cause loose sand under water cannot develop such
structures. The slip planes of the sand flows are in-
clined up to about 35 degrees.
- Several minor features may be superimposed on the
dominant, large-scale cross beds (Fig. 2.22b). Climb-
ing ripples caused by various wind directions migrate
with the dominant wind to the dune crest and provide
sand for grain fall lamination and sand flow foresets.
Additional climbing ripples result from aerodynamic
eddies behind the dune crest or from wind reversals.
They move upward on the lower leeside slope of the
dune and create a characteristic type of cross-bedding
which is frequently preserved in ancient eolian sand-
stones. Further climbing ripples of differing orienta-
tion can develop on both the windward and leeside
slope of the dune. Overall, climbing ripple stratifica-
tion can distinctly contribute to the structures of
large-scale bed forms. Strong wind reversals may
blow away sand on the lee-slope and allow sand ac-
cumulation on the gentIer windward side of the dune.
An interdune area which is overridden by trans verse
or barchan dunes thus typically exhibits the follow-
ing vertical succession of structures (from top to bot-
tom):
Climbing ripple larnination and plane bed lamina-
tion near the dune crest.
Laige-scale fore sets of grain-fall lamination and
sand flow.
Wind-ripple bedding and parallel to sub- parallel
laminae sticking to the flat ground due to adhesion
caused by soil moisture and sparse vegetation (ad-
hesion ripples, adhesion laminae).
In places: lag sediment (desert pavement) where
sand and dust is blown away.
This dune sequence is commonly incomplete in the
ancient record for two reasons. (1) A migrating dune
can truncate its own deposits such that only the low-
ermost part of the dune is preserved. (2) Large dune
fields may be eroded by wind action down to the cap-
illary fringe of the (climatically fluctuating) ground-
Fig. 2.22. a Most important dune forms in relation to
prevailing wind directions. From right to left increase
in sand supply and volume of sand accumulation, but
decrease in the velocity of dune migration. Playa lake
provides sand-size clay aggregates, carbonate, and
evaporites (e.g. gypsum) which make up part of the
neighboring dunes. (Based on various sources, e.g.,
Cooke and Warren 1973; McKee 1979). b Large
transverse or barchan dune with unidirectional grain-
57
water table, where the sand is stabilized by adhesion
(Fig. 2.22d). In this case, widely extended, approxi-
mately horizontal truncation surfaces are generated
("Stokes" surfaces, cf. Sect. 7.7.3). Particularly the
dip of the preserved large-scale cross beds is used to
deterrnine paleo-wind directions and to identify the
former dune type. Transverse dunes show the least
scatter of wind directions, whereas longitudinal
dunes tend to display a bimodal distribution of paleo-
wind pattern (see below).
The sedimentary structures of longitudinal dunes
and draas are complex as a result of more than one
dominant wind direction and the coalescence of dif-
ferent basic dune types to these sand bodies. Our
knowledge about the structures of compound dunes
is limited, because it is difficult to study these phe-
nomena in recent examples consisting of dry loose
sand. Longitudinal dunes commonly exhibit two or
three large-scale cross beds dipping laterally from the
dune crest (Fig. 2.22b). Frequently, the upper part of
these foresets is truncated by subsequent lateral wind
action. In this manner, typical wedge-shaped planar
cross beds are generated. In addition, these dunes
may develop all the minor features previously men-
tioned for barchan and transverse dunes. However,
only the lowermost portions of the dune, if any, are
normally preserved. The huge draas and star dunes
are assumed to produce particularly thick sets of
cross beds (up to several tens of meters in height)
which are also known from ancient eolian sand-
stones.
Finally it should be mentioned that eolian sands
may display the imprints of rain drops and various
biogenic structures. Burrows and traces of small ani-
mals, particularly arthro- pods, and molds of plant
roots an: common in present-day examples, and they
were frequently found in ancient eolian sandstones.
Even footprints of large animals were found in such
rocks.
Coastal Dunes
Coastal sand dunes normally do not reach the same
large extent as many inland sand seas. They develop
along both arid and humid coast lines. Their sand is
derived from the beach zone and blown inland by
prevailing onshore winds (Fig. 2.23a). In humid re-
fall lamination and sand-flow cross bedding, super-
imposed by small-scale climbing ripple lamination
caused by various subordinate, wind directions.
(Modified from Hunter 1981). c Hypothetical cross
section of longitudinal dune. (After McKee 1979).
d Truncation of older dune at capillary fringe of
groundwater table and prograding new dune over
erosion surface
58
gions, the interdune and backdune areas are covered
by vegetation and the inland migrating sand is soon
trapped and stabilized by moist soils and plants. In
arid regions, the coastal sand can travel far inland,
produce a broad dune belt, and contribute to the for-
mation of large, interior sand seas.
The dune types of coastal sands are principally the
same as those ofthe interior deserts. Many coasts are
characterized by a narrow longitudinal sand ridge of
considerable thickness (mostly up to several tens of
meters). Where the coastal sand ridge is blown away,
transverse, barchanoid, and parabolic dunes may fol-
low farther inland, but it is hardly possible to estab-
lish a general rule for the succession of special dune
types. In the more arid zones, barchan dune fields
originating from the coastal sands may pass landward
into large transverse and longitudinal dunes.
The internal structures of coastal dunes resemble
those of inland desert dunes, but tend to be more
complex. They may be affected by storm-wave ero-
sion and flooding of their interdune areas, and locally
they interfinger with fluvial, lake and lagoonal de-
posits. Dunes along arid co asts often alternate with
coastal sabkhas and may prograde over supratidal
algal mats and salt crusts. In more humid climates,
root horizons and generation of soils may alter the
primary structures and facies of the sands.
Coastal dune sands frequently contain consider-
able amounts of bioclastic carbonate, or they consist
entirely of carbonate sand derived from various ma-
rine organisms. Such sands are readily stabilized due
to the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonate
near their surface.
Early lithification of carbonate-bearing eolian dunes is
known, for example, from the southem coast of the Medi-
terranean, from Florida and the Bahamas, or from southem
Australia, where several chains of Quatemary dunes are
aligned parallel to a prograding coast. The older the dunes,
the more they are cemented by carbonate and thus gain a
high preservation potential and protection against trunca-
tion, as shown in Fig. 2.22d (see also, e.g., McKee and
Ward 1983).
2.3.4 Large-Scale Facies Associations
with Eolian Sands
Interaction with Fluvial and Playa Sediments
Continental eolian sands may alternate laterally and
vertically with deposits of marginal desert and fluvial
environments. Sand dunes often overlie alluvial fans,
fluvial deposits, or playa sediments and frequently
pass laterally into such sediments deposited in the
interdune or marginal dune areas (Fig. 2.23a; cf.
Sect. 7.7.3). Fluvial flow in interdune areas erodes
dunes, but mayaiso contribute to the preservation of
basal portions of the sand dunes when both fluvial
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
and eolian aggradation occur successively. Then,
fluvial channel and overbank-interdune deposits may
form elongate, lenticular bodies in between eolian
dunes.
Flooding of interdune areas can create ephemeral
lakes. The lateral interfingering of eolian sands and
interdune calcareous or siliceous lake sediments in
Pleistocene and older sediments is mostly ascribed to
a change to a wetter climate (Fig. 2.23a). Then the
mobile sand dunes are stabilized to some extent by
vegetation and soil formation. During the subsequent
geologic development, however, the higher portions
of the dunes te nd to become eroded by fluvial action.
Thus, in a normally subsiding continental basin, the
thickness ofthe eolian sands preserved is limited.
In some regions, volcanic ash falls are intercalated in
eolian sandstones without any indication of fluvial trans-
port. This situation was observed, for example, in Permian
eolian sandstones of Argentina (Limarino and Spaletti
1986).
Thickness of Eolian Sands
Eolian sands of the modem large sand seas com-
monly attain thicknesses of several tens to a few hun-
dreds of meters. The average sand thicknesses of
widely extended longitudinal dune fields is usually in
the order of 10 to 20 m.
This is the case, for example, in Australia. One has to con-
sider, however, that these dunes accumulated in the rela-
tively short time period of approximately 30 ka (Wasson
1986; Wopfuer and Twidale 1988). These and many other
modem occurrences of eolian sand are affected signifi-
cantly by the shift of climatic belts during the Pleistocene.
These shifts diminished rather than enhanced the accumu-
lation of large volumes of eolian sand, because great pro-
portions of the older sands were repeatedly redistributed by
fluvial processes and deposited in other environments, in-
cluding coastal areas.
Some ancient examples of eolian sediments exhibit
very thick sequences of wind-blown sand. In Europe,
Permian sandstones (Rotliegend) mostly have a
thickness up to a few hundreds of meters, but locally
they reach more than 1000 m, probably due to accen-
tuated synsedimentary subsidence. The Mesozoic
Navajo sandstone ofNorth America and eolian sand-
stones in China attain several hundred meters in
thickness.
Interaction with Shallow-Marine Sediments
Eolian sands mayaiso interact with coastal and
shallow-marine sediments. In the case of dominant
offshore winds as, for example, along the western
margin of the Sahara desert in Africa, sand dunes,
 tJ
2.3 Eolian Sediments 59

a DOMINANT WIND
DIRECTION
:tHYPERSALINE BAY WITH
TlDAL AND SUPRA-TIDAL
SED. AND COASTAL SABKHAS
IN WETTER PERIODS:
LAKES AND INTERDUNE
FLUVIAL ACTIVITY
MIGRATION OF SEAWARD PRO·
EOLIAN SAND GRADING SANDY
OVER EMERGED COASTAL BELT
SHELF (LOW (HIGH SEA LEVEL)
SEA LEVEL)

SHALLOW -MARINE
SEDIMENTS (E.G.
SANDY CARBONATES) , COASTAL AND SHALLOW·
EDGE HIGHEST Sj:A LEVEL MARINE SANDS

b
VEGETATION ;DLDER COASTAl DUNES, PRESERVED DUE TO
RAPID CARBONATE CEMENTATION

..

SAND DUNES ON
EMERGED SHELF
DURING LOW SEA L L
MIGRATING SAND

Fig. 2.23. a Interaction between seaward migrating
eolian sands and marine processes including relative
sea-level changes. In interdune areas, lakes or fluvial
systems may develop. (Mainly based on Samthein
and Diester-Haass 1977; Schwarz et al. 1975; Einseie
et al. 1977). b Various types of coastal dunes result-
ing from onshore winds. In arid regions, the coastal
sand can migrate far inland to feed interior sand seas,
while it is stabilized by vegetation in the more humid
zones. During low sea level, shelf sand can contrib-
ute to the buildup of coastal dunes. See text for fur-
ther explanation
60
drifting sand, and dust are blown into the Atlantic by
trade winds (Fig. 2.23a). The eolian sands are redis-
tributed by waves, longshore and tidal currents, and
generate a seaward prograding sandy coastal belt.
The interdune area of seaward migrating, longitudi-
nal dunes may be occupied for some time by
hypersaline marine bays or lagoons.
Tidal and supratidal flats bordering coastal sabkhas are
characterized by sediments containing high proportions of
eolian sand, inciuding quartz-sandy algal mats and
stromatolites (Schwarz et al. 1975). The present-day shelf
sediments off west Africa, which accumulated since the
Holocene transgression, contain high proportions of eolian
sand and dust (Einseie ct al. 1977). A situation similar to
the Pleistocene marine sediments on the west African shelf
is assumed for Permian marine sandstones and siltstones in
Texas and New Mexico (Fischer and Samthein 1988).
Short-period, high sea levels, flooding the interdune
areas, may lead to the deposition of thin, shallow-
marine, ca1careous sands in between large dunes
(Fig. 2.23a). A particularly high, long-persisting sea
level, however, will cause dune erosion and liquefied
sand flows, and shift the entire coastline landward.
Then the basal marine bed may consist of a massive,
fine grained sands tone derived from the pre-existing,
planated eolian dunes, as for example observed in the
upper Jurassic of Utah, North America (Eschner and
Kocurek 1986). The prcservation of the dune topog-
raphy may be better with a very rapid, low-energy
transgression, when the dunes were already cemented
by evaporites or carbonate.
During sea level fall, the coastline moves toward
the shelf edge, enabling the eolian sand to migrate
over the emerged shelf. If the sand reaches the head
of submarine canyons, it is trapped, easily liquefied,
and transported by turbidity currents into deeper wa-
ter.
Deep-sea turbidites consisting of eolian sand have been
described from the eastem Atlantic off the Saharan desert
(Samthein and Diester-Haass 1977).
2.3.5 Distinctive Features of Eolian Sandstones
(Summary)
The characteristic features of modem and ancient
eolian sands and sandstones are summarized as fol-
lows:
(1) Features observed in single outcrops.
- Most striking are large-scale sets of steep, trun-
cated tabular cross beds and planar-wedge cross
beds, I to > 10m thick. The cross bed sets are either
vertically stacked without muddy intercalations (large
dunes), or they alternate with thin, flat-bedded or
rippled interdune deposits. The dips of cross beds
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
frequently indicate varying paleo-wind directions and
wind reversals.
- Minor distinctive features include avalanching and
brecciation of individual cross laminae, and an abun-
dance of climbing ripples with a high length/height
ratio, imprints of rain drops, desert pavement, faceted
gravel, and other ventifacts.
- Occurrence of plant roots, burrows and tracks of
animals living in the desert or in coastal dune envi-
ronments.
(2) Lateral and vertical facies transitions.
- Occurrence of broad, widely extended deflation
surfaces.
- Alternation with and lateral transition into playa
and sabkha deposits, fluvial and alluvial fan systems.
- Great areal extent of interior sand seas, but more
elongate geometry of coastal dunes.
- Lateral transition of coastal dunes or seaward mi-
grating inland dunes to the shore zone and shaHow-
marine environments.
(3) Texture and composition of eolian sands.
- Mostly fine to medium-grained sand, frequently
well sorted, fairly to weH rounded, frosted grain sur-
faces of modem eolian sands.
- MineralogicaHy immature to fairly mature, depend-
ing on the sand source and recycling of sand.
- Scarcety of mica; silt and clay are found only in the
interdune area.
- Yellowish, brown, or red staining.
In spite of this considerable number of criteria, thin
eolian sand layers of limited extent, intercalated in
fluvial or other deposits, are frequently overlooked
and sometimes difficult to identify.
2.3.6 Clay Dunes
Clay dunes or lunettes occur along the margin of sea-
sonally drying shallow lakes in semi-arid climates,
for example in North Africa (Tunesia), North Amcr-
ica, and South Australia. Mud from the lake bed is
either entrained by waves and redeposited in emer-
gent shoals or, more frequently, the drying mud and
salt in the lake crinkles and forms silt and sand-sized
pellets by aggregation. These consist of clay, silt,
some sand, and carbonate and/or gypsum and other
salts. The pellets are blown away from the lake sur-
face to the downwind lake margin. The larger clay
pellets usually accumulate close to the lake in the
form of flat, parabolic dunes; finer pellets are dis-
persed more widely. After rainfall, the clay dunes
become stabilized as a result of cohesion between the
wet clay and silt particles. Hence, no further migra-
tion of these dunes can take place, but they may grow
larger and higher in subsequent dry seasons or after
longer periods of non-deposition.
2.3 Eolian Sediments
Specific internal structures are often indistinct or
even absent in these dunes. However, dunes growing
episodically may become vegetated and then develop
soils, calcrete or gypcrete in times of stabilization.
Some examples show carbonate nodules originating
from dissolution and reprecipitation of near-surface
carbonate (cf. Sect. 9.1.2).
Clay dunes have not received much attention by
sedimentologists. This and their limited size appears to be
the reason why only a limited number of these deposits
have been identified in the ancient record. Young clay
dunes have been described, e.g., by Bowler (1973), Pye
(1987), Lees and Cook (1991), and Holliday (1997). The
last author deals with late Pleistocene examples from Texas
and New Mexico where the lunettes experienced signifi-
cant climatic variation between dryer and wetter periods
and therefore grow irregularly. The clay dunes are 4-8 m
high and 200-300 m wide. Their internal stratification
mainly reflects pedogenic horizons and is either
subhorizontal, oblique, or irregular due to phases of partial
erosion and rebuilding. This dunes have been stable in the
late Holocene.
Some ancient, massive, red mudstones, for example in
the Keuper (Upper Triassic) of central Europe, are believed
to represent ancient clay dunes formed in a slowly subsid-
ing, serni-arid basin with frequently switching shallow
ephemeral lakes. In addition, the deposition of eolian dust
(see below) may have contributed to the formation of such
poorly defined deposits.
2.3.7 Eolian Dust, Loess
General Aspects
Eolian dust, termed loess, covers large areas (5-10%)
of the present-day land surface of Asia, Europe,
North and South America, and it contributes signifi-
cantly to the mass of other, non-eolian sediment
types, including those of the deep sea.
The various aspects of the source areas, transport and depo-
sition, texture, and composition of eolian dust are summa-
rized, e.g., by Yaalon and Dan (1974), Morales (1979), Pye
(1987), and Nickling (1994).
Similarly to sand-size particles, dust particles are en-
trained into the air by drag and aerodynamic uplift
exerted by turbulent wind currents. The threshold
wind velocities to move both fine sand and silt-sized
dust are on the order of 0.1 to 0.3 mls. Storms capa-
ble of entraining and transporting dust commonly
occur several times each year. The deflation surface,
however, must be dry and the dust partieies should
not adhere to each other by cohesion. Even low mois-
ture contents or low concentrations of cementing
salts can significantly raise this threshold velocity
and thus prevent dust transport. Furthermore, the
roughness of the surface plays an important role. A
dense desert pavement resulting from the removal of
sand and dust finally terminates further deflation.
61
While there is little difference in the threshold
velocities for the entrainment of fine sand and dust,
the modes of particle transport and distance of migra-
tion of these grain size fractions differ significantly
(cf. Fig. 2.21 b). The finer the dust partic1es are, the
higher and longer can they be transported in the at-
mosphere. Global wind systems may carry fine-
grained dust over distances of several thousands of
kilometers and distribute it widely.
Dust mainly consists of silt-size partieies smaller
than about 20 flm; larger grains settle quickly back to
the ground when the turbulence of strong wind de-
creases. Far-traveled dust particles are srnaller than
10 flm and many are even smaller than 2 flm. Such
dust may remain in the atmosphere for weeks and
then largely accumulate in the oceans. Loess which is
commonly transported shorter distances is composed
mainly of partic1es in the range from 10 to 50 flill.
The dust partic1es may be derived from several
different sources. Mechanical and chemical weather-
ing provide silt and c1ay-sized material. Grinding of
solid rocks by glacial action and fluvial transport can
produce substantial amounts of silt-sized particles. In
desert regions, silt is generated by eolian abrasion of
rocks during saltation of sand grains (cf. Fig. 2.21a).
Finally, volcanoes can eject large amounts of silt-
sized material (Sect. 2.4). The relative importance of
these various mechanisrns to produce dust partic1es
differs from area to area, reflecting the effects of c1i-
mate, relief, lithology, and geomorphic history. In
regions of cold c1imate, glacial and fluvial abrasion
as well as frost action are most important. Mountain
regions with their high rate of mechanical erosion
(cf. Sect. 9.3) generally provide more silt-sized mate-
rial than do low-relief areas.
The mineralogical composition of dust also varies
in relation to the source area. Many, relatively
coarse-grained, local dusts are rich in quartz, feld-
spar, and carbonate minerals. They reflect the com-
position of nearby source rocks, such as quartz sand-
stones and carbonate sequences. With increasing dis-
tance from the source, however, textural and mineral-
ogical sorting of the dust particles takes place. Con-
sequently, far-traveled dusts tend to be enriched in
fine-grained micas and clay minerals and may con-
tain organic matter such as pollen grains, fungal
spores, seeds, etc. With the aid of such components,
the source of the dust can be determined (e.g.,
Sirocko and Sarnthein 1989).
Dust Deposition
Eolian dust is deposited when the velocity and turbu-
lence of the dust storm wane or the dust partic1es are
washed out from the atmosphere by precipitation.
Another possibility of depositing dust is the coales-
cence of smaller particles to larger aggregates which
62
can no longer remain in suspension. The deposition
of dust is accelerated by the presence of vegetation
which creates surface roughness and thus impedes air
flow and subsequent resuspension. Settling dust of-
ten accumulates on the downwind side of hills and
other topographie highs, or in depressions; moist sur-
faces trap the dust grains.
Measured present-day rates of dust deposition on
land range between 10 to about 200 g/m2 per year,
corresponding to sedimentation rates of approxi-
mately 0.5 to 10 cmlka. Locally and discontinuously,
the sedimentation rate of dust must have been higher
in the past, for example for Pleistocene loess with
rates up to several tens of cmlka (see below). The
contribution of dust to oceanic sediments is less
known, although this topic has been studied recently
by several workers (cf. Chap. 5). Dust deposition
rates in the ocean reported in the literature vary be-
tween 0.1 and more than 10 g/m2 per year. Taking
into account the very 10w sedimentation rates of
deep-sea sediments (in large areas ca. 1 cmlka, cf.
Sects. 5.3 and 10.2), one can draw the conclusion
that eolian dust should make up a significant propor-
tion of marine sediments in regions, where offshore
winds from deserts reach the open ocean.
The carbonate-free fraction of early Cretaceous to late Mio-
cene pelagic to hemipelagic sediments in the North Atlan-
tic consists predominantly of eolian silt and c1ay (Lever
and McCave 1983). In the eastem Atlantic, northwestem
Pacific, and northem Indian ocean, eolian dust may com-
prise more than 50% of the total modem sediment. These
sediments mainly consist of fine-grained quartz and clay
minerals characteristic of their source areas. During the last
8000 years, the dust flux into the Arabian Sea reached
nearly the same volume as the suspended load of the Indus
river (Sirocko and Samthein 1989). It appears that dust
deposition in the oceans increased in the Neogene in con-
junction with a long-term climatic change.
Pleistocene Loess
Unconsolidated silty dust sediments of Pleistocene or
somewhat older age, which are deposited on land, are
termed loess. Unweathered and non-redeposited
loess is homogeneous, mostly buff or yellowish in
color, non- or weakly stratified, and highly porous. It
consists predominantly of quartz, feldspar, mica, clay
minerals, and carbonate grains in varying propor-
tions. The principle grain size of loess ranges from
20 to 40 Jlm, but loess can also contain minor pro-
portions offine sand ( 63 Jlm) and clay ( 4 Jlm). Loess
covers wide areas on the present land surface, is agri-
culturally important, and frequently used for dating
Pleistocene processes and sediments.
At least two principally different source areas of
loess are distinguished. In Europe and North Amer-
ica, most loess is derived from glaciated areas and
accumulated under cold and relatively dry conditions
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
(cold loess) with steppe vegetation not very far from
the Pleistocene glaciers. Most of the silt-sized mate-
rial was blown out of widely distributed, partially
abandoned meltwater streams.
In contrast, the so-called desert loess is derived
from arid, mainly non-glaciated regions. This is, for
example, true of most of the Chinese loess which
covers a large area and attains 10cally more than 300
m in thickness.
The Chinese loess and other central Asian loess profiles
provide excellent records of the climatic evolution in cen-
tral Asia during the Pleistocene (e.g. Heller and Liu
Tungsheng 1984; Pye 1987: Liu Tungsheng 1991; Frechen
and Dodonow 1998). According to paleomagnetic dating,
loess accumulation in China began 2.4 Ma B.P. and took
place discontinuously in relatively cool, dry periods. Dur-
ing warmer and wetter phases, dust transport from the
mountainous desert areas slowed down and soils formed on
top of the 10ess deposits. The average sedimentation rates
of loess in Asia and Europe mostly varied between 2 and
about 25 cmlka, but values ranging from 50 to 300 cmlka
have been reported from China and Tadjikistan for the last
glacial period. This shows that the sedimentation rates were
in fact much higher during the cold stages when loess was
actually deposited.
Loess is easily eroded by running water and fluvial
action. The Yellow River (Huang Ho) in China and
some other rivers of eastem Asia carry extremely
high loads of suspended material, mostly derived
from loess, into the sea (cf. Sects. 9.3 and 1l.2.2).
Here, they cause unusually high sedimentation rates
of siliciclastic material and the rapid shallowing of
coastal seas with prograding shorelines.
Pre-Quatemary loess deposits have rarely been
reported. Considering the widespread occurrence of
Quatemary loess, lithified loess (loessite) should be
preserved more frequently in the ancient record than
known so far.
Possibly the thickest loessite (about 500 m) was described
from Upper Carboniferous to Lower Permian mixed fluvial
and eolian red beds in northwestem Colorado (Johnson
1989). Part of this sequence is characterized by homoge-
neous, structureless sandy siltstones interpreted as loessite.
This view as supported by intercalations of indistinct
paleosols, the lateral gradation of these beds into fluvial
deposits, and the inferred pa1eogeographic setting of the
sedimentary basin. Other occurrences of loessite were de-
scribed from some Precambrian to Neogene deposits in
North America and Norway.
2.3.8 Remarks to Ancient Eolian Sediments
In the geologie past, the general principles goveming
the formation of deserts were the same as today, but
the proportion and regional distribution of deserts on
the land surface were sometimes quite different from
the present situation; During the cold phases of the
2.3 EoIian Sediments
Pleistocene, the climatic belts and thus also the large
subtropical deserts shifted poleward and gained in
extent. Continental drift and the changing configura-
tion of the oceans and land masses significantly af-
fected the global climate and thus the areal extent of
deserts and the proportion of eolian sediments in the
geological record.
In the Permo-Triassic, for example, when the older
continents had created one supercontinent (Pangea),
arid climates and eolian sediments played a much
greater role than today. Since eolian sediment trans-
port is favored by the lack or absence of vegetation,
the evolution of land plants during the Earth's history
2.3.9 Summary (EoIian Sediments)
Windblown sands and dust originate from dry
deflation surfaces and abrasion of rocks.
Sand transport occurs close to the land surface
and slows with the increasing height of sand
dunes; dust can be easily kept in suspension in
the atmosphere and travel over long distances.
Eolian sands tend to become weil rounded, yel-
lowish and later red in color. They often form
characteristic large-scale planar cross-bedding
and minor ripple cross-bedding. Transport direc-
tions preserved in dune sands greatly vary.
Many eolian sands show goundwater-controlled
deflation surfaces and interactions with fluvial
63
has to be taken into consideration. Prior to the Devo-
nian, plant life was limited, and also in the pre-Upper
Cretaceous, soil protection by dense roots of angio-
sperms did not yet exist. In general, long persisting
dry climate, sufficient subsidence, and the inability
of plants to grow in desert environments favored the
accumulation of eolian sands.
Colder climate and the advance of glaciers during
glacial periods led to areduction in land surface cov-
ered by vegetation. For all these reasons, the contri-
bution of eolian processes to sediment accumulation
and basin filling can have been much greater or
lower during some periods in the past than it is today.
and playa deposits. Other distinctive criteria are
summarized in Sect. 2.3.5.
- Eolian dust, derived from glaciofluvial outwash
or from deserts, can generate loess covers of
various thicknesses on the land surface. Dust
contributes considerably to the composition of
lake deposits in arid zones as weil as to deep-
sea sediments in regions where offshore winds
from deserts reach the open ocean.
- Clay dunes along drying lakes, consisting of
wind-blown aggregates, represent a specific
type of eolian deposit.
2 Continental Sediments
2.4 Volcaniclastic Sediments
(Tephra Deposits)
2.4.1 General Aspects and Terms
2.4.2 Tephra Deposits on Land
2.4.3 Marine Tephra Deposits
2.4.4 Volumes and Transport Distances ofTephra
2.4.5 Volcaniclastic Sediments in Various Basin Settings
2.4.6 Production Rates, Duration, and Recurrence
Intervals of Volcanic Activity
2.4.7 Alteration, Diagenesis, and Metamorphism
of Volcaniclastic Rocks
2.4.8 Summary (Tephra Deposits)
2.4.1 General Aspects and Terms
Hardly a depositional system exists in which
volcanielastic beds or some reworked pyroelastic
components in other sediments are absent. In fact, in
several of the basin types described in Chaps. 1 and
12, volcanielastic deposits play a significant part in
the total basin fill. The contribution of volcanielastic
material to the total volume of sediments in various
basin types may be as high as about 25%. For this
reason, a brief review of volcanielastic-producing
phenomena is necessary in the context of this book.
Chapin and Elston (1979), Fisher and Schmincke (1984,
1990, 1994), Cas and Wright (1987), Schmincke (1988),
Fisher and Smith (1991), Schmincke and Bogaard (1991),
Orton (1996) describe volcaniclastic sediments and their
genesis in more detail.
The term volcaniclastic sediments or tephra deposits
refers to all types of volcanic fragments regardless of
grain size, grain shape, composition, specific origin,
and depositional process. V olcanielastic fragments
are subdivided into the following groups:
(1) Juvenile fragments, comprising two subgroups:
- Pyroelasts generated during explosive volcanic
eruptions caused or dominated by degassing of
magma.
- Hydroelasts formed during eruptions due to the
contact of hot magma with external water
(phreatomagmatic eruptions).
(2) Accessory or cognate fragments are derived from
older, co-magmatic rocks.
(3) Accidental fragments originate from underlying
rocks of any composition.
The fragment types of groups (2) and (3) are collec-
tively called lithic fragments or lithoelasts. Based on
the grain size of volcanic fragments, the following
terms are used:
- Blocks and bombs (diameter ~64 mm).
- Lapilli (2-64 mm).
- Volcanic ash (;:;2 mm).
- Volcanic dust (;:;0.063 mm).
The most important group of fragments dealt with
here are juvenile fragments. They represent chilled
sampies of the erupted magma and indicate the na-
ture of the volcanic eruption. Depending on the state
of magma prior to eruption, these fragments may
consist of volcanic glass, or they are partially crystal-
lized. Magmatic explosive eruptions of basalt and
basaltic andesite are dominated by lapilli-sized
pyroelasts which show many vesiculae caused by the
degassing magma. Dark colored pyroelast accumula-
tions of a basic to intermediate composition are
called scoria. Because of the fluid nature of the
erupting basaltic magma, the shape of larger frag-
ments may be affected by their flight through the air
and their impact on the ground surface (angular or
drop-like form, ropy or stringy surface). More vis-
cous, silicic to intermediate magmas (e.g., phonolites
and trachytes) commonly produce highly vesicular
pyroelasts (pumice). These consist of voIcanic glass,
but mayaiso contain crystals formed in the magma
chamber prior to eruption. Pumice elasts are usually
light in color and vary in grain size and shape. Some
are less dense than water and hence float.
Phreatomagmatically fragmented juvenile elasts
(hydroclasts) tend to be more blocky and less vesicu-
lar than pyroelasts. F or angular glass fragments the
term shard is frequently used.
Tephra deposits can be grouped into three genetic
types according to their mode of transport and depo-
sition:
- Fallout deposits.
- Flow deposits.
- Surge deposits.
2.4 Volcaniclastic Sediments
These primary accumulations of volcanic activity are
frequently reworked both on land and in the sea due
to considerable relief comrnonly created by volca-
nism. Slopes unprotected by soils and vegetation or,
under water, by early diagenetic processes favor the
erosion and redistribution of primary volcanic mate-
rial. This is incorporated into other sediments as
epiclasts, causing significant changes in the composi-
tion of these rocks.
2.4.2 Tephra Deposits on Land
Fallout tephra deposits result from pyroelastic and
phreatomagmatic eruptions. Their material is ejected
from a volcanic vent. Hot tephra and gas produce a
buoyant plume rising high into the atmosphere (Fig.
2.24a). After a first phase of radial expansion, the
ash cloud is directed down wind and may spread over
distances of several hundreds to thousands of kilo-
meters. With increasing distance from the source, the
fallout layer be comes systematically thinner, finer
grained, and better sorted. Scoria fall deposits are
composed largely of basaltic to andesitic magma.
Pumice fall deposits originate from highly viscous
andesitic, to rhyolitic, phonolitic magmas. They rep-
resent the widely dispersed elassic plinian type of
ash eloud fallout.
Ash-fall deposits form under varying conditions
ineluding phreatomagmatic eruptions and co-
ignimbrite processes (see below). They consist of
lapilli and finer grained material. The pyroelasts and
hydroelasts settle not only through air, but also
through lake water and sea water (see below). They
generate widespread thin ash layers which are often
weIl preserved in depressions on land, in swamps
and in lakes. Bentonite layers (tonsteins) in lake sedi-
ments and coal-bearing sequences are mostly derived
from former volcanic ash. Ash layers on hilI slopes
may be incorporated into periglacial pro ces ses and be
used to date normal debris covers.
Pyroclastic flows mostly originate from the collapse
of overloaded eruption columns. They are hot, par-
tially fluidized gas-solid mixtures with high partiele
concentrations causing the flow to move downslope
and to fill topographie depressions and pre-existing
valleys (Fig. 2.24b). If the flow enters a lake or the
sea, a second co-ignimbrite ash eloud is generated
which may lead to widespread fallout on top of and
beyond the pyroelastic flow deposits. Subaqueous
pyroelastic flow material may mix with water and
generate tephra-dominated mass flows. Evidence for
the hot emplacement of pyroelastic flow deposits is,
among other criteria, the occurrence of carbonized
wood and welded tephra. Massive, welded silicic and
pumiceous pyroclastic flows are referred to as ignim-
brites.
65
An idealized section of a pyroelastic flow unit may
begin with thin, stratified surge deposits (see below),
followed by the main body of the pyroelastic flow or
ignimbrite, and end with volcanic ash from fallout
(Fig. 2.24c). Ignimbrites are generally poorly sorted,
but may show some indistinct layering due to
changes in grain size of the welded primary
pyroelasts. Some grading of the basal zone and in-
verse grading of the higher part of the flow unit are
frequently observed. The fallout deposit at the top
consists of thin, stratified, graded ash layers. Stacked
flow units may somewhat differ in grain size, color,
and composition.
Three main types of pyroelastic flow deposits are
distinguishable (Fig. 2.24c):
- Block- and ash-flow deposits have an ash matrix
and contain large blocks of the same magma type.
- Scoria flow deposits consist of basaltic to andesitic
ash, lapilli, and larger elasts.
- Pumice-flow deposits or ignimbrites are poorly
sorted, normally welded, massive tephra layers as
described above.
Volcanic mud flows and debris flows (lahars) are
generated in the same way as other gravity rnass
flows (cf. Sect. 5.4), i.e., under normal temperature
with the aid of water. They are, however, similar to
pyroelastic flow deposits in composition and struc-
ture. In fact, they may form the distal facies of
pyroelastic flows. Lahars tend to show a more
polymiet composition, better rounded elasts, and
higher proportions of elay-sized matrix than
pyroelastic flows. They form either during eruptions
or independently of specific volcanic activities. They
comprise not only a large proportion of the proximal
facies on the lower slope of explosive volcanoes, but
frequently travel distances of IOto 200 km. Lahars
transport volcanic fragments to the coast and thus
provide the source for volcanielastic submarine de-
bris flows and turbidites.
Pyroclastic surges are high-velocity, low-density
turbulent flows which are caused by various mecha-
nisrns. Most important are base surges initiated by
phreatomagmatic eruptions (interaction of magma
with extemal water). These can create a collar-like
cloud near the Earth's surface expanding radially in
all directions (Fig. 2.25a) as also observed in nuelear
explosions. Such a debris-laden base surge may
reach velocities up to 100 mJs and shatter all trees
and other objects many kilometers away from the
locus of eruption. Phreatomagmatic base surges are
comrnonly "wetl! and have a low temperature. Other
types of surges are associated with pyroelastic flows
(ground surges) and the collapse of an eruption co 1-
umn (ash-cloud surges).
66 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

r;-c;~,- ASH ,:!:GRADED

1:>7~~~ SOll HOAIZON

\l=00UB'
.. 0
"
.
~;"j•..":.
·; n\:
GAADING
NORMAL GRAD.
INCREASE
IN SOATING
PUMICE
/
LlTHOClAST

BAlLiSTIC ClAST (BOMB)

l AHAR

PYROClASTIC FlOW
DEPOSIT (BLOCK AND
ASH FLOW, SCORIA FlOW,
PUMICE FlOW OA
IGNIMBAITE)
l AHAA (DEBAIS OR MUD FlOW )
c
IDEALIZED COMPLETE SUCCESSION MAIN TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC FLOW DEPOSITS (PROXIMAL)
OF ONE ERUPTION EPISODE
l AVA FlOW PUMICE·FlOW
BlOCK ·AND SCORIA : i:,'· :~',:
,-,=--=-r-AIR·FAll ASH OEPOSITS OA
ASH·FlOW OEPOSITS IGNIMBRITES
f:":"<~"- ASH · ClOUD SURGE DEP. DE POSITS
VESICUlATED GAS
PYROClASTIC BASALTIC· SEGGAEGATION
FlOW UNIT (2) T DENSE ANDES ITIC PIPE
1·5 ANDESITIC Cl ASTS
m PUMICE
LlTHOClASTS ClASTS
1 ClASTS

GAOUND SURGE DEP. ( 1) FINE GRAINED

GROUND BASAL lAYER
PLiNIAN FAll DEP. SUAGE OEP
2.4 Volcaniclastic Sediments
Base surge deposits are commonly thin and irregu-
lar. They mantle to some extent the ground surface,
but tend to reach greater thicknesses in topographie
depressions (Fig. 2.25a). They predominantly consist
of poorly sorted sand to gravel-size partieles of vari-
ous composition; juvenile elasts often make up only a
small proportion of the total sediment, while older
tephra and lithoelasts constitute the major part. The
sedimentary structures of base surge deposits at any
given locality are unidirectional. They inelude wavy
planar lamination, low-angle cross bedding, elimbing
dunes and antidunes, and chute-and-pool structures.
Characteristic features are low-angle truncations and
steeply inelined laminae draping obstaeles on the
stoss side (Fig. 2.25b and c). The occurrence of base
surge deposits is mostly limited to a few kilometers
from the source, after which they grade into lami-
nated fallout layers.
The areal distribution of continental tephra deposits
follows some simple rules. Proximal tephra deposits
near the source tend to fill valleys on the slopes and
form coarse-grained alluvial fans at the base of the
volcanic structures (cf. Fig. 2.27b). At greater dis-
tances from the source (intermediate source, medial),
predominantly gravel- and sand-size volcanielastics
alternate with the deposits of braided streams, and/or
they are mixed with these fluvial beds. At distal
depositional sites, far from the source, sand- and silt-
sized volcanielastics are increasingly incorporated
into the deposits of fluvial plains or swept into lakes.
Finally, volcanielastic material can reach a marine
delta and the coast. In general, primary volcanielastic
beds are more dispersed over the landscape than the
linearly accumulating, purely fluvial sediments. De-
bris flows, sheet floods, and so-called
hyperconcentrated flows with a relatively high pro-
portion of suspended material tend to generate broad
sheets of sand- and gravel-sized pyroelasts extending
laterally beyond the range of normal fluvial channels.
Airfall ash commonly covers even larger areas, but it
is easily redeposited by fluvial activity. If ash accu-
mulates on isolated plateaus which receive no other
sediments and undergo little erosion, airfall deposits
may build up sequences of some thickness.
Figure 2.26 illustrates proximal to distal facies changes in a
Miocene fluvial to lacustrine environment in Washington
which was episodically affected by volcanic eruptions
(Smith 1988). In a time span of 5 Ma, a 350 m thick,
dacitic volcaniclasticlfluvial sequence accumulated which
Fig. 2.24. a Plinian volcanic eruption with gas thrust
and wind-driven convective plume. Tephra deposits
inelude ballistic bombs and blocks, lapilli, and volca-
nie ash. Primarily, ashfall deposits uniformly drape
the landscape (mantle bedding) and form distinct lay-
ers in lakes, but they are largely reworked and redis-
tributed in coastal areas and shallow seas.
67
can be traced as far as 120 km to the east of the volcanic
centers. In the proximal depositional regime, volcaniclastic
sediments predominate, including debris flows, bedded
conglomerates produced by sheet floods, and crudely strati-
fied, normally graded deposits from hyperconcentrated
flows. In addition, scour-and-fill bedded sandstones with
pebble lenses indicate transport conditions related to volca-
nic processes. These sedimentary structures are
characterized in transverse section by broad, low-angle
onlapping stratification and are thought to result from sheet
floods. All of these volcaniclastic-dominated facies types
pinch out at distances between 40 and 80 km from the
source (Fig. 2.26a), whereas thin volcanic ash layers re-
main unaffected.
In contrast, the siliciclastic-dominated beds, composed
mainly of material from various older rocks, display little
change with increasing distance from the paleovolcanoes,
but their proportion in the total basin fill increases distally.
they consist of clast-supported conglomerates, trough and
planar bedded channel sandstones, overbank sands tones,
and mudstones. Their fine-grained material is mostly al-
tered and reworked volcaniclastics.
The interrelationship between extensive paleosols, vol-
canic ash layers (tuffs), and deposits from sheet floods and
debris flows, on the one hand, and laterally restricted fills
of concurrently incised channels, on the other hand, is
shown in Fig. 2.26c. Channels and soils formed in the rela-
tively long inter-eruption periods, while rapidly deposited
syn-eruption sediments covered larger areas and partially
modified the paleo-drainage pattern.
2.4.3 Marine Tephra Deposits
Marine volcanielastic sediments are widespread and
have a high preservation potential in the rock record.
They may be derived either from sources on land or
from submarine volcanic activity. For those derived
from volcanic eruptions on land, generation and
mode of deposition was already mentioned in the
previous section. In coastal areas and in shallow seas,
thin fallout beds are commonly reworked and mixed
with normal marine sediments. In addition, intensive
bioturbation frequently masks the occurrence of thin
fallout layers in subaqueous environments. Mixed
shallow-water sediments and thicker accumulations
of tephra on the shelf may be transported by turbidity
currents into deeper water and form ash turbidites
which sometimes show "double grading" (Fig.
2.24b).
The nature and products of volcanic activity under
the sea are less known than those on land and must
be interpreted from their results rather than from di-
b Collapsing eruption column leads to pyroelastic
flow and the formation of ignimbrites and co-
ignimbrite ash elouds with widespread fallout. c Ide-
alized sections of pyroelastic flow deposits. (After
Sheridan 1979; Cas and Wright 1987; Schmincke
and Bogaard 1991). See text for further explanation
68 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

SURGE DEPOSITS
PARTIALLY FILLING
DEPRESSIONS AND
YALLEYS

SAND WAVES

b c <: SURGE
CLiMBING DUNES

'1Iil~(PROGRESSIVE) 80MB SAG

~ LOW·ANGLE CROSS STRATIFICATION CLiMBING ANTIDUNES

1·5 t:=-:>::Z:':> ' ...,c.=';:.~q- WAVY , PARTIALLY DISCONTINUOUS
' ;.,;
(REGRESSIVE)
m ' . ' ,' :'.', . ';.' "
-: '4 .. .o•• ~o LAMINATION

1
STEEPLY INCLlNED
~ .0°. ;0°';: :::: ., INDISTINCTLY LAYERED (ADHESINEI
'b! ~~~ ~ .·.·.'''::;':l LAPILLI BEDS IN FRONT
OF OBSTACLE
OR EROSION SURFACES

e d
PELAGIC SEDIMENT (2) FINAL STAGE
CONTAINING FINE·
GRAINED VOLC. ASH
(2)
ASH TURBIDITES
(WITH LAPILLI)
........... --
...........

...'" I
.., ~: :

.....
:.
• 0 ...

.·.........
"
.
.
20 m

. 1
' .~

·°.,0
Q ... CI "

? OLDER
PILLOW LAVA AND
(I. 0
(1 )
. .'
; • .. CI"

SUBMARINE HYALOCLASTITE
·. ,.
o Q
o'
Q
PYROCLASTIC FLOW BRECCIA
WIDE, CURRENT-INDUCED
DISPERSION OF FINE-GRAINED
ASH IN SUSPENSION

Fig. 2.25. a Base surge deposits, partially controlled
by topography. band c Sedimentary structures of
base surge deposits. d Model for submarine erup-
tions; stage 1 Large volumes of ejecta generate sub-
aqueous pyroclastic flows; stage 2 Decreasing
amount of erupting material causes intermittent tur-
bidity currents. e Idealized compound section (left)
reflects maximum and waning stages of submarine
eruptions. (After Wohletz and Sheridan 1979; Allen
1982; Cas and Wright 1987)
2.4 Volcaniclastic Sediments 69

a VOLC. ASH (TUFF)

'" ." ) \ , \ MUDSTONE

SANDSTONE~
w TROUGH
Ü AND PLANAR
CI: CROSS-
::J BEDDED
oCf)

DISTANCE
FROM SOURCE

40 80 120 km

b C
PROXIMAL DISTAL CROSS SECTION OF CHANNEL FILL
(VOLCANICL.) (VOlC .+ SILICIClASTiCS) AND SHEET -LiKE VOLCANICLASTICS
HYPERCONCENTRATED
~ieF<~ ClAST-
FLOOD FLOW DEP. SHEET FLOOD
~~~ SUPPORED DEPOSITS
CONGlO-
MERATE

IGNIMBRITE TAOUGH
CROSS-
BEDDED

PALEO-VALLEY FILL (POLYMICTIC AIR-FALL TUFF

CONGLOM .) :t OVERBANK DEP. ON PALEOSOL

Fig. 2.26_ a Relative abundance (thicknesses of hori-
zontal bars) of continental volcaniclastic facies in
relation to distance from the source, Miocene, Wash-
ington. b Characteristic sections of a in the proximal
and distal range. c Cross seetion perpendicular to
flow direction showing syn-eruption, sheet-like
volcaniclastics and siliciclastic to mixed valley tills
generated in inter-eruption periods. (After Smith
1988)
70
reet observation. A further problem is the differentia-
tion of primary from redistributed (epic1astic)
volcanigenic products.
The model in Fig. 2.25d is an attempt to describe
two characteristic stages of a submarine eruption.
During the most active phase of the volcano, large
volumes of tephra are ejected high into the overlying
water body. Some of the pyroc1astic material settles
back to the sea floor to form a subaqueous
pyroc1astic flow. Other proportions, such as highly
vesicular pumice, may rise to the water surface and
float until they come to rest along a coast. Fine-
grained ash can remain in suspension for consider-
able time and thus be widely dispersed by ocean cur-
rents. When the volcanic activity slows down, the
ejected material cannot maintain a steady pyroc1astic
flow. As a result, it accumulates near the volcanic
vent until the slope of the stored tephra fails. The
sliding mass frequently evolves into a debris flow or
turbidity current, by which the volcanic material is
intermittently transported into deeper water and de-
posited as debris flow deposits or ash turbidites. To-
wards the end of the eruptive phase, the turbidity cur-
rents become less frequent and carry finer ash. In
addition, the pelagic settling intervals may contain
some fine-grained ash which was distributed by nor-
mal oceanic currents.
Divers have directly observed submarine lava flows fonn-
ing pillow lava. However, it is not clear whether submarine
eruptions can generate hot pyroclastic flows and welded
tephra (ignimbrites). Welding in pyroclastic flow can occur
on island volcanoes and may continue when the flow enters
the sea.
Deep-sea ash layers commonly exhibit a sharp base and
a more gradational top. They are moderately affected by
bioturbation. They originate from both subaerial and sub-
marine volcanic eruptions and occur several hundreds of
kilometers away from the source areas. Wind-driven ash
fallen on the sea surface may additionally be transported by
ocean currents. Bottom currents rework and redistribute
ash accumulated on the sea floor. Ash settled on top of
submarine highs can be carried by gravity mass movements
into deeper water.
Due to the variety of transport mechanisms (Fig.
2.27c), the areal distribution and thicknesses of ma-
rine ash layers can be very irregular. Around volca-
nie islands and seamounts, thick and widely extended
volcanic aprons are built up which consist of lava
flows, breccias, pyroc1astic flows, hyaloc1astites, and
debris flows. At greater distances from the source,
debris flows, mud flows, and ash turbidites may ac-
cumulate to great thicknesses and alternate with pe-
lagic marine sediments. Submarine plateaus receive
airfall ash and water-suspended fine-grained ash dis-
tributed by surface currents. Bottom currents can re-
dis tribute the tephra layers in various marine environ-
ments inc1uding the deep sea (cf. Chap. 5).
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
2.4.4 Volumes and Transport Distances
ofTephra
Estimates on single large volcanic eruptions, which
occurred in historie, prehistoric, and Quaternary
times, yield volumes of ejected material ranging from
10 to some 1000 km3 (Mount St. Helens 1980: 1-2
km3). Their volcanic ash was disperses more than
1000 km from the source.
The approximate range of primary transport dis-
tances for various tephra is indicated in Fig. 2.27a.
Although these values greatly vary in relation to the
size of the volcano, the magnitude of eruption, the
type of magma, the relief of the land surface or sea
bottom around the eruption center, and other factors,
they c1early demonstrate the high potential of volca-
nie processes for contributing to the filling of sedi-
mentary basins. In addition to primary transport,
loose volcanic1astic material is frequently reworked
and redeposited by fluvial, eolian, and marine pro-
ces ses and can thus principally be transported over
unlimited distances. However, much of this redistrib-
uted, fine-grained and mostly altered volcanic mate-
rial is mixed with "normal" siliciclastic sediments
and remains unidentified.
Volcaniclastic sediments are easily recognized in the field
only up to a certain limit. This limit is set, for example, by
a minimum thickness of an ash layer or the occurrence of
characteristic primary sedimentary structures (cf. Fig.
2.25). The proportion of reworked pyroclastic material
should reach a certain amount to be seen readily in various
types of sandstones and conglomerates, debris flows and
turbidites. The examples in Figs. 2.26 and 2.27b,c demon-
strate how certain characteristics of continental tephra de-
posits change with increasing distance from the source.
Most ofthe typical volcaniclastic beds pinch out after some
distance and are replaced by nonnal fluvial sandstones and
mudstones with decreasing proportions of reworked
pyroclastic material (see also below).
2.4.5 V olcaniclastic Sediments in Various Basin
Settings
The magma type erupting during volcanic activity
depends on the tectonic basin setting and may change
during basin evolution. Thus, the petrofacies of
tephra-bearing coarse c1astics and sandstones (based
on the occurrence of special mineral phases and their
ratios), can be used as a tool in recognizing the types
of volcanic1astics and their change with time. This
also affects the chemical characteristics of concur-
rently produced volcanic1astic and mixed volcani-
clastic-c1astic sediments and may permit a strati-
graphic correlation of rock types which vary in other
characteristics.
In this Section, the relationship between the tec-
tonic basin setting and the contribution of primary
2.4 V olcaniclastic Sediments 71

a PRIMARY TRANSPORT DISTANCES FROM SOURCE

VOLCANIC ASH FROM ASH CLOUDS

several 100 10 1000 km

-- ---.-- ---- ~
DEBRIS FLOWS ANO MUD FLOWS (L AHARS ) 0 RY
L-::==================!~:;:;:::?::-:
I- - several 10 10 100 km
SEC NDA
TRANSPORT
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS

-- -------------~
several 10 10 100 km
(F LUV1Al.
EOLIAN .
OCEAN

-
SURGE DEPOSITS ____________ ---- ------------7 CURRENTS)
~==-"'!~~:::::::::-=- I 10 10 km
LAVA FLOWS. BRECCIA. ETC ,
~

- :::::- 1 10 100 km
---------->

b CONTINENTAL AND LACUSTRINE ENVIRONMENTS

PROXIMAL MEDIAL DISTAL

VOLC . ASH
PLATEAU

VOLC . ASH LAKE SED 'L-~~~-M~~__ ELTA .

c
DOMINANT MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
WINDS

VOLCAN ICLASTIC APRON ASH TURBIOITES

Fig. 2.27. a Common ranges of primary transport tinental environments in relation to distance from
distances of various tephra. b Volcaniclastics in con- source. c Same as b, but in marine environments.

(juvenile) and reworked (epiclastic) volcanic material
to the fill of various sedimentary basins is of particu-
lar interest. This contribution varies greatly, but only
a few major basin types can be briefly mentioned in
which volcaniclastics play an important part.
Intraplate continental volcanism is associated with
an extensional state of the crnst allowing mantle
magma to ascend to the surface. This situation corre-
sponds with the early stage of a continental sag basin
or aulacogen which does not evolve into an advanced
rift zone (see below). The nature of the volcanism is
mostly basaltic, but more acid types also occur. Char-
acteristic features of this volcanism are extensive,
thick lava sheets (plateau basalts), valley fill lavas,
and many cinder cones. In a continental realm, flu-
72
vial and lake sediments may be interspersed with ba-
saltic volcanics.
Continental rift zones with initial updoming, as for
example the East African Rift (cf. Sect. 12.1),. ?i~­
play widespread basic, but in places also more SIllCIC
flood vo1canism. Such lavas are ernpted from large,
laterally continuous fractures in the crnst. The colum-
nar jointed, massive lava flows may be accompanied
by ropy (pahoehoe) and completely fragmented,
rough (aa) lava. The preservation potential of these
features is limited, but their weathered and reworked
products often play a considerable role in the early
filling of the subsequent graben zone. With the onset
of extension and rifting, a petrologically diverse vol-
canism can be observed in limited areas of the axial
graben. It may range from mafic to silicic rocks of
more or less alkali ne nature. Pyroclastic flows and
ignimbrites are common, and their eroded material is
incorporated into the predominating fluvial and lac-
ustrine sediments of this stage. Later, in an advanced
rifting stage with prevailing marine sediments, th.e
influence of vo1canism in the area of extended contl-
nental crnst diminishes. If a new spreading center
develops, oceanic tholeiitic basalts are involved.
Intraplate oeeanic volcanism occurs on older oc~­
anic crnst. Typical representatives are the volcamc
island-seamount chains in the Pacific (Sect. 12.5.4).
The basaltic vo1canoes are built up of pillow lavas,
hyaloclastites (fine-grained sideromelane glass
shards), pyroclastic material, and massive lava. They
eject large volumes of vo1canic debris into the atmo-
sphere and into the sea. The vo1caniclastic material
may mix with reef detritus, shallow-water carbonate,
and pelagic sediments.
The island of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands) in the eastern
Atlantic is an example of such an intraplate volcanic island,
but its late-stage dominant acidic type of magma deviates
from that of the Pacific seamounts and islands. This is ex-
plained by differentiation of basaltic magma within the
mantle plume (Funck and Schmincke 1998). The large
volcaniclastic apron around the island has been drilled at
several sites during Leg 157 of the Ocean Drilling Pro-
gram, which allowed to reeonstruet the evolution of the
island (Schmincke and Sumita 1998). The early stages of
volcanie aetivity are documented by thick hyaloclastite
breccias and debris flow deposits of a shield volcano whieh
began to grow 16.8 Ma aga in deep water and then
emerged above sea level. This and the subsequent stages of
island growth were followed by phases of eollapse and
island destruction. Tephra were transported episodieally
downslope into water dcpths of >4000 m. Late-stage
rhyolitie and trachyphonolitie magma and ash generated
ignimbrites and many ash turbidites whieh were traced 70
km away from the island. Subaerial ash and debris flows
entered the sea and eontinued to flow on the sea floor. In
total, a volume of -50 000 km 3 of magma has been released
from the mantle. The proportion of intrusive magnta, mak-
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
ing up the eore of the island, may amount to twiee the vol-
urne ofthe extruded voleanic material.
Large igneous provinees. In terms of volume, t~e
so-called LIP's, such as the Ontong-Java Plateau 1D
the southwestem Pacific, the Kerguelen Plateau in
the southem Indian Ocean, or the vo1canic passive
margin of the North Atlantic are outstanding. F~r­
thermore, magma bodies of almost comparable Slze
occur on the continents, e.g. the extensive mid-Creta-
ceous Dekkan flood basalts in India and the Jurassic
flood basalts of the Parana basin in South America.
The volumes of these vo1canic bodies range from ~ 1
to 36 X 106 km3 (Ontong-Java Plateau), and at least
some of them formed in very short time intervals
(one to a few millions of years; Coffin and Eldholm
1994). The large igneous provinces below the sea
and their accompanying vo1caniclastics are presently
under investigation by the Ocean Drilling Program.
Mid-oeeanie ridge voleanism leads to the accretion
of new oceanic crnst. This mechanism yields the
highest production rate of vo1canic rocks, but only a
minor proportion of the ascending magma is widely
dispersed as vo1caniclastic material. The basaltic
magma extrndes from fissures in the median valley
of the ridges and produces abundant pillow basalts,
other lava flows, vo1canic breccias, and pyroclastic
deposits. These volcanic rocks are character~stic~lly
associated with pelagic sediments such as radlOlanan
chert, siliceous green and red clay, or limestones.
Metalliferous sediments of limited extent can accu-
mulate near hydrothermal vents.
Island are and eontinental margin are voleanism
associated with an active subduction zone (Chap. 1,
Fig. 1.2 and Sect. 12.5) is most effective in produc-
ing large volumes of vo1caniclastic materials (see be-
low). The vo1canoes are lined up in a narrow, at least
several hundred kilometers long zone parallel to a
deep-sea trench. The magma production r~te is a
function of the subduction rate and posslbly en-
hanced by concurrent spreading of a backarc basin.
In the case of an island arc, the volcanoes may be
partially submerged or emerged above sea level.
Their vo1canic products are mainly basaltic or
andesitic, but locally more silicic differentiates in-
cluding ignimbrites have been observed. Arc vo1ca-
nism along Anden-type continental margins exhibits
high proportions of intermediate and ~ilicic, largely
ca1c-alkaline material. They may also eJect large vol-
umes of ignimbrites.
The 1980 eruption ofMount St. Helens in Washington .is a
medium-scale, loeal example of this type of are volcamsm.
Due to westerly winds, the pyroclastie fallout was diS-
persed about 1000 km to the east of the voleano. At ~ dis-
tanee of 300 km east of the source, the ash fall deposit was
2 cm in thiekness (Lipmann and Mullineaux 1981). Con-
2.4 Volcaniclastic Sediments
temporaneous debris flows and mud flows, originating on
the summit and the flanks of the vo1cano, travelled as far as
130 km and filled valleys and pre-existing lakes.
Foreare basin sediments (Seet. 12.5.3) range from
eontinental to shallow-marine and deep-marine. In
the ease of an island are, they tend to be rieh in
voleaniclastie material of basaltie to andesitie eharae-
ter. Foreare basins assoeiated with eontinental mar-
gin ares, on the other hand, aeeumulate more aeidie
to intermediate, ealc-alkaline tephra. Deep foreare
basins typieally display abundant debris flows and
thiek turbidite sequenees rieh in volcaniclasties.
Backarc basins (Seet. 12.5.4) eommonly provide
less deep depositional environments ranging from
fluvial, laeustrine to shallow-marine. If the dominant
winds are direeted toward the eontinent, backare bas-
ins ean aeeumulate high volumes of fallout deposits
from ash clouds over the entire basin. Lava flows,
pyroclastie flows, and debris flows, however, enter
the basin from the side of the magmatie are and thus
ereate an asymmetrie basin fill. The backare basins
east of the Andes in South Ameriea provide a promi-
nent example of thiek eontinental volcaniclastie se-
quenees derived from a volcanie are to the west.
The sediments of mature passive margins and
foreland basins normally eontain only small amounts
of voleaniclasties.
2.4.6 Production Rates, Duration, and
Recurrence Intervals of Volcanic Activity
V olcanie aetivity in eontinental rift zones, at mid-
oeeanie ridges or along magmatie ares ean persist for
eonsiderable time periods, ranging from several tens
to some hundred millions of years.
A simple and purely theoretieal ealculation indi-
eates the volume of volcanie material whieh ean be
produeed by a magmatie are in eonjunetion with
subduetion in a eertain time span needed for the clo-
sure of an oeean basin.
Given an ocean of 1000 km width and a subduction rate of
5 cmJa, the elosure of the ocean and hence the volcanic
activity will last for 20 Ma. The volume of ejected volcanic
material depends on the proportion of the subducted crust
and neighboring rocks which is molten and extruded at the
surface. If a plate of I km length (parallel to the subduction
zone), 1000 km wide, and 6 km thick, is subducted and
only 1% of the volume of this rock body is transformed
into volcanielastic material, a sediment volume of approxi-
mately 60 km] (3 km3/km arc length per Ma) results.
Evenly distributed over a basin of 120 km width and I km
length, the volcanielastic material can form a layer of 500
m in thickness in a time span of 20 Ma.
This model shows that subduetion-related volcanism
ean produee indeed very large amounts of volcani-
73
clastie material. In fact, magma produetion of volca-
nie ares ean be higher, but seerns to be more eomplex
and probably varies eonsiderably along strike.
For oeeanie island ares, Straub and Sehmineke
(1998) have determined a produetion rate of 10-13
kmJ/km are length per Ma. It is therefore possible
that a higher pereentage of the subdueting oeeanie
plate contributes to the volcanie aetivity along mag-
matie ares.
A comprehensive study of volcanielastic sediments in the
Pacific, which is the world' s oldest and largest ocean basin,
revealed that about 23 vol-% of the existing Cretaceous
and Cenozoic sediments of the Pacific consist of tephra
(Straub and Schmincke 1998). This estimate is based on 65
legs of deep-sea drilling. A major part ofthe drilled tephra
is represented by distal ash falls resulting from explosive
arc volcanism. The percentage of proximal tephra is poorly
known, because sites elose to volcanic arcs were rarely
drilled, or they have been subducted.
Individual volcanie eruptions ejeeting large rock vol-
umes are eommonly less frequent than small erup-
tions. Likewise, rhyolitie eruptions tend to oeeur less
frequently and to produee larger rock volumes than
do basaltie eruption. Rare eatastrophie volcanie
events are eharaeterized by long reeurrenee intervals
of the order of 100 ka to 1 Ma. They affeet large re-
gions and possibly the entire globe (by eooling), be-
eause they ejeet extensive and long-persisting dust
clouds into the stratosphere. The reeurrenee intervals
of small eruptions ranges from several to hundreds of
years. Astriet eyclieity of these processes eannot be
expeeted.
Volcanic eruptions in the center of Iceland, located above a
mantle plume and related to rifting and ocean spreading,
appear to have occurred periodically (130-140 year peri-
ods) during the past 800 years (Larsen et al. 1998). In peri-
ods ofhigh activity, individual eruptions took place at time
intervals of 3 to 7 years; in low-activity periods the inter-
vals were longer. This findings are based on tephrostrati-
graphy in ice cores and written records. Other parts of the
plate boundary in Iceland show lower eruption frequeneies.
2.4.7 Alteration, Diagenesis, and Metamorphism
of Volcaniclastic Rocks
The maj or part of volcanie minerals and partieularly
glassy materials are thermodynamieally unstable un-
der normal temperatures and pressures near the
Earth's surfaee. In addition, volcaniclastie sediments
have, in eontrast to lava flows, high initial porosities
and permeabilities for eireulating water. As a result,
volcaniclastie sediments are easily altered by
pedogenesis and, under inereasing burial depth, by
diagenesis and metamorphism (cf. Seet. 13.3).
74
These processes are complex and cannot be treated here
(see, e.g., Hughes 1983; Fisher and Schmincke 1984,
1990). Near the Earth's surface and on the sea floor, the
unstable components take up water and are transformed
into clay minerals (e.g., smectites, phyllipsite, and others),
or they form various zeolites. With increasing burial depth,
mechanical compaction and cementation reduce the pore
space and create dense rocks. Chlorite and kaolinite may
replace the early formed clay minerals, but later most
water-bearing minerals are dehydrated and transformed
into more compact mineral phases such as feldspars (e.g.,
albite), epidote, iron oxides, and calcite.
In a strongly altered state, it is hardly possible to dis-
criminate between juvenile components and epiclastic vol-
canic material. Without some experience and the usage of
special methods, the correct identification and genetic in-
terpretation of such rocks is difficult. Guidelines for the
classification of lithified and metamorphic volcaniclastic
rocks are given by Cas and Wright (1987).
2.4.8 Summary (Tephra Deposits)
Tephra deposits result from volcanic eruptions
and mainly consist of pyroclasts, hydroelasts,
and lithoclasts (fragments ofmagmatic and other
roeks) of different grain sizes.
The transport distances of tephra increase from
pyroclastic flows, debris flows (lahars) and mud
flows to fallout deposits which may oeeur sev-
eral thousands of kilometers away from the vol-
canic source.
High-velocity pyroclastic surges on land leave
behind deposits with unusual sedimentary struc-
tures. Tephra are frequently reworked and mixed
with other sediment types.
Submarine eruptions generate submarine debris
flows and turbidity currents (ash turbidites).
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
The frequently used terms spilite and keratophyre desig-
nate degraded metamorphic rocks of volcanic origin
(Hughes 1983). These rocks have re-equilibrated under
low-temperature conditions and are recrystallized without
showing much deformation. The term spilite comprises
rocks of predominantly basaltic composition and texture,
while keratophyres represent rocks of intermediate to acid
composition. In both cases, the initial mineral phases are
replaced by a mineralogy corresponding more or less to the
greenschist facies.
For these and other reasons, the appearance (facies)
of ancient volcaniclastic rocks in outcrops, as well as
their petrographie characteristics, may deviate signif-
icantly from those of young counterparts. The meta-
morphic rocks of so-called greenstone belts in Pre-
cambrian shields consist, to a great part, of former
volcanic flows and volcaniclastic sediments.
The highest emounts of volcaniclastics are pro-
duced by magmatic ares related to subduction
zones. Foreare and backare basins are largely
filled with tephra, but the sediments of wide
ocean areas also contain significant portions of
volcaniclastics.
Individual large-volume eruptions normally
alternate with long time intervals of quiescence.
Smaller, low-volume eruptions may exhibit a
sort of cyclicity.
Continental and marine ash layers can provide
excellent marker horizons for stratigraphie cor-
relation. They perrnit, if not reworked and
strongly altered, precise dating of their host
sediments.
2 Continental Sediments
2.5 Lake Sediments
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 General Processes in Various Lake Systems
(Overview)
2.5.3 Sediments ofOpen Lake Systems
Lakes Dominated by Detrital Clastics
Lakes with Significant Proportions of
Biogenic Sediments
Post-Glacial Lake Evolution
2.5.4 Sediments ofClosed Lake Systems
Overview
Carbonate Lakes
Sulfate Lakes, Soda Lakes, Chloride Lakes
Playa Lakes (Inland Sabkhas)
Examples of Closed Lake Basins and their
Sediments
2.5.5 Black Shale Deposits in Lakes
2.5.6 Succcssions ofLake Sediments
2.5.7 Specific Features ofLake Sediments
Sedimentation Rates and Lifetime ofLakes
Isotopes and Fluid Inclusions Indicating
Paleoclimate
Subsurface Brines and Diagenesis
2.5.8 Economic Aspects ofLake Sediments
Residual Brines and Mineral Deposits
Oil Shales and Hydrocarbons
2.5.9 Summary (Lake Sediments)
2.5.1 Introduction
The origin of weH exposed ancient lake sediments is
often evident at first glance. Many lake deposits are
particularly weH horizontaHy bedded or laminated
and, in addition, show frequent vertical changes in
lithology and color. The principal reasons for these
phenomena are that lakes and their sediments are (1)
little affected by waves and currents and (2) very
sensitive to changes in climate and other environ-
mental factors.
Fresh-water carbonates, thin doJomitic beds, iron
oxides or siderite concretions, oil shales, and
evaporites (commonly differing from those of the
marine realm) characterize certain stages and types of
lacustrine environments. One or several of these rock
types are found in many lake deposits. Furthermore,
lake deposits are frequently associated with fluvial
sediments and fossil soils (paleosols).
Faunal remains usuaHy comprise only a limited
number of species and are often restricted to certain
beds. Important microfossils are diatoms,
dinoflagellates, and ostracods. Particularly ostracods
can tolerate a varying chemical environment from
fresh to brackish and hypersaline water. Bioturbation
is less common than in normal marine environments.
Fresh-water lakes usually contain less than 1 g/l
dissolved constituents, brackish water lakes 1-5 g/l,
and saIt lakes more than 5 g/l. Righly concentrated
brines reach ion concentrations of 200 to 300 g/l and
more. The pR of lake waters may vary from about 4
to 10.
From these criteria one can conclude that lake de-
posits displaya great variety of facies types. Modem
lake systems including their drainage areas have been
often quoted as natural laboratories which are better
suited than larger systems for the study of various
processes controlling their biota and sediments. All
this cannot be described and explained here in detail.
A more thorough treatment of this topic is given, for exam-
pIe, by Dean and Fouch (1983), Anadon et al. (1991),
Gierlowski-Kordesch and Kelts (1994), Talbot and Allen
(1996), Noe-Nygaard (1998) and a number of special arti-
cles mentioned below. The origin of lakes and their classi-
tkation are discussed, e.g., by Horie (1978) and Meybeck
(1995). For hydrological and physical processes in lakes
see, e.g., Sturm and Matter (1978), Lerman et al. (1995).
Lakes originate from different exogenetic and
endogenetic geologie al processes. They occur in ar-
eas of crustal subsidence such as rift zones, continen-
tal sag basins, fore land and backarc basins (cf. Chap.
1) which cannot be inundated by sea water or rapidly
filled with sediment. Most of the oldest, presently
persisting lakes are associated with continental rift
zones, such as Lake Baikai in Asia and the lakes of
the East African Rift. VoIcanic craters and chalderas
are often filled with water and collect voIcaniclastic,
chemical and biogenic sediments, but they usually
are of limited areal extent. Today, glacier-shaped
lakes within and close to mountain ranges or former
large ice sheets are very common (cf. Sect. 2.1). An-
other type of lake is known from some arid to semi-
arid lowlands where wind-induced deflation has cre-
ated shallow morphological depressions which later
have been filled with water.
Ancient lacustrine systems of a green- or hothouse
world (cf. Sect. 7.8) were prcdominantly controlled
76
by tectonic movements. The present-day glacier-
shaped lakes therefore provide poor analogs for the
interpretation of many ancient lake systems. This is
the reason why other lake types in ice-free regions
are dealt with in more detail than, e.g., perialpine
lakes. Furthermore, only few modem lakes have an
areal extent and accumulate sediment thicknesses
similar to those of prominent fossil counterparts.
Lakes are often referred to as "clearing basins" of
rivers. The total bedload and most of the suspended
load of entering rivers settle out in the lake. Lakes
and their corresponding drainage areas therefore can
be regarded as sedimentologically closed denudation-
accumulation systems (cf. Sect. 11.2) even when they
are hydrologically open. Lakes of limited size and
high influx of detrital clastics are short-lived,
whereas large and deep lakes, particularly those in
areas of long-Iasting crustal subsidence and low
terrigenous influx, can pers ist for long geological
time periods. It is this latter type of lake which best
displays the sensitivity of lacustrine sediments to
changing climatic conditions.
2.5.2 General Processes in Various Lake
Systems (Overview)
The great diversity of lake basins and their sedimen-
tary fill makes it difficult to summarize our knowl-
edge in a simple classification scheme. Apart from
the factors mentioned above, we have to consider
physical, hydrological, biological, and chemical pro-
cesses which play a great part, particularly in long-
persisting lakes. In contrast to the open sea, waves
and wind-driven currents are generally much less
important in lakes for the distribution and reworking
of sediments. These processes operate to some extent
along the lake shores but normally do not affect the
lake bottom, unless the lake is very shallow and
large. True tidal currents are absent, but wind stress
may repeatedly drive water against a shore and create
"wind-tidal flats".
For these reasons, lake waters tend to become
stratified either permanently or seasonally (Fig.
2.28b I). Permanent stratification is characteristic of
tropical lakes (temperature stratification, oligomictic
lakes) and lakes in which the bottom water is more
saline than surface water (meromictic lakes). In both
cases, the bottom water (hypolimnion) can become
completely stagnant and be depleted in oxygen and
nutrients, which leads to restricted benthic life and
the preservation of organic matter produced in the
near-surface water (epilimnion). If such stratified
conditions are maintained for a long time period, i.e.,
for at least several thousands of years, laminated
muds rich in organic matter (sapropel) can accumu-
late (see below).
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
In regions 0: temperate climate, the surficial lake
water is warmer during the summer and less den se
than the deeper water; hence, lakes with limited in-
flow and outflow are stratified. However, during the
winter the surface water cools and reaches the same
or a higher density as the bottom water. Conse-
quently, the total lake water body can be tumed over
once or two times a year and become mixed
(monomictic or dimictic lakes, Fig. 2.28a). In this
case, a permanently stagnant hypolirnnion with fully
anoxic conditions cannot develop. Similarly, a major
river crossing a lake will cause underflow (Fig.
2.28a) if its water is cool and comparatively dense.
Then the total lake water body including the
hypolirnnion is weIl supplied with oxygen and en-
ables a fairly high seasonal biogenic production (e.g.,
diatoms, different types of algae, etc).
Such conditions are fairly common in regions of
humid climate where permanent, sufficient inflow of
river water keeps the lake filled with freshwater and
thus maintains a hydrologically open system. In this
case, the entire depositional system is more or less
stable, apart from seasonal variations generating
varves (see below). Most of these open lakes are
dominated proximally by river-derived clastic sedi-
ments and distally by rnixtures of fine-grained
clastics, carbonate, and biogenic silica.
Hydrologically closed lake systems have no sur-
face outflow (Eg. 2.28b), but some of them are leaky
and infiltrate into groundwater. Completely closed or
semi-closed lakes are common in regions of warm,
semi-arid climate. If evaporation of lake water is
ab out equal to inflow, a permanent water body can be
maintained (perennial lakes, Fig. 2.28bl and b2).
However, as a result of minor climatic variations in
the range of 10 to some 100 years, the water level of
such lakes may fluctuate considerably and affect a
wide beach and near-shore zone (sand flats or mud
flats, Fig. 2.28b and bl) by repeated emergence and
inundation.
In the late Pleistocene, the water levels of Great Salt Lake
in North America, Dead Sea, and some lakes in the East
African Rift zone varied by several hundreds of meters.
Even in the Holocene lake fluctuations of 10m and more
are common (Currey 1990; Niemi et al. 1997; Scholz and
Rosendahl (1990).
During periods of high water level, the chernistry of
lake water may change markedly, either by dilution
of highly mineralized water or re-dissolution of salts
precipitated during emergence in the near-shore
zone. Deeper lakes tend to evolve stable stratified
conditions with oxygen-depleted bottom water.
During longer time periods (thousands of years)
the concentration of highly soluble species in the
lake water tends to increase and finally to lead to the
precipitation of salts. Ephemeral or playa lakes (in-
2.5 Lake Sediments 77

a · OPEN" LAKE SYSTEMS b · CLOSED" LAKE SYSTEMS

OUTFLOW INFLOW

DENSITY WIDE SAND AND

OVERTURN UNDERFLOW ( THIN TURBIDITES) MUD FLATS
(SHIFTING FACIES BELT , REPEATED
WATER FRESH OR SLiGHTLY BRACKISH. REWORKING AND DISSOLUTION OF SALTS)
RIVER ·DOMINATED CLASTIC SEDIMENTS.
TENDENCY TO:

OLIGOTROPH EUTROPH
EPILIMNION
LlTTLE NUTRIENTS (WELL OXYGENATED~

~
~ ----r-
Of\--
I .
_ _ 1 ..... = STABLE
STRATIFICATION HYPOLIMNION.
NO PERMANENT •• _ _ __ BOTTOM LlFE
BOTTOM Ll FE 3L\*",- OXYGEN MINIMUM
STRATIFICATION ~:"l;:~ ~LL OXYGENATED SPARSE OR ABSENT \ ZONE
ANNUAL VARVES OR POOR LAMINATION . DISTINCT LAMINATION. RICH IN ORG,
LlTTLE ORG MATTER. PARTLY IRON
HYDROXIDES. TURBIDITES ~ "" MATTER. =
SIDERITE CONCRETIONS

b2 PERENNIAl L AKES
b3 EPHEMER AL LAKES
(PLAYA, INLAND SABKHA)
MUD CRACKS . CRUSTS OF MG· CALCITE . FRESHWATER

-..."5(--- h ---j/'
FLUCTUATING LAKE LEVEL DOLOMITE. GYPSUM. OR HAllTE CARBONATE
(SPRING)

~· :':-· .l> .?r;.}~"..·:·/t ,'".·k -

PERMANENT EVAPORATIVE PUMPING CENTRAL THIN SALT
WATER BODY . FROM HIGH WATER TABLE DEPOSITION. ALTERNAT ING
BUT CHANGING
SALINITY
/ WITH CLASTICS
BEDDED C ARBONATES AND I OR
THICK EVAPORITES ALTERNATING
WITH FI NE·GRAINED CLASTICS
OR BLACK SHALES
b4 WATER TABlE BElOW LAKE FlOOR
CLAY DUNES ( WIND ,BLOWN
DEFLATION AND CLAY PELLETS)
LEACHING OF SALTS

a2 LAKE CHAIN
IIN SEMIARID TO ARID REGION)
',':.'" ~~,~o:-:"":~-:,,:,•..;.;..~
;..'
.: .-::.~;.':,".:~~:~~:::::;:;.
INCREASING SALINITY
~:.~ '~.:-7.~,~ 7':~R;~~~~~-!::E~'~ ~:.~.~:~ ~:~~
-E- -- ------- ---- -
k"
C SEA-LAGOON-LAKE SYSTEM

CHLOR IDE SU LFAT E CARBONATE

PRECIPITATION SEA
CHANGING WATER CHEMISTRY
..,, -------:--- - -:- ..
. . : r': ...... :
.... /1 ' . ~ . 'I'" ~ ... :.
_____: ..:71 '- ~ - -7 -~OUNDWATER
DIFFERENT CA R80N~TES \INCL DOLOMITE )

Fig. 2.28. Overview of different lake systems. a
Open system with inflow and outflow; the lake water
ehemistry is river-dominated. al Weil oxygenated,
oligotrophie lake (poor in nutrients). a2 Chain of
eonneeted lakes, at the downstream end open or
c1osed. b Closed systems without outflow; eoneen-
tration of dissolved speeies eommonly inereasing
withlowering lake water level and time. bl Stable
stratifieation of lake water and eutrophie eonditions
with oxygen-defieient bottom water (also feasible for
a). b2 Perennial lake, suffieiently deep with enough
inflow to maintain a permanent water fil\. b3 Ephem-
eral lake, usually dry or redueed to small shallow
pond(s), seasonally or irregularly flooded.
b4 Ephemeral or permanently dry lake with ground-
water table below lake floor, and downward leaehing
of salts, c Open sea-lagoon-lake system, eontrolled
mainly by subsurfaee sea water and groundwater
flow (Coorong model, Australia). For further expla-
nation see text
78
land sabkhas) are shallow and fall dry most of the
time, apart from a central pond containing highly
concentrated brines (Fig. 2.28b3). By "evaporative
pumping", i.e., ascending capillary water from a shal-
low groundwater table, they can precipitate salts at
the surface. If the groundwater table drops too deep
for capillary water to reach the surface, salts of the
playa or salt pan are leached and transported into the
underground (Fig. 2.28b4, see also below).
Finally, several open lake systems may be com-
bined to form a lake chain (Fig. 2.28a2), where the
last (lowermost) lake has either an outflow or is
closed. In arid to semi-arid regions, such lake chains
may display a systematic change in water chemistry
and thus also in their precipitated salts. Similarly, the
chemistry of lakes near the ocean may be influenced
by both seaward flowing groundwater and landward
intruding sea water (Fig. 2.28c). This situation can
create special chemical environments for the forma-
tion of coastal carbonates including dolomite (Sect.
3.4).
2.5.3 Sediments of Open Lake Systems
Lakes in regions of temperate, humid climate can
accumulate four main types of sediments (Dean
1981 ):
~ Detrital clastic material (primarily siliciclastics
and reworked carbonates).
~ Autochthonous biogenic and bio-induced carbon-
ate.
~ Autochthonous biogenic silica.
~ Sediments rich in organic matter.
Lakes Dominated by Detrital Clastics
The detrital clastic components of lake sediments
reflect the relief, climate, and rock types present in
the drainage area of the lake (Sect. 9.3). Proglacial
lakes (Sect. 2.1) and many lakes in mountainous ar-
eas are dominated by terrigenous clastic sediments
including detrital carbonate. Due to a high sedimen-
tation rate, the autochthonous sediment components
are strongly diluted, or they are produced in quanti-
ties too low to gain a significant influence. Sedimen-
tation in such lakes is largely controlled by physical
processes distributing both the bedload and sus-
pended load ofthe entering river(s) over the lake.
The river bedload is in motion during floods and
builds a delta out into the lake. This usually has a
lobate or birds-foot form and typically consists of
fluvial topsets and lake fore sets which together form
a classical "Gilbert-type" delta (Fig. 2.29a). The
foresets pass into finer grained bottomsets. However,
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
where rivers discharge into very shallow lakes, the
architecture of the deltaic sediments is less regular.
In deeper lakes, a great part of the sandy river
bedload is transported from oversteepened delta
slopes into deeper water, either directly by
underflows during river floods, or by gravity mass
flows (evolving into turbidity currents; cf. Sect. 5.4.).
Thus, the principal sediment texture on the bottom of
such lakes is silty-sandy, i.e. comparatively thin,
sandy or silty turbidites alternate with fine-grained
mud which reflects slow settling from suspension.
The sediment-laden flows of large rivers can also
form subaqueous channels with levees on the
prodelta slope extending into the deeper lake (Fig.
2.29a) as, for example, observed in Lake Geneva,
Switzerland.
If muddy river water is less dense than the bottom
water of the lake, the suspended matter is distributed
by overflow (surface currents) or interflow over the
lake (Fig. 2.28a). Rhythmic sequences resulting from
these processes range from sandy, mostly thin-bed-
ded proximal turbidites to varve-type distal succes-
sions. The recurrence time of turbidite events is sel-
dom controlled by the seasons, but rather by irregular
storms occurring several times per year and/or rare
larger events.
Lake slopes at some distance away from river del-
tas receive only fine-grained material from overflows
and intermediate flows (apart from autochthonous
sediments, see below). Part of these fine-grained
slope sediments is transported by slumps and mud
flows into the deeper lake.
The sedimentation rates of small to medium-sized
lakes receiving water from large to medium-sized
rivers draining nearby mountainous regions are very
high. The following orders of magnitude are charac-
teristic for the different zones of a lake dominated by
detrital clastics (see also Wright et al. 1980; Hsü and
Kelts 1984; Sun Shuncai 1988):
~ Prodelta area: several tens to hundreds of meters
per thousand years (ka).
~ Lake center: 3 to 10 mika.
~ Lake slopes: 1 to 3 mika.
These values demonstrate that such lakes have a
short life time and that prodelta and proximal bottom
sediments make up the bulk of their sediment fill.
This typically shows a distinct coarsening-upward
sequence from silty, varve-type bottom sets to sandy
prodelta foresets and fluvial sands and gravel (Fig.
2.29b).
2.5 Lake Sediments 79

~(mg/l) CaC0 3 SATURATION LITTORAL

C CARBONATE FACIES
d UN DER OVER EPILIMNION
(PHOTOSYNTHESIS)
CARBONATE PRECIPITATION
~ / 'l' ~ METALIMNION
////
HYPOLIMNION
DECOMPOS ITION
CARBONATE OF ORG. MATTER
HIGH TERRIGENOUS
DISSOLUTION
I~
FLUVIAL
TOPSETS

PRODELTA
FORESETS
SUBAQUEOUS
CHANNEL AND
LEVEE

BOTTOM SETS
(PROXIMAL
TURB IDI TES)
FINE ·GRAINED

e
SLOPE SED
VARIATIONS
b
DUE TO: 1\ !
--:. ' ..;:~,:.. :- . Po •
FLUVIAL
..LI \ ( TOPSETS
\..L.
..J...\ MARL
BIOTURBATED
HIGH I J..
= SOME ORG.C
/ ..J... , \
TERRIG. ~ ~
OXIC INPUT <
..J... "-
BOTTOM
WATER \---- f-~I\t L1ME MUD,
BIOTURBATED,
PROXIMAL
SANDY ·SILTY
LOW ~ TURBIDITES
LOW IN ORG. C
> \ SLUMPS
: r-'
- - - - - - -+==,..,.S-":~::!'
MUD, =CALC .. SOME
-I-S~ BIOTUR·
SUB ·OXIC SO ME BIOTURB.
MEDIUM·RICH IN BATION
=I~
1-=-,::. ORG . C (GYTTJA) ---- PROXIMAL
BOTTOMSETS
ANOXIC b2

I~""
---...
:-:1 DISTAL ___ DISTAL
1em FINE· --- BOTTOMSETS
. " GRAINED __ -
TURBIOITES
.... /(VARVE·TYPE)

Fig. 2.29. a Scheme of open lake system with high
terrigenous input into mam basin and low input in
adjacent hard-water lake. b Coarsening-upward se-
quence of detrital clastics-dominated basin fill with
(bi) proximal and (b2) distal (varve-like) turbidites.
c Littoral carbonate facies. d Some characteristics of
the epi- and hypolimnion of hard-water lakes allow-
ing calcite precipitation in summer time (based on
Dean 1981). e Variations in profundal (bottom) sedi-
ments of hard-water lake due to changing terrigenous
input and oxygenation of bottom water. Note the oc-
currence of annual varves
80
Lakes with Significant Proportions of Biogenie
Sediments
Many lakes or parts of them exhibit a transitional
stage between over-supplied and sediment-starved
conditions (Fig. 2.29c through e). The contribution
of biogenic skeletal components and organic matter
to lake sediments is strongly influenced by the chem-
istry oflake water and nutrient supply. Waters rich in
earth alkali ions, particularly calcium, favor the
growth of lime-secreting organisms, whereas lakes
poor in calcium ions but relatively rich in dissolved
silica and nutrients (such as phosphorus and nitrate)
allow a high production of biogenic opaline silica.
Usually both biogenic carbonate and opaline silica
are found in lake sediments, but in widely varying
fractions of the total sediment.
In so-called hard-water lakes which, at least sea-
sonally, are oversaturated with respect to calcium
carbonate, calcareous shells of organisms and inor-
ganically precipitated carbonate play a significant
part. This is particularly important in the littoral
zone, even in lakes which are well supplied with de-
trital clastics (Fig. 2.29c). Charophytes and bluegreen
algae extract CO 2 from lake water for photosynthesis
and thus cause precipitation of calcium carbonate at
their surface. Successive layers of calcite coatings
form different types of crusts and nodules (oncoids),
associated with reworked, sand-sized carbonate.
During the warm season calcium carbonate is also
precipitated chemically in the form of tiny micritic
crystals of low-Mg calcite. This occurs in the
epilimnion over the entire lake basin which becomes
markedly oversaturated as a result of increased tem-
perature and CO 2 consumption by phytoplankton
(Fig. 2.29d). The tiny calcite particles are partially
redissolved in the hypolimnion which remains
undersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate,
due to the release of CO 2 from decaying organic mat-
ter and a lower pH. The remainder of the micritic
calcite (lutite) generates a thin, light-colored layer in
the profundal lake zone which is later (in fall and
winter time) overlain by clayey material and settling
organic debris (Kelts and Hsü 1978). In spring a high
production of diatoms may contribute to the forma-
tion of such nonglacial annual varves which are a
few tenths to a few millimeters thick (Fig. 2.28al).
Such varves are well developed and preserved in
lakes with little benthic bottom life and limited influx
of terrigenous material.
The oxygen content ofthe hypolimnion (as well as
terrigenous input) may vary from lake to lake or in
the same lake with time (Fig. 2.2ge). The bottom sed-
iments of such lakes therefore often show transitional
facies between bioturbated marly silts and clays,
marls, and light-colored, highly calcareous muds
(seekreide), or between sediments poor and rich in
organic matter. Muds containing considerable
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
amounts of organic detritus but still showing some
bioturbation are called gyttja. Well laminated,
organic-rich muds are referred to as sapropel which
frequently contains more than 10% organic carbon
(see also below).
Soft-water lakes poor in calcium but sufficiently
rich in nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrate,
may accumulate sediments rich in opaline silica de-
rived largely from diatom frustules. Such lakes are
common in regions of cool climate when input of
detrital material is low.
A prominent example is the deep, relatively old Lake
Baikai in Siberia, which exists since the
Oligocene/Miocene and has accumulated up to about 2000
m of sediments (e.g. Moore et al. 1997). These mainly con-
sist of deltaic material shed from the east and
diatomaceous muds. In areas where the sedimentation rate
is low «3 cmlka). ferric iron crusts have been found at the
lake floor (Deike et al. 1997). These crusts also contain
Mn, Ca, and P and rnay alternate with layers in which vivi-
anite (iron-II phosphate) was detected.
Arctic lakes, which are not associated with glaciers,
commonly are poor in nutrients and organic production and
often receive !ittle detrital material (Kipphut 1988). Lakes
in arid polar regions may even precipitate salts such as hy-
drated sodium sulfate and calcium chloride (Müller 1988).
The sedimentation rate of soft-water lakes is often
comparatively low (on the order of 10 cmlka). Shal-
low, poorly drained lakes with the growth of peat
tend to become acidic and develop reducing condi-
tions.
Post-glacial Lake Evolution
The post-glacial development of a relatively small,
glacier-shaped model lake in humid temperate cli-
mate is shown in Fig. 2.30. The overall tendency is
the evolution from a relatively deep, large, water-
filled basin to a small pond and finally dry land. At
the beginning of this development, the lake floor may
be covered by thick glacial till (as observed in peri-
Alpine lakes). The first lake sediments after the re-
treat of ice are sandy prodelta foresets and silty gla-
cial varves deposited by turbidity currents in the
profundal zone. These sediments and their relatively
high sedimentation rates reflect ongoing ice action
and reworking of older glacial deposits by meltwater
in the drainage area. Vegetation is absent or sparse in
the surrounding land and, due to the still unfavorable
climatic conditions and low nutrient supply, the or-
ganic productivity of the lake is also very low at this
stage. The rapidly accumulating clastic sediments are
therefore poor in organic matter.
In a second stage, vegetation starts to spread out
over the land and reduces the input of detrital clastics
into the lake. Simultaneously, dissolution of carbon-
ates and chemical weathering of silicates in the drain-
2.5 Lake Sediments
FOREST PEAl
DYSTROPHie
11 GYTTJA • ANNUA l VARVES
EUTROPH ie
11 MAR l OR C ALC MUD ( SEEKREIDE)
OLIGOTROPHie
PROGLACIAL " VARVES · f COMMONlY NON - ANNUA l TURBIDITES )
Fig. 2.30. Generalized scheme of the post-glacial
sediment fill of a glacier-shaped lake. (After Dean
age area increase and thus provide the lake with cal-
cium, silica, and nutrients. Once calcite has reached
saturation, the lake precipitates calcium carbonate in
summer time as described above and accumulates,
depending on the terrigenous input, a sediment more
or less rich in carbonate (marly c1ay, mari,
seekreide). This sediment is still fairly poor in or-
ganic matter.
As soon as a dense vegetation cover is established,
more plant remains are swept into the lake, and the
fertility of the lake increases as a result of higher nu-
trient supply and recirculation of nutrients from de-
caying organic matter within the lake. Thus, the lake
tends to become eutrophie with a high production of
phytoplankton and algae in the epiliminion and an
oxygen deficiency in the hypoliminion. The resulting
sediment is a gyttja or sapropel, which still may con-
tain a considerable proportion of calcium carbonate.
The relatively high lacustrine sedimentation rate,
as compared with marine sediments, favors the pres-
ervation of organic matter (Sect. 10.3.3). As the lake
shallows, the littoral zone of rooted aquatic vegeta-
tion begins to grow outward into the lake, the algal
gyttja around the lake margins is replaced by sedge
peat (Fig. 2.30). Peat provides a stable substrate for
the growth of higher plants, the remains of which
generate forest peat. If the main river is diverted from
the lake, the lake water becomes poor in nutrients
and acidic (i.e., dystrophie) as a result of decaying
plants with the generation of humic substances. The
life of the lake ends with a peat layer or fluvial de-
posits on top of pro delta foresets.
This simplified scheme may be modified in larger
lake basins and by minor c1imatic oscillations during
the general trend discussed here (see e.g. Moscariello
et al. 1998).
81
INPUT OF DETRITAL CL ASTICS FLUVIAL SANDS
AND GRAVEL
DEC RE AS ING HIGH
PRODE LT A
.. b
FORE SETS
,',cr ~ :: GL ACIAl TILL
...... OLDER BEDROCK
1981). It is assumed that input of detrital c1astics
decreases with time and finally ends
2.5.4 Sediments of Closed Lake Systems
Overview
Closed lake systems mainly develop in regions of
arid to semi-arid c1imate where evaporation from the
lake surface exceeds water inflow into the lake. The
unusual nature and variety of sediments forming in
c10sed lake systems has attracted the interest of geol-
ogists, sedimentologists, and geochemists for a long
time. It is particularly this type of environment which
renders reliable information about the c1imate and its
change in the past. However, the types of salt miner-
als (summarized under the term evaporites) preserved
in the fossil record also depends on the characteris-
tics of the drainage areas of the former lake basins
(e.g., volcanic versus sedimentary rocks). In addi-
tion, diagenesis commonly modifies the original min-
eral associations. In this section, only qualitative as-
pects of chemical sediments are discussed. A more
quantitative approach is indicated in Section 11.4.
We largely neglect here that specific organisms can live in
salt lakes and contribute to their sediments. Furthermore,
bacterial sulfate reduction may significantly modify the
nature and succession of precipitated minerals. Several
books deal with both lacustrine and marine evaporites (cf.
Sect. 6.4). Lacustrine evaporites have been discussed, e.g.,
by Eugster and Hardie (1978), Herczeg and Lyons (1991),
Smoot and Lowenstein (1991), Renaut and Last (1994),
Renaut et al. (1996), Warren (1997). The role of c1ay min-
erals has been addressed in some recent articles (e.g.
Michalopoulos and Aller 1995; summary in Yan 1999) .
In closed lake basins, generally two types of concen-
tration processes can be distinguished:
82
(1) The water volume of the lake with a given
amount of dissolved species is reduced. This occurs
when evaporation from the lake surface exceeds river
inflow and precipitation onto the lake surface (evapo-
rative concentration, ephemerallake). As a result, the
lake shrinks and may even dry out and form an in-
land sabkha (see below). This process takes a rela-
tively short time in which dissolved matter of further
inflowing water plays a minor role. The amount of
salt minerals which can be precipitated during one
cycle of evaporation therefore mainly depends on the
pre-existing volume and salt concentration of the
lake.
(2) The lake water volume remains more or less con-
stant (perenniallake). The salt concentration slowly
increases due continuous river influx. Large drainage
areas with high chemical denudation rates (cf. Sect.
9.2) add more dissolved matter to the lake than small
ones in which weathering proceeds slowly.
Principally, mineral precipitation in a lake can com-
mence when the concentrations of the dissolved spe-
cies with respect to a specific mineral have reached
saturation (thermodynamic equilibrium). This pro-
cess also depends on the concentrations of other dis-
solved species as well as on the temperature and pR
of the system. These relationships are special topics
in geochemistry.
The most important types of salt deposits and their
possible temporal and vertical successions in peren-
nial and ephemeral lakes are summarized in Fig.
2.31. Since almost alllakes receive solid loads from
their drainage areas, reactions of so lids with lake wa-
ter should be considered first. In fact, the incoming
clay minerals, degraded by weathering in the drain-
age areas, react with lake water and take up cations,
hydrogen carbonate and silica. This so-called
"re gradation" of clay minerals (or reverse weather-
ing) consumes a significant amount of the incoming
dissolved matter.
It may lead to the formation of illite, montmorillonite, and
smectite at the expense of kaolinite. In addition, small
amounts of new clay minerals can form in the lake already
at very low salt concentrations. These processes have been
largely neglected in previous studies on lake evaporites.
The first mineral which is precipitated either chemi-
cally or biochemically is normal low-Mg calcite, re-
gardless of the rock types present in the drainage ar-
eas. This is so because all river waters and shallow
groundwaters are rich in Ca and RC0 3 and mostly
show Ca>Mg and RC0 3>Ca+Mg (cf. Sect. 9.2, Figs.
9.6 and 9.8). Increasing salt concentration, e1evated
temperature, and loss of CO 2 favor calcite precipita-
tion.
The next steps in lake evolution are related to the
more specific chemistry of the inflowing water. Two
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
or three different lines of deve10pment can be dis tin-
guished (Fig. 2.31):
- The inflowing water is of the common, earth alkali-
hydrogen carbonate type which is characteristic for
many rivers draining carbonate-bearing sedimentary
rocks and plutonic rocks in highlands. As a result of
calcite precipitation, Mg is re1atively enriched in the
solution. Prograding evaporation leads to the precipi-
tation of further earth alkali carbonates (carbonate
lakes), but now Mg is partially used to transform cal-
cite into other carbonate minerals, e.g. dolomite (see
below). Later, gypsum, halite, Mg salts and other
evaporites form. The ultimate brine is enriched in Na,
K, Mg, Cl and possibly S04 if sulfate reduction is
limited or absent. This brine is poor in RC0 3 and
Si02 and has a relatively low pR.
- A second, less common line of salt deposits starts
with waters comparatively rich in sulfate andlor chlo-
ride as well as calcium, but poor in RC0 3
(RCO)<Ca+Mg). The chemistry of these waters is
commonly influenced by the dissolution of older
evaporites in the drainage areas of the lakes (cf. Rio
Grande in North America, cf. Fig. 9.5). Calcite pre-
cipitation is followed by gypsum and NazS0 4 miner-
als inc1uding glauberite (sulfate lakes). The final
stage is again characterized by halite and other highly
soluble mineral:.;.
- The prerequisite for a third series of salts is lake
water rich in hydrogen carbonate and alkali ions.
Such waters often come from drainage areas domi-
nated by volcanic and plutonic rocks inc1uding re-
gions where Na is enriched by cation exchange in the
subsurface. After a sodalake stage with the accumu-
lation of sodium carbonate minerals, again halite and
other highly soluble minerals precipitate. The ulti-
mate brine is characterized by high concentrations of
RC0 3 and Si02 , apart from Na and Cl, and has a
high pR (9 to 11). Alkaline brines can dissolve con-
siderable amounts of silica. If the lake water is di-
luted and the pR drops to lower values, water-rich
precursors of bedded chert or chert nodules are pre-
cipitated, as observed for example in Lake Magadi in
the East African rift zone (Eugster and Rardie 1978;
cf. Sect. 12.1.2).
- The residual brines, i.e., the brines after the precip-
itation of halite, may contain rare elements, such as
K, Li, U, P, B, F, Br, and J. This is in particular the
case, when the drainage area of the lake is rich in
volcanic rocks and primary minerals undergoing
first-cyc1e weathering. In several present-day salt
lakes, some of these elements are of economic inter-
est.
In ancient lake deposits, the highly soluble constituents are
often missing, because they were dissolved by circulating
groundwater or dissipated by diffusion into neighboring
rocks. Furthermore, some of the primary salt minerals may
have been replaced by secondary, diagenetic minerals (e.g.
2.5 Lake Sediments 83

Ww Na - CI - HC03
~Cl. Na - Mg - K - CI - (S04)
0:>- ALKALI NE, RICH IN Si02
IDI-
Mg SALTS, HAllTE, HAllTE HAllTE
AND OTHER SALTS AND OTHER SALTS AND OTHER SALTS

z t
r
>-9 GLAUBERITE 1
IDI-
z« (CaS0,jNa 2S04)
og:
f=z THENARDITE (Na2S04)
«W
I-U
GYPSUM
-z
9=0 -" MIRABILITE "SODA LAKES"

f (
/ (Na 2S04'10 H20) WITH GAYLUSSITE

1
~u
O:(:J
Cl.z /
/' ~............ Na 2COa' CaC03' 5H20~
...J-
«CI) /' GYPSUM " AND TRONA
0:« (NaHC03' Na2C03' 2H 2 0)

t
WW MAGNESITE 1,
zO:
_U
~~
DOLOMITE 1,
ARAGONITE, SULFATE LAKES +
•
SODA (NATRON) LAKES
HIGH-Mg CALCITE

CARBONj TE LAKES

LOW-Mg CALCITE

REGRADATION OF CLAY MINERALS, NEW CLAY MINERALS

(:J
t
HC<l.3 < 2 (Ca +Mg)
t
HC03 < (Ca + Mg)
t
Z HC<l.3 > 2 (Ca + Mg)
3:0:
OW NORMAL HYDROGEN SULFATE AND HYDROGEN CARBONATE
...JI-
u.« CARBONATE WATERS CHLORIDE WATERS WATERS RICH.IN Na
~3: (HUMID CLiMATE) (AND K), PARTLY CAUSED
BY ION EXCHANGE
W
(:J
« SEDIMENTARY ROCKS DISSOLUTION OF MAINL Y VOLCANIC
~« AND OTHER ROCK TYPE S OLDER EVAPORITES AND PLUTONIC ROCKS
«w
0:0:
0« ') DIAGENETIC MINERALS

Fig. 2.31. Simplified scheme of salt precipitation in the rock types in the drainage areas. Minor deviations
lakes due to mcreasing evaporative concentration. from these trends are omitted. (Primarily based on
The principal lines of evolution are controlled by the Eugster and Hardie 1978, modified)
composition of inflowing water which in turn reflects

dolomite, glauberite, and gaylussite). In addition, some Carbonate Lakes

authigenic silicate minerals may form in conjunction with
salt deposits (e.g. zeolites).
Closed lake systems have in common that their fluc-
tuating water levels cause exposure and considerable
reworking of nearshore sediments. They exhibit
widely shifting facies belts, and their deltas move
basinward during lowstands (cf. Sect. 7.6). Sheet
floods may repeatedly inundate large areas and leave
behind thin, graded beds.
As a result of calcite (CaC0 3) and gypsum
(CaS042H 20) precipitation, the Mg/Ca ratio in the
lake water increases. This, in conjunction with a high
pH (about 9) and high alkali ion concentrations, fa-
vors the formation of Mg-rich carbonates such as
high-Mg calcite and, in extreme cases, proto-dolo-
mite and hydro-magnesite. During early diagenesis,
dolomitE- (CaC0 3MgC0 3) and sometimes even
magnesite (MgC0 3) are generated (Müller et al.
84
1972). In many modern to P1eistocene 1akes, dolo-
mite may have formed as primary mineral (Last
1990). Ostracods, algae and bacteria, all of them to1-
erating marked changes in salinity, contribute to the
formation of carbonate deposits (e.g. ostracod lime-
stones, algal bioherms, stromatolites, etc.).
In perennial lakes with inflow balancing evapora-
tion, the ion concentration of the water increases
with time. Then the resulting sedimentary sequences
in the lake center show an evolution from calcareous
to dolomitic marls, which may be rich in organic mat-
ter, and finally to evaporites (Fig. 2.32e). If such a
long-term trend is superimposed by shorter term cli-
matic variations, the resulting sequences frequently
display rhythmic or cyclic phenomena, for example
marls alternating with carbonate layers, or kerogen-
rich marls alternating with claystones or marls less
rich in organic matter (Fig. 2.32t).
An alternative to this model is a slowly dropping
lake level 1eading likewise to an increase in ion con-
centration of the shrinking water body. Conse-
quently, the highest elevated littoral zone is charac-
terized by biogenic and bio-induced carbonate depos-
ited under non-saline conditions (Fig. 2.32b). This
deposit may alternate with fluvial sands, beach sands,
or alluvial fans. In stages 2 and 3 (Fig. 2.32c and d)
of the lake evolution, the littoral zone migrates
basinward and rests on sediments deposited during a
higher lake level. Thus, shallowing-upward se-
quences are generated which also indicate an upward
increase in salinity. In a cross-section from the mar-
ginal, littoral zone to the center of the lake (Fig.
2.32b to d), the carbonate facies changes from that of
a nonsaline to a highly saline lake. Marginal, calcare-
ous ooids and desiccation cracks and tepees in chem-
ically precipitated micritic carbonate mud are com-
mon (Sect. 3.2.2).
Siderite concretions, often representing a mixture of sev-
eral carbonate minerals (containing Fe, Mg, Ca, Mn) is
fairly common in ancient lake and brackish water deposits
but rare in the sediments of modem lakes. Siderite can
form diagenetically under reducing conditions where the
calcium and sulfide contents of pore waters are low and, in
addition, the Fe/Ca mol ratio is relatively high (,,0.4;
Füchtbauer and Richter 1988). Since the water of many
lakes contains much less sulfate than sea watet, the source
for generating iron sulfide with the aid of sulfate reducing
bacteria is limited. Therefore, iron carbonate has a better
chance of being formed in lake sediments than in marine
sediments, provided iron-bearing minerals can release suf-
ficient iron.
Sulfate Lakes, Soda Lakes, Chloride Lakes
After precipitation of gypsum and possibly other sul-
fate minerals, the remaining lake water contains only
salts of very high solubility. In order to precipitate
these components, i.e., predominantly Na, Mg, Cl,
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
and S04, a further drastic increase in the total ion
concentration of the lake water is required (for halite
precipitation 390 to 440 g/kg of solution). The nature
and succession of salts deposited after this process is
controlled by the chemistry of the lake water (cf. Fig.
2.31). The most prominent salt occurring in most of
the lakes at this stage is halite (NaCl) (Fig. 2.33a). It
may be accompanied by Mg salts and some other
compounds which are rarely preserved in the ancient
record.
Saline waters rich in sodium and sulfate precipi-
tate thenardite (N~S04)' mirabilite (N~S041 OH 20),
and glauberite (CaS04N~S04) before halite can
form. Soda lakes precipitate natron (N a2C03 1OHP)
and trona (NaHC03N~C032H20) (Fig. 2.33a2 and
a3). As a result of increasing aridity these lakes may
develop the following sequence (from top to bottom):
Trona and gaylussite (Na2C0 3 CaC0 35H 20,
formed diagenetically).
Dolomite and gaylussite (in summer).
- Calcite and dolomite.
Prior to the precipitation of trona, the ion concentra-
ti on of the brine must be very high. If this is reached,
the comparatively low evaporation loss of one year
can cause precipitation of a fairly thick trona layer on
the order of 5 mm. Similarly, annual layers of halite
(rock salt) attain a thickness on the order of 1 cm (cf.
Sect. 6.4).
Playa Lakes (Inland Sabkhas)
Whereas perennial, long-persisting salt lakes can ac-
cumulate rather thick and pure salt deposits (cf. Fig.
2.28b2), ephemeral playa lakes usually leave behind
only thin salt layers alternating with clastic material.
These playa lakes are dry most of the time, with a salt
pan in their center (Figs. 2.28b3 and 2.33b). Their
marginal zone is commonly characterized by wide
sand and mud flats, which may develop thin salt
crnsts (consisting, e.g., of proto-dolomite on the
outer flats and gypsum and halite on the inner flats).
In addition, this zone shows desiccation cracks and
locally also some sparse vegetation and burrowing
organisms (Fig. 2.33b 1). Weil laminated microbial
mats are fairly common on the mud flats, but some
centimeters or decimeters below the surface they are
mostly destroyed.
As long as the capillary fringe of the groundwater
table reaches the lake floor, salts such as halite, gyp-
sum, and sodium sulfate crystallize interstitially from
the ascending groundwater. This process is referred
to as evaporative pumping. It leads to the formation
of nodules or irregular layers of these salts below the
surface of sand and mud flats. The flats and the cen-
tral salt pan are occasionally inundated by sheet
2.5 Lake Sediments 85

STAGES OF
LAKE LEVEL AND I OR
a BIOGENIC CARBONATE
(BIOHER MS . STROMATOLlTES.
WATER RICH IN
Ca ++ .Mg ++ . HCOj
ION CONCENTRATION ONCOIDS)

, ---\--------- _ ~gi~ _____ ~~EEI~I~A~~N_~ ____ _ _ _

LOW Mg -CALCITE
< 2 ~.} ~ SABKHA
INCREASE

__ ______ J,___ l ___ L

-------- ----------Shl~---
IN ION CON- Mg -CALCITE
2 CENTRATION 2~1:
AND Mg /Ca
ARAGONITE

FALL OF LAKE LEVEL (OR INCREASE

/ IN ION CONCENTRATION) "-
REGULAR IRREGULAR
(CLI MATIC VARIATIONS)

e f d LITTORAL
CARBONATE
LITTORAL
CARBONATE
MUD CRACKS.
H-t-H~~ ROCK SALT AND
WITH OOIDS,
ETC , GYPSUM XX
OTHER EVAPORITES
4
GYPSUM AND GYPSUM
CLAY
DOLOMITIC DOLOMITE CALCAREOUS
MARL MARL
z ORG. C
(BLACK.· BEACH
CALC. TO SHALE) DOLOMITIC SANDS .
DOLOMITIC LIMESTONE FLUVIAL
MARL SANDS .
ALLUVIAL
C ALC
MARL
~;e~- LIMESTONE FAN

LAKE EXTENSION WITH FALLING

WATER LEVEL (STAGES 1 TO 4) 9

STAGE 4

{ARAGONTE)
LON Mg-CALCITE :?
BIOGENIC . :::
/?
AfI()
OOLotvtTIC
EVAPORITES MARLS CARBONATE ..
.'::":,'
: .'

Fig. 2.32. a Scheme of carbonate-dominated, more
or less closed lacustrine depositional system where
either (I) the lake level maintains its elevation but
ion concentration increases with time, or (2) ion con-
centration grows with falling lake level. In both
cases, the Mg/Ca ratio increases, and primary car-
bonate precipitation proceeds from low-Mg calcite to
aragonite. It may be followed by gypsum and other
evaporite minerals. During early diagenesis, high-Mg
calcite and aragonite are frequently converted to do-
lomite. b,c,d Truncated marginal lake sections result-
ing from falling lake level and prograding fluvial
sediments. e,f Complete sections in lake center,
e without, and f with influence of short-term climatic
variations. g Four stages of lake shrinking and
change in marginal carbonate facies. (Based on dif-
ferent sources, e.g. Müller et al. 1972; Kelts and Hsü
1978; Eugster and Kelts 1983)
86 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

a PERENNIAL LAKE

FLUVIAL AND MARGINAL

SANDS AND SILlS
LITTORAL CARBONATES
00L-. MARLS (BIOGENIC . STROMATOLlTES,

!
~~~,~~~~~~ -f OlL SHALES OOIOS )
1 2 __ EVAPORITES 3
tIIItIIIl-- HAllTE
1mm1==- HAllTE HALITE
SODIUM SULFATI;S YLUSSITE,}
TRONA NATRON LAKE
~~..~~GYPSUM + GLAUBERITE
A "" DOLOMITE
"" ""
...L. .........
---------------_....:.._----- ------ - -
...J... .1.
..... ...L MARL as ( ' ) as (')
...... ..L

1~lIIIt OlL SHALE

(KEROGEN·RICH MARL)
MUDSTONE
DETRITAL CLASl!CS

b PLAYA LAKE

CALCAREOUS
CRUSTS AND
PORE CEMENT

___'t~f.,. GYPSUM NODULES

T '.c;i?:' ~ö .:,~ AND Mg-CALCITE
0 .21m ';i$~:X;J~-- EVAPORATIVE
HAllTE CARBONATE ;"l ' ":'::',':: >::. PUMPING FROM

~~riJ~
::: __-..;. 0 0 - - - -
GROUNDWATER

~~
3 BEDDED SALTS
(HAllTE, TRONA,
~!;::l2~:J~YPSUM, ANHYDRITE, '::~::'Q;5.
LAMINATED SAND
'f DOLOMITIC
.~ ANHYDRITE , ETC .) OR HAllTE
~J:.;'~

1
1~~i;F== DOLOMITIC MARl :: :J, ...t..:.:: NODULAR
AND DOLOMITE GYPSUM AND / OR
:J
SILT AND CLAY , :9. ~t?, ~~'
ANHYDRITE
, m
FA~,,5!,..~,,~;+ RICH IN ORG. C ALGAL MATS
INTRACLAST BRECCIA
SILT ANO CLAY 1 SOME ROOTS,
BIOT URBATlON

Fig. 2.33. a Generalized facies model of perennial,
predominantly saline lakes. b Model of ephemeral
playa lakes (continental sabkhas). al-a3 Idealized
sequences of a, central lake: 1 carbonate-sulfate-
chloride lake; 2 sulfate-chloride lake; 3 soda-chloride
lake. bl-b3 Sequences ofb: 1 sand flats, 2 mud flats,
and 3 of residual playa lake. Salts precipitated on the
surfaces of 1 and 2 are partially or entirely leached
during subsequent floods or later, after burial, within
sediment. For further explanation see text
2.5 Lake Sediments
floods. Then part of the salt is redissolved and later
reprecipitated in the salt pan on top of silty and
c1ayey layers resulting from the flood event. Re-
worked carbonate crusts and microbial mats may 10-
cally form intrac1ast breccias or flat pebble conglom-
erates.
The salts dissolved during floods and concentrated
in depressions having no outflow can also be leached
by infiltrating rain water and enhance the rnineraliza-
tion of groundwater.
This is the case when the groundwater level as weil as its
capillary fringe drop below the lake floor, as for example
reported from a number of Quatemary lakes in southeastem
Australia (Bowler 1986; Bowler et al. 1986; Teller and
Last 1990; Rosen 1994). Then vegetation can begin to
grow and form some soi! or duricrust (e.g. calcrete) on the
lake floor. Figure 2.34 shows the interaction between a
fluctuating groundwater level and the sedimentary pro-
ces ses in such a lake. It can be seen that the lake sediments
respond very sensitively to slight changes in the hydrologie
regime of the lake and thus also to minor variations in cl i-
mate. They frequently exhibit minor sedimentary cycles of
widely differing thickness and duration. If leaching of salts
and deflation are involved, such cycles tend to become
asymmetrie (Fig. 2.34).
In such cases, a soil horizon developed on the dry
lake floor corresponds with the lowermost ground-
water table and therefore most likely with the dryest
period (Fig. 2.34) rather than an underlying or over-
lying salt layer. For that reason, salt layers or soil
horizons of distant lakes should be correlated with
caution, if their hydrological regimes are not equal.
It seems that extensive fossil red c1aystones and
marlstones, deposited in large topographie depres-
sions with one or several playa lakes, are not very
well studied (e.g. Rosen 1994; Gaupp 1997). During
the Earth's history such systems have accumulated
great volumes of fine-grained continental sediments
(e.g. in the Permian and Triassie). However, modem
analogs of such systems are mostly limited in size.
A widely extended modem example is the drainage basin
of Lake Eyre in central Australia (Croke et al. 1998) which
covers an area in the order of 1 x 10 6 km2 • In the Tertiary
and Quatemary, fluvial and deltaic-Iacustrine facies alter-
nated several times in the central part of the basin as a re-
sult of climate change and variation in sediment supply.
Arid phases caused in places deflation.
Especially large depositional environments of this
type respond sensitively to c1irnate change, and many
sediments of ancient examples show a distinct
cyc1icity (cf. Sect. 7.7). Episodic flooding of low-
relief playa plains, phases of drying, dessication and
pedogenesis generate strata which can be traced over
long distances. Apart from fluvial transport, eolian
dust can significantly contribute to the sediment
buildup.
87
Drying lakes with silty-c1ayey sediments, inc1ud-
ing some salts, also favor the formation of "c1ay pel-
lets" on the lake floor which are blown away by wind
to form clay dunes (or lunettes, cf. Sect. 2.3.4) along
the rim of the lake (cf. Fig. 2.28b4). If a lake is ex-
posed to this deflation process for some time, its
floor is lowered and its sedimentary record inter-
rupted.
Examples of Closed Lake Basins
and Their Sediments
Apart fr0m the examples mentioned briefly in the
previous text and further below, the most important
features of some c10sed lake basins are discussed
here separately. The examples follow in the order of
increasing salinity of the basins, but other aspects are
also considered.
Caspian Sea. This inland sea is the world's largest
modem closed lake basin. Its water is brackish (13
g/l dissolved species) and its sediments are domi-
nated by detrital clastics. These are delivered by the
river V olga from the north and several middle-sized
rivers from the west and south (cf. Fig. 11. 7b). In
addition, production of autochthonous bio genie and
bio-induced carbonate is significant, particularly in
the littoral zone and in the shallow northem part of
the basin. Here, sediments rich in carbonate, includ-
ing shellbeds and oolites, are comrnon. In the 800 to
1000 m deep central and southem part of the lake,
fine-grained marls accumulate with a very high sedi-
mentation rate on the order of 1 m/ka (locally up to
10 mlka; cf. Sect. 11.2.3).
Because these sediments are buried rapidly, their high con-
tent in organic matter is both weil preserved and
diagenetically mature in terms of hydrocarbon generation.
They therefore enable oil and gas production from Pliocene
to Quatemary strata in the Baku area. Irregularly occurring
gas eruptions and numerous mud volcanoes testify to the
fact that oil and gas generating processes, as weil as differ-
ential compaction of these young sediments, are still in
operation (see also Sect. 14.2).
In the context of this chapter, the large, shallow la-
goon, the Kara Bogas Goi, on the eastem margin of
the Caspian Sea is of particular interest (e.g.,
Sonnenfeld 1984; Müller 1988). As a result of very
high evaporation in the warm, arid climate, the water
level of the lagoon drops below that of the Caspian
Sea and thus causes continuous inflow of brackish
water. The ion concentration of this water increases
from the inlet to the inner part of the lagoon and
hence leads to the precipitation of carbonate, gyp-
sum, glauberite and halite in a lateral succession (cf.
Sect. 6.4.2).
88 Chapter 2 Continental Sediments

VEGE - ClAY INCREASING PROCESSES FINAL

TATION PELLETS SALINITY AND PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY
AND SOLL OF LAKE W . SEDIMENTS ' ) RECORD 1)
------I E FINE - GRAINED
CLASTICS

I
I --------, DOLOMITIC CLAY
EVAPORITES " Fig. 2.34. Influence of
=--=-_- OEFCÄ nON-I\ 'tinf.-Q.:7&-' DETRITAL fluctuating groundwa-
""-:>crr_Y'.J---- GYPSUM AND ter level in playa lake
DOWN WARD \ CARBONATIC CLAY
LEACHING OF \
sediments. The deep-
EVAPORITES. \ r-"~Ir--- HALlTE
est groundwater level,
UNCON -
associated with the
SOlL FORMATION FORMITY dryest period, allows
SOlL down ward leaching of
evaporites, growth of
vegetation, and soil
" DEEP WATER·
formation. Wet-dry
MORE MORE CLAYS AND
climatic cycle tends to
ARID I HUMID
CLASTICS )
SIL TS
generate an asymmet-
~-- - - - - ---.;...;. rie sedimentary suc-
BELOW ABOVE .) CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC
cession. (Modiefied
ON LAKE FLOOR SEOUENCE
from Bowler and
GROUND WATER LEVEL 1) REAL SEOUENCE
Teller 1986)

Great Salt Lake. This lake in Utah is known for its
fluctuating water level (cf. Sect. 11.2.3 and Fig. 11.6)
and very wide sand and mud flats during lowstand.
The lake has a salt concentration about four to seven
times as high as normal sea water, but the composi-
tion of the dissolved salts is similar to that of sea wa-
ter. The lake water is oversaturated with respect to
carbonate; gypsum and more soluble salts are precip-
itated only during lowstands in special marginal parts
of the lake. In shallow water, ooids, primarily com-
posed of aragonite, some Mg-calcite, and dolomite
are common. In the central part of the perenniallake,
muds are deposited which are more or less rich in
organic matter (Spencer et al. 1984).
Lake Chad in North Africa (cf. Sect. 11.2.3 and Fig.
11.7a) and Lake Eyre in Central Australia are playa
lakes draining very large, tectonically stable areas.
During relatively long dry periods, the widely ex-
tended sand and mud flats are exposed to wind action
and develop large fields of eolian dunes (Eugster and
Hardie 1978). Lake Chad is mainly fed by the river
Chari draining the highlands of Cameroun. If the lake
level rises, the interdunal depressions are filled with
water. The present lake water is rather fresh, favoring
the deposition of clayey muds, but some of the small
!~terdunallakes were converted into salt pans exhib-
l1mg crusts of trona, natron, halite, and gypsum.
Other pans precipitate thenardite, halite, and other
salt minerals indicating that most of the time a uni-
form brine does not exist.
Lake Eyre in Australia is inundated by floods in
quite irregular time intervals on the order of 10 years
and more. The mean annual runoff of the Lake Eyre
basin is only 3.5 mm; thus the lake falls dry more
than 90% of the time (Kotwicki and Isdale 1991). Its
drainage region comprises an area 140 times greater
than that of the lake floor. Potential evaporation ex-
ceeds precipitation (average of 220 rnm/a in the en-
tire drainage area) by a factor of about 12, and in the
lake itself, i.e., in the arid continental core, by a fac-
tor of 30 (Bowler 1986). The shape of the lake is par-
tially controlled by wind action. On the downwind
margin the ephemeral basin is bordered by transverse
dunes which are built up by material blown out from
the dry lake floor. On the upwind side the lake exhib-
its a cliffed margin which tends to migrate landward.
Irregular deflation on the lake floor may leave behind
islands within the lake. During the long dry intervals,
the mudflats dry sufficiently to permit the efflores-
cence of salts at or somewhat below the surface.
The nature of the salts which can be preserved is
controlled mainly by the groundwater chemistry. If it
is saturated with respect to calcium sulfate, gypsum
precipitates (gypsum-dune building phase). Later, as
a result of a prolonged warm and arid period, the
groundwater becomes saturated with respect to halite
(halite-saturation phase). Lake Eyre, as weil as a
number of other Australian ephemeral lakes, thus
show a development from gypsum to halite deposi-
tion and vice versa.
The Dead Sea is a unique salt lake occupying the
deepest depression (about 400 m below sea level) in
the young Jordan Rift system (cf. Sect. 11.3.6 and
Fig. 11.18). The lake is about 400 m deep, but below
or adjacent to the Dead Sea, more than 4000 m thick
2.5 Lake Sediments
marine salt deposits have been discovered (Neev and
Emery 1966; Zak 1997). Besides rock salt (halite )
these evaporites also contain some gypsum,
anhydrite, camallite, polyhalite, and potash salts. The
lake is fed by the river Jordan which partially drains
regions with young volcanic rocks. In addition, minor
ephemeral rivers enter the basin from the sides, and a
number of springs discharge high-concentrated salt
water into the lake.
The salt content of the lake (ab out 330 g/l, density
1.242 g/cmJ ) is eight to nine times higher than that of
normal sea water, but the Dead Sea brine strongly
differs in its composition from sea water. NaCl
makes up only one third of the total salt content,
whereas MgC1 2 reaches about one half. The brine is
remarkably rich in Ca and K (Mg>Na>Ca>K) as well
as Br (-5 g/l), but almost devoid of sulfate.
The origin of the complex Dead Sea brine has been contro-
versially discussed by many authors. According to the pres-
ent stage of knowledge (summary by Zak 1997) the chemi-
cal composition of the brine results from mixing of two
other brines and meteoric water:
(1) A highly saline diagenetic Ca-CI brine resulting from
evaporated sea water which is modified by the exchange of
marine Mg for Ca of the surrounding carbonate rocks. This
leads to Ca>HCO J +S0 4 in deep-seated groundwater
emerging in springs.
(2) A highly concentrated metamorphic brine ofMg-Ca-K-
CI composition which is interpreted as the result of incon-
gruent alteration and dissolution of hydrous marine
evaporite minerals such as carnallite and gypsum. This
brine appears in valley-floor springs.
(3) Meteoric water of CI-S0 4-(HC0 3) nature in which air-
borne sea salts and other constituents are somewhat en-
riched by evaporation. These waters enter the basin via
rivers or shallow groundwater.
The Dead Sea brine may be characteristic for continen-
tal rifts in arid regions where the basin was temporarily
connected with the ocean. The brine is stratified with a
more or less stable pycnocline; the upper water body is sig-
nificantly affected by seasonal and episodic phenomena,
such as unusual freshwater inflow after heavy rain. The
Dead Sea is not completely barren of life; it contains
bluegreen algae, some planktic microorganisms, and sev-
eral types ofbacteria.
At present aragonite, gypsum, and locally some halite
precipitate in the Dead Sea. The brine is almost satu-
rated with respect to halite, but in the past widely
extended halite layers formed episodically. Most of
the gypsum is dissolved in the anoxie hypolimnion
by bacterial sulfate reduction. The generation of hy-
drogen sulfide leads to the formation of iron sulfide.
Thus, dark, mainly ca1careous mud with some gyp-
sum, halite, and organic matter is deposited. Precipi-
tation of halite in the form of "salt reefs" is taking
place in the shallow southem part of the lake, where
"end brines" from evaporation pans mix with Dead
Sea brines (Beyth 1980).
89
In the late Pleistocene (60-13 ka B.P.) the Jordan
Rift was occupied by a large lake (220 km in length,
cf. Fig. 11.18a). Its (fluctuating) water level stood
>200 m above the present Dead Sea level, and its
salinity was lower than that of the present brine. Its
sediments (Lisan Fm.) largely display annual varves
consisting of altemating thin laminae of aragonite
and gypsum (Niemi et al. 1997).
Other specific examples. The sediments of ancient
lake deposits have been studied in numerous cases all
over the world. Only a few of these can be mentioned
here and in the following section.
An unusually thick and voluminous nonmarine salt deposit
has accumulated in a halfgraben of the Basin and Range
province in Arizona (Faulds et al. 1997). The synrift
evaporites (up to 2500 m halite, with intercalated and cap-
ping anhydrite) fonned in an intracontinental playa collect-
ing Na- and CI-rich water from a large drainage area.
Another specific example is the history of a paleolake
generated by a large Miocene meteorite impact in Southern
Gennany (Ries). The crater was first occupied by a playa
lake where algal biohenns, dolomite, gypsum, and also
some oil shales were deposited (Wolff and Füchtbauer
1976). Later, it evolved into a fresh-water lake and finally
fell dry.
Further examples are described, e.g., by Picard and
High (1981), Talbot and Kelts (1989), Talbot and Allen
(1996).
2.5.5 Black Shale Deposition in Lakes
Organic production in lakes is normally high due to
sufficient nutrient supply. Even highly saline waters
are not devoid of organisms (Larsen 1980). Although
only a few species exist, these can grow in large
quantities due to the abundance of nutrients and a
high temperature. Bluegreen algae and bacteria in
particular, but also some' planktonic organisrns,
copepods, nematods, crustacea, and higher plants
manage to live under these conditions and produce
and decompose organic matter (Eugster and Hardie
1978; cf. Sect. 10.3).
Recent measurements of primary productivity, for example
in the Great Salt Lake, Utah, have shown that salt lakes
represent some of the most productice ecosystems (Eugster
1985). Phytoplankton productivity as weil as the growth
rate of algal mats can be very high. Because most of this
production is destroyed by grazing higher organisms and
microbial decomposition, only a small fraction of this pro-
duction is eventually deposited together with the inorganic
sediment fraction (cf. Sect. 10.5). However, this fraction is
much greater than in open-marine basins and sufficient for
the fonnation of organic-rich oil shales prior to the precipi-
tation of salts. Even within evaporite sequences, black lay-
ers rich in organic carbon and some pyrite are encountered.
90
The mineralization of organic matter in the water
column of lakes depends on the oxygen supply to
bottom water. This and the destruction of organic
matter is usually high in regions of temperate, humid
climate. In summer, here cold, well-oxygenated river
water flows along the lake bottom to the outflow. In
addition, overtuming of the lake takes place in the
cold season. Both processes improve the oxygen sup-
ply of the hypolimnion and thus promote the mineral-
ization of organic matter.
For these reasons, all the present-day, large, temperate
lakes of the northem hemisphere are oxic in their natural
state, for example the Great Lakes of North America, nu-
merous smaller lakes of the Alpine region in Europe, and
even the 1600 m deep Lake Baikai in Siberia. As a result of
waste water injection, however, some ofthese lakes devel-
oped anoxie bottom waters (e.g., Lake Erie, Lake Zürich).
In contrast, lakes in zones of warm climate, which
reach some depth (about 100 m and more), tend to
develop a stable stratification throughout the year.
Furthermore, warm water lakes dissolve less oxygen
than cold water lakes. The limited oxygen supply to
the hypolimnion leads to the development of anoxie
bottom waters (eutrophie lakes) and thus favors the
preservation of organic matter.
Under these conditions both the open freshwater
lakes and the closed saline lake systems (usually dur-
ing highstands) can produce oil shales with high con-
tents of organic matter. Of course, the organic matter
should not be diluted by a too rapid sedimentation
rate of detrital clastics.
The 1500 m deep Lake Tanganyika in the East African rift
zone is an example of this lake type (Degens et al. 1971;
Cohen 1989; Cohen 1997). Its drainage area is semi-hu-
mid, and the lake has some outflow since the early 19th
century. Most of the river load settles in the upstream Lake
Kivu. Littoral sediments of Lake Tanganyika are rich in
carbonate inc1uding ooid shoals, stromatolites, and beach
rock. Anoxie conditions with some hydrogen sulfide in the
water prevail below a water depth of about 200 m. Sedi-
ments deposited in the shallower part ofthe lake contain 1-
2% organic carbon, whereas the laminated anoxie sedi-
ments in deeper water reach 7-11 % organic carhon mainly
derived from diatoms. The sedimentation rate ofthe basinal
muds is ab out 0.5 mika; interbedded silty-sandy turbidites
are common.
A prominent exception to stratified tropical lakes is the
large but shallow Lake Victoria in the East African rift
zone.
Organic matter is generally preserved better in lake
sediments than in marine deposits for the following
reasons:
~ The sedimentation rate in lakes is usually much
higher (often by one to two orders of magnitude; see
below) than in open marine environments and thus
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
protects part of the organic matter from being decom-
posed on the lake floor.
~ A low sulfate content in the pore water of many
lake sediments, in contrast to marine sediments, pre-
vents strong activity of sulfate reducing bacteria that
simultaneously consume organic matter. Degradation
of organic matter must therefore be accomplished
mainly by the less efficient methane fermentation
(Demaison and Moore 1980; cf. Sect. 14.1).
For the same reason, sulfide supply is commonly limited
and cannot precipitate all the iron released from minerals as
pyrite; consequently, siderite nodules can form (as e.g.
found in the former lake stage of the Black Sea; Degens
and Stoffers 1980). Anoxie lake sediments are usually also
rich in carbonate.
As a result of changing climate, such lake sediments
may display vertical successions altemating between
(Fig. 2.33):
~ Kerogen-rich beds, coinciding with the more hu-
mid phase and high lake level.
~ Evaporitic beds, less rich in organic matter, asso-
ciated with the more arid phase.
Successions ofthis type are common in many ancient
lake deposits, for example in the Triassie and in the
Eocene Green River Formation of North America
(see below).
In conclusion, lacustrine black shales in the an-
cient record indicate either a warm climate with small
seasonal variations in temperature and a lake basin
with limited inflow and outflow, or a completely
closed lake system during high water level. Lacus-
trine black shales normally contain limited amounts
of iron sulfide, whereas siderite nodules are common
in various lake deposits.
2.5.6 Successions of Lake Sediments
Lacustrine sediments are sensitive indicators of
changes in climate because climate in turn controls
weathering and sediment transport to the lakes. In the
case of hydrologically closed basins, changes in the
water budget of thc lake often cause drastic lake level
fluctuations (e.g. Scholz et al. 1998; cf. Sect. 7.6).
Lacustrine deposits therefore show, more than the
sediments of other depositional environments do,
characteristic vertical successions. They may display
rhythmic and/or cyclic sequences of different orders
(cf. Sects. 7.1, 7.6 and 7.9), with or without black
shales and/or evaporites. Outcrop sections or drilling
cores of formerly closed lake basins often show alter-
nations between fluvial or lake margin clastics and
evaporites which record changes from wetter to more
arid conditions.
2.5 Lake Sediments
Such successions have been found, e.g., in the subsurface
of modem playas of the Great Basin in North America.
Drilling in Owens Lake, Searles Lake and Death Valley,
California, has revealed repeated depositional sequences
ranging from the sediments of mudflats via those of a sa-
line pan with ephemeral lakes to sediments of a perennial
lake with fluctuating water level and varying salinity (Bis-
choff et al. 1997; Lowenstein et al. 1999). This successions
reflect the change from dry and warm to wetter and colder
climate which occurred in time periods of roughly 100 ka
in the late Quaternary. In Death Valley one of these sedi-
mentary cycles is about 100 m in thickness. Specific stud-
ies on ostracodes and diatoms as weil as stable isotopes in
lake carbonates support this interpretation. Fluid inclusions
in halite crystals were used to determine the original water
temperature (homogenization temperature) during salt crys-
tallization; sediments rich in plagioclase rock flower (in
cores drilled in Owens lake) indicate glacial advance in the
Sierra Nevada during periods ofwet climate.
A similar example ofPleistocene lake-level fluctuations
and cyclic evaporite deposits was reported from one of the
Salars of northwest Argentina (Vandervoort 1997).
Frequently cited Mesozoic examples are those of the
classic Newark supergroup (Triassic-Jurassic) in eastern
North America (van Houten 1964; Gore 1989; see also
Sects. 7.6 and 11.3.3; Fig. 12.7b) and the marl-carbonate-
gypsum-halite successions ofthe Triassie (Keuper) basin in
Central and Western Europe (e.g., Schröder 1982; Aigner
and Bachmann 1992; cf. Sect. 12.3.2 and Fig. 12.17), parts
ofwhich were repeatedly filled by prograding birdfoot del-
tas or wider alluvial plains (Wurster 1964).
Relative lake level changes and sequences in open lakes
of humid regions seem to be mainly controlled by
tectonism and changes in sediment supply rather than by
change of the hydrologie budget. An example of this cate-
gory is Lake Baikai in Siberia (Scholz et al. 1998).
For a number of large, long-persisting individual lakes,
composite facies models are required which combine as-
pects of both the open and the closed lake systems (e.g.,
Sullivan 1985; Gore 1989). Arid lake basins close to the
sea may receive influx from both fresh-water rivers and the
ocean, resulting in a complicated system which precipitates
various carbonates and evaporites (e.g., Decima et al.
1988).
2.5.7 Specific Features of Lake Sediments
Sedimentation Rates and Lifetime of Lakes
Most of the present-day peri-Alpine open lake sys-
tems are fed by rivers draining mountainous regions.
They therefore show very high sedimentation rates in
the order of 1 to 10 mika and more (cf. Sect. 11.2.3).
Such lakes, particularly small and shallow ones, have
only a comparatively short lifetime in the order of 10
ka to 100 ka. This also applies to many lakes located
in graben structures and rift zones bordered by
mountain ranges. Even shorter lifetimes have ice-
contact lakes and proglacial lakes (Sect. 2.1) which
may become filled within a few thousand years or
less and therefore rarely experience long-term drastic
climatic changes.
91
Large and deep lake basins with subsiding basin
floor have, of course, long lifetimes. This is true of
large rift basins such as Lake Baikai and several
lakes of the East African Rift as well as of some
lakes in continental sag basins (e.g. Lake Eyre in
Australia) and other lakes of tectonic origin (e.g. L.
Maracaibo in Venezuela). All these lakes exist since
at least 20 Ma (Meybeck 1995).
In the southern Caspian Sea, representing a backare basin,
about 1 mika is deposited, which signifies that Quaternary
lake sediments reach a thickness of more than 1 km. Such
high sedimentation rates are capable of compensating even
for rapid subsidence (cf. Chap. 8).
Sedimentation rates of less than 0.1 mika are typical
of large lakes in lowland regions when their ratio of
drainage area to lake area is low. Then they receive
only limited quantities ofpredominantly fine-grained,
clastic material which is widely distributed over the
lake area. Such lakes can persist for long time peri-
ods, provided their floor subsides sufficiently. Then,
carbonates may constitute a significant sediment
component.
Lacustrine salts can be precipitated rapidly (sev-
eral meters to tens of meters per 1000 years), pro-
vided the ion concentration of perenniallakes or that
of groundwater below an ephemeral lake has already
reached saturation with respect to the principal min-
eral phases. Then, further small evaporation losses
cause rapid salt precipitation. U sing the data for
chemical (and mechanical) denudation rates (cf. Sect.
9.2), one can estimate the time necessary for the ac-
cumulation of salts (and detrital clastics) in a lake
basin representing a certain fraction of the total
drainage area (cf. Sects. 11.2 and 11.4).
Isotopes and Fluid Inclusions
Indicating Paleoclimate
The paleoenvironmental interpretation of ancient
lake basins can be refined by stable isotope studies
(e.g. Oberhänsli and Allen 1987; Talbot and Kelts
1989; Marshall 1992; Gat 1995). The heavy 18 0 in
authogenic carbonate and shells of organisms records
the isotopic composition of the paleolake water and,
in closed systems, its state of evaporation. In open
systems, the isotopic signature of lake carbonate re-
flects to a large degree the properties of river inflow
and thus the climate and altitude of the drainage area.
The primary isotope signal can be obscured by the
effects of diagenetic alteration, especially that of the
oxygen isotopes. For all these reasons, oxygen iso-
tope values are sometimes difficult to interpret.
Relative enrichment of the heavy carbon isotope
13C indicates that plant material was strongly affected
by bacterial activity and that the lake floor possibly
emerged. Isotope studies also reveal that primary lake
92
sediments, such as sulfates and carbonates, may have
been subjected to significant diagenetic changes
(e.g., Decima et al. 1988).
Fluid inclusions in salt minerals, e.g. in primary
halite crystals, can be used to deterrnine the original
water temperature during the crystallization of spe-
cific salt minerals (e.g. Lowenstein et al. 1999).
Subsurface Brines and Diagenesis
In studies on ancient lake sediments it should be
borne in mind that salts, which precipitated on or
directly below the surface of present-day sand and
mud flats, are mostly not preserved. Nodules of gyp-
sum and thin salt layers may dissolve completely in
the subsurface and thus enhance the ion concentra-
ti on of groundwater. Later, the cavities produced by
salt dissolution are frequently filled with secondary
calcite or quartz.
Salts are preserved in the subsurface if the sur-
rounding groundwater has reached saturation for
these salts or they have been sealed by more or less
impermeable strata. Furthermore, most of the pre-
served salts undergo significant diagenetic changes
within the sediment.
After burial below 200-300 m, gypsum is replaced by
anhydrite (for more details see, e.g. Kasprzyk and Orti
1998). Similarly, other hydrous minerals are transformed to
new, more stable salt minerals (Eugster and Hardie 1978;
Chambre Syndicale 1980; Warren 1996, 1997). Pore wa-
ters rich in silica may lead to the formation of authigenic
silicate minerals such as zeolites; carbonates can be re-
placed by analcime and albite (EI Tabakh and Schreiber
1998). Some specific minerals such as Ca-borates mainly
form in the subsurface (e.g. Orti et al. 1998).
2.5.8 Economic Aspects of Lake Deposits
Residual Brines and Mineral Deposits
The enrichment of rare elements in residual brines of
closed lake basins (Sect. 2.5.4) is of economic inter-
est. In several present-day or geologically young salt
Chapter 2 Continental Sediments
lakes, K, Li, B, F, Br and J have reached such high
concentrations that they can be mined. Preparations
to gain the light metal Mg from the unusually Mg-
rich brines of the Dead Sea are in progress.
As a result of mineral precipitation, oxidation of
pyrite, and decomposition of organic matter, some
brines become acidic. Then they can take up consid-
erable amounts of heavy metals by dissolving oxide
coatings and/or by oxidation of metal-rich black
shale (Eugster 1985). Even alkaline brines may carry
heavy metals. These metals can precipitate as sul-
fides along a reducing front within or in coherence
with the lake sediments and thus form ore bodies
containing significant amounts of Cu, Zn, Pb, and
Co. Acidic groundwater brines rich in ferrous iron
precipitate iron hydroxides when they ase end to the
floor of well oxidized, shallow, or dry lakes (e.g. in
southern Australia).
Oil Shales and Hydrocarbons
Lacustrine black shales represent source rocks for
hydrocarbons and lake delta sands can act as reser-
voirs if they are capped by seal rocks such as lacus-
trine clay- and mudstones or evaporites. For this rea-
sons, thick deposits of large ancient lake basins have
been and still are targets of hydrocarbon exploration
(cf. Sect. 14.3). The great volume of known imma-
ture lacustrine oil shales can be regarded as a reser-
voir which may be used in the future to extract oil by
the application of heat.
Of great economic interest is, for example, the occurrence
of widespread oil shales and trona beds in the Eocene
Green River Formation in North America (Eugster and
Hardie 1978; Eugster 1985).
The oil shales of the small Lake Messel in Southern
Germany were deposited at about the same time as the
Green River Formation. They are famous for their excel-
lently preserved fauna, particularly vertebrates
(Koenigswald and Michaelis 1984; Schaal and Ziegler
1988). Here the black shales overbridge a time period
which is otherwise poorly represented in the
paleontological record.
2.5 Lake Sediments
2.5.9 Summary (Lake Sediments)
Lakes and their drainage areas represent rela-
tively simple erosional-depositional systems.
Lakes are characterized by a low-diversity fauna
and flora, and their sediments are very sensitive
to c1imate change.
Sediments of open lakes are dominated by detri-
tal c1astics and biogenic carbonates and/or silica.
Closed lakes precipitate various types of
evaporites, inc1uding evaporitic carbonates and
abiotic chert.
The types and successions of evaporite minerals
are largely controlled by the chemistry of the
inflowing water and c1imate-controlled lake-
level fluctuations.
The peaks of arid phases may be reflected in
c10sed systems by inland sabkhas, dryed mud-
flats, and paleosols (e.g. calcretes).
Organic production is high in most lakes even in
salt lakes. Black shales form in both open (±
tropical, stratified) and c10sed lakes (during
93
highstand). These shales, as weil as residual
brines containing rare elements, are often of
economic interest.
- The lifetime of many lakes is short due to high
sedimentation rates, unless these are balanced by
subsidence.
- Some of the most distinctive features of lake
sediments are:
* A limited number of faunal elements, sparce
bioturbation, absence of marine fauna.
* Black shale horizons containing !ittle pyrite.
* The occurrence of sodium carbonate minerals
which are absent in marine evaporites (cf. Sect.
6.4).
* Repeated intervals of desiccation and soil for-
mation (c1osed basins).
* Successions with marked lithological varia-
tions and pronounced cyc1icity.
3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
(Including Carbonates)
3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments
3.1.1 Coastal Proeesses: Waves and Wave-Generated
Currents
3.1.2 Beaeh and Shoreface Sands and Their Budget
The Beach-Shoreface Zone
Bed Forms and Sedimentary Structures
High-Energy Shorelines
Shoreline Migration and Vertieal Sediment
Successions
The Sand Budget of the Beach-Shorefaee Zone
3.1.3 Storms and Storm Deposits (Tempestites)
Storm Generation and Storm Action
Characteristies of Tempestites
Bed forms and Facies Patterns
Other Characteristics ofTempestites
Frequency of Storm Events and Tempestites
Proximal-Distal Trends and Tempestite Sequenees
3.1.4 Summary (Beach and Shoreface)
3.1.1 Coastal Processes: Waves and Wave-Gen-
erated Currents
Beach processes and, in a broader sense also coastal
and shelf processes, are controlled predominantly by
wind waves, tidal waves, and wave-generated cur-
rents. In this Section, wind waves and wind-gener-
ated currents of the coastal zone, generating wave-
dominated shorelines, are briefly discussed.
Detailed descriptions of these processes have been given in
several books and book chapters (e.g. Komar 1976; Carter
1988; Walker and Plint 1992; Carter and Woodroffe 1994;
Reading and Collinson 1996). Tidal effects and other oce-
anie eurrents will be referred to in Seets. 3.2 and 3.3.
Waves are the result of mechanical energy transfer
from the wind onto the water surface. The large sur-
face of an ocean can absorb much more energy from
the atmosphere than that of a small lake, i.e., areas
with a long "wind-fetch" can create much larger
waves than water bodies of lirnited length parellel to
the wind direction.
Prirnarily, waves do not transport water and there-
fore do not induce currents. This is a secondary ef-
fect taking place in shallow water where "deep-water
waves" are transformed into "shallow-water waves"
and finally dissipate (Fig. 3.1a).
Deep-water waves only affeet a specific layer of the water
mass. The thiekness of this uppermost layer is approxi-
mately L/2, where L is the wave length (Fig. 3.1 a). The
depth of L/2 below the water surface is also referred to as
the wave base or the depth up to which wave-induced cur-
rents exert a significant influenee on the sea floor. Between
the water surface and the wave base, the water particles
perform eireular (orbital) movements. At the surface, the
diameter ofthese circles is equal to the wave height H, and
the time T, necessary for a water particle to finish one rota-
tion, is the wave period. This is the same period of time
measured at a fixed point from one passing wave erest to
the next one. Below the sea surface the diameter of the
rotating water particles is redueed and their orbital velocity
slows until this movement almost completely ceases at the
wave base.
Although the water affected by deep-water waves
remains more or less in place, the rnigrating waves
transport energy, for example from localized storm
centers to remote coastlines.
As soon as the water depth is less than the wave
base (L/2), the deep-water waves start to be trans-
formed into shallow-water waves. A significant
change of the wave characteristics takes place, if the
water depth is as shallow as one-sixth to one-eighth
of the wave length. Thereafter, wave length and
speed of wave propagation decrease, but their energy
is packed into a smaller area and their height in-
creases (Fig. 3.1 a). Simultaneously, the formerly cir-
cular motion of single water particles is transformed
into an elliptic and, near the sea-bed, into a
bidirectional oscillating movement. Approaching the
shoreface and the beach the waves become shorter,
asymmetrical, and their height increases until they
collapse in the breaker and surf zone at a water depth
of approximately 4/3 H (H is the wave height in deep
water).
If a wave front migrates obliquely toward the
co ast, its landward section "touches the bottom" and
is affected by wave-length reduction earlier than the
3,1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments 95

a
, L I
r ---
I
SHOREFACE
DUNE
Ä - -ur~ I SHALLOW-WATER l
;.;-'U~_ 'I WAVES CL'cL: H',.H) I SWASH

o. L /2:
,, WAVE BASE
' J BREAKER AND I
1-- BUILDUP - ... SURF ZONE - -1
I

- - . ---'--- - - - - I OF WAVES I
I I
I
I
DEEP-WATER I
WAVES I

I
HEAVY
ONNER) MINERALS
I PLANAR :
( R) I ~ ZONE - ~
PLANAR : I I
ETRIC
RIPPLES. LAND -
'" ZONE -'1
;
I
r..,
....
I

ON HIGH-ENERGY BEACH:

b
SYMMETRICAl __

RIPPLES, BIO TURBATED

~ARD IRREG~~~:TE ME~A-
1+- RIPPLES .oI
I I 1
('NNER1 ROUGH ZONE

~.l!l 20 CM I

ASYMM, RIPPLES

_~i~:
.~~~~~~;~~ LANDWARD
:>
LUNA TE RIPPLES ROUGH ZONE

Fig, 3,1. a Transition from deep-water waves to
shallow-water waves and swash (backwash) in the
shoreface zone, associated bedforms and internal
sedimentary structures. No offshore sand bars pres-
ent; not to scale. For further explanation see text. b
More complex structures due to shifting of the facies
zones under changing wave characteristics. (After
Clifton et al. 1971, and others)

other part. As a result, the waves undergo refraction
and change their course toward the land (Fig.3.2a).
In this way the wave energy is concentrated at head-
lands, where it promotes strong erosion, exhibited by
cliffs and a wave-cut platform slightly below mean
sea level (Fig. 3.2c). In an advanced, and at times
inactive state of cliff erosion, the beach zone may
consist mainly of fallen blocks and gravel, displaying
a characteristic imbrication.
In bays protected by headlands, the wave energy is
reduced by refraction, and instead of erosion, deposi-
tion of sand along the beach prevails. Both pro-
ces ses, strong wave attack at the headlands and
prograding beaches in the bays, favor a development
from (usually young) tectonically controlled irregular
coastlines to straightened (old) coastlines of tectoni-
cally stable areas (Fig. 3.2a and b).
96
DEVElOPMENT
OF COASTAl
MORPHOlOGY
b c
OFFSHORE SllT, ClAY, AND SAND
Fig. 3.2. a,b Two stages of coastal headland erosion
due to wave refraction and longshore sand transport.
e Wave-cut platform and cliff erosion. d Sand move-
Shoaling waves periodically transport water to-
ward the beach. The water runs up over the foreshore
as swash and returns due to gravity as backwash and
bottom current to the sea. If waves approach the
coastline obliquely, part of the water masses spilled
onto the beach does not flow back immediately, but
is directed parallel to the shoreline. This occurs ev-
erywhere along the shore, and thus the longshore
current is reinforced until it reaches rather high ve-
locities in the order of I m/s. The preferred line of
movement is along a specific depression between the
foreshore zone and, if present, the inner sand bar
(Fig. 3.2b and d).
Further along the coast, the longshore currents
return as rip currents back into deeper water (Fig.
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
lONGSHORE
SAND TRANSPORT
BEACH DRIFT
........:TII".. ·NG UP
OF SAND
TRANSPORT IN
BREAKER ZONE
ment in the foreshore zone. e Beach ridges and bar-
rier islands resulting from longshore sand transport
3.3a). They can produce erosive channels in the
breaker zone and carry sand and particularly finer
grained material into the lower shoreface and off-
shore zone where the rip currents disperse. In the
breaker and surf zone much sand and sometimes
even gravel is mobilized. This material can be trans-
ported by longshore currents in considerable quanti-
ties within a narrow belt landward of the breaker
zone. Most of this sediment is not carried in suspen-
sion, but as bedload in numerous small steps, and
partly by a "sawtooth movement" (beach-drifting)
caused by altemating swash and backwash, directed
obliquely toward the shore (Fig. 3.2d).
Longshore sand transport distributes the sand pro-
vided by entering rivers or cliff erosion and, in some
3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments
cases, by eolian dunes. The migrating sand creates
prominent coastal features such as hooks and spits
behind headlands or tombolas connecting former
islands with the main coast (Fig. 3.2b). This sand is
also a main factor in the formation of broad beach-
ridge strand plains (ehenier plains, see below).
3.1.2 Beach and Shoreface Sands
and Their Budget
The Beach-Shoreface Zone
The complicated and permanently changing hydraulic
regime of the nearshore zones is reflected by the
beach-shoreface profile and its sediments. This pro-
file results from a specific dynamic equilibrium be-
tween the wave type and the grain size of the sedi-
ments. Apart from special features like sand bars, the
slope of the beach-shoreface profile usually dimin-
ishes from foreshore to deeper water. The mean an-
gle of this slope is low along shorelines subjected to
steep high-energy waves (high H/L ratio), because a
high energy input is dissipated most efficiently by a
wide, flat beach profile. In contrast, low energy input
under flat waves enables a rather steep beach gradi-
ent. Furthermore, the presence of coarse-grained
sand or gravel increases the slope angle of the beach-
shoreface profile. For these reasons, the slope angles
vary considerably between 0.2 0 (high-energy waves,
very fine sand) and approximately 10 0 (low-energy
waves, coarse sand).
A gentle slope profile allows the formation of a
broad coastal sand belt. A further consequence of the
above mentioned rules is the fact that many coast-
lines exhibit a seasonal change in the beach profile.
Due to a higher proportion of steep waves in winter
time, the winter beaeh tends to be lower and its slope
gentler than the summer beaeh. The lost beach sand
is usually stored in submerged sand bars parallel to
the coast at some meters depth below mean sea level
(Fig. 3.3a). Later, under a subdued wave regime, the
sand is slowly swept back onto the beaches. Loss of
beach sand to deeper water is also caused by single
storm events (see below).
Bed Forms and Sedimentary Structures
The bed forms and internal sedimentary structures
along the beach-shoreface profile are shown in Fig.
3.la for fairweather wave conditions. They reflect
the transformation of deep-water waves (oscillatory
flow) to shoaling waves, generating land-directed
flow and return flow into the foreshore zone under
upper flow regime conditions (cf. Sect. 2.2).
97
At depths near, or below the fairweather wave base (often
10 to 20 m), long-crested symmetrical wave ripples, pro-
duced earlier by rare storm waves, are bioturbated during
normal fairweather conditions. Landward, these inactive
ripples pass into active ripples which become increasingly
asymmetrie, irregular, and short-crested. Larger, lunate-
shaped megaripples are frequently observed in the breaker
zone. All these bedforms are associated with small- or
larger-scale cross-bedding which is predominantly oriented
toward the land. In the foreshore zone the most characteris-
tic feature is parallel to low-angle cross-bedding dipping
seaward.
The upper face of beach and foreshore sand may display
distinctive swash marks inc1uding fine shell debris, as weil
as small bones and teeth, backwash rills and kolk marks
around gravel or shells, and sometimes rhomboid ripple
marks formed under a very thin cover of running water.
Foreshore and backshore sands frequently contain
dark laminae or layers consisting of heavy mineral
coneentrations. Locally, these plaeer deposits are of
economic interest, if they contain significant quanti-
ties of certain minerals (e.g., rutile, zircon, ilmenite,
and monazite).
High-Energy Shorelines
The general tendency in the lateral sequence of
bedforms and sedimentary textures can be modified
on high-energy co asts or on shorefaces which exhibit
one or several shore-parallel sand ridges or ojJshore
bars (barred shorelines).
On a nonbarred high-energy shoreface, two zones
with predominantly planar bedding occur, an inner
(upper) foreshore planar zone and an outer (lower)
planar zone within the breaking waves (Fig. 3.la). In
between the two planar zones the sea bed becomes
rough due to dotted and irregular erosional and
depositional features.
Offshore sand bars are complex structures, be-
cause they often mi grate in different directions, ei-
ther landward, seaward, or parallel to the shoreline.
Prominent internal structures are landward-dipping
large-scale foresets and more or less horizontallami-
nation, but small-scale cross-bedding is also corumon
(Fig. 3.3b).
Gravelly shoreface deposits are characterized by
large, asymmetric gravel wave ripples (ripple wave
length frequently between 100 and 150 cm, height 10
to 20 cm).
These ripples have been observed in modem environments
at water depths down to more than 6 m (Hart and Plint
1989). Gravel forms decimeter-thick, massive or cross-bed-
ded layers altemating with thinner sand beds. Pebble fabric
and cross-bed orientation indicate predominantly along-
shore sediment transport.
98 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

a LONGSHORE
CURRENT

WINTER
(STORM)
PROFILE

SHOREFACE:
ZONE OF CONTINUOUS
SAND MOVEMENT, BUT
± CLOSED SAND BUDGET
FAIR-
WEATHER TRANSPORT
WAVE OF SIL T AND CLA Y
BASE INTO DEEPER WATER

WAVE c ICHNO-
FACIES
ENERGY: HIGH
DUNES /' \
SKOLITHOS

-
RIP
CHANNEL

SAND
BARS

1
/
/
FAIR-
WEATHER / PREDOMINANTL Y
1- SEAWARD ACCRETION
OF FORE SETS
- --- GENTLY SEAWARD DIPPING
LAMINAE OR LOW-ANGLE CROSS-B.
+ DIFFEREN'T DIRECTIONS OF
-:.,"%.; .... CROSS-BEDDI~G
SAND 1"-'..... "..
\..;o,f'" ; ;: - :';.' : <;:= SEAWARD

" SANDY SIL T-CLAY

Fig. 3.3. a Summer and winter (storm) beach profile,
offshore sand bars, longshore and rip currents. For
further explanation see text. b Sedimentary structures
of offs hore sand bars, generalized. (From various
sourees, e.g. Wemer 1963; Davis et al. 1972). Note
the prevailing landward dip of foresets. c Complete
synthetic vertical seetions of the shoreface-beach
zone of high- and low-energy shorelines, partly with
rip channels and offshore bars. Note the changing
orientation of foresets in different types of cross-bed-
ding. (Based on Fig. 3.1, Elliott 1986, and others;
ichnofacies after Ekdale et al. 1984)
3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments
Shoreline Migration
and Vertical Sediment Successions
The facies zones of the shoreface migrate back and
forth permanently in response to the momentarily
active wave regime. As a result, vertical sequences
record frequent variations between neighboring fa-
cies zones, described above. They may include the
internal structures of sand bars and rip channel fill-
ings (Figs. 3.lb and 3.3c).
Seaward prograding shorehnes generally show a
tendency for the sands to coarsen upward. Simulta-
neously, bioturbation structures are less readily pre-
served due to the permanent erosion and redeposition
of sand in the upper shoreface zone. Transgressive
shoreface sediments display the opposite vertical de-
velopment with a fining-upward sequence.
Gently sloping beaches create a wide belt of
shoreface sands, whereas steeply sloping shorelines
only produce a narrow belt of coastal sands. Then the
transitional facies between the swash-backwash zone
and deeper water may be largely absent.
The Sand Budget of the Beach-Shoreface Zone
An aspect of considerable interest is the sand budget
of the total beach-shoreface zone of a particular area.
It is fed by river input, cliff erosion, and longshore
sand transport, and it is reduced by longshore trans-
port to other areas, los ses to coastal eolian sand
dunes, and sand transport into deeper water by storm
action (see below) or via submarine canyons begin-
ning in the shoreface zone (cf. Sect. 5.4).
Apart from these long-term gains and losses, the
sand budget of a given shoreline section appears to
remain fairly stable under a defined wave regime.
Although the beach-shoreface sands are permanently
in motion and often migrate landward and seaward
with the seasons, their volume remains approxi-
mately constant, at least for a limited, geologically
relevant time period.
This mayaiso be the case during rising and falling sea lev-
els. In this instance, a major part of the coastal sand belt
ean mi grate either landward or seaward without leaving
behind many relics in deeper water or in emerged coastal
areas (cf. Sect. 7.3).
On the other hand, observations and measurements at
several present-day coastlines have revealed that
longshore currents are capable of transporting enor-
mous volumes of sand (up to several hundred thou-
sands of cubic meters per year). For this reason, sand
accretion in coastline sections protected against
strong wave attack is common and may proceed fast.
Some modem shorelines, consisting of sandy beach
ridges (cheniers), have migrated roughly I mJa sea-
ward during the last few thousands of years. Accre-
99
tion of coastal sand may take place directly on the
mainland coast or in front of barrier islands (Fig.
3.2e). Thus, high lateral sand supply may generate a
wide beach and shoreface sand belt within a geologi-
cally short time period.
3.1.3 Storms and Storm Deposits (Tempestites)
In storm-dominated shallow-marine environments,
the "normal" shoreface processes described so far, as
well as processes in deeper regions of the inner and
possibly outer shelf, are strongly affected and modi-
fied by rare storm events. Storms can deposit sandy
material in two different zones:
- In the supratidal or backshore zone (supratidal
storm layers, cf. Sect. 3.2.2).
- In deeper water beyond the shoreface zone
(tempestites).
Tempestites are sheet-like sand and mud beds of con-
siderable lateral extent. Here, this type of storm de-
posits is discussed further.
Tempestites have been deseribed from many loeations and
geologieal time periods. The processes involved have been
reviewed, <:.g., by Allen (1982), Aigner (1995), Morton
(1988), Snedden et al. (1988), Duke (1990), Nummedal
(1991), Seilacher and Aigner (1991), Myrow and Southard
(1996).
Storm Generation and Storm Action
Exceptionally heavy storms may affeet the sedimen-
tary processes not only of the coastal and shore face
zones but also those of the inner and possibly outer
shelf. Strong storms develop under special climatic
and geographie conditions. Tropical storms (hurri-
eanes) are initiated in low-latitude regions within the
trade wind belt. They travel westward and are de-
flected toward the poles by Corioli's forces.
Extratropical storms are common in zones of mid-
latitudinal atmospheric circulation along polar fronts.
They migrate eastward, are more consistent in their
direction, and can reach the same magnitudes as trop-
ical storms. A third mechanism produeing landward-
directed storms are the monsoons during the summer
season.
In viewing the geologie reeord, one ean assurne that tropi-
ca1 storms prevailed during warm periods exhibiting gentle
temperature gradients between the poles and the equator,
whereas extratropieal storms were more frequent and im-
portant during cooler periods with steep temperature gradi-
ents.
Monsoons are ereated when 1arge landmasses establish
intense summer lows and winter highs. The summer season
is eharacterized by strong onshore winds carrying large
100
quantities of moisture inland. The best present-day exam-
pie is the monsoon belt of Asia along the margin of the In-
dian and Pacific Oceans.
Onshore winds generate not only large waves with a
deep wave base, but also surface currents driving a
net mass flux of water toward the coast (Fig. 3.4a).
The setup of water along a wide section of the coast
is enhanced by low barometrie pressure, abundant
rainfall, converging shorelines, and broad, shallow
shelves. The excess water volume can flow back ei-
ther through rip currents (carrying some sediment in
suspension) along the surface andJor by bottom cur-
rents which may carry sediment in higher concentra-
tions.
Bottom return flows in the surf and shoreface
zones tend to be partially channelized and may pro-
duce surf channels. Unconfined, nonchannelized bot-
tom currents on the inner shelf, generated by
downwelling water masses, are referred to as
geostrophic currents. These are also deflected by
Corioli's fore es and therefore flow obliquely away
from the coastline. In regions with high tides,
geostrophic flows can be augmented by tidal ebb cur-
rents.
Tsunami waves, generated by submarine earthquakes, vol-
canic eruptions, or huge rock falls and submarine slides,
have very large wave lengths which cause extremely high
waves in shallow water and along some coastlines. These
waves inundate lowlands and produce backflows of high
velocity. The tsunami backflow, in particular if it becomes
channelized, has a high capacity to erode and transport
coarse-grained material into relatively deep water. The
resulting "tsunamiites" resemble in some ways the
tempestites. Theyare described in special articles (e.g. Sed-
iment Geol 104, 1996).
Storm waves and storm-induced geostrophic currents
operate simultaneously and thus cause a combined
flow system (Fig. 3.4b). Back-and-forth oscillation of
the ground wave is superimposed on the quasi-steady
bottom current. The net shear stress imparted on the
sea floor may erode and move sediment during one
half of the wave stroke, but be insufficient to do so
during the other half. The shoreface and parts of the
inner shelf are dominated by wave-induced oscilla-
tory shear, while the deeper environments are con-
trolled mainly by steady, obliquely offshore or almost
shore-parallel currents.
Fig. 3.4. a Wind-induced surface currents, deflected
landward by Coriolis forces, setup of storm flood,
and generation of rip currents and geostrophic bot-
tom currents (return flow). b Close-up of a showing
the generation of combined flow in a section across
the shoreface and inner shelf, simplified. c Swaley
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
It appears that shore-normal current directions measured at
the base of storm sand beds reflect the dominant influence
of wave-induced near-bottom flow during the storm peak,
whereas internal structures such as cross bedding fre-
quently deviate from this direction. They largely result
from the geostrophic current component of combined flow.
Shore-parallel rippled tops may be caused by subsequent
waves approaching the shoreline at nearly right angles.
Some graded sand beds on the shelf are generated by river-
fed density underflows.
Characteristics of Tempestites
Bedforms and Facies Patterns
Storms frequently erode seaweed and shells of
bottom-dwelling fauna of the foreshore region and
accumulate them landward of the normal beach or
barrier zone as supratidal or backshore storm beds.
These have a low preservation potential and are not
described further here.
Seaward of the beach, storm-generated bed forms
show a distinct trend from the surf zone into deeper
water (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5):
- The surf zone and upper shoreface are controlled
by fairweather wave action which usually destroys
the fingerprints of previous storms. Megaripples, flat
swash larnination on offshore bar crests, trough
cross-stratification and planar or low-angle swash
larninae are the dominating structures.
- The rniddle slioreface may preserve some structures
formed during storms, such as flat, nearly horizontal
bedding or low-angle swaley cross-stratification (Fig.
3.4c). Coarse particles often form lags; mud is sorted
out and deposited in deeper water; bottom life is lim-
ited to a filter-fee ding infauna.
- On the lower shoreface (5 to 20 m water depth), the
stress imparted by both flow components (oscillating
water and geostrophic currents) may stir up both
sand and mud, which are redeposited as a graded bed
at the same location or nearby (proximal tempestite;
Fig. 3.4d). At the peak of storm action, irregular
scours and hollows form at the sea bottom (pot and
gutter casts) which are later filled with the coarsest
siliciclastics or bioclasts available. These casts and
tool marks sometimes display bipolar or multi-direc-
tional current action. The typical internal sedimentary
structure produced by the combined flow regime is
low-angle hummocky cross-stratification (RCS).
This normally occurs on top of a graded division
and hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) , rniddle
shoreface, muddy interbeds are missing.
d Siliciclastic tempestite, lower shoreface. e Distal
tempestite, sandy-silty. (Based on Dott and Bour-
geois 1982; Wp.lker et al. 1983; Aigner 1985, and
others)
3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments 101

a STORM-INDUCED SURFACE CURRENT

(DEFLECTED BY CORIOLl'S FORCES)
CURRENTS

-
GEOSTROPHIC BOTTOM

-
CURAENT (DEFLECTED)

-- --
r<"___
- -
I -
I
SURF ZONE
(± SAND BARS)
BOTTOM RETURN
FLOW (± SURGE
SHOREFACE CHANNEL)

b COMBINED FLOW
SETUP OF WATER
BAROMETRIC EFFECT

SUSPENSION
CURRENT
C
DISTAL
TEMPESTITES e d HUMMOCKY AND SWALEY
CROSS-STRATIFICATION
(S) AND MUD (M)

UTTlE OR
M NO EROSION

EROSION AL
PRE·EXISTING
MUD LAYER
TO.2 1m f
BOUNDAAIES
102
with a basal lag deposit and subsequent parallellami-
nation and current ripple cross-stratification. In ideal
cases, the HCS division is overlain by wave ripple
cross-stratification and oscillatory ripple marks re-
flecting the final stage of a waning storm. However,
rippled tops mayaiso result from subsequent large
waves.
- On the inner shelf and parts of the outer shelf, ei-
ther hummocky cross-stratified sand layers or thinner
graded sandy and silty beds (distal tempestites) with
cross-stratified and sometimes rippled tops are typi-
cal (Fig. 3.4e). Muddy interbeds are produced either
by storms which have moved inland and eroded fine-
grained material, or by the slow and repeated deposi-
tion of suspended river load.
- At greater water depths on the outer shelf, the cur-
rent component of the combined storm flow becomes
dominant, leading to current-rippled fine sand and
silt beds (cf. Fig. 3.8b). Storm events affecting this
zone are extremely rare followed by long periods of
quiescence. In high-energy shelf seas, distal
tempestites occur at water depths up to and in excess
of 50 m. They appear to be more discontinuous than
proximal ones.
In the North Sea, modem distal tempestites are traceable
over tens ofkilometers in water depths up to 30 m (Aigner
and Reineck 1982). Sandy and muddy tempestites studied
in the Gulf of Mexico can be ascribed to specific tropical
storms recorded during the past 40 years (Fig. 3.6a; Keen
and Slingeriand 1993). They have been found in box cores
at water depths of 10 to 20 m and as far as -60 km seaward
from the coastline (Fig. 3.6b). The thicknesses of individ-
ual tempestites vary considerably (Fig. 3.6c); many beds
pinch out proximally or distally; several thin beds combine
locally to form one thick bed; some beds have been de-
stroyed by subsequent erosion.
A complete, idealized tempestite of intermediate dis-
tance from the coastline shows the following sedi-
mentary structures (from top to bottom, Figs. 3.4d
and 3.5a and c):
- Redeposited shelf mud (muddy tail of combined
flow).
- Wave ripples and wave-ripple cross-stratification.
- Low-angle hummocky cross-stratification.
- Parallellamination and current-ripple cross-strati-
fication.
- Graded layer with basal lag deposit.
- Erosional base with sole marks (in places bipolar
or multi-directional) and casts of animal burrows.
Norrnal shelf mud, intensely bioturbated.
In shallower water, the graded subdivision is often
reduced or missing. Instead, large-scale hummocky
cross-stratification, swaley stratification, and coarse-
grained infillings of scours are most characteristic.
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
At greater water depths, hummocky cross-stratifica-
tion becomes less distinct and is more or less re-
placed by parallellamination, wave-ripple cross-bed-
ding, and lenticular-wavy bedding with wave ripple
marks (Fig. 3.8b). The latter structures are partially
produced by subsequent storms affecting previously
deposited fine sand and silt.
These structures are described in detail, e.g., by Craft
and Bridge (1987) and Krassay (1994). They should
not be confused with lenticular and flaser bedding
observed in mixed sandy and muddy tidal flats. Cal-
careous tempestites with wave-rippled tops have
been also described from pelagic facies in the Juras-
sic of southem Spain (Molina et al. 1997). In this
case, the water depth of the basin cannot have been
much deeper than the storm-wave base, and the
tempestites probably formed during relative sea-Ievel
lowstand.
Lags often consist of gravel, small rock fragments,
broken shells of molluscs and other organisrns. In
Proterozoic and Cambrian strata, tempestites fre-
quently consist mainly of reworked muddy intraclasts
or reworked microbial mats (flat pebble conglomer-
ates, Fig. 3.7c; e.g., Sepkoski et al. 1991; Mount and
Kidder 1993).
Other Characteristics ojTempestites
Grain size distribution and composition of tem-
pestites vary greatly. They range from coarse grained
(sand and gravel) to silty and muddy types. Pure
siliciclastic types with hardly any fossil remains con-
trast with calcareous bioclastic sandstones,
wackestones or packstones (Fig. 3.5a). The compo-
nents of the latter type are derived either from pre-
event epibenthic or shallow infaunal populations.
Amalgamation and/or cannibalism are common
phenomenona in the proximal zone (Fig. 3.4d).
These terms signify that either pre-existing thick
tempestites are truncated, or thin tempestites are
completely reworked by subsequent storms and their
material is incorporated into new tempestites. This
process may occur repeatedly, until an extremely big
storm event ultimately produces a bed, the base of
which can be preserved.
Multiple reworking prornotes abrasion and break up of
mechanically unstable particles and possibly also acceler-
ated dissolution of carbonate and other minerals. Thus,
amalgamation leads to increasingly "mature" lag sediments,
including placer deposits. In places, skeletal remains of
vertebrates, particularly teeth but also coprolites are con-
centrated in the basallayer of storm beds (bone beds). The
latter have been phosphatized prior to reworking,
The ichnofacies of the muddy host sediments of in-
termediate to distal tempestites is norrnally character-
3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments 103

a INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF
PROXIMAL SILICICL. TEMPESTITE
WAVE RIPP LES

dm

SOLE MARKS
(OCCASIONALLY BIPOLAR) MASSIVE, GRADED DIVISION

d C b
DISTAL PROXIMAL TEMP . AMALGAMATION BY
MUD TEMPESTITE (BIOCL. CARBONATE) SUCCESSIVE STORMS

M
'P ' .. ..,~
~:{\~J~ TOP
M t Fig. 3.5. a Current- and
.'W:p
r~rf~Y BIOTURBATED
3 wave-induced sedimentary

11
;t; CARBO· hc structures of idealized sandy
S ":.):'\,::1'. gm MUD TEMP., tempestite and their relation-
i , FAUNA DIS· NATE gr

,,-n
'!
PlACED SAND am
ship to the shoreline. (After
Leckie and Krystinik 1989).
AND
M SHELF MUD,
b Amalgamation of proxi-
0.1 SHEllS mal tempestites. c Proximal
m FAUNA IN
PlACE
am
carbonate tempestite (upper
gm
MUD
ClAST 1 part could also be silici-
clastic). d Distal mud tem-
pestite
M gr

ized by thorough bioturbation in the long time inter-
vals between large storms (Fig. 3.7b). Sole marks at
the base of sandy tempestites indicate a trace fossil
association characteristic of shallow-marine environ-
ments.
Burrows exhumed and partly washed out by storm action
are subsequently filled with settling sediment. The ero-
sional depth range of storm action can be determined from
these casts of animal burrows which were shaped just prior
to the storm event (Fig. 3.7a; Wetzel and Aigner 1986).
However, burrow-fill sedimentation can also occur without
the formation of a storm deposit (Wanless et al 1988).
The pre-event bioturbation in muddy host sediment is
caused by a mixed, deposit-feeding and grazing Skolithos-
Cruziana association of high diversity (Fig. 3.7.b; Pember-
ton and MacEachem 1996).
The post-event ichnofacies of sandy tempestites
mainly consists of vertical and U-shaped burrows of
a low-diversity ichnofacies Sufficiently thick
tempestites are burrowed only on their tops. The
post-event epifaunal community recolonizes either
the top of the tempestite, or erosional surfaces which
were not covered by a storm bed, for example in
somewhat elevated proximal regions.
Relatively firm, coarse substrates attract oysters, brachio-
pods, crinoids, stromatolites, and firm-ground burrowers of
the Glossifungites association. In distal zones with thin
tempestites and rare reworking by successive storms, bur-
rowing by post-event benthic organisms can markedly
overprint or completely obscure storm event stratification
(Fig. 3.5c).
104 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

a TEXAS
r--......:.~~
LOUISIANt\

c CROSS SECTION
SHALLOW SHALLOW -----~">,.. DEEPER (DISTAL)
TO DISTAL ( -10 m) (-20 m)

~~~=&==~~~~aMUD, HOMOGENEOUS

SAND AND MUD.

HETEROGENEOUS

__-=~~SAND AND
SHELLY SAND

MODERN
]= TEMPESTITES,
GULF OF
MEXICO

Fig. 3.6. Modem storm beds (tempestites) in the Gulf
of Mexico. a Paths of hurricanes across the Texas
shelf, including "Carla" , Sept. 1961. b "Carla" sand
bed (shaded, thickness in cm); ER indicates area
where post-storm reworking has removed the bed.
c Correlation of sand and shelly sand beds
(tempestites) in four vibrocores taken on the inner
shelf between 10 and 20 m water depth. (Modified
from Snedden et a1. 1988; Keen and Slingerland
1993)

Frequency of Storm Events and Tempestites siliciclastic andJor bioclastic sand, which is usually
provided by river deltas, rapid1y eroding sandy
Widely extensive, fairly thick sandy tempestite se- coastal cliffs, or carbonate production on ramp mar-
quences require a substantia1 continuous source of gins. In addition, relative subsidence of the basin
3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments 105

a
~
SHALLOW
Rhizocorallium ... . ""
--' ';:: ''';' .
(Rh)
Rh - - ".
Planolites
STORM-INDUCED
'.: .", : .:' TRUNCATION
·5. :'a.: .. ." AND CASTING
Thalassinoides
, a.~• • -:: . 4

(Th)

BIOTURBA TION DEEP

'IN MUDDY HOST
SEDIMENT

Planolites
b
ICHNOFACIES OF
HOST SEDIMENT
AND TEMPESTITE

A r&>rl,r,nlll'A

Fig. 3.7. a Infaunal tier-

ing in trace fossil associa-
tions, indicating minimal
depth of subsequent
Zoophycos storm erosion. (Modified
Diplocratenon from Wetzel and Aigner
1986). b Change in trace
EROSIONAL BASE fossil associations from
muddy host sediment to
proximal sandy tem-
c pestite (with erosional
base) and back to mud.
(Modified from Pember-
BIOLOGICAL ton and MacEachern
TEMPESTITE 1996). c Increasing diver-
DESTRUCTION sity of infauna and
epifauna from Cambrian
to post-Cambrian times.
Older, thin tempestites
and flat pebble eonglom-
erates are less bioturbated
FLAT · PEBBLE and therefore better pre-
CONGLOMERATE II~~I~I~~ served than younger
ones. (After Sepkoski
1982)
CAMBRIAN POST-CAMBRIAN PALEOZOIC

aeeumulating tempestites is neeessary for preventing
erosion of older storm beds. For this reasons, storms
represented by tempestites in the geologie reeord are
less frequent than rare storms in the modern world.
Today, a 100-year storm appears to be an exeeption-
ally large storm event. Tempestites preserved in the
geologieal reeord mostly oeeurred after time intervals
of several thousands of years.
Modern storm layers in seaward prograding sediments on
the inner she\f (at water depths of 20 to 30 m) appear at
time intervals ofsome tens to some hundreds ofyears (e.g.
Nelson 1982; Saito 1989). In contrast, ancient tempestite
sequences with two to five storm beds per 1 m section indi-
cate a recurrence interval in the order of I ka to > 10 ka,
assuming average sedimentation (or subsidence) rates in
the range of 20 to 100 mlMa. Recurrence intervals up to
100 ka have been reported (Molina et al. 1997).
106 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

INNER SHELF a LOWER TO MIDDlE SHOREFACE

AMALGAMATION

PARAUTOCHTHONOUS FAUNA MIXED FAUNA

b BYPASS MODEL

TEMPESTITES BYPASS ZONE BARRIER LAGOON

SE~LEVEL _ _ _ .\---.

_ ._.r~~Yl~BA?E

-!l INCREASING BASINWARD

C d
SILICICLASTIC SEQUENCE CARBONATE SEQUENCE

M CRINOIDAL
SHELF MUD SHELLV
LIMESTONE

:m }pi
DISTAL
TEMPESTITES CHANNEL FILL
(SKELETAL
Spl I """-",-..r':;'-.;:':-:"- ;' I PACKSTONE)
Swr
COARSEN-
FINING- ~~~~ Spl
UP r Shc ING-UP
(DEEPENING) PROXIMAL (SHALLOWING)
TEMPESTITES PROX IMAL
~:t.<lJI2ß......,..( Spl i;~r TEMPESTITES

'111t 1
Shc
Sgr HUMMOCKY

~ CROSS-STRATIF
AND SWALEY . 1m

SHOREFACE

1IülrIllflliilltimi DISTAL
TEMPESTITES

Fig. 3.8. a Facies model of storm deposits in cross
section from shoreface to inner shelf with proximal-
distal trends. b Bypass model (after Myrow 1992);
note lenticular-wavy bedding in distal region. c Ideal-
ized deepening (thinning) or fining upward
siliciclastic tempestite sequence. d Coarsening
(thickening) or shallowing upward calcareous
tempestite sequence (number of beds reduced).
(Mainly based on Dott and Bourgeois 1982; Aigner
1985)
3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments
This discrepancy between modem observations and
the limited number of preserved tempestites in the
ancient record suggests that even many prominent
storm beds are wiped out or obscured by subsequent
very rare, extremely large storm events. The action of
earlier weaker storms may be inferred indirectly from
the occurrence of mechanically abraded, coarse parti-
eIes and/or the presence of materials from different
sources in the ultimately preserved tempestite bed.
Numerous successive storm events can build up a
more or less rhythmic tempestite-shale sequence over
a certain geologie time period (see below).
Proximal-Distal Trends and Tempestite
Sequences
Common proximal-distal trends of tempestites are
summarized in the facies model of Fig. 3.8a. The
nearshore zone of swaley and large-scale hummocky
cross-stratification is usually devoid of muddy
interbeds. Basinward, with the presence of muddy
intercalations, either a zone of relatively thick and
often amalgamated tempestites follows, or there is a
zone of sediment bypassing (Fig. 3.8b, see below),
apart from sediment-filled scours. In any case,
tempestites tend to change laterally in thickness and
frequently pinch out. Further seaward, i.e., more dis-
taIly, the number of individual tempestites over a
certain time span first tends to increase, because
amalgamation becomes rare. Then it decreases due to
the limited travel distance of the storm-induced sus-
pension currents of relatively weak and medium
storms. Distal tempestites are thin and fine-grained
and show the same inorganic sedimentary structures
as distal turbidites, but they differ from turbidites in
their faunal characteristics and vertical facies trends
(Einseie and Seilacher 1991). Thin and intensely
bioturbated mud tempestites are difficult to identify
and therefore frequently overlooked.
The facies model of Figure 3.8a, showing continu-
ous tempestite beds from the foreshore to deeper wa-
ter, cannot be applied everywhere. The modified
model of Fig. 3.8b takes into account that tempestite
deposition may occur only on the inner and outer
shelf. In shallower water, the material stirred up by
storms is either frequently reworked in place (amal-
gamation), or it is transported basinward through an
intermediate zone of nondeposition (bypass zone;
107
bypass model after Myrow 1992). The typical bypass
zone is characterized by isolated pot and gutter casts
and the scarceness of continuous tempestite beds. In
some basins, both tempestite models may have been
successively realized. The bypass model appears to
be weIl suited for settings with subsidence rates in-
creasing from the margin toward the center of the
basin.
With or without sediment bypassing, numerous
successive storm events can build up more or less
rhythmic tempestite-shale sequences in subsiding
basins. These sequences may reflect three different
trends ofbasin evolution:
- Steady-state conditions in a foreshore-shelf envi-
ronment, i.e., the average sedimentation rate more or
less compensates for subsidence. In this case, com-
paratively thick sequences of tempestites altemating
with shelf muds can develop, and the palaeo-water
depth at a certain location within the basin will re-
main about constant.
- Deepening basin, i.e., the average sedimentation
rate is lower than subsidence. Then the vertical se-
quence will displayatrend from thick, relatively
coarse-grained proximal tempestites to thin, fine-
grained distal tempestites, and finally end up with
indistinct mud tempestites or purely autochthonous
shelf muds (Fig. 3.8c). The transition zone from
proximal to distal storm beds may be on the order of
20 to 50 m in vertical seetion.
- Shallowing basin, with a sedimentation rate higher
than subsidence. The resulting tempestite sequence
coarsens (thickens) upward (Fig. 3.8d), and the tran-
sition zone from shelf muds to a silicieIastic or
bioeIastic foreshore and coastal environment will be
also of limited thickness. Such a regressive trend fa-
vors amalgamation of storm beds.
Hence, tempestites can be distinguished from
turbidites not only on the basis of certain sedimentary
structures (particularly hummocky cross-stratification
and wave ripples) and faunal characteristics of indi-
vidual beds, but often also by rapid facies changes in
their vertical sequences.
Tempestite sequences displaying repeated
coarsening-upward sections have been described
from various locations and sediments of different
ages. These tempestite cyeIes are usually explained
by relative sea-Ievel changes (cf. Sect. 7.9).
108
3.1.4 Summary (Beach and Shoreface)
- The morphology of coastlines, the slope of the
foreshore zone, and the beach and foreshore
sediments are controlled to a large degree by
waves and wave-induced currents.
- High-energy waves and fine-grained sediments
tend to produce a gentle beach-shelf (equilib-
rium) profile.
Sand transport by longshore currents generates
zones with net loss or net gain of sand. In the
latter case, sand barriers and seaward migrating
sand ridges (cheniers) develop.
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
- Prograding coastlines create coarsening-upward
vertical seetions.
Severe storms produce geostrophic bottom CUf-
rents. These generate, in combination with os-
cillatory wave motion, siliciclastic or calcareous
(bioclastic) storm beds (tempestites) with dis-
tinct proximal-distal trends. Most of them are
reworked by subsequent storms (amalgamation)
or obscured by bioturbation.
3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
3.2 Sediments of Tidal Flats and
Barrier Island-Lagoon Complexes
3.2.1 Tides, Tidal Ranges, and Tidal Currents
Generation ofTides
Tidal Range and Tidal Currents
Coastal Morphology and Tidal-Influenced
Environments
3.2.2 General Characteristics ofTidal Sediments
Mud Flats, Mud Deposition
Tidal Channel Sediments
Sandflats and Mixed Sand-Mudflats
Climate Control of Tidal Sediments
Response ofTidal Flats to Sea-Level Changes
3.2.3 Distinctive Features ofTidal Sediments (Summary)
3.2.4 Sediments ofBarrier Island-Lagoon Complexes
General Characteristics
Sub environments of Barrier-Island Complexes
Controls by Climate and Hydraulic Regime
Response ofBarrier Island-Lagoon Complexes to
Sea-Level Changes
Remarks to Ancient Barrier-Island Sands and
Lagoonal Sediments
3.2.5 Summary (Barrier Islands and Lagoons)
3.2.1 Tides, Tidal Ranges, and Tidal Currents
Generation of Tides
Tidal processes operate along the co asts of all large
oceans Tides and tidal waves are caused by the at-
traction of the Moon and, to a lesser degree, by the
Sun. On the side of the Earth facing the Moon, as
weil as on the side opposite to it, the water level of
the ocean is raised, while perpendicular to this line
the water level is depressed (Fig. 3.9a). Due to the
counter-clockwise rotation of the Earth, the piled-up
water mass dragged along by the Moon travels clock-
wise until it hits a continental margin and its shore,
where it is forced to flow back toward the center of
the ocean basin. This process is repeated once or
twice daily (diurnal and semi-diurnal tides) and its
intensity fluctuates in two-week periods from high
spring tides (with the Moon and Sun working in the
same direction) to low neap tides and vice versa.
Tidal processes are described in many books and special
artic1es (e.g., Dietrich 1975; Davis 1978; Klein and Ryer
1978; Pethick 1984; Carter 1988; de Boer et al. 1988;
Smith et al. 1991; Dalrymple 1992; Alexander et al. 1999).
Apart from the gravitational effect of the Moon and
the Sun, the magnitude of the tides also depends on
the period with which the water mass of an ocean, an
enclosed sea, or a bay tends to oscillate in its basin.
If this period corresponds approximately with the pe-
riodically changing gravity forces of the Moon and
Sun, the tidal range is substantially enhanced.
Tidal waves (as used here, not the erroneous syn-
onym of storm surges or tsunamis) have a very long
wave length and therefore behave in a way similar to
wind-generated waves in shallow water (cf. Sect.
3.1). In deep water the tides are hardly noticeable,
but when a tidal wave approaches the continental
slope and shallow water, the migrating water masses
are piled up and often bundled to considerable height
(Fig. 3.9b and c).
Tides of great amplitude only develop on the
coasts of very large water bodies, i.e., at the margins
of the oceans.
Lakes and smaller sea basins separated from the open
ocean only show very small tidal effects (Fig. 3.9d). Even
the Mediterranean Sea does not have tides greater than 10
to 20 cm because its connection with the open ocean is too
narrow t~ allow tidal waves to enter from the Atlantic into
the adjacent Mediterranean basin. For other reasons, the
tides along the coasts of most oceanic islands, as weil as
along elongated continental coast lines behind narrow or
missing shelves, are also limited «I m).
From the ancient record it can be inferred that, since the
Precambrian, the Earth-Moon system must have always
operated in a similar way as it does t.oday. In addition, .it
has been tried to determine the duratJon of a ProterozOlc
year by investigating tidal cyc1es and rhythmites in glacial-
influenced ebb-tidal deposits and banded iron formations
(Sect. 6.5) in South Australia (Williarns 1989a, b). Accord-
ing to this study, the Proterozoic year was about 400 days
long and each day lasted approximately 22 h.
Tidal Ranges and Tidal Currents
High tides and consequently strang tidal currents are
generated under one or both of the following condi-
tions:
- Wide shelf or continental sea (Fig. 3.9b).
- Large bay with funnel-shaped opening (Fig. 3.9c).
110 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

a MOON

C
EARTH
OCEAN BASIN
b HIGH liDES

CONT INENT WIDE SHELF

2
LOW TIDE

NARROW SHELF

BA Y, FUNNEL -SHAPED

HIGH TIDES
OCEAN BASIN

ADJACENT SEA,
WIDE, DEEP ENTRANCE

Fig. 3.9. a Simplified view of a rotating slice of the in relation to shelf width. C Increased tidal range in
Earth beside a stationary Moon to explain oceanic funnel-shaped bay, but subdued tide in estuary.
tides. bLandward migration of tidal wave leading to d Tides and tidal ranges controlled by the orientation
an increase in tidal range from deep to shallow water of elongated ocean basins and adjacent basins

On the continental shelves of the present-day oceans, a shallow sea are funneled into a bay with a wide
tides higher than 2 to 3 m usually occur in regions opening (producing tidal ranges up to 10 to 15 m).
where the shelf is at least 100 to 200 km wide. The East-west extended bays, fjords, or adjacent seas
tidal range is further enhanced, if tidal waves behind give rise to higher tides than north-south extended
3.2 Tidal Flats 111

a -------- I
...,..----... ----;:---,.' 7
/ .
b
---
~ -- I WASH-
I-----:~~' I ----.,: OVER
1-- --, /
I
I ,.
\ \..._..1 : Al FAN
I ---':
' ~ARROW
I

\ '';: .. SM ALL
\ ) ".;..
'--/ . FLOODf>- . , :(" INLET
TIDAL- t J ' -.::
DEL TA ·: ·B ARRIER
~ ISLAND
"

,~
,'"r-
"TI
, ~
') ~S
1-- --",«1'
,C" PATH OF
(I ~
\.J TIDAL WAVE
DEEP ~\
... LOW TlDES
SE"
------ ', , HIGH WAVE-DOMINATED

":', .' .. :
c '
d

....~: ':.: _ EBB-

.. ~ .!.-.: TlDAL
• I:"' " DEL TA
Fig. 3.10. a Tidal waves
entering an epicontinental
basin (sirnilar to the North
Sea) and locations of high
BARRIER
tidal range. b,c,d Models
ISLAND of microtidal, mesotidal,
.. ..
S km
--<
S km : .' .. '. :.':.
............. .'.', . : .. .' '
and macrotidal coastlines.
(After Hayes 1980;
MIXED WAVE-TIDE DOMINA TED TIDE-DOMINATED Reineck 1984)

seaways (Fig. 3.9d). Adjacent basins display high to when ancient tidal deposits are used for
very high tides only when their openings are wide paleogeographic reconstructions.
and deep, such as, for example, the Gulf of Califor- Tides also penetrate into the river mouths, particu-
nia. These general rules about tidal ranges can locally larly if these are wide and form estuaries (Figs. 3.9c
be modified in many ways, particularly along irregu- and 3.1 Od). When fresh-water discharge is limited,
larly shaped coastlines and in epicontinental seas. salt water can intrude as bottom water far upstream
into the estuary. With abundant fresh water flow, the
An example of tides reinforeed by resonanee and modified salt water is hampered from moving upriver and
by the topography of the basin as weil as Coriolis fore es therefore forms a "salt wedge" near the mouth of the
(see Seet. 5.2) is the North Sea. In Figure 3.lOa (simpli- estuary (Fig. 3.9c and Sect. 4.2, Fig. 4.1).
fied) the entering tidal wave from the North Atlantic forms The incoming tidal water is called flood, the out-
three more or less separately working tidal systems. Tidal going ebb. The highest water level reached at a cer-
ranges are high only at the western and southern margins of tain point is the high water fine, the lowest point the
the epieontinental basin, and very low on the eastern side. low water. The difference between mean high and
mean low water is the "normal" or mean tidal range.
From the North Sea and other examples we can con- According to their elevation with respect to the mean
c1ude that tidal ranges can vary considerably, even high and mean low water line, the tidal environment
within the same basin. This has to be borne in mi nd is subdivided into three zones:
112
Supratidal zone above the mean high water line.
- Intertidal zone between the mean high and mean
low water lines.
Subtidal zone below the mean low water line.
The higher the tidal range, the more water has to be
transported from deep water into the coastal zone and
back again during one tidal cycle. Consequently, high
tides are associated with strong tidal CUITents flowing
onshore and offshore. They often reach velocities of
1 to 2 m/s, with local values of up to 4-8 m/s. In tidal
flats, their maximum velocities comrnonly develop in
the middle of the flood or ebb period, when the rise
or fall of sea level is most pronounced (cf. Fig.
3.l1b). At other locations, for example in special
tidal channels or at the heads of estuaries, the tidal
current maxima and minima may occur earlier or
later in relation to the tidal cycle.
Coastal Morphology and Tidal-Influenced
Environments
The hydrographie regime of tide-influenced coastal
areas is also affected significantly by the presence or
absence of baITier islands accompanying the coast-
line. The relationship between coastal morphology
and tidal amplitude is sumrnarized in Table 3.1 and
Fig. 3.1 Ob-d.
Table 3.1. Tidal-influenced environments
Tidal range Coastal morphology
Long barrier islands, few
- Micotidal <2m
inlets
Short barrier islands with
- Mesotidal 2-4m numerous inlets, ebb and
flood tidal deltas
Small or missing islands,
- Macrotidal >4m estuaries with subtidal
ridges
Apart from tidal action and coastal morphology, the
sedimentary processes in tidal flats are influenced by
wind-generated waves. Therefore it has become com-
mon for sedimentologists to subdivide coastal areas
into three subenvironments:
- Wave-dominated shorelines: beaches, microtidal
baITier islands and cheniers.
- Mixed wave-tide injluenced shorelines: mesotidal
baITier islands with tidal in lets and ebb and flood
tidal deltas.
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
- Tide-dominated shorelines: tidal flats, estuaries
and associated sand ridges.
This subdivision is based on the assumption that
wind waves are the dominant coastal process when
the tidal range is less than 2 m. Features such as
beaches, sand spits, and long baITier islands are con-
trolled mainly by wind-generated waves (cf. Sect.
3.1). In contrast, tidal ranges in excess of 4 mare the
dominant influence on coastal areas and their sedi-
ments, although wind waves also play some part. In
this chapter, both tide-dominated and mixed wave-
tide influenced environments will be discussed.
3.2.2 General Characteristics of Tidal Sediments
Tidal Environments, Provenance and Distribution of
Sediments
Modem tidal environments can be subdivided into
three zones (from higher to lower elevated areas):
- Mudflats.
- Mixed sand-mudflats.
- Sandflats.
Mud and sand refer to grain-size fractions, which
may consist of both silicic1astic and/or carbonate ma-
terial. The three zones display distinctive characteris-
tics which can be easily recognized in ancient sedi-
mentary rocks. Tidal sediments are therefore of out-
standing interest for paleoenvironmental and
paleogeographic reconstructions.
Besides numerous special articles, several textbooks pres-
ent summeries and some special books deal entirely with
this topic (e.g., Ginsburg 1975; Friedman and Sanders
1978; Reineck and Singh 1980; Klein 1985c; Elliott
1986a; Boer et al. 1988; Reinson 1992; Flemming and
Bartolomä 1995; Clark et al. 1999).
Tidal flat sediments may have different sourees: in-
put by rivers, cliff erosion, and reworked material
from the offshore sea bottom. The proportion of
mudflats, mixed sand-mudflats, and sandflats also
depends on the availability of mud and sand in the
source areas. Along coastal plains and near mud-
dominated rivers, muddy tidal flats tend to prevail. In
front of coastal mountain ranges delivering large
quantities of sand into a tidal regime, sandier flats
and subtidal sand ridges are prominent.
An ancient example of the latter situation is the Miocene
(Burdigalian) marine molasse in the northem foreland ba-
sin of the Alps (Homewood and Allen 1981). It can be as-
sumed that sandy material usually forrns narrower tidal
flats than finer grained muds, which better withstand ero-
sion and reworking (see below).
3.2 Tidal Flats 113

BARRIER
ISLAND
a
MUD FLATS

COASTAL
PLAIN

HIGH TIDE
...> b
ö
o
..J
W
>
• 100
/
_/ \ -
\ /'
w E / \ I \
e... u I \ I \
Q
, \ I \
o
o..J
50 I \ I
~ I MUO FLAr ~ I
u.. o ~, ~FlOW I 0
--0 it A ::::"':!. B itl--~~--- Fig. 3.11. a Cross section of a creek-mudflat-
...> >c:
ffi I
I \
\
saltmarsh system at the North Sea coast. b Changing
Ö current velocities (solid fine) of single water parti-
0
..J
50 lJ I \ cles during a tidal cycle (broken line). Peak veloci-
w.
> -... / \ I ties occur only in the creek at water levels below
e
w u 100 / \ I mean water stand (0) during the first half of the
0 / \ / flood and the second half of the ebb period. At wa-
~ " ~'-- ter levels above about 0, water flows with low ve-
111
111
W
locities over the mudflats (between points A and B).
(After Pethick 1984)
o 5 10 15 20 25

The material forming tidal sediments is commonly flats. The rest, including most of the nonflocculated
transported by the flood from deeper water into the clay-size grains, will flow back seaward with the fol-
tidal flats as suspended load or as bedload (sand). lowing ebb current.
Due to the special creek system wh ich develops in Mud deposition is favored by the following cir-
such areas, the incoming water flow is restricted first cumstances and processes:
to the channels or creeks, where it can reach high ~ Mudflats, marshes, or coastal sabkhas are usually
velocities on the order of 1 m/s (Fig. 3.11 b). Later, found in areas sheltered from the effects of powerful
after the water level has risen, the water spills onto wind-driven waves (i.e. behind barrier islands, within
the higher, widely extended flats. Consequently, the coastal embayments or estuaries; Fig. 3.1 Ob-d).
velocity of the flood current drops significantly, and ~ The mud is widely distributed by the special chan-
both the bedload and the suspended particles, flocs or nel system for the incorning and outflowing water
pellets, start to settle. Sand and some mud is depos- masses of the tidal waves.
ited c10se to the distributary channels (sandflats and - Gentle offshore slopes and high concentrations of
mixed flats), where the sandy surfaces are affected suspended fine-grained material provided by nearby
by wave action (wave ripples). mud-dorninated rivers. Because water is lowest on
After the tide has attained its maximum height, the the landward part of the flats, settling flocs and pel-
thin water layer on top of the mudflats nearly comes lets do not need much time to sink to the ground. The
to rest for a short time (approximately I h). highest portions of the mudflats te nd to increase in
height more quickly than the deeper portions.
- Flocculation of clay-sized particles or the incorpo-
Mudflats, Mud Deposition ration of c1ay and silt particles into fecal pellets.
- After settling, the flocs or pellets stick together to
All partic1es which have settled to the ground during form a cohesive sediment which requires higher cur-
high tide have a chance of staying behind in the mud- rent velocities for erosion than sand. In addition, thin
114
mats of micro-organisms (Gerdes et al. 1985;
Reineck and Gerdes 1996) and, particularly in
supratidal marshes, plants able to withstand the se-
vere environmental conditions further protect the
muddy sediments from erosion.
As a result of the periodic emergence of the mudflats
during low tides, the fine-grained sediment at the
surface loses water by evaporation and can becomes
more solid than freshly deposited mud covered per-
manently by water.
The Holocene mudflats ofthe North Sea accumulated at an
average sedimentation rate of 1 to 2 rnmIa. Over periods of
months, however, the mudflats may grow much faster
(about 5 to 10 rnmImonth), but vertical aggradation is fre-
quently interrupted by erosional events (Reineck 1980;
Anderson et al. 1981). Long-term rapid upbuilding is lim-
ited by tidal range and basin subsidence. In supratidal ar-
eas, which are flooded only during spring tides or storms,
the rate of deposition decreases considerably.
Tidal marsh sediment along the Delaware river near
Philadelphia accumulated at the rate of 004 mrn/a during
the last 2 ka, prior to the modem colonization of this area
(Orson et al. 1990).
When muds are deposited under comparatively low-
energy conditions, they are little affected by subse-
quent channeling and thus contain only small por-
tions of cross-bedded sands and sand bars character-
istic of the intertidal and subtidal zones.
Mud deposition in the mudflats generates a strik-
ing contrast between mudflats along protected co asts
and beach or foreshore sands along open coasts
(Sect. 3.1). On sandy beaches the finer-grained parti-
cles are sorted out and carried into deeper water,
whereas in tidal flats the fine-grained material is de-
posited near the coast slightly below or above the
mean water line (Fig. 3.11a). This may occur even in
medium to high energy tidal environments (wave and
current action).
Tidal Channel Sediments
The slowly starting subsequent ebb current usually
carries only part of the mud, previously transported
landward, back into deeper water. This current in
turn will reach high velocities, as soon as the mud-
flats are drained and the seaward-flowing water be-
comes confined to the creek system. The channels
are therefore kept clean of fine-grained sediments,
and erosion along their banks is very common.
In this way small slides are produced which are
reworked by the channelized ebb or flood currents,
forrning elasts and pebbles of mud. These are fairly
resistant and often preserved in the sedimentary re-
cord.
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
Tidal channels, particularly those in sand-domi-
nated tidal flats, tend to migrate laterally. A special
feature of these channels is lateral accretion bedding
(or "longitudinal" cross-bedding; cf. Fig. 3.13), in
contrast to normal, transverse cross-bedding, gener-
ated by current ripples and dunes within the chan-
nels. The thickness of the lateral accretion beds ap-
proximates the depth of the channel wh ich rnay range
from a few decimeters to several meters. The main
channels increase in width and depth seaward. Due
to the changing direction of flood and ebb currents,
the ripple- and dune-related types of small- and
large-scale cross-bedding often display bidirectional
orientation of subsequent sets of larninae, a feature
which is referred to as herringbone stratification (cf.
Fig.3.13).
Another interesting and diagnostic feature of tidal
channel deposits is the large sandwaves (often 1 to 2
m high), wh ich may indicate not only the diurnal or
semi-diurnal tidal cycle, but sometimes also the ef-
fects of the fortnightly variation from neap tide to
spring tide (neap-spring cycles; e.g. Visser 1980;
Oost et al. 1993; Fig. 3.12). Such features were
found in modem and ancient sediments of different
ages. The sandwaves grow with the dominant current
(this often being the ebb current), but are also af-
fected by the weaker opposite current (reworked
fore sets and migrating smaller ripples).
During slack water at high water stand, clay and
silt-sized sediment (flocs and pellets) can settle on
top of sandy foresets and particularly in ripple
troughs in tidal channels and on sandflats. The mud
forms characteristic mud drapings, which partly re-
sist later erosion. In shallow water channels, the ac-
cumulation of coarse shells and shell debris, derived
mostly from eroded parts of the tidal flats, is com-
mon.
In the subtidal zone, tidal currents can produce
large tidal sand ridges and sand sheets (cf. Sect.
3.3.3).
Sandflats and Mixed Sand-Mudflats
An irregularly and indistinctly bounded zone seaward
of the mudflats and in the neighborhood of the tidal
channels is occupied by sandflats and mixed sand-
mudflats. Sand transported along the channels can
spill over onto the flats and form either ± pure sand
sheets (sandflats) or thin sand layers alternating with
mud (mixed sand-mudflats). In favorable cases,
laminae accumulated during flood and ebb currents
form tidal rhythmites. More frequently, the surfaces
of both types of tidal sediments are modified and
reworked by current and wave action of chan ging
intensity. Current ripples may be superimposed by
wave ripples, and the internal structures of mixed
3.2 Tidal Flats 115

a
A DOMINANT CURRENT STAGE

~
~_~~GARIPPLE / SANI:
~AVE MIGRATION

____ --- . .... - I:.·I~.·:--:-"·~...: ·· --: ·,~, c

B FIRST SLACK WATER STAGE A

M
C

~
-
SUBORDINATE CURRENT STAGE

. ~ JEACTIVATION SURFACE
B

~~.~
--_. . ..... _ .. ','._ " '.'

E
D SECOND SLACK WATER STAGE c

SLOPE EXAGGERATED

~-~~~i:i:i:i. iI~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~
LA TEST EBS CAP -
EBB FLOOD

-. - - - -- 1- -- - - - - - -
NEAP TID E

Fig. 3.12. Subtidal to intertidal sandwaves as found
in estuaries. a Formation of a bundle of cross-bed
foresets, a reactivation surface, and mud drapes dur-
ing an ebb-flood tidal cyele. b Succession ofbundles
affected by spring tide and neap tide. (After Home-
wood and Allen 1981). c Different (theoretical) types
of sand waves (about 4 m high and 200 m long) in
subtidal environment. Subordinate current increases
in importance from A to C (C beginning of herring-
bone patterns). E erosional surfaces; M mud drap es
and mud elasts; CL cross lamination. (a and c after
Allen 1980 and 1982). d Intertidal to subtidal sand
waves observed on the Dutch North Sea coast.
(Boersma and Terwindt 1981)

sediments frequently show a typical lenticular and
flaser bedding (Fig. 3.13).
Tidal flats display typical faunal associations
which are adapted to the drastic changes in the envi-
ronment from high to low tide (i.e., from water cover
to emergence). Typical representatives are suspen-
sion feeders (e.g. bivalves, gastropods) living at or
below the sediment surface and deposit feeders such
as worms or crustaceans leaving behind U -shaped or
irregular burrows (e.g. Agricola, Callianassa) (see,
e.g., McKerrow 1978; Rcineck and Singh 1980;
Brornley 1996). Tropical tidal flats with see grass
show an epi- and infauna somewhat differing from
temperate humid regions.
When the overall fining-upward sequence of low tidal flat,
midflat, and high tidal flat deposits is complete, its thick-
ness allows estimating of the paleotidal range (Klein
1971). The preservation of complete tidal sequences is,
however, rare, and the lower limit of the tidal range is often
difficult to determine (Terwindt 1988).
Climate Control of Tidal Sediments
The sediments of tidal flats proper and particularly
those of the supratidal zone are strongly influenced
by elimatic factors controlling biogenic production,
terrigenous sediment input, salinity of coastal waters,
116
MUDFLATS
MIXED FLATS
(oandy mud.)
SAND FLATS
WITH DIFFERENT
TYPES OF WAVE AND
CUR RENT RIPPLES
(PARTL Y SUPER-
IMPOSED)
LONGITUDINAL
CROSS-BEDDING
TRANSVERSE
CROSS-BEDDING ,
DISPLACED SHEllS,
MUO PEBBlES
SUBTIDAl CHANNELS
AND SAND RIDGES (SAND
WAVES) , MUD DRAPING
Fig. 3.13. Main features and special sedimentary
structures of mesotidal siliciclastic tidal flats. (Based
on Van Straaten 1954; Klein 1970; Ginsburg 1975;
etc. Therefore several types of tidal flat sediments
cam be distinguished:
Siliciclastic tidal sediments (Fig. 3.13).
Ca1careous tidal sediments (Fig. 3.14).
Stromatolitic tidal sediments (Fig. 3.15).
The most important characteristics of these
depositional systems are summarized in the facies
models ofFigs. 3.13 through 3.15. Depending on the
c1imatic conditions and allochthonous sediment sup-
ply, the mudflats become vegetated (salt marsh, Fig.
3.l3). In tropical to subtropical regions, a kind of
mangrove forest can grow characterized by a dense
net of rootlets (Fig. 3.14). Such environments are
commonly populated by a rich fauna, which is some-
times also found in the fossil record (e.g., Westgate
and Gee 1990).
In more arid c1imates, the supratidal zone may be
occupied by coastal sabkhas where, due to high evap-
oration, some salts are precipitated (Sect. 6.4.2).
Hypersaline waters favor the growth and preserva-
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
MUDFlATS
laminated mud ,
in part s atrongly
b l oturb8ted
MIXED FlATS
Reineck 1984, and others). Vertical scale exagger-
ated ~500x
tion of microbial mats in the intertidal and supratidal
zones (Fig. 3.15), sometimes also in the subtidal
realm, because other organisms fee ding on them be-
come rare.
Modem exarnples have been described, e.g., from western
Australia (Shark Bay) and the southern coast of the Persian
Gulf. Microbial mats trapping eolian sand occur in
hypersaline embayments at the co ast of West Africa
(Schwarz et al. 1975). Modem stromatolite reefs can also
grow in brackish water, as observed elose to a river mouth
on the Atlantic coast of Middle Arnerica (Rasmussen et al.
1993).
Stromatolitic structures are frequently found in ancient
rocks, particularly in the Proterozoic (cf. Sect. 6.5). They
often give rise to the formation of characteristic voids
(vugs, fenestrae, tepees, bird's eyes, Fig. 3.15) which are
generated by crinkling when the sediments are exposed to
air, or by gas due to decomposing organic matter.
A detailed discussion of the various types of tidal sedi-
ments with their great variability and numerous special fea-
tures is not possible here, but the general rules discussed
above can be applied to most of them.
3.2 Tidal Flats 117

EOLIAN
POND WITH FINE
t HOMOGENEOUS
BEAC " i", "
,;;; H BIOTURBATED
SHORE- .;', ';;? '",:::::" , LI ME MUD
FACE -,.,::n,d.:'if
WASHOVER \

BEACH RIDGE

~~~4I-~~~~L
CHANNEL -=--"'--'-_...",.... FINE
SEDIMENTS PELLETS
STORM
LAYER

8J
ALGAL MATS CONTORTED

.. .....
SKELETAL
AND PELLETAl
CARBONATE '
~. ~
'TEPEE'
LAYER
L DOLOMITE
RUSTS
I ;:~,::i,:;;":: ...
SAND (FORAMS. PELLETS . -....... "
GASTROPODS ;ARBONATE MUD '
~=::Jo!J,...ETC . ) ·_·'· .. ..u·_ .
SUBTIDAL MANGROVE OPEN INTERTIDAL
PEBBLES OF POND POND LI ME MUD
MUDS AND SANDS ::, -:.-:'''..-.==--"
LI ME MUD 'BIROS'S EYES'

(lNTRACLASTS)
OR CRUSTS "'::'. " 50 I~
. ' ........-...,; .
GRAIN ~ 't
~.
.J ') I
LAYER 2vi • ~r .
1::
~
, ,'__i." '
;:,:,,,: ( " I~
BRECCIA OF
BROKEN DOLO-

MAY BE REPLACEY /:,'. ' . ' .' ( .' ." &..:.:............;.;.-0-- , . , • '~ MITIC CRUST OR
ALGAL MATS
BY 0010 BARS . PELLETAL MUD. HOMO- ROOTS. PELE- JNTENSIVELY INDISTlNCTL Y (FLAT PEBBlE
SHELL BEOS, GENIZED BY BURROWING CYPOOS. ETC. BIOTURBATED LAMINATED CONGLOMERATE)
REEFS

Fig. 3.14. Main features and special sedimentary nels. (Based on Ginsburg and Hardie 1975; Shinn
structures of tidal flats associated with carbonate 1983; Sellwood 1986, and others). Vertical scale of
shelves and platforms in warm, humid climate. A block diagram exaggerated ~500x. Note the different
high-energy environment leads to many large chan- scales of sections displaying sedimentary structures

Tidal sediments conslstlng largely of calcareous
sands and muds can become cemented early and
therefore have a particularly high preservation poten-
tiaL Carbonate platforms (Sects. 3.4 and 12.2) such
as the Bahamas are built up in great part as tidal flats.
They may develop a sand ridge at their outer margin
and ponds within the tidal flats proper, which are
filled up by fine-grained lime mud (Fig. 3.14).
Idealized sections of various types of tidal flat
sediments are shown in Fig. 3.16. They demonstrate
the influence of both the hydraulic regime and the
climate, but they do not account for sea-Ievel changes
and large erosional events. The variability of tidal
sediments generally increases from the subtidal to the
supratidal zone due to increasing climatic influences.
Fully oxidized brown-colored primary sediments of the
supratidal and partly of the intertidal zones tend to become
red during diagenesis. Gray subtidal sediments and their
thicknesses are controlled mainly by the hydraulic condi-
tions, i.e. high-energy open shelf sections are commonly
thicker than those of low-energy bays and lagoons. The
thicknesses of the different tidal zones in Fig. 3.16 are
based on the assumption that neither subsidence nore sea-
level changes occur (cf. Fig. 3.18).
Response of Tidal Flats to Sea-Level Changes
As are all nearshore sediments, tidal deposits are
strongly affected not only by variations in the influx
of allochthonous material, but also by relative sea-
level changes (cf. Sect. 7.3). Sea-leveifalileads to a
seaward migration of the tidal complex and usually
causes partial or complete erosion of pre-existing
tidal sediments (Fig. 3.17a). If such a situation per-
sists for some time, the chances for preservation of
tidal deposits, particularly of supratidal and intertidal
mudflats, are very limited, unless these have been
early cemented.
In contrast, intertidal and supratidal deposits can
easily follow a rising sea level and build up thick
sequences, because their sedimentation rate is suffi-
ciently high. In addition, they are fairly capable of
118 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

TYPES OF ALGAL STRUCTURES SUPRATIDAL SAL T FLA T

DESERT
(STROMATOLlTES) (SABKHA) (s . g., SAND DUNES)

INTERTIDAL
A B c o ALGAL
columnar knolle smooth pustular FLAT
wlth 9ae- or

----=---
keave vugs crinkled
~~

@) oncOid lE l

PROTECTED
BAY OR
LAGOON
(HYPERSALINE) ",-
./
./
",-
./

LARGE GYPSUM
LAGOONAL BEACH SAND, CRYSTALS
CARBONATE -/ OOIDS . _ _ ', _=. ,-::
..... ~ ••, " ' ' ' . f<. .. ~ __ .. ~..:=._ ...... "
...:~....'4t~- '.. S ,'''::-:'.-: -_' .- ALGAL PE AT
,-:.::::~:"::= .• MALL _o.o:~..: ___ .'
:?-?! 0" ' SHELLS, " ~''' ...... \\ ,~ ,'
DEBRIS LAGOONAL CARBONATE

Fig. 3.15. Algal (microbial) and evaporitic tidal flats
in warm arid regions and low-energy environment
(few channels!). (Based on Purser 1973; Schwarz et
al. 1975; Butler et al. 1982; Schreiber 1986, and oth-
ers). The intertidal algal flats and coastal sabkhas
border protected hypersaline bays and lagoons. The
types of stromatolitic structures vary with their posi-
tions below or above mean sea level. For evaporites
in sabkha environments see Sect. 6.4.1 and Fig. 6.8.
Vertical scale exaggerated ~500x

reslstmg wave and current attack when their
erodibility is diminished by algal mats and early ce-
mentation. If the sea-level rise is slow or terrninated,
mudflats and supratidal sediments may prograde sea-
ward and thus enlarge their areal extent. This is one
of the reasons for the surprising thickness and wide
areal distribution of tidal sediments in the geologic
record. Furthermore, specific tectonic settings, such
as long-Iasting, slowly subsiding shallow platforms
can maintain a tidal flat environment over long time
periods.
3.2.3 Distinctive Features of Tidal Sediments
(Summary)
Tidal action occurred from the Precambrian to the
Present. In spite of their great variety, silicic1astic
and calcareous tidal sediments are normally easy to
recognize in the ancient record. Their most distinc-
tive features are:
Sections with alternating subtidal, intertidal, and
supratidal sediments.
- Small- and larger-scale migrating channel systems
filled with reworked sediments (mud pebbles) and
shell deposits.
- Current- and wave-induced sedimentary struc-
tures, partilllly bipolar, mud drapings, and
sandwaves indicating diurnal, semi-diurnal, and
neap-spring tidal cyc1es.
- Indications of emergence (mud cracks, crinkled
microbial mats, etc.).
- Specific epifauna and infauna of limited diversity.
Characteristic facies aSSOCIatlOns, inc1uding
coastal barrier sands, lagoonal and estuarine sedi-
ments, and transitions into shallow-marine envi-
ronments or emergence with pedogenesis, plant
rootlets, karstification, etc.
For a safe identification of tidal deposits, several of
these features should be present.
3.2 Tidal Flats 119

CLiMATE HUMID HUMID, WARM HUMID ARID

TEMPERATE SllICICL. AND/ OR TEMPERATE WARM
SILICICLASTICS CARBONATE MUD-DOMINA TED CARBONA TIC OR
ENVIRONMENT
\ / IN PLACES : CARBO- SILIC lCLASTICS SlliCICLASTIC
CONTI-
NENTAL
-t - - - SAL T MARSH.
~~~~1~~f;·~
1TV"tLFnn- NATE ROCK,
KARSTIFIEO _.,..
~GAL MARSH
EOLlAN,
FLUVIAL
\ I
FlUVIAL
SUPRA- ROOTS STORM L. (SAND,
~~iI--'" BROKEN CRUSTS _ _ _ SANDS
TIDAL STOR'" lAYERS
- } __ (SAND. SHELlSI OR ALGAL MATS) SUPRA-
LEYEE-DEP. TIDAL
FLASER BEDS ALG. MATS, _ _ "'-_
INTER- LENTICULAR MUD CRACKS .. LAMIN.
TIDAL ROOTS (MAN- INTER- MUD
J __ _ GROVEI. SHELLS TIDAL FLASER
--"'-- & lENTI-
MUD, BIOT.

1_-- / CUlAR
~ --{"- BEOS
SHALLOW - - LAMINATED SAND I
I CHANNELS I tc...~"""iL--
MUDDY SAND, BIOT. SUB-
MUD WITH
SOME
I TIDAL PEBBLES,
I I SHElLS

SUB-
I
I ~~
MUD PEBBlES
--1--
I
T1DAL I SAND. BIOTURB. MUDDY
LAGOON, CHANNEL LAGOONAL (OR
10 I=;~::oii!'.;--- MUD, WAYY BAY, FILL, BAY) MUD . BIO-
DEEP CHANNELS. m ADJACENT BIOTUR- TURBATED.
SUBTIDAl I COARSE SAND SEA
BATED SAND LAYERS
SAND RIDGES , (IN PLACES I
TIDAL INlET I OOltTIC) OR : MASSIYE
I I
I DEPOSITS REEF (BIOHERM
(EBB AND FlOOD- OR BIOSTROME)
I TlDAL DELTA I CHANNEL lAG
I SANDS) I (GRAYELLY SAND,
I I SHElL DEBRIS)
I
1 __ - ,I 1) CHICKEN-WIRE TEXTURE
2) IN PLACES : GRAINSTONE CRUST.
! BORED {HARDGROUND)
SHALLOW OPEN FINE SAND AND
SEA (INNER SHELF) MUDDY SAND,
I BIOTURBATED
.. HYDRAULIC
REGIME HIGH-ENERGY LOW-ENERGY

Fig. 3.16. Model sections for comparing tidal depos-
its formed in areas of different climates and hydrau-
lic conditions. The variability increases from the
subtidal to the supratidal zone due to increasing cli-
matic influences. The thickness and nature of
subtidal sediments are controlled by the hydraulic
conditions (high-energy open shelf versus low-en-
ergy bays and lagoons). It is assumed that neither
subsidence nor sea-Ievel changes occur. (Compiled
after different sourees, e.g., Ginsburg 1975; Shinn
1983; Sellwood 1986)

3.2.4 Sediments of Barrier Island-Lagoon
Complexes
General Characteristics
On microtidal and mesotidal shorelines (cf. Fig.
3.1 Ob,c), tidal sediments often represent part of a
larger facies association which includes the deposits
of baITier islands, lagoons or estuaries. In addition,
this facies association may laterally or vertically al-
ternate with strandplain deposits. Such environments
are summarized here under the term baITier island-
lagoon complex.
BaITier islands are the result of nearshore trans-
port and accumulation of sand-size siliciclastic or
carbonate particles along coastlines which are ex-
posed to considerable wave action, but moderate tidal
range. Island formation is favored by a low-gradient
shoreface-shelf profile and abundant supply of sand-
size sediment. The islands develop from beach
ridges, nearshore sand bars, or sand spits prograding
parallel to the coastline. They often grow upward
with rising sea level, separating an estuary or lagoon
from the open sea. The baITier ridge is cut by chan-
nels (inlets), allowing tidal waves to enter and exit
the lagoon (Fig. 3.18). In this way, a rather complex
depositional environment is created, consisting of
several subenvironments :
120
BACK-
BARRIER
~=~~ WASHOVER~~~~
OLDER
LAGOONAL MUD, FLOOD-TiDAL
ROCKS
DEt. TA SANDS, CHANNEL FILLS
Fig. 3.17. Response of tidal sediments and barrier
island-Iagoon eomplexes to sea-Ievel ehanges: result-
ing vertieal sequenees and lateral facies ehanges.
a Falling sea level (Stages I to 2) leads to eoastal
erosion and truneation of older supratidal and
intertidal sediments. Outbuilding of new (regressive)
tidal sediments. Siow sea-Ievel fall may enable the
preservation of widely extended subtidal sediments.
b Rising sea level, transgressive sequence or eontinu-
ous upbuilding of muddy intertidal and supratidal
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
EROSION
SURFACE
d3
/
sediments. c Rapidly rising sea level, drowning of
former barrier-island eomplex and buildup of seeond
barrier-Iagoonal complex farther inland. d Slowly
rising sea level causing the barrier-island complex to
migrate landward. Shorefaee erosion, prograding
from stage dl to d3, removes older sediments and
generates vertical seetions with differing strati-
graphie gaps. (Based on Howard and Reineek 1981;
Elliott 1986a, and others). Vertieal seales strongly
exaggerated
3.2 Tidal Flats
- The subtidal to sub aerial barrier-beach complex.
- The subtidal-intertidal ebb-delta associated with
shoreface sediments.
- The subtidal-intertidal flood-delta associated with
lagoonal and tidal flat sediments (back-barrier
zone).
The (laterally rnigrating) subtidal-intertidal inlet-
channel complex.
Barrier-island systems frequently form long, ex-
tended chains along straight coasts (cf. Fig. 3.2).
Therefore, their deposits usually represent elongate
bodies which parallel the strandline. Three of the
above-mentioned subenvironments are characterized
by sandy deposits, whereas in the back-barrier zone
both sand and muds accumulate. The sediment
source may be mainly terrigenous and/or biogenic
(carbonate) and thus magnify the variability of the
barrier-island complex as a depositional system. As
pointed out above, tidal sediments and biota in the
lagoon strongly reflect the climatic conditions of the
neighboring landmass.
Subenvironments of Barrier Island-Lagoon
Complexes
(1) A barrier-beach complex consists of, from bottom
to top:
- Shoreface sands down to a depth of 10 to 20 m
below mean sea level, where the normal wave action
ceases. These sands generally exhibit decreasing
grain size and increasing bioturbation with growing
water depth (Fig. 3.18). While the upper shoreface
deposits may contain gravelly sands and display
multi-directional sedimentary structures (trough
cross-beds and low-angle planar cross-beds), the
lower ones consist of fine to very fine-grained sand
or muddy sand. Here, the primary sedimentary struc-
tures, consisting mainly of planar larninated and
small-scale cross-bedded material, are frequently
obliterated by bioturbation.
- Beach-foreshore sands displaying parallel to low-
angle, seaward-dipping larninations and usually little
bioturbation. They are overlain by
- Backshore eolian dunes starting with rather small-
scale, multi-directional trough and planar cross-beds.
If storm surges overrun parts of the islands, they cre-
ate
- Washover sands which extend into the lagoon.
These show either subhorizontal planar lamination
or, if they reach the lagoon, delta foresets. The
washover deposits rnay make up a significant portion
of the total barrier island complex. They reflect the
tendency of the islands to rnigrate landward. They
also feed the
121
- Back-barrier sand flats (Fig. 3.18). The sedimen-
tary structures of both eolian dunes and washover
sands can be obliterated or modified by plant growth
and soil formation.
(2) Ebb-tidal sands accumulate seaward of the bar-
rier and are associated with shoreface sands. In con-
trast to flood-tidal sands, they are also affected by
wind-generated waves and longshore currents. There-
fore their sedimentary structures can reflect several
processes and current directions. Their faunal content
is mainly of open-marine origin, although ebb cur-
rents mayaiso transport lagoonal biogenic particles
seaward into the ebb-tidal delta.
(3) Flood-tidal sands alternate with lagoonal muds
and tidal flat sediments of the back-barrier zone.
These delta sands show planar and trough cross-beds
which are mainly generated by flood-oriented
megaripples and sandwaves, but a seaward orienta-
tion of cross-beds also occurs.
(4) Tidal-channel deposits between the ebb and
flood-tidal delta cancover relatively large areas, be-
cause the channels and tidal inlets between the
barrier-islands frequently rnigrate parallel to the
shoreline. Shifting of inlets involves erosion on one
side of the barrier and accretion of sand on the other
(spit accretion). Channel fills usually begin at the
erosional base with relatively coarse lag deposits.
These are overlain by large-scale bidirectional planar
and trough cross-beds. On top of this sequence
bidirectional small to medium-scale trough or planar
cross-beds, and parallel and ripple lamination are
observed.
Controls by Climate and Hydraulic Regime
Depending on the climate, lagoonal and tidal flat sed-
iments can vary considerably. If the barrier-island
chain is interrupted by many wide inlets (mesotidal
hydraulic regime), the lagoonal waters are suffi-
ciently exchanged with the open sea water and there-
fore are normal saline. Under these conditions, the
lagoonal fauna can develop a highly diverse assem-
blage, and the fine-grained, often laminated lagoonal
muds tend to become thoroughly bioturbated and
structureless.
However, if just a few narrow inlets are present
(microtidal regime), the lagoonal waters become ei-
ther brackish or hypersaline, and their fauna is ab-
normal and of low diversity. Oyster beds, for exam-
pie, indicate freshwater influence, specific gastro-
pods and seagrass typify hypersaline conditions. Due
to storms which produce washovers, the lagoonal
environment may change episodically. Simulta-
122 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

BARRIER ISLAND
a
UPBUILDING
SEOUENCE
TIDAL FLATS
MARSH ~-c~==7E3~;:~~~~
WASHOVER .---/

./
.--- /

LAGOON

SHORE
FACE

TIDAI...
CHANN"EL

\
\

1
\
\
I
./ I 10m
I
EBB TIDAL
DELTA SANDS WASH I
~~:;a.. OVER I
SAND I

1
MARSH
EOLIAN I
SPIT SAND I
BEACH CHANNEL
,.:::;~~t FLOOD TIDAL
SAND FORE- DEL T A, SANDS
WAVE SHORE

LAGOONAL MUD,
.I \ ... BIOTURBATED
I \ :~
SHORE- J , ~ ::
SHORE-
FACE
FACE CHANNEL SANDS (JNLET)
MUD CLASTS, LAG DEP.

b TRA NSGRES SI V E
BARRIER
- SHOREFACE
"::::=':;:::;:~L. TROUGH ".c:=.::::::::zI
, CROSS- BACKSHORE
~~··..-;r- PLANAR ) BEDDING DUNE
WASHOVER
~~~r BACKSHORE MARSH
FORESHORE (COAL LENSES)
~== ....- WASHOVER
UPPER TIDAL FLAT
I
I SHORE- r-:P::>::::'~t- FLOOD TIDAL
MIDDLE I DELTA
I FACE
I SUBAOUEOUS
LAGOON
LOWER )
BIOTURB . • SHELLS, DEBRIS

Fig. 3.18. aSediments of a barrier-island complex
and lagoon in microtidal to mesotidal environment.
Here upbuilding of sediments is assumed with later-
ally shifting inlets. b Seaward or landward migrating
barrier-island chain and resulting prograding (regres-
sive) or transgressive sedimentary sequences. Note
that parts of these sequences may be lost by erosion
(cf. Fig. 3.17d). (Based on Elliott 1986; Reinson
1992; and others)
3.2 Tidal Flats
neously, shells of nonnal marine organisms can be
swept in.
In humid regions, the lagoons often accumulate
organic matter, which later may fonn coal seams, and
their bottom waters can easily become anoxic. Arid
to semi-arid lagoons tend to collect more carbonate,
and their tidal deltas may become oolitic. Marginal
portions of the lagoons can periodically dry out and
accumulate gypsum (cf. Sect. 6.4.2). Migration of
eolian sand over dry lagoons is eommon. Tidal flat
sediments bordering the lagoon may include plant
roots, peat, or mierobial mats and stromatolites, as
weIl as evaporites fonned in coastal sabkhas.
Response of Barrier Island-Lagoon Complexes
to Sea-Level Changes
BaITier-island complexes are dynamic systems re-
sponding to changing sediment input and sea-Ievel
changes. Rapid sea-Ievel fall (or emergence of the
baITier system by uplift) tends to destroy the sedi-
mentary eomplex by erosion and is therefore not dis-
eussed further here. With eonstant or rising sea level,
the island chain can migrate either land ward or sea-
ward and thus bury and preserve some of its older
deposits (Fig. 3.l8b).
(1) If sediment input from the hinterland or along-
shore is high, the island chain moves seaward
(prograding or regressive barrier). In this case, verti-
cal seetions show a transition from shallow marine
and shorefaee facies into the foreshore, backshore,
and dune sands of the baITier island. Lagoonal depos-
its may follow on top of the foreshore and backshore
sands.
(2) Low sediment input favors the landward trans-
gression of baITier systems. Then a complete vertical
section starts with continental or tidal flat sediments
and grades into lagoonal muds, flood-delta sands and
channel fills of the inlet system. Finally, washover
sands and eolian dunes may follow. Consequently,
vertieal sections clearly document the regressive or
transgressive history of the baITier. However, in
many cases the development of a transgressive bar-
rier system is considerably modified during rising sea
level (or submerging coast).
(3) If the sea level rises relatively quickly, the pre-
existing baITier islands are drowned in-place and
fonn a kind of inner shelf shoal (Fig. 3.l7c) as de-
scribed, for example, from the abandoned western
part of the Mississippi delta (Penland et al. 1988).
Then, a new baITier may be built up farther landward.
Consequently, the fonner lagoonal muds and flood-
delta deposits are covered directly by shoreface sedi-
ments.
(4) A further alternative, as mentioned be fore
(Fig. 3 .18b), is a slow landward migration of the
123
total baITier system with moderately rising sea level.
Then, the transgression can be accompanied by sig-
nificant shoreface erosion or shoreface retreat (Fig.
3.l7d). In this case, the sediment eroded from the
upper shoreface is redeposited either in deeper water
(transgressive lower shoreface) or swept through in-
lets or stonn-generated washovers into the back-bar-
rier region.
Shoreface erosion ean affect not only baITier
sands, but mayaiso proceed into lagoonal and tidal
deposits. As a result, the transgressive beds of the
lower shoreface can overlie both back-baITier sands
and lagoonal muds (including flood-delta deposits),
only lagoonal muds, or directly older bedrock (Fig.
3.l7dl, d2, d3). The bedrock may have been exposed
to air prior to the transgression. Deep erosion into
pre-existing beds is favored by slow sea-Ievel rise
and low sediment supply. It often creates planar ero-
sion faces and appears to be rather common in the
ancient sedimentary record, whereas the former bar-
rier islands may be completely gone. Only the infill-
ings of deep channels of the former inlet systems
have a good chance of being preserved under such
conditions.
These and other complications have been repeatedly de-
scribed from modem and ancient examples (e.g.,
Numrnedal et al. 1987; Numrnedal and Swift 1987). La-
goons and lagoonal sediments are dealt with, e.g., by
Nicols (1989) and Ward and Ashley (1989); see also refer-
ences listed above.
Remarks to Ancient Barrier-Island Sands and
Lagoonal Sediments
Ancient baITier-island sands are more difficult to
identify than tidal sediments, particularly when their
upper portions (foreshore, washover, and eolian
sands) are missing. The lower portions of these com-
plexes may be easily confused with the normal
shoreface sands of shallow seas or with mouth bar
sands of marine deltas (Sects. 3.4.2 and 3.4.3). In
such cases it is neeessary to investigate the larger-
scale facies assoeiation of the sand complex under
consideration.
Even ancient lagoonal sediments are not always
readily recognized in the geologic record, because of
the variety of associated deposits. Lagoons are shal-
low features, and lagoonal sediments are volumetri-
cally less significant than many other coastal and
shalIow-water deposits, particularly deltaic se-
quences. Modem lagoons frequently display sedi-
mentation rates in the order of 1 to 2 mrnJa. They are
therefore filled up with sediments in a relatively short
time period, and their lamination is often relatively
weIl preserved. The biota of lagoonal sediments
strongly reflect the loeal climate and may change rap-
idly, both vertically and laterally.
124
3.2.5 Summary (Barrier Islands and Lagoons)
The facies association of barrier islands includes
coastal, beach, and foreshore sands, deltaic
sands and muds, and lagoonal or estuarine sands
and muds affected by tides. To identify ancient
examples this combination should be studied at
a large scale.
The upper portions of barrier islands are fre-
quently not preserved. Shoreface sands of
transgressive barrier systems can directly overlie
back-barrier sands and lagoonal sediments.
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
- Lagoonal and estuarine sediments and their
biota, in particular, are strongly controlled by
climate and salinity. They render information
on the position of the paleo-coastline and the
paleo-climate of the region studied.
- The deposits of migrating tidal-channels be-
tween the islands can cover relatively large ar-
eas.
Drowned sand barriers can provide reservoirs
for hydrocarbons and groundwater.
3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
3.3 Sediments of Shallow Seas
(Siliciclastics)
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Factors Controlling Shallow-Sea Sediments
3.3.3 Facies Models for Shallow Seas
High Terrigenous Input
Low Terrigenous Input
3.3.4 Modifications ofthe Facies Models
Relative Sea-Level Change and Other Factors
Sediment-Starved Shelves
3.3.5 Large-Scale Shallow-Marine Sand bodies
3.3.6 Summary (Siliciclastic ShelfSediments)
3.3.1 Introduction
One can distinguish between two types of shallow
seas (Fig. 3.19; cf. Sect. 1.2):
- Epeiric or epicontinental seas which develop on
continental crust and are bordered on several sides by
land areas.
- Marginal or pericontinental seas (shelf seas) 10-
cated on top of transitional crust along the boundary
between continents and deep oceans. This type corre-
sponds with the present-day shelves, particularly
those on passive continental margins.
The water depth of both types of shallow seas ranges
from 10 to 20 m near the coast (apart from the
nearshore areas) to some 100 m. The shelf edge or
shelf break of modem continental shelves is com-
monly 150-200 m deep. Some subbasins on shelves
and in epicontinental seas can attain greater depths.
Both types of seas are fully marine, and deviations
from the mean salt content of the open sea are limited
(cf. Sect. 5.2). However, basins in a transitional stage
between semi-enclosed epicontinental seas and adja-
cent seas (cf. Chap. 4) tend to become brackish or
hypersaline depending on the climate of the region.
The physical processes briefly described above
(Sects. 3.1 and 3.2) also largely control the sediment
dispersal and sedimentary structures of shallow-ma-
rine environments. Wind-generated waves and cur-
rents as well as tidal currents can affect the deposi-
tion and reworking of sediment even in relatively
deep water. In addition, storm-generated density cur-
rents and oceanic currents of different origin playa
role (cf. Sect. 5.2). Nevertheless, the hydrodynamic
regimes of the two types of shallow seas may show
significant differences:
- Continental shelves are normally fully exposed to
the high-energy conditions of large neighboring
oeeans. They may be affected by distant storm cen-
ters and long-distant oceanie eurrents, whereas
epieontinental seas are often better protected from
these influences (Fig. 3.19). If epicontinental seas are
partly enelosed, their areal extent is not sufficiently
large for the initiation of long, high-energy waves or
significant tidal waves. Although, for example, the
North Sea and the Bering Sea are situated on conti-
nental crust, they are not typical epieontinental seas
in this sense.
- Shelf seas often lose a great part of their sediments
(sand and finer grained material) into deeper water
by traction eurrents, suspension currents, and gravity
mass movements. This occurs less in typical, widely
extended epicontinental seas, although even these
basins collect thicker sediments in topographic deeps
than in shallower regions.
- Shelf seas normally exhibit stronger subsidence,
partieularly during their early stages of basin devel-
opment, beeause they evolve on thinning transitional
crnst. They therefore have the potential for aecumu-
lating thieker and possibly other sedimentary se-
quenees than epicontinental seas (cf. Sect. 12.2).
3.3.2 Factors Controlling Shallow-Sea Sediments
Sediments of shallow seas oceur in all geologieal
epoehs all over the world. They probably constitute
the most important group of all sedimentary rocks,
but they vary signifieantly from loeation to location
for the following reasons:
- Marked differenees in the input of terrigenous ma-
terial from neighboring land areas due to the pres-
ence or absence of large river deltas, the size, na-
ture and climate in the source areas relevant to the
loeation studied.
- Variations in biogenie produetion.
- Different hydraulic regimes (low versus high-en-
ergy; tide- versus wave-dominated, and various
combinations of these factors).
126
MODERATE TlDES _
AND STORM WAVES
TlDE-
DOMINA TED STORM-DOMIN.
SHELF SEA SHELF SEA
Fi~. 3.~9. Different types of shallow-marine basins,
eplcontmental seas and shelf seas, and dominant
physical processes operating in these basins. Normal
- Influence of relative sea-Ievel fluctuations
(cf. Sect. 7.3).
- Reworking of earlier intra-basinal sediments, etc.
Due to all of these influences, it is not possible to
describe the various sedimentary facies of shallow
seas by only a few simple facies models. Further-
more, it has been pointed out repeatedly that the
modem continental shelves are not yet in equilibrium
with their present-day hydraulic regime and sedi-
ments sources. The modem shelf sediments still re-
flect the unusually rapid, high-amplitude late Quater-
nary regressions and transgressions. The last trans-
gression (Holocene) terminated only a few thousand
years ago! This is a time period in wh ich just some
decimeters up to a few meters of shelf sediment
could accumulate, mainly on the middle shelf. In par-
ticular the outer shelf sediments, but also those in
other areas of low deposition, are affected by the last
and possibly former low sea-Ievel stands at depths of
more than 100 m. This situation has to be taken into
account when modern shelf sediments are studied in
order to achieve a better interpretation of ancient
counterparts including both shelf and, even more so,
epicontinental deposits.
Prior to the modern concept of sequence stratigraphy, the
large-scale architecture of shallow-sea sediments was
poorly understood. Older facies models presented else-
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
EPICONTI-
NENTAL SEAS
LlMITED SUB-
SIDENCE AND
SEDIM. THICK-
NESS
\MODERATE
STORM WAVES
MUD-DOMIN. OCEANIC CURRENT-
SHELF SEA DOMIN. SHELF SEA
fairweather waves are present in all these environ-
ments and not mentioned here
where and partially sumrnarized in this chapter are, how-
ever, useful for the interpretation of short-period processes
which are not or only little affected by sea-Ievel changes.
The following simple models, which are deduced theoreti-
cally as well as from modern and ancient examples, should
be regarded in this sense. They mainly characterize
siliciclastic sediments, but also take into account mixed
siliciclastic-carbonate deposits.
Of the numerous publications dealing with modem and
aneient shallow-sea sediments a few can only be mentioned
here. Modem summaries of the current knowledge in this
field include Swift et al. (1991), Walker and Plint (1992),
Nittrouer and Wright (1994), Johnson and Baldwin (1996).
3.3.3 Facies Models for Shallow Seas
(Siliciclastics-Dominated)
The facies models of this chapter are all based on the
assumption that the coastline progrades seaward with
time (Fig. 3.20a). The models can only be used for
short time periods in which the sea level is more or
less constant.
In a first step, subsidence of the basin floor is ex-
cluded. Then the shallow basin in question is filled
up in a comparatively short geological time span (a
few millions of years) if sediment accumulates at a
rate of 20 to 50 mlMa which is common in many nat-
ural shelf settings. In reality, shallow-sea basins gen-
erally subside during sediment accumulation and
3.3 Shallow Seas
therefore frequently pers ist for much longer time pe-
riods. This point will be discussed below. The fol-
lowing basin models take into account variations in
terrigenous sediment influx as well as changes in the
hydrodynamic regime of the basin. The sediment is
mainly derived from land sources but mayaiso be
transported by currents from point sources over con-
siderable distances parallel to the coast. With de-
creasing accumulation rates of clastics the percentage
of autochthonous biogenic material in the shelf sedi-
ment normally increases.
High Terrigenous Input
(1) Low-energy waves, mud input. Figure 3.20b dem-
onstrates shallow seas with high terrigenous input
dominated by mud (silt and clay-size particles). Un-
der prevailing low-energy wave conditions, the
shoreface sediments are rich in silty muds overlain
by a thin cap layer of beach and foreshore sands. In
deeper water, muds of different nature are encoun-
tered. One portion of the mud is carried directly from
the mouths of rivers as flocs or aggregates to its loca-
tion of final deposition, whereas the other portion is
reworked by moderate storms along the lower
shoreface and redeposited as thin mud tempestites in
deeper water (cf. Sect. 3.1.2). Such an alternation of
autochthonous and allochthonous mud layers is fre-
quently masked or completely obliterated by inten-
sive burrowing on the sea floor. It is mostly over-
looked in field exposures. Muddy shorelines and
shoreface zones commonly occur downdrift from
deltas prograding into low-gradient shallow seas
(e.g., Fraser 1989).
Modem examples of mud-dominated shelves are the
Louisiana-Texas coast west of the Mississippi delta and the
Surinam coast north of the Amazon delta (Wells and
Coleman 1981; Nittrouer and Wright 1994). The Amazon
shelf is affected by the Guiana current carrying mud north-
ward which accumulates on the inner and middle shelf.
Another prominent example is the Yellow Sea fed by the
muddy Yellow River (cf. Fig. 11.3; Sect. 11.2.2; Alexander
et al. 1991). The sedimentation rates in these setting can
reach values of several m!ka.
(2) Low-energy waves and high input 01 sand and
mud may lead to a situation as shown in Figure
3.20c. The thickness of shoreface sands increases
considerably; it may include offshore sand bars and
proximal sandy tempestites (cf. Sect. 3.1.2) in the
transition zone to deeper water. Farther offshore,
bioturbated mud tempestites alternating with silty and
clayey autochthonous host sediments are again a
characteristic facies. As in the example in Figure
3.20b, some shell beds may be present, but biogenic
127
production is generally very diluted by the high input
of terrestrial material.
(3) Storm-dominated sea, high input 01 sand and
mud (Fig. 3.20d). The beach-shelf profile becomes
more gentle. The sandy, in places gravelly facies belt
near the co ast, comprising shoreface sands, sands
with swaley and hummocky cross stratification (cf.
Sect. 3.1.2) and sandy tempestites, expands seaward
into deeper water. In such cases, sands represent a
great portion of vertical sections through the entire
basin fill (e.g., Howard and Reineck 1981; Walker
and Plint 1992). Part of the sands transported by
storrns into deeper water can be reworked by subse-
quent storm-induced currents, direct storm wave ac-
tion, or oceanic currents (see below). Far offshore,
mud tempestites should be the primary dominant bed
type which is later overprinted by bioturbation.
(4) Tide-dominated seas. As known from present-day
tidal- and current-influenced shallow seas, such as
the North Sea, the Irish Sea, and the Atlantic shelf of
North America, tidal currents mayaiso affect the
sedimentary processes at water depths up to 50 m
and more (Fig. 3.20e). Both high-energy models (Fig.
3.20d and e) are characterized by widely extended
sand bodies. Tidal currents generate characteristic
sand waves, which may show mud draping. In addi-
tion, they form and slowly move flat, large sand
ridges. These can attain tens of kilometers in length,
several hundred meters to some kilometers in width,
and up to several tens of meters in height.
Prograding shorelines and their associated thickening and
coarsening-upward shelf sediments have been described
from many locations, such as the Paleozoic Appalachian
and the Mesozoic (Western Interior) foreland basins in
North America or the mid-Cretaceous epeiric seaway of
Australia (e.g. Plint 1988; Krassay 1994; Prave et al.
1996). However, the overall trends are overprinted by
short-period sea-Ievel changes creating stacked shoaling
cycles (cf. Sects. 7.2 and 7.9).
Prominent modem examples of large sand bodies and
sand ridges are the shelves of the western North Atlantic
and the southern North Sea, where flat sand-ridges cover
large areas (Reineck and Singh 1980; Stubblefield and
McGrail 1984; Swift 1985; Saito 1989b; Johnson and
Baldwin 1996). However, at least part of these large sand
ridges originally represented coastal sand bodies formed
during the last low sea-Ievel stand (cf. Sect. 7.3). One has
to be cautious to use these examples as analogs of ancient
shelf sands. Middle Jurassic crinoidal limestone bars, ob-
served in the Jura Mountains of eastern France, have been
interpreted as tidal dunes and sand waves deposited at a
water depth of 100-150 m (Neumeier 1998).
In the southwestern Yellow Sea a 200 km long and 90
km wide, radiating field of tidal current ridges was ob-
served at water depths up to 20-30 m (cf. Fig. 11.3; Liu
Zhenxia et al. 1989). The sand ridges consist of fine sand
originating from the abandoned deltas of the Yellow River
and the ancient Yangtze River and were shaped as a result
128 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

DOMINANT
a
WIND
DIRECTION

FS

LOSS OF SEDIMENT_~~~~
TO DEEPER WATER

HIGH INPUT BASINS

b lOW ENERGY (WAVES) 1) MUD MUD-DOMINA TED FAIR -WEATHER SAND + MUD
- - - - - - - - - , ____ WAVE BASE
I

-- --,.- -- --
(} () y,ltI ; : CONTINENTAl:

-- --
DEPOSITS

.f'::--.. .- ..-
c:=....~
.--- SF

Sh
I --

2) SAND +MUD
ST, DISTAL
FAUNA
IN PLACE

MT

I HOST
I SEC,
I
'- 1

SAND+MUD
~ , I
1 SiGI
,-----------
FAUNA

b1 HIGH ENERGY
(STORMS) ----. STORM -DOMINA TED TlDE-DOMINATED

!
TlDAl

BlC
CHANNELS
SAND+MUD Sh, Gr
SW + MD

e BLG TlDAL
SAND RIDG

ST,
REWORKEI

""
""-
Fig. 3.20. a Shallow sea with locally low or rapid
pro gradation of shorelines controlled by coastal mor-
pho1ogy, position of river delta, and prevailing wind
and current directions. band c Facies models for
low-energy, rapid1y prograding coastlines (regressive
","' - - - - - - - - - - - - -
sea) and resulting vertica1 sediment successions.
d Wave-dominated basin. e Tide-dominated basin.
All basin receive high input of terrigenous material,
predominantly mud (b) or both sand and mud (c-e).
Stab1e sea level, no subsidence. Legend see Fig. 3.21
3.3 Shallow Seas 129

LOW INPUT BASINS MUD·DOMINA TED SAND + MUD

1) MUD
f LOW ENERGY

COASTAL
UPWELLING

Si. CL. OR MARL

I",."
M ARL. LIMES T.

~""" "PE'L AGIC' LIMEST .•

':::HERT

SAND+MUD

h HIGH ENERGY
(STORMS ) STORM·D OMINA TED OCEANIC CURRENTS

WAVE CONTINENTAL

1
BASE
TIDAL
SF t SF

F.:;~~ ST .PROXIMAL
ShT
Gr ,Sh,LAGS
HCS} AMAL · ~~~~ ST .DISTAL
GAMA·
ST. TION
SAND+MUD n;~~~ S. REWORKED
LOW TO HIGH ENERGY, ~-;~~~_ BIOTURB.

---
ShT
QCEANIC CURRENTS _
"",.."",.."..,.-'
S+ ShT, S,::GLAUCONITE,
REWORKED CHAMOSITE
...,.- Sh.LAGS
EROS. SURFACE
r< c==..>
-...,.~
CONDENSED
I - - ....... ~.~-... -: .... EROS.SURFACE ~~~,.. PHOSPHORITE
"-
REWORKED EROSION HARDGROUND S.SI.CI
.
GLAUCONITE. "'- '-- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..J
CHAMOSITE. PHOSPHORITE
OCEANIC
CURRENT

S, mainly sand HCS. hummocky cross stratification

LEGEND Si, mainly sill FS. foreshore sands
CI , silty clay SF, shoreface sands
Sh, shell accumulalions BLC, barrier island·lagoon complex
Gr, gravel (including some tidal deposits)
sr ..sandy tempestiles SB. offs hore sand bars
ShT, sheli beds in tempestites SW. sand waves
MT, muddy tempestites MD. mud draping

Fig. 3.21. (Fig. 3.20, continued). f-i Facies models of
slowly prograding coastlines and associated vertical
sequenees. All basins reeeive low input of
terrigenous material, predominantly mud (f) or both
sand and mud (g,h,i), but differ in their hydraulie
regimes and biogenie production. Stable sea level, no
subsidence. Coastal upwelling may lead to the depo-
sition of marls and limestones rieh in organie earbon
and chert (g)
130
of the interaction of two tidal wave systems operating in
the Yellow Sea. Another set of tidal current ridges is pres-
ent in the northem Part of the Yellow Sea (Bohai Sea; Liu
Zhenxia et al. 1998).
Bottom currents in between the sand accumulations
commonly erode longitudinal furrows which may
collect and store coarse lag deposits, if coarse-
grained material is present in the underlying beds.
Different types of ripples and current lineations pro-
vide evidence of frequently active bottom currents.
Flat ribbons or patches of sand are common features
in rather deep water. Thus, vertical sections of such a
basin fill show again a very high proportion of sand
with a variety of sedimentary structures, some of
which are not very well known. They may indicate
bidirectional current orientation, although one cur-
rent direction (either the ebb or the tlood current) is
usually dominant. The fine-grained river load or
muds produced in the basin itself are mainly depos-
ited in areas which are protected from tidal and other
bottom currents or, in the case of shelf seas, they are
transported into deep water.
Low Terrigenous Input
The second series of models shown in Figure 3.21
represents examples with low input of terrigenous
mud and sand. These models are probably realized in
nature more frequently than those discussed above.
For obvious reasons, such basins also pers ist for lon-
ger time periods than basins receiving large
terrigenous infIux.
(5) Wave-dominated, mud input. The sedimentary fill
of a low-energy, wave-dominated basin with prevail-
ing mud input (Fig. 3.2lf) resembles that in Fig.
3.20b, but the slower silicic1astic sedimentation rate
enables higher concentrations of biogenic constitu-
ents and more intense bioturbation. For that reason,
shell accumulations in the shoreface zone and,
subordinately, in offshore tempestites are more pro-
nounced than in model Fig. 3.20b. The sediments of
the outer shelf may become marly, because they con-
tain relatively high proportions ofbiogenic carbonate
of both benthic and planktonic origin. Mud
tempestites tend to become completely mixed with
host sediments and thus obliterated.
A further reduction of terrigenous input to an in-
significant portion of the total sediment may lead to
sediments rich in biogenie components (Fig. 3.2lg).
In this case, a favorable c1imate and sea water suffi-
ciently rich in nutrients is needed. The latter may be
provided by river water or by oceanic currents enter-
ing the shelf sea. As a result, the sediments of the
inner shelf can again display abundant shell layers
and bioc1astic sands and silts. Larger shells are com-
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
monly crushed to small pieces by predatory organ-
isms. On the outer shelf, the carbonate content may
become so high that marls and lime muds are depos-
ited which later form marl-limestone sequences (cf.
Sect. 7.9). If the contribution of tiny skeletons of
planktonic organisms is high, the limestones resem-
ble deep-water pelagic limes tones which may contain
some chert. Their shallow-water origin can be in-
ferred from alternations with other sediment types.
Bioturbation is again very intense in this environ-
ment, thus diminishing the preservation potential of
tempestites.
(6) An alternative of this model is an environment
with an oxygen minimum zone in bottom waters of
the outer shelf or in special depressions of
epicontinental seas. Such a situation may be caused
by upwelling waters rich in nutrients (cf. Sect. 5.3.4)
or by restricted water circulation. The resulting sedi-
ments are laminated bituminous c1ays and marls
which may contain some limestone beds and chert
layers. Bioturbation is limited to certain horizons or
completely missing.
(7) Storm- and tide-dominated seas. The model in
Fig. 3.2lh characterizes high-energy conditions
(storrns and tides) with low input of sand and mud.
Coastal pro gradation is limited and the slope of the
beach-shelf profile becomes rather gentle. In contrast
to the model in Fig. 3.20d, shell beds and finer
grained biogenic components may become signifi-
cant contributors to the total sediment. Repeated re-
working due to storm action leads to pronounced
amalgamation in the shoreface-offshore transitional
zone and to other erosional surfaces with lag deposits
and condensed beds in deeper water. Beds already
buried and somewhat indurated may become re-ex-
posed to current action and colonized by faunal as-
semblages needing firm or hard grounds.
(8) Shelf seas affected by oceanic bottom currents.
The last model (Fig. 3.2li) deals with shelf seas
which are strongly intluenced by oceanic currents
entering the shelf and preventing the deposition of
fine-grained material in these regions (e.g.,
Flemming 1980). In the shoreface zone, the
depositional processes resemble those described for
models Fig. 2lf and g, but at a greater depth strong
and repeated reworking inc1uding mixing of older
and younger sands is common. Gravel may be con-
centrated in lag deposits, and vertical sections are
characterized by many erosional surfaces. If the
mean sedimentation rate becomes very low inc1uding
periods of non-deposition, glauconitic minerals may
form at the sedimentlwater interface (cf. Sect. 6.1).
Under special conditions, phosphorite nodules can
grow. Bottom life may differ from the previous ex-
amples, and the intensity of bioturbation tends to
change considerably from bed to bed.
3.3 Shallow Seas
3.3.4 Modifications of the Fades Models
Relative Sea-Level Change and Other Factors
The generalized vertical sequences described above
can be modified significantly by a variety of factors
not mentioned so far:
(1) Subsidence and relative sea-level change. The
thicknesses of the facies sequences shown in Figures
3.20 and 3.21 correspond to the original water depths
of the sedimentary basins. Taking subsidence into
account, the thicknesses of the total basin fills, as
well as those of single facies types increase.
~ If subsidence is equal to the sedimentation rate for
a certain time period, the facies at each location
within the basin remain unchanged. As a result, each
particular facies zone, for example the shoreface or
the outer shelf sediments, can theoretically reach
very great thicknesses.
~ ]f the basin floor subsides faster than sediment ac-
cumulates, the water depth at a certain locality in-
creases. Then the different facies zones migrate land-
ward, and vertical sequences show the opposite ten-
dency as described above, i.e., fining-upward or
thinning-upward trends. Similar results are brought
about by a rapid sea level rise leading to an increase
in water depth.
~ Conversely, tectonic uplift of the basin floor or sea-
level fall cause a seaward migration of the facies
zones and thus a shortening of the vertical sequences.
These problems are discussed further in Sects. 7.2
and 7.3 (see also, e.g., Aigner and Dott 1990).
(2) The two-dimensional models of Figs. 3.20 and
3.21 do not take into account local control of sedi-
mentary processes resulting from irregular basin
morphology, shifting and abandonment of river del-
tas, input of sediment from different sources, re-
gional and temporal changes of c1imate, direction of
dominant winds and currents, etc. Coevel
depositional processes rnay strongly differ from one
location to the other in the same basin (Fig. 3.20a).
At one site, the coastline may retreat landward and at
the other pro grade seaward at the same time. Such
complications should be borne in mind, if the theo-
retical models are applied to observations in nature.
Sediment-Starved Shelves
Wide areas of the present-day continental shelves on
passive continental margins, e.g. along the east and
west coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, are sediment-
starved (Emery and Uchupi 1972; Milliman and
Syvitski 1992). This is not only true of the outer
shelf, where frequently relic sediments of earlier sea-
131
level lowstands are present (sea above), but also
found in mid-shelf and inner shelf regions. Such ar-
eas are characterized by a high-energy hydraulic re-
gime, repeated erosion and intense biological pro-
ces ses on hardbottolDS. The resulting features may be
referred to as "condensed sections" produced during
multiple sea-level fluctuations throughout the Qua-
ternary. During lowstands, these parts of the shelf
were exposed to sub aerial erosion, and during
highstands, as today, they accumulated sediment only
in limited, more or less isolated patches, whereas
c1ose-by erosional processes dominated. Similar phe-
nomena are known from many ancient shallow-water
sediments commonly described as "reworked hori-
zons" generated by storm-wave action during relative
sea-level fall (cf. Sect. 7.3, Fig. 7.16).
A carefully studied modem example of a sediment-starved
mid-shelf region is the Onslow Bay on the North Carolina
continental shelf of the Atlantic (Riggs et al. 1998). Here,
Neogene strata outcrop on the sea floor and are affected by
intense bioerosion producing considerable volumes of sand
and mud. The sand partially forms a thin veneer (0-1 m) on
top ofthe irregular relief ofthe hardbottom, but most ofthe
young sediment is exported by storms to the continental
slope. Hardbottom free of sand is settled by epilithic and
endolithic organisms. Blocks from small c\iffs, generated
by differential erosion, locally cover the hardbottom.
3.3.5 Large-Scale Shallow-Marine Sand Bodies
The processes of the be ach and shoreface zones in-
c1uding the inner and outer shelf regions described
above may generate widely extended, partially am al-
gamated or stacked marine sand sheets. Prerequisites
for such a development are effective sediment
sources and a relatively fast subsiding basin. In this
case, even moderate sea level falls cannot cause
emergence and thus lead to subaerial erosion and
reworking of the marine sand sheets (cf. Sects. 7.2
and 7.3).
A well exposed and repeatedly studied ancient example of
sandy and muddy shelf-slope sediments is the foreland
basin of the Western Interior seaway in North America
(Fig. 3.22a; Shurr 1984; Swift and Rice 1984; Swift et al.
1987; cf. SecL 12.6). The western margin of this seaway
was bordered by the emerging Rocky Mountains which
shed large quantities ofmud and sand into the seaway (Fig.
3.22b). Currents generated by the dominant northwesterly
to northeasterly winds and deflected by Coriolis forces (cf.
SecL 3.1.2) caused storm tides along the western coastline
(Fig. 3.22c and d). The measured opposite paleoflow direc-
tions are explained by the special coastal morphology of
the study area situated in a large bight where setup ofwater
along the coasts has created geostrophic currents of varying
directions. The shelf sands are either linked to the
shoreface sands, or they form large, partially isolated, len-
ticular sand bodies in between shelf muds.
132 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

NW LAGOONAL SANDST . AND SHALE SHOREFACE SANDS TONE SE

b

a c RIVER FLOOD STAGE

GRADED
NORTH SAND BEDS
AMERICA

CRETACEOUS
SE AWAY

d STRAND PLAIN
------ ----- ------'71
/' I
,,/ I
SAND / I
WAVES /

GRADED SAND BEDS

GRADED MUD BEDS

DOWNWE LLING
STORM CURRENT

AMALGAMATED INTERBEDDED
SAND FACIES SAND-MUD FACIES MARINE EROSION
SURFACE

SHORE ·
FACE AND
SHELF
SANDS
3.3 Shallow Seas
In some areas these elongate sand bodies resemble the
sand ridges and sand-ridge fields described from modem
shelf seas (e.g., Tillman and Siemers 1984). Sands entering
the basin are distributed either direct1y from the river delta
by longshore transport and storm flow, or from the fore-
shore zone by downwelling storm currents into deeper wa-
ter (Fig. 3.22c and d).
The seaward prograding sands consist of several fa-
eies units (Fig. 3.22b and d, from top to bottom):
Cross-bedded sands of the strand plain.
- Relatively coarse grained, cross-stratified sands of
the upper shoreface (surf zone) with sand waves.
Fine-grained, amalgamated sands of the middle
shoreface with hummocky cross stratification.
3.3.6 Summary (Siliciclastic Shelf Sediments)
The faeies models described here (Figs. 3.20
and 3.21) represent "regressive" sequences
formed by a prograding coastline during con-
stant sea level. Most of these models imply
coarsening- and thickening-upward sequenees
(in view ofthe sandstone beds).
Exceptions to these roles are the high-energy
models (Fig. 3.21h and i). The low-energy mod-
els (Fig. 3.21fand g) with an upward-decreasing
proportion of bio genie eonstituents may be re-
ferred to as sequenees with "upward-decreasing
bio genies ".
Fig. 3.22. Large-scale distribution and faeies associa-
tion of widely extended shallow-sea sandstones in
the Cretaeeous North American seaway. a General
paleogeographic situation. b Cross section of Upper
Cretaceous shale and sands tone formations, Book
Cliffs, Utah, displaying shoreface and shelf sand-
stones prograding step-wise seaward over shelf
muds. c,d Models of sand distribution at wave-domi-
133
- Very fine grained, graded shelf sands
(tempestites) altemating with muds.
These storm deposits may rest on a submarine ero-
sion surface characterized by lag deposits and chan-
nel fills (Fig. 3.22b and e). Such an erosion surface is
not necessarily associated with a relative sea-Ievel
fall (cf. Sect. 7.3), but mayaIso be caused by waning
sediment supply in an unsteadily subsiding basin.
Many other examples of ancient shelf sands may be inter-
preted in a similar way (e.g., Reineck and Singh 1980;
Matthews 1984; Tillman et al. 1985; Knight and McLem
1986; Morton and Nummedal 1989; Aigner and Dott 1990;
Johnson and Baldwin 1996). In any case, the interplay be-
tween subsidence, sediment accumulation, and sea-Ievel
changes is of eminent importance for the thickness and
vertical and lateral facies association of such sands.
The low-energy models mainly represent epi-
continental seas. The storm-dominated, tide-
domir,ated, and current-dominated models (Fig.
3.20d, e and Fig. 3.20h, i) are typical of shelf
seas. Model i is restricted to shelf seas.
- These simple facies models ean be modified by
additional factors. Of these, relative sea-Ievel
changes are most important in controlling the
facies architeeture of shelf and epicontinental
sea sediments over longer time spans (cf. Sect.
7.3)
nated, prograding deltas. River mouth sand is distrib-
uted by littoral eurrents and storm flow (c), and re-
distributed by a storm-driven inner-shelf transport
system (d). e Coastal retreat, sediment trapping in
lagoons, shoreface and shelf erosion as a result of
transgression (insufficent sediment supply for
prograding). (After Swift et al. 1987)
3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
3.4 Carbonate Buildups and
Reef-Lagoon Complexes
3.4.1 Introduction
3.4.2 Carbonate-Producing Communities
Modem Carbonates
Ancient Carbonate-Producing Communities
3.4.3 Carbonate Mineralogy and Non-Skeletal Grains
3.4.4 Carbonate Ramps
3.4.5 ReefTypes and Composite Carbonate Buildups
General Aspects
ReefTypes
Composite Carbonate Buildups
The Back-Reef Zone and Reef Lagoons
"Pelagic" Carbonate Platforms
Types ofReefLimestones
3.4.6 Response ofCarbonate Buildups to Subsidence
and Sea-Level Rise
Vertical Buildup and "Drowning"
Pro- and Retrograding Carbonate Buildups
3.4.7 Diagenesis ofReefs and Carbonate Buildups
General Processes of Carbonate Diagenesis
Cement Sequences
Dolomitization
Economic Aspects of Carbonate Diagenesis
3.4.8 Summary (Shallow-Marine Carbonates)
3.4.1 Introduction
Carbonate-rich sediments generally accumulate under
two principal conditions:
Relatively high production and preservation of
carbonate, and
- Low input of siliciclastic material to the site of
ultimate deposition.
This rule is valid for both shallow and deep seas (cf.
Chap. 10), but in this chapter shallow-water carbon-
ates only are considered. The first prerequisite for the
formation of carbonate-rich sediments is met not only
in tropical to subtropical seas, as was widely thought
one or two decades ago, but also in cooler waters
(see below). The second prerequisite is necessary to
prevent too strong dilution of the carbonate produced
in place or exported to deeper water. Otherwise the
proportion of carbonate in the sediment or later rock
is strongly reduced resulting in mixed siliciclastic-
carbonate sediments, such as marls, marly silts and
clays. Pure carbonates or carbonate-rich sediments
cannot form in front of large river mouths and coasts
with high influx or longshore transport of siliciclastic
material. F or this reason, the shelves of tropical
wetlands usually do not accumulate carbonates (Fig.
3.23). In this climatic zone, deposition of more or
less pure carbonates is restricted to isolated platforms
or islands.
Most of the carbonate present in young marine
sediments and Phanerozoic rocks has been produced
by organisms (skeletal or biogenic carbonate) in shal-
low waters. The penetration of sun light into surface
water enables plant life with photosynthesis (photic
biota or photozoan association; James 1997), and this
in turn feeds planktic and benthic faunal associations
(aphotic biota or heterozoan association; cf. Sect.
10.3.2). In shallow seas benthic organisms living on
the sea floor are the most important producers of
skeletal carbonate. Recent studies have shown that
biogenic shallow-water carbonates form at all lati-
tudes in considerable quantities (Fig. 3.23). In the
modem oceans we can distinguish between
Tropical and subtropical carbonates (in latitudes
of 0 to about 30° N or S, >25°C),
Temperate carbonates (about 30 to 50 0 N or S, 25
to 10°C),
Polar and subpolar carbonates (>50 0 N or S,
<10°C).
There are transitions between these groups; the tem-
perate and cold-water carbonates are often described
as one category (non-tropical carbonates) in contrast
to the warm-water carbonates (see below). These
contrasting groups are characterized by different
types of fauna, flora as well as size, shape, and min-
eralogy of their particles which to some degree also
control their preservation and diagenesis.
The carbonate-producing communities changed
through geological time with the evolution of life.
New communities responded differently to similar
changes in environmental factors. Nevertheless we
assume that carbonate production was always con-
trolled,' to some extent, by water temperature (i.e.
latitude).
Many other aspects of carbonate production, ree~ building,
and carbonate diagenesis during the Earth's history are
3.4 Carbonates 135

GROUPS OF
LATITUDES, N & S COMMUNITIES BIOTA

-.,.I.~,,-:-r-t- coRA LU NE AL G AE, MOlLUSCS,

70· POLAR MOLLUSCS, BRYOZOANS BARNACLES.
BRYOZOANS,
----~
MELT WATER I:.:::.......
.... , .. .
BRYOZOANS, BRACHIOPODS ECHI NOOERMS ,
SERPULlOS,
BRACHIOPODS ,

~_-~ATOMS'
60 -......,.~
CORAlS

SUBPOLAR
SPONGES
50 - - - - - - - - - - -
BRYOMOL BRYOZOANS.
MOllUSCS
(COOLER)
TEMPERATE
40 SILlCI -
CLASTICS
FORAMOL FORAMINIFERA.
(WARMER) MOLlUSCS ,
BARNAClES ,
BRYOZOANS ,
UPWELLING CAlCAREOUS
RED AlGAE
r--
20 I OTHER
GREEN I COMP.
AlGAE , I
CORAlS "
10
WET
ANO
OTHERS IOOIOS ,
PELLETS
ANO
TROPICAL IN PLACES : I PElOIDS
CHlORAlGAl I
o EQUATOR-----L~·~--~·~·-·---L------------~~~--~------~----~

Fig. 3.23. General trends in the composition and ar- tal components play a significant part in tropical re-
eal distribution of tropical, temperate, subpolar and gions. (Based main1y on summaries of Lees 1975;
polar biogenic carbonates on continental shelves, Freiwald and Henrich 1994; Rao 1996; James 1997).
isolated seamounts and platforms. Other, non-skele-

complex and therefore have been described separately from
different sedimentary environments and rocks in numerous
special articles and books (e.g., Wilson 1975; Bathurst
1975; Schroeder and Purser 1986; Sellwood 1986; Scoffin
1987; Crevello et al. 1989; Moore 1989; Scholle et al.
1989; Stanton and Flügel 1989; Tucker et al. 1990;
Camoin and Davies 1998; James and Clarke 1997). The
results of studies on modem cool-water carbonates have
been summarized, e.g., by Henrich et al. (1996), Rao
(1996), and James (1997).
However, the physical environment of nearshore and
shallow-marine carbonate sediments is in many ways
similar to that of sediments dominated by silicic1astic
components. Wave-induced and tidal currents also
operate in carbonate-dominated shallow seas and
barrier-1agoon systems (Sects. 3.1 through 3.3). On
the other hand, the biogenic production of carbonate
partic1es and physica1 processes alone are not suffi-
cient to exp1ain the special geometry of many carbon-
ate rocks and their relationship to other deposits.
Biogenic carbonate structures have the outstanding
ability to bui1d up steep slopes and sedimentary bod-
ies wh ich may rise high above the sea floor. Such
structures are referred to as carbonate buildups, no
matter whether they are main1y produced by organic
reefs, or by skeletal sand und mud. Even originally
136
unconsolidated carbonate sediment can form wave-
and current-resistant structures if it is lithified by
early cementation (see below).
Photic and related aphotic carbonate-producing
organisms grow best in very shallow waters. Once
shell beds andJor early lithification of sandy or
muddy carbonate have created a firm substrate, sessil
organisms, very effective in carbonate secretion, can
settle and build structures which to some extent resist
mechanical destruction. Three types of large-scale
depositional environments are important for the
buildup of significant carbonate bodies:
1. Carbonate ramps.
2. Rimmed carbonate shelves.
3. Isolated carbonate platforms.
Whereas carbonate ramps and shelves are attached to
land masses, the typical carbonate platforms are iso-
lated from mainland coasts and therefore ideally meet
the requirement of low or absent terrestrial influx.
Carbonate ramps can develop without significant
contribution of reefs, whereas rimmed carbonate
shelves and platforms need reef structures to build up
and maintain comparatively steep slopes.
3.4.2 Carbonate-Producing Communities
Modern Carbonates
Tropical and subtropical carbonates are characterized
by the Chlorozoan association whereas temperate
and polar to subpolar (non-tropical) carbonates are
represented by the Foramol association. Within these
principal groups, the carbonate composition can con-
siderably vary, however.
- The Chlorozoan association consists mainly of
green algae and hermatypic corals and, in addition,
benthic foraminifera, molluscs, bryozoans, calcare-
ous red algae, and bamacles. This association forms
the prominent modem reefs in tropical-subtropical
waters most of which also contain inorganically
grown ooids and pelletal carbonate muds. The
chlorozoan association flourishes in sea water of
normal salinity. If the water becomes brackish or
hypersaline, algae predominate (Chloralgal associa-
tion; Lees 1975).
Carbonate production in tropical seas is to some extent
favored by rapid growth of different groups of organisms
secreting thick, large carbonate skeletons. In addition, car-
bonate can also precipitate directly from sea water super-
saturated with respect to calcium carbonate. This, in turn,
prevents carbonate dissolution. Recently it was emphasized
that much carbonate is also precipitated with the aid of
micro-organisms (e.g. cyanobacteria) and encrusting ben-
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
thic invertebrates forming microbial mats and films on the
surface and in cavities of larger organic structures
(microbialites, spongiolites, etc.; see, e.g., Riding 1991;
Reitner and Neuweiler 1995). The ultra-conservative,
slowly growing microbe-sponge association already existed
in the early Cambrian, but was later largely substituted by
rapidly growing euphotic communities such as the coralgal
facies. However, microbialites still are a substantial factor
in modem reef growth filling light protected pore space
and cavities within coral reefs.
- The Foramol association consists predominantly of
benthic foraminifera, molluscs, bryozoans, and par-
tially calcareous red algae, echinoderms, brachio-
pods, corals and bamacles. These communities live
in temperate and cold waters and partially at greater
depths than the chlorozoan association. They grow
more slowly and normally cannot develop isolated,
high bioherm structures (see below). Dissolution of
carbonate at the sea floor is common due to
undersaturation with respect to aragonite and calcite;
ooids are absent. At depths below 100 to 200 m,
glauconite may be present. Cold surface currents and
upwelling cool ocean water may lead to cold-water
carbonates even in low-Iatitude regions (Fig. 3.22).
On the deeper shelf, aphotic associations with a large
proportion of bryozoans (Bryomol facies) are com-
mon. On arctic shelves and on seamounts, sponges
and diatoms may contribute to the biogenic produc-
tion and thus cause the deposition of siliceous car-
bonates. Cool-water carbonates either form distinct
banks, or consist of reworked sand- and gravel-size
skeletal material.
The Foramol association significantly varies in specific
environments (Henrich and Freiwald 1995; Henrich et al.
1996; James 1997). Kelp forests in the shallow subtidal
zone provide a favorable habitat for various photic and
aphotic carbonate-secreting organisms including coralline
algae and balanids. The latter two groups are also charac-
teristic of regions where melt-water enters the sea.
Modem examples of cold-water carbonates were found
around Alaska, Antarctica, in the western North Sea and
Greenland Sea, and on plateaus of the northeastern Atlan-
tic. The large shelf platform of the Spitsbergenbank in the
western Barents Sea, in winter covered by sea ice, accumu-
lates cold-water carbonates on top of glacial clastic sedi-
ments and demonstrates the impact of the oceanographic
Polar Front promoting high carbonate production. Intergla-
cial arctic shallow-water carbonates, however, were largely
eroded by subsequent ice action.
Widely extended temperate-water carbonates also occur
on the shelf of southern Australia, where an inner shelf as-
sociation rich in coralline algae, bivalves, and brachiopods
passes, without a reef baITier, into an outer shelf associa-
tion characterized by bryozoans, calcified worm tubes,
foraminifera, and sponges. Similar associations are found
around New Zealand and Tasmania as weil as in other mid-
latitude regions along the coasts ofthe Atlantic and Pacific.
Besides the common bank-type cool-water carbonate,
even coral mounds (Lophelia reefs) have been detected on
modem deep shelves and upper slopes at water depths be-
3.4 Carbonates
tween 200 and 300 m. These reefs occur in the northeastern
Atlantic along a belt from the Iberian peninsula to Norway
and have grown in the Holocene on top of glacial deposits
or glacier-shaped sea floor (Henrich et al. 1996).
The rates of carbonate production (in terms of
kg/m2/a or cmlka) vary considerably in different re-
gions and environments (cf. Sect. 10.2). Generally,
carbonate production is greater by about one order of
magnitude in tropical regions than in cooler areas,
but there are also examples of surprisingly high pro-
duction in non-tropical seas, e.g. by coralline algae
(Lithothamnion sp.) building up reefs on shell beds
or rocks.
Ancient Carbonate-Producing Communities
The nature and properties of carbonate rocks are
strongly influenced by the evolution of carbonate-
producing organisms and their different faunal as-
semblages through the Earth's history.
See, e.g., summary by James and Bourque (1992). As
frame-builders in the construction of reefs, stromatolites
played an important role in the Proterozoic; bryozoans,
strornatoporids and tabulate corals were abundant in the
lower Paleozoic, coralline sponges in the Permian, Triassic,
and Jurassic; crinoids were significant carbonate producers
on ramps with barrier shoals in the Triassic (Aigner 1985);
rudist bivalves formed large reef structures in the Creta-
ceous. This wide topic is not further treated here. Detailed
descriptions of the development and composition of car-
bonate buildups through geologic time are listed, e.g., by
Flügel and Flügel-Kahler (1995).
U sing the experience from modem environments, it
is now possible to discriminate between warm- and
cold-water carbonates also in the geological past. In
this case, the terms Chlorozoan, Chloralgal and
Foramol association mentioned above may be re-
placed by some other terms taking into account the
different biota of the past. For Permian carbonates,
for example, the terms Chlorosponge and
Chloraforam association (including green algae and
encrusting foraminifera) for warm environments or
Bryonoderm association (bryozoans and
echinoderms) for cold conditions have been proposed
(Beauchamp and Desrochers 1997). Non-tropical
carbonates were common in times when the Earth
was in an "icehouse state" (cf. Sect. 7.8).
Miocene examples of non-tropical temperate carbonates
have been described from Spain (Betzler et al. 1996) and
Austria (Nebelsick 1996). Permian cold-water carbonates
formed in the Permian shelf sea of Tasmania (Rao 1981),
where they alternate with tillites and silicic1astic shallow-
sea sediments rich in dropstones. Using criteria as men-
tioned above, temporal, latitudinal and bathymetric trends
similar to those of the modem world could be found in the
137
Permian along the northwestern margin of Pangea, i.e. in
the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, Svalbard, Barents Sea
(Beauchamp and Desrochers 1997). Siope carbonates along
subduction zones may have become incorporated into
accretionary wedges and masked by mechanical processes
and metamorphism. Nevertheless, more and more ancient
examples of non-tropical carbonates are identified.
3.4.3 Carbonate Mineralogy and
Non-Skeletal Grains
Organisms produce not only a variety of skeletal par-
tides of different size and shape, but also carbonate
minerals of differing composition and thermody-
namic stability. Tropical carbonates of the
chlorozoan association, rich in aragonite and high-
Mg calcite, dissolve and recrystallize relatively easily
during early diagenesis in contrast to the temperate
and polar carbonates which are dominated by low-
Mg calcite. Thus, the warm-water carbonates tend to
form hardgrounds and to lithify earlier than cool-wa-
ter carbonates.
N on-skeletal grains in carbonates comprise bio-
chemically mediated carbonate particles (e.g. in asso-
ciation with bacteria, algae and seagrass), different
types of pellets as well as inorganically precipitated
carbonate minerals (mostly aragonite needles). An
often debated problem is the formation of micrite
(fine crystalline carbonate) which is a major constitu-
ent filling pore space in many reef structures.
Chemical precipitation of carbonate from supersaturated
sea water was observed in shallow parts ofthe Persian Gulf
and on the Great Bahama Bank (e.g., Shinn et al. 1989;
Milliman et al. 1993). In the Persian Gulf, these so-called
"whitings" are characterized by milky water containing
about 10 mg/I fine grained calcium carbonate, mostly ar-
agonite. In the Bahamas, chemically precipitated aragonite
makes up more than 50% of the c1ay-size fraction of Iime
mud which is largely exported into deeper water.
Micrite rnay be produced either in situ via organic matri-
ces (biomicrite, organOinicrite or automicrite, consisting of
high-Mg calcite; Reitner and Neuweiler 1995), or come
frorn other sources. Allomicrite is rich in aragonite, gener-
ated either by carbonate precipitation or mechanically
through reworking and grinding of skeletal carbonate as
weil as by boring and rasping organisms. Pellets are pro-
duced either by organisms (fecal pellets) or by reworking
of carbonate mud (lithic pellets). If their origin is not c1ear
they are referred to as peloids. Aggregates are composite
grains consisting of cemented smaller partic1es. (For de-
tailed descriptions see, e.g., Bathurst 1975; Füchtbauer
1988; Tucker and Wright 1990; Rezak and Lavoie 1993).
Some of these grain types are rare or absent in cool and
low-salinity environments. Carbonate intraclasts are larger
(> 125 J.lm) and originate from reworking of serni-lithified
or lithified sediment.
The composition of reworked biogenic carbonate de-
pends not only on the carbonate-producing organ-
isms, but also on the grain-size fraction investigated
138
(e.g. Rao 1996). F oraminifera, diatoms, sponge de-
bris, and bryozoans tend to be more abundant in the
sand fraction than in coarser material.
3.4.4 Carbonate Ramps
A carbonate ramp is a gently sloping sea floor (gen-
erally less than 1 to 2 degrees) without a marked
break in slope. It therefore deviates from most
present-day shelves, which are characterized by a
distinct shelf edge.
See, e.g., Wilson and Jordan (1983), Read (1985), Wright
(1986). Modem examples of ramp settings are the shallow
region of the southern ArabianIPersian Gulf (Purser 1973;
cf. Sect. 4.4.3), the deeper shelf and upper slope of West
Florida (Mullins et al. 1988), the Libyan coastal zone of
the Mediterranean, and the shelves of Yucatan and south-
ern Australia.
On a carbonate ramp, the high-energy facies of the
wave-dominated nearshore zone gradually pass
downslope into deeper water and finally into basinal
sediments deposited under low-energy conditions
(Fig. 3.24). Landward, ramps are characterized by a
high-energy grainstone belt, whereas rimmed carbon-
ate shelves exhibit such a zone on their basinward
edge. Continuous, large reef structures and sediment
gravity flow deposits containing clasts of cemented,
shallow-water facies at the foot of the gentle ramp
slope are generally absent.
The nearshore zone of shallow, high-energy gravel
and sands or skeletal shoal complexes separates a
protected landward area with lagoons, coastal and
peritidal clastics, and possibly tidal flats from an
open marine, high-energy foreshore and shallow-wa-
ter belt (Fig. 3.24a). The back-barrier area is domi-
nated by low-diversity euryhaline faunal assemblages
which tolerate a wide range of salinities. The inner
ramp, seaward of the beach and baITier facies, is an
efficient "carbonate factory", providing carbonate for
both the back-baITier region and the outer, deeper
ramp.
In addition to biogenic carbonate production, the fonnation
of oolitic and peloidal sands may contribute significantly to
the overall carbonate production in wann waters.
Hardgrounds appear to be a common feature on inner
ramps. Nonnal wave action and frequent storms transport
biogenic sands and larger skeletal particJes (caJcarenites
and caJcrudites) along shore and as traction carpets into
somewhat deeper water. Rare large stonns produce sand-
and silt-sized biocJastic tempestites (Sect. 3.1.2) which
extend into the deeper ramp and basin, where they alternate
with lime muds or marls. Here, pelagic sediments, such as
planktonic foraminiferal and nannofossil oozes (cf. Sect.
5.3.1) dominate, but some isolated carbonate buildups may
also occur on the outer ramp. The ichnofacies shows a dis-
tinct trend from the inner to the outer ramp.
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
It appears that carbonate ramps preferentially fonned in
geologic periods or environments in which reef builders
secreting large, rigid skeletons were rare. The organic as-
semblages of ramps function mainly as grain and mud pro-
ducers, as weil as trappers and binders to form carbonate
banks. Ramps arr. possibly more common in temperate cli-
matic zones (e.g. the modem shelf of southem Australia;
e.g. Boreen and James 1993) than in wanner regions.
Carbonate ramps are common on passive (exten-
sional) continental margins and in epicon-tinental
seas. On continental margins, carbonates frequently
overlie volcanics, evaporites, and clastic sediments,
representing an early phase of deposition in a rift ba-
sin or a young ocean basin (cf. Sect. 12.1). Ramps
tend to evolve into rimmed carbonate shelves (Fig.
3 .24b) when carbonate production on the developing
shelf edge is sufficiently high, and the production
and deposition of carbonate in deeper water remains
limited. The buildup of a rim with a steepening slope
can be promoted by mud mounds which contain only
minor proportions of biogenic framework (see be-
low). Such structures may be confused with normal
reefs where frame-building organisms play a great
part (Flügel 1989). The transformation of a rimmed
shelfinto a ramp is less common (Fig. 3.24c); it may
occur, for example, where the shelf is drowned and
buried by prograding siliciclastics, or when the basin
is filled rapidly from another side.
3.4.5 Reef Types
and Composite Carbonate Buildups
General Aspects
At first glance, organic reefs appear to be relatively
simple structures which rise above sea floor as a re-
sult of high skeletal calcium carbonate production,
low siliciclastic input, and stabilization against the
attack of waves and currents. In reality, however,
reefs and their associated sediments represent very
complex structures (e.g. Hüssner 1994). In contrast
to other sedimentary bodies, the growth and geome-
try of reefs are controlled mainly by organisms, the
reef community, and early cementation. The physical
processes of their environment play an indirect or
secondary role. It is only the upper part of a reef
which is organically active, because reef-builders
take their food and nutrients from the surface water.
Calcareous algae or hermatypic corals, which live in
symbiosis with microscopic algae (zooxanthellae)
need sunlight for photosynthesis. Hence, these reefs
can only grow in shallow water up to a depth of
about 50 to 80 m, but they grow optimally just a few
meters below sea level.
3.4 Carbonates 139

INNER RAMP
a SHALLOW RAMP LAGOONAL AND TIDAL FLAT
BUILDUPS. CARBONATES (LOCAL COAL
OUT ER RAMP OOUTIC AND SEA MS OR EVAPOR ITES)
PELOID SANDS

-- -- --
!
PELLET SAND
LAGOONAL
UME MUD
BANKS. LOCAL BIOHERMS
(PACKSTONES, GRAINST .)

HARDGROUND (LOCAL )

LlME MUD SHELLY BIOCLASTIC AND

OR MARL. OOLITIC SANDS
INTENSELY CALCARENITE
BIOTURBATED SHEETS. TE MPESTITES
OR MUDDY SKEL ETAL
U MESTONE.
BIOTURBATED
DISTINCTIVE TRENDS IN BIOFACIES
(E .G .•FORAMINIF ERA) . ICHNO ·
FACIES . AND INCREASING
BIOTURBATION

b C
RAMP (1) TO SHELF (3 ) SHELF (1) TO RAMP (3)
EVOLUTION EVOLUTION

GRAVITY MASS TALUS FROM REEF RAPID FILLING OF BASIN

FLOW DEPOS ITS STRUCTURES (E .G .• BACK · ARC BASIN)

Fig. 3.24. a Idealized carbonate ramp with an inner c Evolution of a rimmed shelf to a carbonate ramp
ramp barrier complex separating a lagoonal-tidal (rare). (Based on Read 1982; Aigner 1985; Buxton
zone from the open marine ramp facies. b Evolution and Pedley 1989)
of a carbonate ramp to a rimmed carbonate shelf.

The modem coral reefs are restricted to warm tropical to
subtropical waters of normal salinity and are unable to
withstand substantial changes in water chemistry. Further-
more, the main reef-builders cannot tolerate muddy water
because they are filter-feeders or micropredators, whose
feeding apparatus can be clogged by fine sediment parti-
cles. As a result, reefs cannot survive near the mouth of
rivers delivering large quantities offresh water and mud. It
is generally assumed that most ancient reef communities
required environmental conditions similar to those of the
modem ones.
The internal structure of reefs is complicated, be-
cause they are composed not only of the solid skele-
tons of sessil frame-builders (for example, massive
stocks of corals in the modem seas), but also of the
skeletons and shells of other, less resistant benthic
140
organisms attached to the reef. Furthermore, skeletal
debris provided by physical breakup or bioerosion as
well as biomicrite mentioned above can fill cavities
within the reef and contribute considerably to the
buildup of the reef core (cf. Fig. 3.26b). Encrusting
organisms often grow over the dead parts of the reef
surface and aid in stabilizing the structure.
The upward growth of reefs terminates within the
tidal zone, where they form a flat surface eovered by
water during high tide. A certain amount of reef de-
struction seems to be necessary for continued reef
growth, because in this way new solid substrate is
provided for the colonization of sessil reef organ-
isms. Reef talus and fine-grained debris delivered by
reef destruction are exported into both the backreef
zone and to the slope and deepcr parts of the forereef
zone where they form part of the reef complex.
Planation and partial destruetion of reefs is aecomplished
by several processes: (l) storm waves and tidal CUITents
eroding instable parts of the reef structure; (2) grazing and
rasping organisms such as fish, some molluscs, and sea
urgins (bioerosion; e.g. Stearly and Ekdale 1989) which
can cause severe damage to modem eoral reefs; (3) boring
endolithic micro- and macro-organisms (algae, fungi,
sponges, bivalves, ete.; Vogel 1993; Vogel et al. 1996). All
these types of reef destruetion can operate relatively fast
(downward erosion of 0.1 to 1 mika) and even reach the
same order of magnitude as reef growth. Reef destruction,
especially by mechanical processes, is most active when
the reefhas grown up to sea level and consumed the avail-
able vertical sediment accommodation space (cf. Sect. 7.4).
ReefTypes
Despite the great variability of the reef-building com-
munities in space and time and the complex internal
struetures of reefs, most of the reef bodies can be
simply c1assified according to their external geome-
try. They range from flat and small to usually thiek
and large structures:
Flat muddy banks, one to several km lang, rise
some decimeters or meters above the surrounding sea
floor. They are partially built by sedentary organisms
such as algae, sca grass, branching corals, molluscs
and many other groups. Tropical banks, for example
on the Florida shelf, are characterized by thick and
rapidly growing shells, but skeletal-rich banks also
occur in non-tropical waters (foramol association).
The latter typically occupy the deeper shelf and the
tops of isolated plateaus at depths of hundred to sev-
eral hundreds of meters. Ahermatypic corals may be
present and form patches rising somewhat over the
neighboring sea floor. Cool-water banks often con-
tain glauconite and are generally more sandy and
gravelly (inc1uding coarse shell debris and fragments
of calcareous algae) than tropical counterparts. Car-
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
bonate banks in both shallow and deeper water can
be stabilized by early cementation generating
erosion-resistant tops or hardgrounds, especially un-
der warm-water conditions. Continuous upbuilding
of carbonate banks up to a certain distance from the
coast can generate an aggraded platform in contrast
to reef-rimmed platforrns (Hunt and Tucker 1993, cf.
Fig.3.27).
Tbe bank-type reefs of the present-day oceans are consid-
ered to be counterparts of the frequently described
biostromes in ancient sediments (Fig. 3.25a). By definition,
these are bedded structures, such as shell beds or coral-rich
beds exhibiting part of their fauna in situ, but they did not
grow fast enough in their central part to form lens-like or
mound-like bodies as was the case for bioherms.
Superposition of biostromes or small bioherms can result
in thick reef structures ("stratigraphie" or stratified reefs),
but these never developed a substantial primary relief. In
contrast, "ecologic" reefs form prominent topographie,
wave-resistant features such as baITier reefs, patch reefs,
pinnacle reefs (Fig. 3.25a and d).
Reef mounds and mud mounds are flat, long lenses
or steeper conical piles of incomplete reef structures
(James 1983). They vary in size, but often have
lengths on the order of 100 m. They occur on the
gently dipping slopes of carbonate platforrns, in tran-
quil reef lagoons, shelf seas, and occasionally in
deeper water (Figs. 3.25a and 3.26a). Mud mounds
consist of poorly sorted bioc1astic lime mud with mi-
nor amounts of delicate to dendroid skeletons of
sessil organisms growing on top of the muddy matrix
(e.g., sponges, algae, bryozoans, small branching
corals, bivalves). Larger skeletons of typical frame-
builders are generally not found. For that reason, reef
mounds cannot grow up to the zone of strong and
constant wave turbulence.
Mud mounds have been recently studied in great detail
(e.g. James and Bourque 1992; Monty et al 1995; Reitner
and Neuweiler 1995). Tbey mainly represent slowly grow-
ing microbe-sponge associations which are known since
the early Cambrian. The presence of biofilms allows meta-
zoans to colonize and contribute to carbonate buildup. The
cap of mud mounds may be formed by a thin layer of en-
crusting organisms or an early lithified limestone crust
(Fig. 3.25a). Very large mud mounds and mud ridges (up
to 40 m and 100 m high, respective1y) have been described
from the Middle Devonian of the Algerian Sahara (Wendt
et al. 1997). They formed on a carbonate shelf at water
depths probably ranging from 100 to 200 m. Frame build-
ers are scarce in these structures.
Knoll reefs and patch reefs are frame-built, isolated,
roughly circular bioherrns (Fig. 3.25a). They grow on
the upper foreslope of medium-energy shelf or plat-
form margins, where they often form a reef barrier or
a gently seaward dipping ramp in combination with
forereef or interreef debris. Patch reefs usually grow
in the shallow outer part of a protected reef lagoon
3.4 Carbonates
belonging to the back reef zone behind a larger reef
barrier. Patch reefs are frequently associated with
skeletal and oolithic sand bars. In deep lagoons the
patch reefs may develop into isolated conical high
pinnacle reefs (Fig. 3.25d), surrounded largely by
pelagic carbonate.
Reef rims, fringing reefs, and barrier reefs. In
high-energy environments the frame-building organ-
isms can produce narrow elongated structures re-
ferred to as reef rims. They grow up to or c10se to
mean sea level into the zone of greatest wave action.
This implies that their primary structure must be suf-
ficiently solid to withstand permanent and occasion-
ally very strong wave attack. As a result, their sea-
ward slope tends to be very steep and their proximal
foreslope talus often consists of coarse reef debris
and fallen blocks from the active reef zone. Never-
theless, these structures are able to grow not only
upward, but also to prograde seaward toward their
food supply and on top of their foreslope talus (cf.
Fig. 3.28a).
Ifseaward outbuilding prevails and the carbonate
body is attached to land masses or islands, the result-
ing platforms are called fringing reefs (Fig. 3.25b).
Wide structures of this type develop when carbonate
production exceeds subsidence and, in addition, the
relative sea level remains cither constant or repeat-
edly reaches about the same level (cf. Sect. 7.5).
Conversely, rapidly rising sea level or strong subsi-
dence often leads to a pronounced vertical buildup of
the reef front and thus to barrier reefs and atolls sep-
arating deepened and sometimes wide lagoons from
the open sea (Figs. 3.25c and d; see below).
Modem fringing reefs are commonly 0.5 to 1 km wide and
may include some very shallow lagoons of limited extent.
Well-known examples occur, for example, along the coasts
of the Red Sea and many tropical islands where only little
teITigenous material is swept into the sea. The most promi-
nent modern example of a baITier reef is the 2000 km long
Great Barrier Reef along the eastern continental margin of
Australia (e.g. Davies 1989; Davies and Peerdeman 1998).
An outstanding fossil example are the Devonian baITier
reefs in the Canning basin, western Australia (e.g. Playford
et a1. 1989).
The many atolls of the present-day oceans (more than
320 examples in the Indian and Pacific oceans) are ring-
like baITier reefs sUITounding a shallow lagoon in which a
central land mass is lacking (Fig. 3.25c). As already de-
scribed by Darwin, most of these atolls are associated with
submerged, isolated volcanic seamounts, which previously
formed islands. These reef structures can be explained by
alternating outbuilding of fringing reefs and upbuilding of
baITier reefs related to the rapid Quaternary and slower ear-
lier sea-Ievel fluctuations. In addition, a general tendency
of the seamounts to subside plays a role. The carbonate
buildups of some atolls reach thicknesses in excess of 1000
m and represent time spans of some tens of million years.
Their central lagoons collect reef debris and sediment pro-
duced in the lagoon itself, mainly sand- and silt-sized skel-
etal carbonate.
141
Composite Carbonate Buildups
Carbonate shelves and carbonate platforms generally
are composite structures, consisting of the reef front
or reef belt, the foreslope proximal and distal reef
talus (fore reet), and the back reef, inc1uding reef
flats and lagoons (Figs. 3.25a and 3.26a). In the case
of carbonate shelves, the coastal mud belt and tidal
flats form an additional part of the total carbonate
structure (cf. Sect. 3.2.2).
Carbonate buildups have received much attention by
sedimentologists in both academia and oil exploration. A
number of special volumes on this subject has been pub-
lished, for example about the widespread Cretaceous plat-
forms in the Tethys region (Simo et al. 1993), where about
16% of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are located. The
facies zones and architecture of carbonate buildups also
considerably varied through geologie time as a result ofthe
evolution of reef-building organism as mentioned earlier
(summary in James and Bourque 1992). In addition, shifts
of climate zones and long-term changes in relative sea level
contributed to this remarkable variations in the products of
reef-building organisms. The response of carbonate build-
ups to third order and higher-frequency sea-Ievel changes,
including fore-reef slopes, will be discussed in Sect. 7.5.
These processes largely control the formation of reservoirs
for hydrocarbons.
The lateral sediment distribution on the tops of car-
bonate platforms, as for example observed on the
Great Bahama Bank, commonly inc1udes (from land
to sea):
- Calcareous mud (biofacies adjusted to normal to
hypersaline conditions).
Pellet mud.
- Oolite shoals and oolitic grapestone.
Reefs and rocky bottom along the platform edge.
These facies association can migrate landward or
seaward with time with the result that some of them
become more, others less important as contributors to
the total carbonate buildup. Nevertheless, both the
isolated and land-attached platforms may grow more
or less continually, regardless of the specific carbon-
ate production of frame-building organisms and the
various reeftypes discussed below.
The Back-Reef Zone and Reef Lagoons
The salinity and other environmental characteristics
of the back-reef zone of land-attached platforms
(Figs. 3.25c and d) are strongly influenced by both
water exchange between the open sea and influx of
river water. Water exchange with the sea occurs via
inlets or deeper channels crossing the baITier reef. If
it is sufficient to maintain approximately normal ma-
rine conditions, carbonate production in the lagoons
142 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

a MUD BANKS AND MOUNDS

(E . G., WITH SEA GRASS)

VERY LOW INPUT

OF SlliCICLASTICS

HIGH PRODUC·
TIVITY OF
BIOGENIC
----~,--' CARBONATE
UP TO .--

100 rr---
SEVERAL _ - -

m""" 1 -_
ECOLOGIC
REEF
(DIST INC T
I ~~.-~~
TOPO·
GRAPHY .
WAVE
RESISTANT)
MODERATE
PRODUCTIVITY
OF BIOGENIC CARBONATE . CARBONATE
PARTIALLY SESSIL FAUNA BANKS (FLAT
AND / OR DIAGENETIC LlTHOHERMS OR
STABILIZATION DEEP PLATEAUS) ~"""'~
BIOSTROME

b c
BARRIER REEF ATOLL
LA GOON

SUBMERGED,
PARTIALLY FLATTENEO
RIVER VOLCANIC ISLAND
MOUT H

LARGE BARRIER REEF

d CARBONATE PLATFORM
e
PINNACLE ISLAND
WITH DEEP LAGOON REEF SANDY OOLITE

~ - SHOALS

-
.-'-
TENS OF km
_.- _.-- REEF
BUILDUP

FORE ·
SLOPE
(TALUS ANO REEF TALUS LlME MUD
PELAGICS) AND PELAGICS AND PELLET MUD

Fig. 3.25. a Nomenc1ature and environmental posi-
tion of different reefs and reef-like structures in mod-
em seas and ancient rock sequences, demonstrated
on an idealized carbonate shelf. b Fringing reefs and
c, barrier reefs attached to mainland coasts or islands.
C Atoll, developed from previous fringing and barrier
reefs (b,c) on top of submerging volcanic island.
d Large barrier reef with barrier platform and deep
lagoon, collecting mainly pelagic coccolith and
foraminiferal ooze (chalk) or marly muds. e Carbon-
ate platform isolated from mainland and surrounded
by deep water. Note the different facies zones of
platform rim and shelf lagoon. (Based on James
1983; Sellwood 1986, and others)
3.4 Carbonates
remains predominantly biogenie. However, it often
lags behind the carbonate buildup along the reef
front, with the exception of isolated patch and pinna-
ele reefs or along inshore banks (consisting, e.g., of
branching corals and algae; Fig. 3.26a). Conse-
quently, lagoons associated with barrier reefs tend to
become deeper during times of rapid relative sea-
level rise.
Inner parts of lagoons are frequently occupied by
tidal flats. In humid regions with influx of fresh wa-
ter and sediment, brackish and fresh water ponds
evolve elose to the coast line (Fig. 3.26a). Farther
seaward the lagoonal water body rnay become strati-
fied if water exchange with the open sea is limited
(cf. Sect. 4.2). Then bituminous lagoonal muds with
scarce or missing bioturbation may accumulate. In
arid regions, hypersaline conditions often promote
chemical and biochemical carbonate precipitation,
early transformation of calcium carbonate to dolo-
mite, and the generation of evaporitic layers in the
supratidal zone (Sects. 3.2.2 and 6.4.1). Generally,
lagoonal sediments are sensitive to seasonal and lon-
ger term climatic changes and record such variations
in their sediments.
"Pelagic" Carbonate Platforms
Drowned or subsided carbonate platforrns below the
depth favorable for reef growth rnay be referred to as
"pelagic" carbonate platforms (Franke and Walliser
1983; cf. Sects. 5.3.7 and 12.2.2). At an intermediate
depth between shallow-water and true pelagic car-
bonate deposition, the platforrns are still exposed to
current action. The sediments overlying older carbon-
ates or other rocks therefore tend to become discon-
tinuous and interrupted by intervals of omission and
erosion. They are characterized by irregular bedding
and a nodular appearance, red color, ferromanganese
nodules, corrosion surfaces and hardgrounds with
sessil fauna. Accumulations of certain fossils (e.g.
cephalopods and crinoids) are common.
This type of a condensed carbonate section is common in
the geologic record and was described from many regions,
for example from the Jurassic and Cretaceous (e.g.,
Bemoulli and Jenkyns 1974; Fürsich 1979; Bergner et al.
1982; Jenkyns 1986) and from late Devonian and early
Carboniferous strata in various European countries and
North Africa (Tucker 1974; Wendt and Aigner 1985;
Wendt 1988).
Average sedimentation rates on such platforms are very
low (0.1 to 1 mlMa), while adjacent basins are simulta-
neously filled at rates between 20 and 100 mlMa. Laterally,
the condensed horizons of platforms may show transitions
to clastic shelf sediments or to brecciated, gravity-de-
formed resedimented slope deposits.
Sediments similar to those of ancient "pelagie" plat-
forms have been observed on some deep marginal and oce-
anic plateaus ofthe modem oceans (Sect. 5.3.7). If current
143
action is weak pelagic oozes accumulate at higher rates on
bank tops, for example on the huge Ontong Java Plateau in
the southwestem Pacific where Neogen sedimentation rates
range from 20 to 60 mlMa at 2500 to 3800 m water depth
(Berger et al. 1993; cf. Sect. 5.3.2).
Types of Reef Limestone
The different facies zones of a reef complex are rep-
resented by various types of "reer' limestones (Fig.
3.26d). Apart from lagoonal and tidal sediments, reef
limestones can be subdivided into two groups (James
1983):
(1) Autochthonous reef limestones displaying in-
place fossils, which support the framework of the
reef. We can distinguish:
- Framestones, consisting largely of frame-building
skeletons.
- Bindstones, showing in-place tabular or lamellar
fossils, which encrust or bind the sediment to-
gether during deposition.
- Bafflestones, exhibiting in-place stalked fossils,
which trap sediment by baffling.
(2) Allochthonous reef limestones, consisting of ma-
terial delivered from nearby or more distal sources:
- Rudstones, c1ast-supported limestones, containing
a high proportion of coarse-grained partic1es.
- Floatstones, containing more than 10% particles
with diameters greater than 2 mm which, in con-
trast to the rudstones, are matrix-supported.
The occurrence ofthese limestone types within a reef com-
plex is indicated by numbers in Figure 3.26a. All of these
rock types contain biomicrite and allochthonous rnicrite in
significant amounts. Detailed microfacies descriptions have
been surnmarized by several authors (e.g. Rezak and
Lavoie 1993).
3.4.6 Response of Carbonate Buildups
to Subsidence and Sea-Level Rise
Vertical Buildup and "Drowning"
Carbonate shelves and platforms are sensible gauges
of sea level changes and therefore in turn strongly
affected by relative rise and fall of sea level. In this
section, only some general points are addressed in
relation to subsidence and sea-level rise. More about
carbonate sequence stratigraphy inc1uding the effects
of relative sea-level fall will be discussed in Sect.
7.5.
A relatively simple case is the vertical buildup of
isolated carbonate platforrns with long-persisting sea-
level rise (or subsidence of the basin floor; Fig.
3.25e). Such platforms usually develop on relatively
144 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

SHOAL-RIMMED PLATFORM a ARID; SALT FLATS ANO PONDS,

DOLOMITE ,EVAPORI TES

HUMID: MUD FLATS.

FORESLOPE FRESH WATER PONDS,
MUD MOUNDS PEAT , SHELL
UMULATIONS

MUD BELT,
.\
\ (TIDAL AND INNER
\ PLATFORM)
OPEN Pi.-ATFÖRM-- - - -
\ REEF (SAND, MUD, MARL,:!:BITUM.)
\. FLAT ----- ---- --
REEF \. (PLATFORM SAND BELT,
\ FORE - FRONT \ SKELETAL SAND, OOIOS)
BASIN, \ TOE \ SLOPE ___ '::..- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
PE LAGIC OOZE
OR MARL OPEN MARINE \~EOPE \~~~X~~AL TALUS)
NERITIC (DISTAL TALUS)

I I
FORE REEF --~ f------ BACK REEF - - - - - - - .

REEF-RIMMED PLATFORM (REEF BELT)

TYPE OF
b REfF MOSAIC C STAGE LIMESTONE
DOMAL & MASSIVE OOMIN ATION bindstone to Iramestone
METAZDA

' rameslone (bindstone)

O'VERSIFICAT10N mudslone to
wackestone malr;.

batllestone to floatslone
COLONIZATION (bindstone) wlth a mud
stone to wackesCone maCrix
grainslone Co rudslone
STABILIZATION (packslone 10 wackeslone)

d REEF LIMESTONES
AUTOCHTHONOUS ALLOCHTHONOUS
5

FRAMESTONE BINDSTONE BAFFLESTONE RUÖSTONE FLOATSTONE

3.4 Carbonates
elevated crustal blocks, oceanic plateaus and islands
when carbonate production can keep up with relative
sea-level rise but is not sufficient to fill the space
around the initial carbonate bank (e.g. Wilson 1975;
Read 1985). Prograding of the platform rim is then
hardly possible (see below). Under these conditions,
the platform carbonates can theoretically form very
thick successions of the same facies, for example
superimposed knoll reefs or bioherms, fore-slope
reef talus, lagoonal muds, etc. At the same time,
interreef basinal muds or even deep-sea pelagic sedi-
ments can accumulate close to the carbonate plat-
form. If the platform is subdivided by large and deep
channels or troughs, shallow water carbonates can be
bordered by carbonate turbidites and other deposits
transported by gravitiy mass movements.
A well-known and frequently described modem example of
this type of carbonate buildup is the Bahama Platform (e.g.,
Purdy 1963; summaries in Bathurst 1975; Sellwood 1986,
and Sect. 12.2.2). This platform is divided into two parts
by the deep Tongue of the Ocean (cf. Fig. 12.12d). The
platform represents a carbonate massif of more than 4 km
in thickness which has been built up since the Cretaceous.
Ancient carbonate platforms are of similar extent (e.g., in
the Alps, in the southem Apeninnes, and in the Devonian
of Canada), but they normally do not reach such great
thicknesses. Famous examples of isolated platforms are
Triassie carbonate buildups of the Dolomites in the South-
em Alps, Italy (e.g. Bosellini 1989).
The slopes of these platforms are mainly controlled
by the angle of repose of reef talus as weIl as by ero-
sional processes (rock falls, avalanching; current ac-
tion; Kenter 1990; Harris 1994). The architecture of
isolated platforms depends to some extent on their
size and mud production (Fig. 3.27). Large platforms
with wide areas of bank tops allow more lime mud
production than smaller platforms. Due to matrix-
supported gravity flows, the large, mud-rich plat-
forms develop wider and gentler slopes in their early
stages of development than do mud-poor platforms.
In the latter case, rock falls and grain flows control
the slope angle.
This is demonstrated by comparing size and architeeture of
two Triassie platforms: the Latemar buildup in the Italian
Alps and the larger Great Bank of Guizhou in South China
(Fig. 3.27; Lehrmann et al. 1998). The mud-poor, steeply
sloped Latemar buildup is of "pinnacle" type, 5 km in di-
Fig. 3.26. a Topography and facies zones of shoal-
rimmed (upper part of block diagram) and reef-
rimmed carbonate shelves or platforms (lower half).
Low-energy (LE) waves produce a gentler foreslope
with mud mounds, sandy shoals, and islands at the
shelf break. High-energy (HE) conditions can only be
tolerated by solid reef structures that have steep
foreslopes. The mud belt facies of the inner shelf is
influenced significantly by climate. b Reef mosaic,
145
ameter and 700 m high. The Great Bank ofGuizhou (GBG)
formed on the outer margin of the huge Permian Yangtze
platform from the latest Permian to the Middle Triassie in
~10 Ma. It covers an area of 15 x 70 km and reaches up to
2.5 km in height. It evolved from a low-relief bank with
some patch reefs to a reef-rimmed platform and finally to a
progressively steepening escarpment stage. The flat top of
the platform interior was most of the time characterized by
muddy tidal flats (peritidal cyc1ic limestones and
dolomites; cf. Sect. 7.9) or a deeper lagoon creating an
atoll-like morphology. Framework builders and
boundstones, reinforced by microbial ernsts (Tubiphytes)
allowed slightly prograding of the platform rim during its
intermediate stage. During the escarpment stage the steep
slopes became sediment-starved and were partially affected
by current erosion. Finally, also the platform top drowned
as indicated by oolithic skeletal grainstones and packstones
grading upward to nodular-bedded oncolitic wackestones
with open-marine biota. Due to continued deepening, the
total strncture was buried by a thick pile of shales and
siliciclastic turbidites. Pervasive dolomitization partially
obliterated the depositional fabrics.
A main difference between the two types (end members)
of platforms is the percentage of redeposited material at the
platform margin. This seems to make up about 50% of the
total buildup volume of mud-poor isolated platforms of
limited size (Latemar example, Fig. 3.27c). However, a
considerable part of the slope sediments may have been
produced by in-situ-growing reef organisms (Blendinger
1994). In the case ofvery large, mud-rich platforms (Great
Bank of Guizhou example), debris flow breccias, turbidite
grainstones and pelagic limestones and mudstones only
account for about 10% ofthe total buildup.
In many cases the relationship between relative sea-
level rise and the growth potential of carbonate
buildups leads to more complicate structures for the
following reasons: (1) the sea level changed fre-
quently and at differing rates (cf. Sects. 7.2 and 7.5),
and (2) the growth rates of carbonate buildups varied
with the type of reef builders and the depositional
environment (e.g. Homewood 1996). One can distin-
guish several situations (Kendall and Schlager 1981):
- Start-up phase. Carbonate accumulation has com-
menced but lags behind the rapidly rising sea.
- Catch-up phase (after initial drowning). Carbonate
accumulation exceeds the rate of coeval sea-level
rise. Then two cases are possible: (a) The fast-grow-
ing rim and patches of the interior platform are able
to catch up with sea-level rise and survive, whereas
the platform interior is transformed into a deep la-
showing details of composite reef buildup. c Stages
of reef growth; high species diversity with domal,
massive, lamellar, branching and encrusting reef
builders is realized only in the diversification stage.
d Simplified nomenclature of autochthonous and
allochthonous reef limestones. (Based on different
sources, e.g., Zankl 1971; Wilson 1975; James 1983;
Sellwood 1986, modified)
146 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

a Y ANGTZE PLATFORM PLATFORM MARGIN BASIN CROSS-SECTION

LATEST PERMIAN/EARL Y TRIASSIC)
OEEPER
BASIN BASIN EVOLVING FROM
DROWNING OF FORMER PLATFORM
,\
b
HIGH-RELIEF
SKELETAL· PELOIDAL
PACKST .-GRAINST.,
ESCARPMENT
STAGE

AGGRADING .
REEF-RIMMED
STAGE

LOW-RELIEF
CRYPT ALGAL LAMINITE BANK STAGE
MAINLY SKELETAL PACKST . TO GAAINST., OÜLlTE
OA Slli CEOUS LUTITE , SOME PATCH AEEFS

GREAT BANK OF GIUZHOU c LATEMAR BUILDUP

1 km L
1 km
AVALANCHE AND ROCK FALL
(- 50 % OF BUILDUP VOLUME)
_ /

· ~a&~I'!!!mi~~~,--
GRAVITY MUD-RICH , UPWARD VOMUME OF MARGIN SEDIMENTS MUD-POOR, ANGLE -
FLÜWS STEEPENING SLOPES -10 % OF TOTAL BUILDUP OF· REPOSE SLOPE

Fig. 3.27. Examples of isolated carbonate platforms differing margin (slope) sediments. (Modified after
(Latemar, northen Italy, and Great Bank of Guizhou, Lehrmann et al. 1998)
GBG, southem China), their overall evolution and

goon (Fig. 3.25c,d and Fig. 3.28c2). (b) The total
shelf or platform builds to sea level, but may include
shallow lagoons (Fig. 3.26a).
- Keep-up phase. Carbonate accumulation closely
matches (or exceeds) the rate of relative sea-level
rise. The top of the buildup remains flat and closely
to sea level; deep lagoons cannot develop. An excess
in carbonate production may cause some seaward
prograding of the flat-topped platform (cf. Fig.
3.28a); the platform is frequently capped by
evaporites.
- Drowning phase (give-up phase). Sea-level rise
exceeds carbonate growth potential. Then shallow-
water carbonates are overlain by hardgrounds andJor
sediments of deeper environments (Fig. 3.28b).
The vertical growth rates of carbonate buildups nor-
mally were sufficient to compensate for subsidence
and low-frequency (3rd order) sea-level rises during
the Phanerozoic (Fig. 3.29). Carbonate bodies as a
whole could grow upward as fast as 200 to 1000
nun/ka.
See, e.g., Hallock and Schlager (1986) and Sect. 10.2, Fig.
10.4. Modern (Holocene) single cora1 reef structures were
ab1e to accomplish vertical growth rates in the order of 2 to
10 mika in the uppermost 10 m ofwater (e.g. Schuhmacher
et al. 1995). This is extreme1y fast in comparison with the
sedimentation rates of other biogenic and c1astic marine
sediments. Thus, many cora1 reefs followed the rapid1y (at
an average rate of ~ 10 mlka) rising sea level after the last
glacial sea-1evel lowstand. Carbonate buildups, which
3.4 Carbonates
could not follow the high-amplitude Quatemary sea-Ievel
changes, really drowned. In other cases, rapid tilting of
crustal blocks in combination with increased terrestrial in-
flux sometimes caused locally or regionally reduced car-
bonate production and its replacement by deeper-water fa-
cies (e.g. in the Early Cretaceous ofOman, Arabian penin-
sula; Pratt and Smewing 1993).
On the other hand, reef growth and carbonate build-
ups ended more or less abruptly in large regions or
even globally several times during nonglacial peri-
ods. The cause of such global crises in carbonate
growth is not yet clear. Most authors assume that the
decline of reefs reflects some environmental deterio-
ration, such as changes in salinity, supply of food
and nutrients, muddy waters, oxygen deficiency of
sea water, etc. In some cases, a coincidence of world-
wide "reef drowning" and oceanic anoxia was
pointed out.
One of these reef crises occurred in the middle Cretaceous
(Hallock and Schlager 1986; see also Schlager and Philip
1990; Schlager 1998). Peritidal carbonate cycles, caused by
high-frequency, low-amplitude sea-Ievel changes are de-
scribed in Sect. 7.9.
Pro- and Retrograding Carbonate Buildups
Due to the fact that reef fronts grow fast and are able
to migrate seaward on top of their talus and subsiding
basin floor, prograding carbonate buildups are com-
mon in settings of slow relative sea-Ievel rise (Fig.
3.28a). In this case, the different facies zones only
reach limited thicknesses in vertical sequences. Typi-
cal successions below the reef front show coarse-
ning- and shallowing-upward trends. Farther land-
ward, where lagoonal and tidal sediments cover the
rcef core, the vertica"l sections on top of the reef core
exhibit a fining- and deepening-upward trend toward
the central lagoonal deposits, thereafter some coars-
ening.
A classic example of a large, prograding carbonate buildup
is the Perrnian reef complex of the Guadalupe Mountains
region in Texas and New Mexico (NeweIl et al. 1953;
Ward et al. 1986; Osleger 1998). In times of reduced
aggradation, the reef front prograded 3 to 10 mika
(Mazullo 1995); the maximum rate of vertical upbui1ding
was 0.3 to 0.35 mika. This reef complex is also known for
its rich oil and gas fields. Hydrocarbons have accumulated
mainly at the contact of lagoonal sediments (here
dolomites) with coastal evaporites as weil as in the basinal
channel-fill clastic carbonates. The cavemous pore space of
the marginal reef facies is commonly filled with water.
Rapid relative sea-Ievel rise may lead to a retrograd-
ing carbonate system with landward migrating car-
bonate facies zones (Fig. 3.28b). Under these condi-
tions, vertical carbonate buildup is reduced or termi-
nated by the transgressive sea. Some time lag be-
147
tween sea-Ievel rise and reef response to the changed
environmental conditions may aid to achieve this
successive "reef drowning" (Enos 1991). The vertical
sections of the former carbonate buildup vary accord-
ing to their location far off or close to the paleo-
coastline, but fining and deepening-upward se-
quences prevail (Locations 1 to 3 in Fig. 3 .28b).
More about sequence stratigraphy of carbonates is
discussed in Sect. 7.5.
3.4.7 Diagenesis of Reefs and
Carbonate Buildups
General Processes of Carbonate Diagenesis
It appears appropriate to add here a brief summary on
carbonate diagenesis. (For a more general, broader
discussion about the processes operating in
diagenesis see Chap. 13.) As previously mentioned,
reefs and other carbonate sediments often undergo
marked changes immediately after their deposition
(early pre-burial diagenesis ) and also later on when
they are buried under younger sediments (late or
burial diagenesis). The most important processes
involved are:
Dissolution of pre-exlstmg carbonate minerals
creating void space, for example, in the unsatu-
rated vadose zone of emerged platforrns (cf. Fig.
3.30c).
- Cementation, i.e., precipitation and growth of new
carbonate crystals in the void space, thus leading
to lithification.
- Replacement of single crystals or mosaics of fine
crystals by other, often larger carbonate minerals
(neomorphism).
Numerous articles have been written on this topic, and sev-
eral textbooks describe the various aspects of this problem
in detail (e.g., Bathurst 1975; Purser and Schroeder 1986;
Füchtbauer 1988; Moore 1988; Scholle et al. 1989; Tucker
and Wright 1990; Heydari 1997). It seems that carbonate
diagenesis, including carbonate-bearing mixed rock types,
is a non-ending objective of study. The following text men-
tions some problems of do10mitization, but physico-chemi-
cal and minera10gical aspects as weil as the isotopic com-
position of the products of diagenesis are largely omitted.
Rapid and pervasive diagenetic transformation of
most of the primary material of a carbonate buildup
is favored by:
- Relatively good solubility of skeletal carbonate and
thermodynamic instability of some carbonate miner-
als (aragonite and Mg-calcite) under changing
physico-chemical conditions.
- High porosity and permeability of many carbonate
buildups and reef structures, reef talus, and skeletal
sands.
148 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

a PROGRADING REEF (CARBONATE PLATFORM) SEQUENCE

FORE REEF FRONT BACK REEF

REEF AND REEF FLAT WITH LAGOON
__ _ _ __ ____ _______ _".<p _ • •
. _..., . .$.' .... _ -- - i~":'~~- CONTINENTAL (cT)
RELALTEIYyEEL RISE
S EA- ~ u
"'~-'\~§.~
·~~··
.. " !L\ "••/
~-=-~~~ ~- TIDAL FLATS(T) AND
' --=-~'F""" --~
- .......--.-:0:-:-;-"'. . . :. :
.....:.:.~ ...
. ":;, '~ ~o~
u •. , . -
. oo·Q
' ~:·~~:S-
~'. ~ ::~:" ~.: ' "..
--- - _
::;:::: ~ - - _<;',g
-
- NEARSHORE MUD BELT (NMB)
-
_ -. . .. . . l1li . . . ..

~-:::-:.:..::::> ~. :-:~ o. ' 0 D ':." ~ ~ '. -,.,~:::::::.:.i:;.;.' ~c;;:::: -~ - LAGOONAL LlME MUD PELLET
- - - -<=.. ... ....... ' " , ... " . · ~n~ 0 -, ... :- .... :.::.. ; ' • .. ... 5; :os=: '
- - --~: .. ' ,' . . - ". ' -." J ,, - ' -' ~__',-,. ';; . " MUD, BITUM. MARL (L)
- -:-2'~::::::::._~~.~~l>:: q__ • .:.~ .. <:.~?.~ _ SKELETAL SANDS, PATCH (SJ
DEEP BASIN
OR SHALLOWER
INTERREEF (INTER-
- - -- --
-- ==--=- '7_::';:. ':,':.', .." .
--=--=-~~-> ,
- - - - ------'i:'_.:
... ::.','-'-;., •?- '.',-'; . O!C
,'Q ~_
, ' ,0
I> .: I) ~ 0
- REEF FRONT (RF)
REEFS

PLATFORM) BASIN --=: =-Z'~-f:.'~" .: • . ", • • "

.....:..,. , '. .- - FORE RE EI' TALUS
- -- -~ :L':;':~..:. AND 'PELAGICS' (FRn

-- - HEMIPELAGIC TO PELAGIC
OOZE (CHALK, LIMESTONE)
AND MARL (HP)

b " DROWNING" OR DECLINING CARBONATE BUILDUP

SHELF MUD SHOREFACE SAND

SEA-LEYEL RISE

FINING- SHALLOWING AND DEEPENING-UP

(OEEPENING-) UP DEEPENING-UP (FINING- AND COARSENING-UP)

C EMERGING CARBONATE BUILDUP

C1 FALLING SEA-LEYEL C2 FALLING AND RISING SEA-LEYEL

CT

KARSTrF., LOCAL REGENERATION

INTENSE MEDIUM LlTTLE OF REEF GROWTH
LITTLE RESIDUE
KARSTIFICATION

Fig. 3.28. a Complete, idealized sequence of a terrninated or replaced by sediments characteristic of

prograding carbonate buildup (reef front). Note the deeper water. For abbrevations see a, Note differ-
limited thickness of each facies (in contrast to Fig. ences in the vertical seetions I to 3. c Perrnanently
3 .25e); the proportions of different facies zones (cl) or temporarily (c2) emerging and karstified car-
change during the carbonate buildup; coarsening bonate buildups. cl Different intensities of
(shallowing) upward and fining upward occur repeat- karstification in relation to climate, duration of
edly. b "Drowning" or declining reef, due to rapid subaerial exposure, or type and thickness of overly-
sea-level rise or, more likely, to deteriorated condi- ing beds. c2 Renewed carbonate buildup starts on
tions for reef growth. The facies zones of the carbon- topographie highs of previously karstified land sur-
ate buildup migrate landward and are subsequently face
3.4 Carbonates 149

VERTICAl GROWTH SUBSIDENCE Sl-RISE

HIGH-FREQUENCY,
RECENT REEF CORALS HIGH-AMPLITUDE
I • (E.G. HOlaCENE)

--
co
.::L.

E
E
REEFS
n !
HOLOCENE:

~
I
: §
OOLITES

TIDALITES COOLING
I,
,
I Fig. 3.29. Rates
Cf)
CRUST of vertical car-

1
LlJ
I-
bonate buildup
as compared
<{
•
••
CI: with common
rates of subsi-
~COOL TO COLD I•• dence and rates
of low- and high-
frequency sea-
LOW-FREQUENCY, level rise. (After
LONG-TERM Schlager 1992;
PlATFORM 3RD ORDER
James 1997; and
CARBONATES SUBSIDENCE,
other sources,
E.G. BAHAMAS
modified)

- Internal draining systems" within the carbonate Cement Sequences

buildup, i.e., zones of better permeability acting as
conduits for pore fluids flowing laterally and upward,
or for meteoric water with an initially downward
flow.
- Emergence of carbonate platforms resulting from
both major and minor relative sea-level falls, which
lead to significant alterations in the pore water chem-
istry.
- A high-energy hYdraulic regime of the water body
on top or lateral of the carbonate buildup. Such a
regime prornotes sea water pumping and thus a sig-
nificant exchange of sea water and pore water within
the rock mass.
All but one (good solubility and thermodynamic in-
stability) points of the above list facilitate the import
and export of dissolved species to and from the site
of diagenesis via in- and outflowing pore water. Such
systems are referred to as "open", and the mode of
diagenesis is "allochemical" in contrast to
"isochemical diagenesis" in elosed systems. Both
open and elosed systems play a significant role in
carbonate diagenesis. Closed systems are character-
ized by in situ dissolution of metastable carbonate
phases and reprecipitation of more stable carbonate
minerals. Open systems allow the introduction of
substantial amounts of magnesium from outside,
which are necessary for significant dolomitization
(see below and Sect. 13.2).
Carbonate rocks exhibit different types of cementa-
tion:
(1) Early marine cements (fibrous or micritic Mg-
calcite and aragonite), form very elose to the contact
with sea-water at the reef front, foreslope, and on top
of a carbonate buildup (cf. Fig. 3.30a). At least some
of this cementation is aided by microbial coatings
promoting the precipitation of Mg-calcite. These ce-
ments contribute considerably to the mechanical re-
sistivity of reef structures and some sandy shoals
against wave attack.
(2) Early meteoric cements (sparitic or micritic low-
Mg calcite) grow during periods of emergence in
zones of fresh-water influence, mainly in the phreatic
zone (Fig. 3.30c). Alternating marine and meteoric
cements may be caused by repeated emergence and
flooding of carbonate platforrns.
(3) Late calcite cements are represented by coarse
sparry crystals, which frequently show an increasing
ferrous iron content (deep-burial diagenesis, Fig.
3.30d).
In a elosed system (isochemical diagenesis), cements
filling void space have to be procured by simulta-
neous dissolution of metastable carbonate minerals
(e.g. Bathurst 1975). Under increasing overburden
load, this process is promoted by press ure dissolu-
tion at grain contacts (Sect. 13.3). As a result, the
150 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

a SEA-WATEA C MIXING ZONE ~ .j.. ~ HUMID

CIACULATION LOW PER· ,. ' ,,~VADOSE ZONE
ME ABILITY , ' -_-_ '. ',' PREVAILING
__ •••v. ••••.• _•• _-- DISSOLUTION
.=-=- ('j :>:~- PHAEATICZONE
SEA .LEVEL
-- ----
\ --.:;.;:- - - - - .-;. -- -:-.::':" IIII'~ ~~:-'II
_....:.~.. ~.:.::.?t,:;;#j· ,', ,:. ;,3;_, =- ~'I M~llli~I"I::'!\":';II':"'r:' -:-~~~ , " ::'_, g~S~~N\~~I,g~ AND
. :.. . - .', = 11111I1I.'II"'I~ """,--' . ~
~ -=- "11'"' , \.
~ . ......::;-. .... (' .-- -=-.' (LOW-Mg CALCITE)
' , ' MARINE CEMENTS MIXING OF FRESH OR BRACKISH
•
",
. ',' (ARAGONITE . Mg CALCITE)
LlTTLE OR NO CEMENTATION
WATER WITH MARINE PORE -WATER:
DOLOMITIZATION r-- DEEP .BURIAL
DIAGENESIS

COMPACTION ..... ~ .... k LOW- Mg CALCITE

_ 11 ~ SOME DOLOMITE
d :,Mrt~:l~'~ _~ ~':'t~
~::_~"'" REEF •• ~.~::::;= ...':. COMPACTION FLOW

b EVAPORATIVE REFLUX e COORONG MODEL (SEMI-ARID)

(ARID CLiMATE)
OPEN L AGOON • . EPHEMERAL
HYPERSAlINE SEA
BRINE
EVAPORATION

:!: GYPSUM
MIXING OF HIGH ·Mg BRINE
WITH MARINE PORE WATER: MIXING:
DOLOMITIZATION !: CHERT DOLOMITE

Fig. 3.30. Diagenesis of reefs and carbonate buildups
(overview). a Early marine cementation. b Dolo-
mitization by evaporative reflux of lagoonal brine
(after precipitation of gypsum). c Dissolution and
cementation in the zones influenced by meteoric wa-
ter as weIl as dolomitization in the mixing zone be-
tween freshlbrackish water and marine pore water.
d Compaction flow and deep-burial diagenesis (cal-
cite and some dolomite). e Lacustrine prirnary
dolomitic muds on top of marine and lagoonal skele-
tal carbonates, caused by Mg-rich groundwater/sea-
water mixing (Coorong model). (Based on Blatt et aL
1980; Sellwood 1986; Schroeder and Purser 1987;
Von der Borch and Lock 1979; Warren 1990, and
others)

carbonate sediment becomes more solid and the total
structure undergoes significant compaction. Reef
cores are subject to less compaction than their sur-
rounding finer grained sediments. Their relief is
therefore enhanced and, in addition, they tend to
drain the expelled pore-water from their neighboring
sediments (Fig. 3.30d). Neomorphism usually occurs
simultaneously with the filling of pore space. Skele-
tal aragonite and fine crystalline mosaics of other
carbonate minerals are replaced by coarser calcite.
Magnesium, released by dissolution of high-Mg-cal-
cite, can form a limited amount of dolomite, but this
process cannot explain pervasive dolomitization of
large limestone bodies.
Dolomitization
Biota secrete calcareous skeletons but not dolomite.
Chemical precipitation of primary dolomite does not
occur in normal sea-water; it is known only from
some lakes under specific environmental and
hydrogeochemical conditions (see Coorong model
below). On the other hand, dolomites and dolomitic
rocks (dolostones) are very common in the geological
record.
The transformation of limestones (mainly CaC0 3)
to dolomites (mainly CaMg(C03)2) is referred to as
dolomitization. It is dear from several lines of evi-
dence that dolomite has replaced calcareous material
and is therefore secondary in origin. This is indi-
cated, e g., by incomplete dolomitization of ca1care-
ous rocks with irregular boundaries, altemations of
dolomitic rocks with limestones, their (partly obliter-
ated) fossil content, etc.
Significant dolomitization of ca1careous carbonate
buildups is only possible in open systems when large
quantities ofMg++ can be exchanged for Ca++ by cir-
culating pore waters, particularly sea water (see Sect.
13.3). For reasons mentioned above, reefs are espe-
cially susceptible to early and late dolomitization.
Many artic\es and books have dealt with this complex
topic. It can be inferred from these studies that there is no
3.4 Carbonates
single process which can explain all the various phenom-
ena observed in the rock record. Therefore several
dolomitization models have been proposed (see, e.g.,
Shukla and Baker 1988; Tucker and Wright 1990; Purser et
al. 1994; Tucker et al. 1994; Rao 1996) which are here
briefly surnmarized in a simplified way.
The various dolomitization models proposed in the
literature include:
- Sea-water contact, sea-water pumping. Normal sea-
water is oversaturated with respect to dolomite and
has a Mg/Ca ratio of 5.2. Consequently, sea-water is
an inexhaustible source of magnesium. It appears
reasonable to assume that at the contact of calcareous
sediment with sea-water, or pore-water of similar
chemie al composition as sea-water, part of the Ca++
of the solid calcareous phase can be exchanged for
Mg++ in sea-water. Strong wave motion and tides
pump pore-water into or out of the rock body for
very long time periods. Upward-directed terrestrial
heat flow may aid in rnaintaining rock-internal fluid
flow. The intense dolomitization of many modem
and ancient, more or less isolated reef bodies (oce-
anic platforms, seamounts and atolls), particularly at
their steep flanks, is usually interpreted by this
model. Similarly, the dolomitization of extensive,
thick and weB bedded shelf carbonates also seems to
require the overlying water body as Mg-source.
Downward-prograding sea water-induced dolo-
mitization probably proceeds more or less simulta-
neously with the vertical upbuilding of the carbonate
sequence (bank-by-bank dolomitization).
- Brine-reflux model (or seepage-reflux model and
sabkha model with evaporative reflux). Several
dolomitization models are based on evaporation of
sea water in lagoons or coastal sabkhas in arid to
semi-arid climates. The resulting hypersaline brines
can attain a salt concentration sufficiently large for
the precipitation of gypsum (Sect. 6.4.1). Because
gypsum extracts Ca++ from the solution, the Mg/Ca
ratio of the brine far exceeds that of normal sea water
(Mg/Ca = 5.2) and therefore has the potential for ini-
tiating dolomitization of calcium carbonate in the un-
derlying rocks. Due to its increased density, the la-
goonal brine tends to sink into the underlying rocks
and then to flow back toward the sea (Fig. 3.30b). On
its way through the carbonate body, the alkaline brine
can also dissolve skeletal opaline silica which is later
reprecipitated as chert in the mixing zone between
brine and normal pore water. A slight modification of
this model is gypsum precipitation in a coastal
sabkha and brine reflux to the sea. These models are
widely applied for ancient dolomites if they are asso-
ciated with evaporites.
- Meteoric-marine mixing-zone model. A number of
rock sequences with dolomites does not show any
evidence of syn-depositional or post-depositional
arid to semi-arid climate. The basic idea of the
151
mixing-zone model is the experimentally tested de-
gree of saturation of dolomite and calcite in different
mixtures of sea water and fresh water. Normal sea
water is supersaturated for both calcite and dolomite.
When CO 2-saturated meteoric groundwaters (95 to
50% of the solution) mix with sea water, the result-
ing solution becomes undersaturated for calcite, but
is still supersaturated for dolomite. Under these con-
ditions, dolomite may form. This process is possibly
furthered by low sulfate concentrations due to the
dilution of sea water and/or bacterial sulfate reduc-
tion. In humid c1irnates, lagoonal water can become
brackish or fresh and, due to its lower density, form a
lens-shaped water body reaching into the subsurface
(Fig. 3.30c). In the mixing zone calcium carbonate is
replaced by dolomite (early dolomitization). Simi-
larly, fresh groundwater from emerged platforms, or
from the continent can flow seaward and, dependent
on the hydraulic head, shift the mixing zone or par-
tially flush out the primary marine pore water. The
mixing zone between meteoric water and sea water
may persist for a long time span and thus bring about
substantial later dolomitization. However, this
mixing-zone model has been questioned as a viable
explanation for massive dolomites (e.g. Hardie
1987).
- Deep burial-compaction flow model (indicated in
Fig. 3.30d). Under increasing sediment loads, Mg-
rich pore fluids are expelled from basinal muddy sed-
iments and may cause local dolomitization along con-
duits of preferential fluid flow, such as fault zones,
or partial dolomitization of platform carbonates.
However, the amount of Mg released from muddy
carbonate-rich sediments (e.g. by transformation of
high-Mg calcite to low-Mg calcite) is limited and
cannot accomplish pervasive dolomitization of thick
carbonate sequences.
- Lacustrine dolomites (Coorong model). Primary
dolomite formation is known from a number of mod-
em lakes in regions of tropical to temperate climates
(Last 1990). One of these examples is located in
southern Australia where a large lagoon is separated
by beach ridges from several coastal plain lakes
(Coorong model, Fig. 3.30e). The lacustrine
dolomites form in shallow, saline (NaCl-rich) water
of high alkalinity and high Mg/Ca ratio (> 10).
The Coorong lakes are fed by Mg-rich groundwaters origi-
nating from young basaltic rocks flowing seaward through
an extensive aquifer. The groundwater mixes with sea wa-
ter seepage through a seaward prograding belt of coastal
sand dunes, composed mainly of skeletal carbonate (von
der Borch and Lock 1979; Warren 1990). Strong evapora-
tion from the shallow lakes during the dry summer season
leads to highly concentrated, Mg-rich brines and primary
precipitin of dolomite and deposition ofpellet-rich, mostly
laminated dolomitic mud. Then the lakes fall dry (mud
cracks) before being again flushed during winter time. Do-
lomite is associated predominantly with Mg-calcite. Dolo-
mite makes up about 10% of the carbonate minerals in the
152
surface sediments across the coastal plain which rest on top
of marine skeletal carbonates and organic-rich early Holo-
cene lacustrine muds. The Coorong model should not be
used to explain widespread dolomitization in ancient
supratidal and shelf carbonates (Warren 1990).
Dolomitization largely destroys bio genie skeletons
and primary physical sedimentary structures. It often
leads to "secondary" porosity which can be of great
economic importance (cf. Sect. 13.3), but other
diagenetic processes may modify this trend. Long-
lasting burial diagenesis generally tends to close the
pore space completely.
3.4.8 Summary (Shallow-Marine Carbonates)
- Modem, shallow-marine carbonates form in
tropical, temperate, and arctic seas where little
terrigenous material dilutes bio genie carbonate
production. However, the carbonate-producing
communities vary with temperature, water depth,
and salinity (Chlorozoan association in tropical
seas, Foramol association in cooler waters).
Large-scale depositional environments of car-
bonates are ramps, rimmed carbonate shelves
and isolated platforms. They provide various
subenvironments (banks, different types of
reefs, mud mounds, forereef slope and backreef
lagoon, etc.) for carbonate production and redis-
tribution of debris from syn-sedimentary reef
destruction.
Most rapid growth of reefs and composite car-
bonate buildups, including microbial and chemi-
cal carbonate precipitation, occurs in tropical
waters some meters below sea level. Ancient
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
Economic Aspects of Carbonate Diagenesis
The nature and duration of carbonate diagenesis in
relation to deposition largely control the great eco-
nomic significance of carbonate buildups as reser-
voirs for hydrocarbons, groundwater, and host rocks
for mineral deposits, particularly Pb/Zn ores (Sect.
13.5). Reservoir potential and quality of reef carbon-
ates as material for building and industrial purposes
vary significantly with regard to reef types (Flügel
1989). Organic reefs and reef mounds te nd to be-
come exposed to sub aerial weathering and
karstification during their early his tory and therefore
commonly provide abundant pore space, whereas
mud mounds, often grown at greater depths below
sea level, seem to be of minor importance as reser-
voirs and host rocks.
carbonates formed in a similar way as today,
but the faunal associations differed from the
present ones.
Reefs and other carbonate buildups can easily
prograde seaward or follow a moderately rising
sea level. They generally are sensitive to sea-
level changes.
Lithification and dolomitization of shallow-wa-
ter carbonates (early and late diagenesis ) are
favored by the presence of metastable carbonate
minerals, the high porosity and permeability of
many carbonate buildups, and emergence. Per-
vasive dolomitization requires a large Mg-
source.
- The rock types of carbonate buildups displaya
great variety of microfacies due to the complex
growth of carbonate bodies, the importance of
resedimented material, and differences in
diagenesis.
3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
3.5 Sediments of
Marine Delta Complexes
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Types ofMarine Deltas
Prograding Fan Deltas
Larger Marine Deltas (Overview)
3.5.3 Sedimentary Processes and Facies ofVarious
Delta Types
Fluvial-Dominated and Lobate Deltas
Wave-Dominated Deltas
Tide-Dominated Deltas
3.5.4 Constructional and Destructional Delta Phases
Facies Architecture ofLobate Deltas
Facies Architecture ofBirdfoot Deltas
Prograding and Switching ofDelta Lobes
The Scale ofMarine Deltas and Depositional
Cycles
3.5.5 Response ofMarine Deltas to Sea-Level Changes
3.5.6 Summary (Marine Deltas)
3.5.1 Introduction
Modem, large marine deltas commonly represent
complex depositional systems, in contrast to the rela-
tively simple lake deltas (cf. Sect. 2.5). Marine deltas
are composed of sediments of greatly differing char-
acteristics and environments (Fig. 3.3Ic). Their fa-
cies range from fluvial plains over shallow lakes,
lagoons, tidal flats, estuaries, beach and shorefaces,
to subaqueous delta fronts, delta platforms, and
prodelta slopes. In addition, the offshore shelf may
be affected significantly by deltaic sedimentation.
Many deep-sea fans are associated with large marine
deltas shedding huge volumes of terrestrial material
into the sea. For these reasons, the depositional envi-
ronments of marine deltas are discussed here with
reference to the less complex subenvironments de-
scribed earlier (cf. Sects. 3.1 and 3.2).
In spite of the variety in depositional environ-
ments, the different facies types of lateral or vertical
deltaic sequences represent a characteristic, diagnos-
tically significant fades association.
The following brief summary is based on special publica-
tions and books on marine deltas (e.g., Allen 1965; Morgan
and Shaver 1970; Wright and Coleman 1973; Galloway
and Hobday 1983; Fraser 1989; Bhattacharya and Walker
1992; Chough and Orton 1995; Oti and Po~tma 1995;
Reading and Collinson 1996, and others). ThIS summary
cannot cover all variations and details observed in recent
and ancient case studies. The response of marine deltas is
also briefly discussed in Sect. 7.4.
3.5.2 Types of Marine Deltas
Prograding Fan Deltas
Marine deltas develop where rivers enter the sea and
cause a seaward prograding of the coastline due to
their high sediment load. In the case of a narrow
coastal plain in front of a high mountain range
drained by small and middle-sized rivers, such a
progradation can take place rather uniformly along a
wide coast-parallel zone and generate aseries of co-
alescing fan deltas (Fig. 3.31a). Coarse material
transported during river floods reaches the coast and
may form comparatively wave-resistant blocky and
gravelly beach ridges. Lagoonal muds can accumu-
late behind such ridges. The foreshore is character-
ized by sorted gravel and sand; the shoreface profile
tends to be relatively steep and may show indications
of delta foresets similar to those of lake deltas (Sect.
2.5). Oversteepend prodelta slopes cause gravity
flows (see, e.g., Collela and Prior 1990; Postma
1990). Most of the sand transported into shallow wa-
ter depth, however, is reworked repeatedly by storm
waves and currents and therefore loses its primary
deltaic sedimentary structures.
Long-terrn, this scenario tends to generate a
prograding coastal plain, delta front, and submarine
fan delta body of limited thickness which is followed
seaward by predominantly siliciclastic shallow-ma-
rine sediments (cf. Fig. 2.13)
Larger Marine Deltas (Overview)
The greater and more typical marine deltas are built
by rivers which drain large areas and reach the sea
after a long passage through alluvial plains. Their
sediment load is therefore finer grained and consists
predominantly of silt and clay with minor proportions
of sand. Gravel is often absent or transported only in
very small quantities. The shape of these deltas is
mainly controlled by the rate of sediment input and
the hydraulic regime of the sediment-receiving basin.
154 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

SMALL LAGOON, POND

(WITH MUD DEP. a
BEACH RIDGE
(BLOCK &
GRAVEL)
FORESETS

FLUVIAL-DOMINATED
BIRD-FOOT DELTA PROGRADING
(ELONGATE) ALLUVIAL FANS OR
COASTAL BRAIDPL AIN

MIXED FLUVIAL-
TO WAVE-DOMINATED
"CLASSICAL" DELTA
(LOBATE) ± TIDAL INFLUENCE

FLATS
SUBAQUEOUS
BEACH RIDGE BARRIER SAND RIDGES
(CHENIER)
FLUVIAL PLAIN
RIVER MOUTH SHALLOW LAKE
SAND BAR
ABANDONED
c :>-O~:::K..

POSSIBLY
TRANSPORT
TO DEEP-SEA FAN

Fig. 3.31. a Marine fan delta caused by seaward
prograding alluvial fans or braidplain. Note coarse-
grained beach ridges (blocks and gravel) protecting
small lagoons or ponds from wave and current ac-
tion. Older beach ridges and lagoonal silts and muds
may be overridden by fluvial deposits. b Different
types of large marine deltas controlled by waves and
tidal currents (LE low energy; ME medium energy;
HE high energy conditions) as weIl as sediment input
(HI, high input; MI, medium input). c Different
subenvironments of a large, lobate, wave- and tide-
influenced delta system (sirnilar to the modem Niger
delta)
3.5 Marine Delta Complexes
Strong waves and tides hamper or prevent the out
building of fluvial sediments into the sea, whereas
low-energy conditions favor this process. Using these
criteria, one can distinguish several types of marine
deltas (Fig. 3.31b):
Fluvial-dominated birdfoot delta, elongate. Due to
high sediment input and low counter-action by the
sea forces (low-energy conditions), the single main
distributaries of the delta prograde seaward sepa-
rately and create a coastline similar to the shape of a
birdfoot. A prominent example of this type is the
modem Mississippi delta.
Mixed fluvial- to wave-dominated, "classical"
delta, lobate. Higher wave energy, which may be
accompanied by moderatetides, prevents the separate
outbuilding of fluvial systems. Instead, all
distributaries advance more or less uniformly and
thus generate a characteristic protruding lobate or
triangular coastline.
The Greek compared this delta shape with their capital
letter "delta". Many modem rivers entering low-energy
adjacent seas build this type of delta, for example the Dan-
ube into the Black Sea, the Nile and Ebro into the Mediter-
ranean (e.g., Sestini 1989). In all these cases, the influence
oftides can be neglected.
However, the deltas of the Niger and Orinoco entering
the Atlantic Ocean also belong to this type, although they
are moderately affected by tides.
Wave-dominated deltas, cuspate. Strong wave ac-
tion prevents the local outbuilding of a delta front.
Temporarily deposited river load is reworked and
transported from the river mouth along the high-en-
ergy coast or into deeper water. Splitting of the main
river into several distributaries and avulsion (shift-
ing) of channels are less frequent than in birdfoot
deltas. Overall, wave-dominated deltas advance more
slowly over a broader front.
Modem examples include the deltas of the Rhone (Medi-
terranean), the Brazos entering the Gulf ofMexico, and the
Sao Francisco and other South American rivers discharging
into the South Atlantic.
Tide-dominated delta, estuarine. Strong tides and
tidal currents migrate some distance up the river
(Sect. 3.2) and therefore widen the river mouth to
form an estuary. In combination with wave action,
the river load is swept out into the shallow sea or
transported longshore into areas of lower energy con-
ditions, where it can settle in tidal flats or deeper wa-
ter. The main river may split into several distri-
butaries with islands in between, and part of the sand
load forms separate subaqueous sand ridges in front
of the river mouth. The coastline does not protrude
seaward and the total delta complex pro grades com-
paratively slowly.
155
Present-day examples of this delta type are the Ganges-
Brahmaputra River entering the Bay of Bengal, the Colo-
rado Delta at the northem end of the Gulf of Califomia,
and the Rhine Delta in the Netherlands.
3.5.3 Sedimentary Processes and Facies
of Various Delta Types
Fluvial-Dominated and Lobate Deltas
Distributary Channels and Levees
The pro ces ses operating at the mouth of an individ-
ual distributary channel of the elongate to lobate
delta type are schematically shown in Fig. 3.32. On
both sides of the channel, flat natural levees are built
up during times of peak flood. In places where the
levees are not high enough, the flood spills over into
the adjacent marshland and generates sandy crevasse
splays. The levees consist of fine sand and silt (cf.
Sect. 2.2.3) and can also be traced as subaqueous
sand bars from the river mouth some distance into
the sea. Because large delta areas usually subside but
are flooded discontinuously, their sub aerial levees
display irregular vertical aggradation. Plant cover and
soils may develop in times of non-deposition. The
walls of channels cutting such levees, marsh depos-
its, or bay muds can be very steep, but the channels
often migrate laterally, eroding one of their banks
and aggrading on the other. Channels mayaiso be
filled with sand bars or mud.
Interdistributary Delta Plain
The interdistributary space between the rapidly
progradicg subaerial levees of a birdfoot delta or
behind the uniformly advancing beach ridge barrier
of a lobate delta is occupied by marshland, swamps,
and fresh water lakes. In a tidal regime with outlets
to the sea, tidal flats develop behind the beach ridge
barrier. The sediments of these areas are predomi-
nantly siliciclastic and strongly influenced by the
climate ofthe region (cf. Sect. 3.2).
Under humid conditions, the interdistributary, slowly sub-
siding swamps offer ideal prerequisites for the accumula-
tion and preservation of peat and allochthonous plant de-
bris. Many coal deposits were formed in such an environ-
ment, and hydrocarbons found in deltaic sediments also
partially derive from source rocks of this type (Whateley
and Pickering 1989).
Shallow, large lakes developing in the upper part of the
delta plain may be filled by rapidly prograding lacustrine
deltas fed by fine-grained material of the main river as ob-
served on the Mississippi delta plain (Tye and Coleman
1989). These deltaic sediments represent short basin-filling
episodes and differ from the common, Gi/bert-type lacus-
trine deltaic sequence (Sect. 2.5.3) in displaying extensive
156
distributary mouth-bar sands and paralIel-laminated
prodelta muds instead of coarser grained, steeply inelined
prodelta foresets.
River Mouth and Delta Front
The bedload of the distributary channels is deposited
directly in front of the subaerial delta, commonly at
water depths in the range of 5 to 30 m. The sediment
load of large river systems draining extensive alluvial
plains (apart from highlands far from the coast) is
commonly fine grained. Consequently, the river
mouth bars are composed rnainly of fine sand dis-
playing large- and small-scale trough cross-bedding
of rather consistent current direction (Fig. 3.32b). At
a lobate delta, river mouth bars, subaqueous levees,
and foreshore sands of the beach ridge barrier may
combine to form a more or less continuous sand
sheet (delta front sands) of locally varying thickness
(5 to 30 m).
The beach ridge barrier is fed by sands trans-
ported alongshore from the river mouths. Separately
advancing channels of the birdfoot delta type, how-
ever, generate isolated elongate sand bodies, the so-
called bar finger sands (Fig. 3.32b). Typical features
of a rapidly prograding delta front are growth faults,
slope gullies, and mud diapirs originating from dif-
ferential compaction and failure of under-consoli-
dated sediments (see below).
Delta Platform, Prodelta Slope and Shelf
The river mouth and its accompanying shoreface
sands prograde as the delta front. During times of
peak flood, however, the river water with its sus-
pended load rnay become denser than sea water.
Then it flows basinward as undercurrent and drops
its sandy and silty bedload in deeper water.
The delta platform develops seaward of the delta
front at shallow water depths (10 to 30 m). This fea-
ture results from the combined action of rapid depo-
sition and wave action during the constructive phase,
but mayaiso be shaped during a subsequent destruc-
tive phase ofthe delta development (see below).
The prodelta slope farther offshore is generally
very gently inclined (less than one up to a few de-
grees) toward the floor of a shelf sea or a deeper oce-
anic basin. A great part of the silt- and clay-sized
material of the river load is deposited on the prodelta
slope.
The transport and settling behavior of sand and silt parti-
eIes is little affected at the transition from fresh water to sea
water. The suspended elay minerals, however, tend to
flocculate and form aggregates as soon as they pass, under
conditions of normal river discharge, from the less dense,
overlying fresh-water wedge into the zone of mixed brack-
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
ish water or normal sea water (Fig. 3.32. The clay aggre-
gates sink much faster than isolated elay particles and thus
significantly contribute to the prodelta slope sediments.
Since comparatively large clay minerals such as
kaolinite produce denser aggregates and settle earlier than
do very small ones (e.g. montmorillonite), these minerals
can be separated from each other (lateral fractionation).
Kaolinite tends to accumulate near the river mouth, while
illite and montmorillonite are transported further into
deeper water.
The shelf sediments in front of a large delta also tend
to be dominated by fine-grained siliciclastic material
delivered by the river. With decreasing sedimentation
rates bioturbation becomes a significant process
masking or obliterating all kinds of bedding.
Sedimentary Strdctures
Characteristic sedimentary structures of all these en-
vironments are shown in Fig. 3.32b through e (see
also Sects. 2.5 and 3.1 through 3.3). Of particular
interest are the prodelta sediments, because they usu-
ally reach considerable thiclmesses and have a good
chance of being preserved, even if the upper part of
the deltaic sequence is eroded. The clayey silts or
silty clays (hernipelagic terrigenous material) of
prodelta sediments typically display thin (mm to cm)
intercalations of fine sand or coarse silt reflecting
episodes of rninor and major river floods. Plant frag-
ments rnay be abundant, but the percentage of
autochthonous marine biogenic components is gener-
ally low. Due to a high sedimentation rate (on the
order of a few mm to tens of cm per year), burrowing
by bottom dwelling organisms is sparse. Therefore,
primary larninations within the clayey silts, although
indistinct and irregular, are frequently preserved.
Growth Faults and "Depobelts"
The prograding pro delta sediments of major rivers
form huge clastic wedges which may reach thick-
nesses in excess of 10 km and overlie oceanic crust
(e.g., at the deltas of the Ganges-Brahrnaputra in
Bangladesh and the Niger in West Africa). Such sed-
iment wedges rnay be strongly affected by syn-sedi-
mentary and postsedimentary normal faults. In these
cases, the prograding delta complex can be divided
into a number of major, growth fault-bounded sedi-
mentary units or "depobelts". Within each depobelt,
the sediment buildup may occur stepwise or cyclic in
response to continued deformation and sea-Ievel
changes. Even the gentle foot of the prodelta slope
may undergo deformation characterized by
imbricated "toe thrusts".
3.5 Marine Delta Complexes 157

INTERDISTRIBUTARY MARSH (SIlT AND ClAY)

BAY MUDS lEVEE (SUBAERIAl)
MOUTH BAR SANDS:'-1~~~ -- .-.»,---..,. ± SOll HORIZONS
~~~~ .
LARGE -AND

~ ill~ SMALL -SCALE

TROUGH CROSS-
BEDDING WITH
DELTA
PlATFORM
PLANT FRAG-
MENTS,MUD SANDS AND SIlTS
PE88LES, SOME
''::'''''',,-·'-U_' CONTORTIONS CHANNEl Fill
PRODELTA ClAYEY SIlTS
CE
PRODELTA MUDS
SUBAQUEOUS
lEVEE SUBAERIAL lEVEE
DISTRIBUTARY
CHANNEl
SPIllOVER
SAND

DELTA FRONT
DELTA PlATFORM
PRODELTA SlOPE
FlOCCUlATION AND SETTUNG OF CLAY MINERALS
L ARGE CLAY MINERALS (KAOLINITE AND SILT)
D.C ., MEDIUM-SIZE CLAY MIN_ (ILUTE)
DENSI T Y CURRENTS
DURINGFL7 VERY SMALL CLAY MIN. (MONTMORILLONITE)

e CLAYEY SIlT
SHELF MUDS, WITH THIN SAND PLANAR LAMINATION1
RELICS OF SOME AND SILT LAYERS, RIPPLE AND
SAND AND SILT L., PLANT FRAG- CLiMBING RIPPLE
STRONGLY MENTS, LlTTLE LAMINATION,
BIOTURBATED BIOTURBATION PLANT FRAGMENTS

Fig. 3.32. Model of a distributary channel (bird-foot cent sediments. b-e Characteristic sedimentary struc-
or lobate delta type) and depositional processes at its tures of some subenvironments
mouth. a Cross section through channel with adja-

A frequently cited example is the Niger delta (Doust and and Coleman 1984; Martinsen 1989; Pulham 1989; cf.
Omatsola 1990; Cohen and McClay 1996; Rouby and Sects. 5.4.1 and 13.2)_
Cobbold 1996). Here, growth faults and depobelts are of
great importance in the exploration and production of hy-
drocarbons. Such structures, including mud diapirs, also
occur in the Mississippi delta, and they are known from
ancient examples (e.g., Galloway and Hobday 1983; Prior
158
Wave-Dominated Deltas
These deltas are characterized by beach
ridge/foreshore sands advancing with the active delta
lobe in a wide coastal-parallel front basinward (Fig.
3.33a). In relation to the wave energy and wave base,
these coastal barrier sands form sheets of consider-
able thiclmess (up to tens of meters). Due to inten-
sive reworking, the coastal barrier sands tend to be
better sorted than the distributary channel and mouth
bar sands of the fluvial-dominated deltas. They
coarsen upward as a result of the prograding
shoreface and often contain abundant shell debris
which is produced by shallow-water organisms and
added during the processes of coastal sand transport
(Fig. 3.33a and c). Sideward shifting and return of
the active delta lobe to the subsiding initial site may
generate a second or several coastal barrier sand
sheets on top of the first one (see below). Behind the
active coastal beach ridge, the space between older
barrier sands and other parts of the interdistributary
area may be occupied by mangrove swamps (tropical
to subtropical clirnate), marshes, or lakes.
The suspended river load of wave-dominated del-
tas is usually removed from the river mouths and
widely distributed in the adjacent basins. As a result,
the prodelta facies of fluvial-dominated deltas is
poorly developed or more or less missing.
Tide-Dominated Deltas
In contrast to the other delta types, tide-dominated
deltas lack an advancing subaerial delta front. They
accumulate most of the river sediment in front of
their wide, estuarine mouth in shallow water orin the
adjacent deeper sea (Fig. 3.33b). Thus, an extensive
subaqueous delta platform is produced, on which at
least part of the bedload and suspended river load
comes to rest. Unlike the fluvial-dominated deltas,
the sands are not dropped as localized mouth bar
sands, but repeatedly reworked and redistributed by
tidal currents mainly directed perpendicular to the
general coastline. Hence, the river-borne sand forms
elongate subparallel ridges between the estuarine
distributaries of the river mouth, as weIl as on the
deeper delta platform. The sideward migrating
distributaries are filled with tidal current-influenced
sands, exhibiting bidirectional cross-bedding and
ripple lamination, in addition to estuarine muds with
mixed fauna (fresh water to normal saline).
Although the estuaries of a tide-dominated delta
give little evidence of progradation, the total complex
of such a delta also slowly advances seaward. The
resulting facies association, however, resembles that
of anormal tide-dominated coastline (some distance
away from an entering river, see Sect. 3.2) rather
than the associations found in the other delta types. A
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
typical vertical facies succession of such a construc-
tional phase includes (from top to bottom):
- Alluvial plain sediments.
- Supratidal marsh or, depending on the climate,
evaporitic beds of a coastal sabkha, or other
supratidal deposits.
- Extensive intertidal sediments.
- Point bar and tidal-influenced sands of distributary
channels, estuarine muds with variable fauna.
- Tidal-influenced sediments of the delta platform
with subtidal sand ridges and sandwaves.
- Shelf sediments, still more or less influenced by
tidal currents.
Figures 3.33d and e display characteristic vertical
successions of an estuarine channel fill and a sand
ridge on adelta platform. Coastal barrier sands playa
subordinate role in this type of delta (for further de-
tails see Sects. 3.2 and 4.2).
3.5.4 Constructional and Destructional
Delta Phases
Facies Architecture of Lobate Deltas
The final facies architecture of a delta complex is
controlled not only by its constructional phase during
outbuilding, but also by destructional periods of re-
working and redistribution of sediments delivered by
rivers. The lobate and wave-dominated delta types
are less susceptible to extensive destruction than the
birdfoot delta. In the latter case, the far seaward pro-
truding distributaries can be reworked easily by
waves and currents, especially when they are cut off
from their sediment source by crevasse splays which
evolve into new distributaries.
(1) Constructional phase. Figure 3.34a shows the
pure constructional facies association of a lobate
delta consisting of five main facies groups (from bot-
tom to top):
- Prodelta muds (with some intercalated silt and sand
layers) prograding seaward.
- River mouth and coastal barrier sands (delta front
sands) prograding seaward similar to the prodelta
muds.
- Point bars and infillings of distributary channels
(predominantly sand) and levee sands and silts (pos-
sibly including soils).
- Sediments of the interdistributary delta plain (bay
or lagoonal muds, possibly sediments of tidal flats,
marshes, lakes) , locally overlain or interrupted by
crevasse splay silts. Delta plain deposits are charac-
terized by relatively slow upbuilding (aggradation)
on top of the subsiding delta complex.
3.5 Marine Delta Complexes 159

C
1-r."T""~_
delta plain
roots
a
planar and low-angle
stratified sand FLOOD
PLAIN
trough cross·
bedded sand

LONG-
SHORE
SAND TRANSPORT

INTENSIVE DISPERSAL
OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT
ACTIVE CHANNEL

d
CHANNEL
SANDS AND
ESTUARINE
MUDS
PRODELTA
PLATFORM SED

prodelta·shell SHELF AND SHELF

mud, bioturbaled SEDIMENTS

Fig. 3.33. Conceptual models of a wave-dominated tidal sand ridge on prodelta platform of tide-domi-
and b tide-dominated delta. c Vertical section of an nated delta. (c-e Based on Galloway and Hobday
advancing foreshore/coastal barrier sand ridge. 1983).
d,e Vertical sections of estuarine channel fill and
160
- Fluvial sediments of the prograding alluvial plain
consisting of point bars, channel fills, and finer
grained deposits of the flood plain (cf. Sect. 2.2.3).
The elevation of the actual delta front deposits is al-
ways adjusted to the sea level, but older equivalents
of the deposits are affected by sediment compaction
and subsidence ofthe crust under the increasing sedi-
ment load. Therefore, the delta front sediments bur-
ied below the prograding subaerial delta plain dip
slightly landward. The different types of sediment
accretion (i.e. pro gradation of prodelta and delta
front deposits) generate an unusual pattern of the
isochrones within the total delta complex (Fig. 3.34a)
and contrast to the prevailing vertical aggradation of
delta plain sediments.
(2) Destructional phase. Destruction of delta lobes
commonly takes place where main distributaries have
prograded too far into the sea and lose their sediment
supply by channel diversion. Such a development is
mostly initiated by breaches in the levees, crevasse
splays, and crevasse channels that find a shorter and
steeper course into the sea. Another cause of coastal
retreat is subsidence and/or rising sea level (see be-
low). Destruction is brought about by wave action
and wave-induced currents (cf. Sect. 5.2) which pre-
dominantly rework and redistribute the river mouth
and delta front sands, the coastal sand barrier elose to
the distributaries, and part of the interdistributary
sediments behind the sand barrier.
This process may produce a chain of retreating
beach ridges and barrier islands (Fig. 3.34b) which
protect flooded portions of the delta plain from fur-
ther erosion. As a result, widely extended shallow
bay muds and salt marsh deposits of limited thick-
ness can accumulate.
In front of the retreating coastal sands, aveneer of
reworked, relatively coarse foreshore and shoreface
sands rnay rest on truncated mouth-bar sands or di-
rectly on prodelta muds. The sands frequently con-
tain shell concentrations of mixed origin, part of
which are derived from eroded bay and lagoon de-
posits. Fine-grained material reworked from the
interdistributary areas is swept into deeper water by
currents.
Such a destructional phase continues until a new
equilibrium is established between the forces of the
sea and the capability of the accumulated sediments
to resist erosion. A new delta lobe may prograde and
Fig. 3.34. Facies association of a classical lobate
delta, generalized, with landward dipping coastal and
fluvial deposits due to continuous subsidence (simi-
lar to the Niger delta, see, e.g., Allen 1970; Doust
and Omatsola 1990). a Constructive phase with per-
manent outbuilding (progradation) of prodelta muds
and aggradation of sediments of the delta plain. Note
the unusual position of isochrones. b Discontinuous
Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
incorporate the retreated coastal sands into the
subaerial delta plain of a subsequent constructional
phase.
(3) Vertical facies successions. Vertical sections in
delta sediments can be very variable, particularly in
cases, when the delta was subjected to destructional
periods (Fig. 3.34c through g). A characteristic fea-
ture is coarsening-upward of prodelta silts and elays,
mouth bar sands, and shore facelbeach ridge sands.
The opposite tendency is observed in vertical sec-
tions through the infillings of maj or distributary
channels and minor channels associated with cre-
vasse splays. On or near the channel floor, mud
elasts, logs, and sometimes reworked nodules of
ironstone, formed during early diagenesis, are com-
mon. An irregular coarsening-upward trend is also
common in interdistributary sequences, i.e.,
- from lagoonal muds to tidal flats,
- from salt marsh and crevasse splay silts to sands,
or
- from lake bottomsets to lake delta foresets and
topsets of the alluvial delta plain.
Such coarsening-upward sections may occur repeat-
edly; they are mostly interpreted as autocyelic deltaic
sequences (cf. Sect. 7.1).
The most important sedimentary structures of
these subunits are described in the previous chapters.
Normally graded sand and silt layers may occur in
the prodelta environment as a result of density cur-
rents (cf. Fig. 3.32), as weIl as in crevasse splay sheet
sands and silts due to waning flow conditions after
peak flood. Delta abandonment and coastal retreat
lead to truncated vertical sequences (Fig. 3.34g).
Usually, the upper part of a prograding construc-
tional sequence is more or less eroded and, after de-
position of a thin vene er of reworked material, over-
lain by sediments of a younger constructional phase.
(4) Lateral facies transitions. The facies in the
prodelta region gradually change laterally from
prodelta silts and elays to shelf sediments (Fig. 3.28d
and e; cf. Sect. 3.3). In shallower water and particu-
larly within the delta plain, the facies strongly vary
laterally and may display the following transitions:
progradation, interrupted by periods of partial delta
destruction (erosional faces J and 2), which may re-
move river mouth bar and subaqueous levee sands
and silts, as weIl as part of the primarily overlying
sediments of shallow bays, lagoons, marshland, and
lakes. c-g Vertical sections (locations shown in a and
b), see text for explanation
3.5 Marine Delta Complexes 161

FLUVIAL
MARSH PEAT AND CREVASSE
CONSTRUCTIV E PHASE OR MUD. LAKE SPLAY SANDS
SILTS AND
AND LAGOONAL
MUDS
LEVEE MUD
FINE SANDS
COASlAL
AND SILlS POINT BAR AND
BARRIER SANDS DISTRIBUTARY
"
GROWlH FAULT
CHANNEL FILL

a
SUBSIDENCE

DELTA FRON T AND DISTRIBUlARY

MOUTH BAR SANDS AND SILTS

PRODELTA MUDS

--- .---
b

DELTA FRONT
& DISTRIB.
ABANDONED MOUTH
FORMER DELTA LOBE l, -" BAR SAND
POST ·EROSIONAl/ AND COASTAL
SHELF SEDIMENTS .-2+ 3 BARRIER SAND

PRODELTA MUD

levee and cre · e

vasse splay
sands and silts
soils
d e f 9
allu·
marsh pea t or (3) vial
mudflats. lake or (4)
plain
lagoonal sed,
coastal barrier
sands (:!: levees,) point
bar (2) lake delta
and sands and
river mouth levee sills
and shoreface levee chapnel
fill
sands
"'- sand
reworked
,, spit
sands and
(2) shells from
delta front
sil ts and sands
(2 )" ,, lormer
, delta lobe

prodelta prodella
sill s and clays /'
162 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments

CONSTRUCTION OF
INDIVIDUAL DELTA
LOBES

DISTRIBUTARY CHANNEL
MOUTH BAR SANDS
CREVASSE SPLAY
SANDS AND SILTS

MUDS OF PROTECTED MARINE SILTS

TRANSGRESSIVE BAYS, LAGOONS, AND CLAYS (DELTA
TRUNCATED SANDS (REWORKED, LAKES, MuD FLATS, FRONT, PRODELTA,
MOUTH BAR AND PARTIALLY SHELL MARSH (VARYING FAUNA, AND OLDER SHELF
DELTA FRONT SANDS BEDS, MIXED FAUNA) PARTIALLY PEAT) SEDIMENTS)

Fig. 3.35. a Facies association of a bird-foot delta
(Mississippi-type), generalized, with two seaward
advancing, isolated distributaries (constructional
phase) and two abandoned distributaries (delta de-
struction). Delta front and mouth bar sands represent
elongate linear sand bodies (in contrast to the sand
sheet in Fig. 3.34a); hence, sediments of the delta
plain may rest directly on pro delta deposits or on bay
muds. b Large-scale facies architecture of a birdfoot
delta with imbrication of delta lobes partially repre-
senting "shallow-water" and "deep-water"
depositional conditions. See text for further explana-
tion

- From the lower part of point bar sands and infill-
ings of main channels to mouth bar sands, subaque-
ous levee sands and silts, and shoreface sands.
- From infillings of channels, levee and crevasse
splay sands and silts to sediments of bays, lagoons,
tidal flats, salt marshes, or salt pans, depending on
the climate.
- Successions of lakes and swamps, including their
minor deltas, may pass laterally into overbank depos-
its of the advancing alluvial river plain.
One has to bear in mind that such lateral facies tran-
sitions occur not only within sediments of the same
age, but also between older and younger units of the
complicated facies architecture of a marine delta (see
isochrones in Fig. 3.30a).
The facies also change from the upper to the lower
delta plain. In the upper plain, channel sands playa
main role and the interdistributary area is largely oc-
cupied by levee and crevasse splay deposits. Trunca-
tion due to delta lobe abandonment is insignificant.
However, relatively thick bay-fill and lagoonal se-
3.5 Marine Delta Complexes
quences prevail in the lower delta plain, particularly
in the case of birdfoot deltas (see below). The sea-
ward portions of these deposits are exposed to delta
destruction.
Facies Architecture of Birdfoot Deltas
The facies association of a birdfoot delta is in many
ways similar to that described in Figure 3.34, but
some important differences exist. During construc-
tional phases the distributaries build, on top of
pro delta silty clays or clayey silts, elongate isolated
bodies of delta front and mouth bar sands out into the
sea (Fig. 3.35). The area in between is occupied by
bays accumulating muds with marine biota. If such
elongate delta lobes are abandoned, part of their delta
front sands retreat and form sand barriers which con-
vert the former interdistributary marine bays into la-
goons of varying salinity. Later, marsh and/or lake
deposits may follow, before the prograding fluvial
plain, its crevasse splays, and overbank fine-grained
muds take over. Therefore it is common for marine
prodelta sediments or bay muds to be directly over-
lain by lagoonal, intertidal, marsh, or lake sediments
in the interdistributary area of a birdfoot delta. The
interdistributary environment is a particularly favor-
able site for the accumulation and preservation of
organic matter and thus for the generation of coal
seams. Outcrops in this area may show similar se-
quences over fairly large distances and therefore give
little evidence of distributary channels and their spe-
cific facies association (see also below). In total, the
vertical and lateral facies successions display the
same variations as the classical lobate delta. How-
ever, they include a larger percentage of marine bay
sediments.
Prograding and Switching of Delta Lobes
Delta prograding. A delta lobe advancing over an
abandoned part of the former delta can prograde
faster than a lobe which is built out into deeper water
(cf. Fig. 7.20). This is the case for the classicallobate
deltas as weH as for the birdfoot deltas. A "shallow-
water delta" produces a thin delta front sequence and
tends to form continuous delta front sheet sands in
contrast to "deep-water deltas", which deposit
thicker, coarsening-upward delta front sequences as
well as thick prodelta sediments. In the latter case,
the distributaries tend to become widely spaced and
therefore generate lateraHy discontinuous mouth bar
sands (birdfoot delta).
Delta-lobe switching. Figure 3.35b demonstrates the
large-scale facies architecture of a predominantly
fluvial-dominated delta composed of aseries of delta
163
lobes similar to those known from the Holocene Mis-
sissippi delta (Frazier 1967). The upper (landward)
part of the individual delta lobes usually exhibits the
characteristics of shallow-water deltas, whereas the
lower part represents a deep-water delta and there-
fore a thick delta front sequence. As a result, the gen-
eralized and simplified sections perpendicular and
parallel to the coastline (Fig. 3.35b) show combined
delta front and delta plain deposits of rather varying
thicknesses.
In spite of the obvious imbrication 0/ delta lobes,
the overall, large-scale delta complex commonly ren-
ders the impression of a cyclic sequence in which
layers rich in organic matter (coal seams) are particu-
1arly arresting. More thorough investigations, how-
ever, frequently reveal that the coal seams switch
1aterally to deeper or higher positions in the total se-
quence, and the same is true of all the other facies
types.
The Scale of Marine Deltas and Depositional
Cycles
The problems associated with bed correlation and
cyclic sequences, mentioned above and described
later in more detail (Sects. 7.1, 7.6 and 7.9), under-
line the necessity to discuss the scale of delta facies
models.
The delta plains of present-day large marine deltas
cover areas of thousands of square kilometers. Their
delta fronts are several hundreds of kilometers wide,
and some of them have prograded seaward 100 to
200 km during the Quatemary or Neogene. We can
assurne that ancient delta plains were of the same
magnitude.
On the other hand, the thoroughly investigated
facies associations of deltaic coal fields usually cover
smaller areas and therefore can barely reveal the
complete architecture of geological bodies as large as
those of entire delta complexes shown in Fig. 3.35b.
Instead, the local studies usually give rise to the im-
pression that individual beds can be traced over rela-
tively long distances and that cyclicity is rather regu-
lar and possibly of regional or even global impor-
tance.
This is not true in those cases in which the vertical
sequences are caused solely by delta-lobe switching.
However, some deltaic coal cyclothems appear to be
controlled by eustatic sea-Ievel changes originating
from processes outside of the deltaic depositional
area (cf. Sects. 7.6 and 14.5).
164 Chapter 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments
ALLUVIAL
d =-......_ -
DELTA f.RONT
SHOREFACE PLAIN, LAKES

PRODELTA LOWER DELTA

,......~PLAIN
DEEPER SHALLOWER
LOWER DELTA DELTA FRONT
PLAIN ...--.,...,.._ (MOUTH BAR,
-------- - - ----- -b-~_:")
UNCONFORMITY TIDAL RIDGES,
ETC.)

SHOREFACE

C SEA LEVEL RISE

HIGHSTAND
DEPOSITS OF
DELTA PLAIN
AND ALLUVIAL
PLAIN

INCISED VALLEYS

PEDOGENESIS

b SEA LEVEL FALL

AND SUBAERIAL
EROSION

ALLUVIAL
PLAIN

PROGRADING "DEEP·WATER" DELTA

(LOWSTAND DEP.)
MARSH, LAKE DEP.

a RAPID SEA LEVEL RISE

(TRANSGRESSION)
--

LAGOONAL, INTERTIDAL,
MARSH SEDIMENTS

TRANSGRESSIVE AND HIGHSTAND DEPOSITS

Fig. 3.36. Effects of sea-level changes on the
depositional environments of a classical, lobate delta.
a and c Rapid sea-level rise causes coastal retreat,
followed by a slowly prograding coastline during
highstand (shallow-water delta overriding former
delta plain). b Prograding shallow and subsequent
deep-water delta during sea-level fall and lowstand.
Sections d-f demonstrate mainly interdistributary
facies successions. See text for further explanation
3.5 Marine Delta Complexes
3.5.5 Response of Marine Deltas to Sea-Level
Changes
The impact of eustatic sea-Ievel changes on the facies
architecture of marine deltas is demonstrated in Fig.
3.36 for the classicallobate delta type (see also Sect.
7.4.1). A rapid rise in sea level leads to extensive
coastal retreat on top of the submerging former delta
plain. If the sea-Ievel rise does not exceed a few tens
of meters and then persists for some time, the delta
front can pro grade again as a shallow-water delta
(Fig. 3.36a). As soon as the position of the former
delta front is reached, further outbuilding takes place
in deeper water and therefore will proceed more
slowly (Fig. 3.36b, deep-water delta). Falling sea
level prornotes coastal advance in conjunction with
the prograding delta front to a deeper level. The for-
mer delta plain emerges above sea level by tens of
meters and will therefore be dissected and partially
eroded by the main river and its tributaries. The
eroded material contributes significantly to the fur-
ther outbuilding of the lowstand delta. Part of the
emerged deltaic terrace mayaiso be removed by large
slumps and mass flows (Sect. 5.4.1). A subsequent
sea-level rise to its initial level tends to restore the
former coastline and to generate again a transgressive
sequence (Fig. 3.36c, sirnilar to that shown in a).
The vertical facies successions resulting from
such sea-Ievel changes vary from location to location
within the delta complex (Fig. 3.36d through f).
Interdistributary sites landward or seaward of the
initial coastline showalternations between the fol-
lowing facies groups (listed from land to sea):
3.5.6 Summary (Marine Deltas)
Prograding major marine deltas and their sedi-
ments cover large areas which exhibit a variety
of terrestrial, coastal, and shallow-marine
depositional environments.
The morphology and sedimentary facies of the
deltas is controlled to a large degree by sediment
supply and the hydrodynarnic regime of the ma-
rine basin (fluvial-, wave-, tide-dominated del-
tas).
165
Lower delta-plain assoclatlOn (lagoonal, tidal,
marsh, crevasse splay deposits) alternating with
the alluvial-plain association (flood plain, point
bar, channel fill, lake deposits, etc.; Fig. 3.36f).
- Lower delta-plain association alternating with
shoreface and delta-front deposits (delta-front as-
sociation; Fig. 3.36e).
- Shoreface/delta front alternating with the inner
shelf/prodelta association (Fig. 3.36d).
Most of these different facies successions show vari-
ations between two principal groups and are re-
stricted to certain parts of the delta complex. Some of
them may, however, occur and follow each other in
the same area and thus display greater facies varia-
tions. Other complications may arise from delta-lobe
switching. Point bar deposits, channel fills, and their
associated levee sediments may become stacked due
to alternating periods of downcutting and refilling of
the distributaries (Fig. 3.36a).
When the sea-level fluctuations reach amplitudes
in the order of 50 to 100 m, prodelta sediments and
inner shelf associations playa greater part in the fa-
cies successions than described in the model of Fig.
3.36.
An unusually high relative sea-level rise in relation to pre-
vious highstands may cause a transgression beyond the
former delta plain a long way upriver. This would com-
pletely change the configliration of the depositional area.
Such scenarios are rarely discussed in studies on the effects
of sea-level fluctuations on deltaic sediments. In any case,
the flat lowlands of a delta plain are the prototype of an
environment, where even small sea-level oscillations can
affect the depositional processes of large areas.
- Delta-lobe switching, constructional and de-
structional phases, and response to eustatic sea-
level changes create complex lateral and verti-
cal facies associations, including cyclic se-
quences.
- Buried peats, growth faults and depobelts in
conjunction with prodelta deposits provide tar-
gets for coal and hydrocarbon exploration.
4 Sediments of Adjacent Seas
and Estuaries
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Water Circu1ation and Sediments
4.2.1 Estuaries
4.2.2 Adjacent Seas with Estuarine Water Circu1ation
4.2.3 Adjacent Seas with Anti-Estuarine Water
Circulation
4.2.4 A Composite Basin: the Mediterranean Sea
4.2.5 Basins with Horizontally Separated Inflow
and Outflow
4.2.6 Estuarine and Anti-Estuarine Large
Ocean Basins
4.3 Sedimentary History of Some Modem Adjacent Seas
4.3.1 The B1ack Sea
Miocene-Pliocene Deve10pment
The Holocene Black Sea
4.3.2 The Gu1f ofCalifomia
General Setting
Hydrographyand Sediments
4.3.3 The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Tectonic Setting
Pre-Rift and Syn-Rift Sediments
with Evaporites
Post-Evaporite Sediments
Quatemary Sediments in the Red Sea
Controlled by Sea-Level Changes
4.3.4 The Persian (Arabian) Gulf
General Setting
Quatemary and Holocene Sediments
4.4 Summary (Adjacent Seas)
4.1 Introduction
Adjacent seas are shallow or deep water-filled basins
of limited extent which are connected with the world
oceans by a gateway or strait. Such basins may de-
velop on both continental and oceanic crust, as well
as in diverse tectonic settings. Prominent present-day
examples are the Red Sea, representing an ocean in
its initial stage, the Persian Gulf, a foreland basin,
and the Black Sea, a kind of remnant basin. The Gulf
of Califomia originated mainly from strike-slip
movements along a plate boundary. Wide river estu-
aries, although usually covering only limited areas,
also show some features characteristic of adjacent
basins.
The depositional environment of adjacent seas is
largely determined by the mechanism controlling the
connection with the neighboring ocean. The opening
may be wide and deep (as that of an estuary) or char-
acterized bya narrow sill protecting the adjacent ba-
sin from the direct influence of the open sea. De-
pending on the dimension of this opening and the
climate, adjacen~ basins may have a more or less nor-
mal salinity, or they tend to become brackish
(hyposaline) or more saline (hypersaline) than aver-
age sea water. Because such systems react sensitively
to small changes in the entrance area, the sedimen-
tary facies of adjacent basins may vary significantly
with time, definitely more so than normal marine de-
posits. Furthermore, river inflow and the climate of
the neighboring land are important factors.
Some adjacent seas represent immature ocean bas-
ins (e.g., the Red Sea) which evolve into wider ocean
basins. Then the sediments of the adjacent sea stage
may become buried deeply under younger, fully ma-
rine shelf and slope sediments of continental margins
(e.g. Thiede 1978; cf. Sect. 12.2). Then, only subse-
quent uplift and erosion, providing land exposures,
or drillholes in such sequences can reveal the early
climatic-oceanic history of such a basin development.
To understand the highly variable facies of adja-
cent basin sediments, some general mIes conceming
the water circulation of such basins have to be intro-
duced.
For further information see, e.g., Seibold (1970), Grasshoff
(1975), Pickard and Emery (1982), Seibold and Berger
(1996). Some general mIes for thermohaline circulation in
the oceans (Chap. 5.2) also apply for circulation in estuar-
ies and adjacent basins.
4.2 Water Circulation and Sediments
4.2.1 Estuaries
The wide mouth of a river, i.e., an estuary, may be
regarded as a comparatively small, specific, fre-
quently occurring type of an adjacent sea. Such a
semi-closed elongate basin has a relatively wide con-
nection to the open sea and on the landward end a
4.2 Water Circulation and Sediments
substantial inflow of fresh water (Fig. 4.1; cf. Fig.
3.9c). The river water entering the estuary mixes to
some extent with the denser sea water, but eventually
flows out in the form of a surface current into the
open sea. The inflowing sea water in turn enters the
estuary as a bottom current and later mixes with
outflowing fresh water. This type of water exchange
is referred to as estuarine circulation.
The models in Fig. 4.1 show the four principal
cases identified in nature. In a shallow estuary, the
entering river water and sea water may become com-
pletely mixed and therefore unstratified (Fig. 4.1b),
but salinity increases from the river inlet toward the
open sea. If mixing of sea water and fresh water is
less effective, which occurs particularly in deep estu-
aries with a sill, the water body displays a more or
less pronounced and stable density stratification (Fig.
4.1c and d).
It is interesting to note that an increase in river flow also
causes a somewhat higher inflow of sea water. However,
the salinity of the estuarine water is reduced under such
conditions. Estuaries display either vertically mixed or
stratified waters. The latter type is controlled by the mark-
edly differing salt contents of the outflowing and inflowing
waters, in contrast to the open sea where (smaller) density
gradients are generated primarily by differences in water
temperature.
A stable stratification is typical for deep fjords, as for ex-
ample along the Norwegian coast. A large river inflow can
create a fresh water layer over the total length of the estu-
ary, which is underlain by a wedge-like salt-water body. As
a result of some mixing of surfaceand bottom water, the
outflowing surface current transports more water into the
sea than the entering river into the estuary. Thus, the out-
flow at the mouth of the estuary can be ten or more times
the volume ofthe river flow.
The sedimentation rate of terrigenous material tends
to be generally high in estuaries, reflecting the sus-
pended load of many rivers. It is, however, difficult
to develop a simple facies model for estuaries. An
individual estuary may pass from one circulation sys-
tem into another as a result of strongly variable river
discharge. It may be affected by tides and tidal cur-
rents (cf. Sect. 3.2.1), causing coastal erosion, re-
working and redeposition of sediments in both land-
ward and seaward directions. Supported by fluvial
nutrient supply, organic productivity in estuaries is
commonly high, but the number of species is re-
stricted in brackish water subjected to frequent
changes in salinity. River-bome plant debris and ma-
rine fauna entering the estuary often become mixed
in the estuarine sediment. Reworking and
redeposition of sediment are common in shaIlow es-
tuaries, whereas organic matter and fossil remains
have a good chance of being preserved in deeper es-
tuaries due to rapid sediment accumulation. Where
estuarine water masses are stratified (Fig. 4.1 c), the
167
oxygen content of bottom water may drop and ham-
per benthic life.
4.2.2 Adjacent Seas with Estuarine Water
Circulation
In adjacent seas larger than estuaries, evaporation
from the water surface of the basin becomes an im-
portant factor (Fig. 4.2). In humid climates, precipita-
tion, P, and river discharge, R, into the basin are
commonly greater than water loss by evaporation, E.
This situation is similar to that observed in estuaries.
Therefore the term estuarine circulation is also used
for such "humid basins".
Present-day examples of this basin type are the
Baltic Sea and the Black Sea (Figs. 4.2a and 4.4).
They are characterized by a narrow, shallow en-
trance, allowing the denser sea water to enter the ba-
sin as subsurface inflow, while .the less saline water
from the basin flows as surface current out into the
sea.
The Gulf of Califomia also displays an estuarine circula-
tion. However, in contrast to the previous examples, its
opening to the Pacific is wide and deep and therefore
readily allows subsurface inflow of cold and comparatively
dense intermediate ocean water (Fig. 4.5, see Sect. 4.3 for
further details).
Baltic Sea. This fairly shallow basin (average depth
about 100 m) roughly corresponds to the vertically
mixed estuary model (Fig. 4.lb). Its water mass is
largely unstratified and was weIl oxygenated in pre-
industrial times, apart from some deeps with water
depths up to 460 m. The salinity of the Baltic Sea
(usually less than 10 to 15%0) increases from the
landward side toward the opening(s) to the normal
saline North Sea. Consequently, stagnant stratified
waters only developed in some marginal bays and
deep depressions in the central part of the basin.
Nutrients for aquatic life are delivered by rivers
from the neighboring land areas as weIl as by erosion
of sediments in the coastal zones. Production of or-
ganic matter can be high, and some of it is preserved
in the sediments, particularly in the deeps mentioned
above where benthic life is reduced or missing due to
oxygen deficiency. Similar depositional conditions
are also realized in many deep fjords along formerly
glaciated co asts where freshwater enters the sea.
For more details about the Baltic Sea see, e.g., Hinz et al.
(1971), Seibold et al. (1971), Kögler and Larsen (1979),
Winterhalter (1992), Huckriede and Meischner (1996),
Lepland and Stevens (1998).
The redoxcline in the Baltic Sea rose during the last 20
years due to man made eutrophication (cf. Sect. 2.5.1) with
the result that about one third of the Baltic Sea bottom
(:ä5 m of water depth) is now covered by laminated sedi-
ments (Jonsson et al. 1990; Matthäus 1995).
168
VERTICALLY
MIXED
HIGHLY
STRATIFIED
d ±FRESH WATER lARGE INFLOW
~ ~\ - - ;-;:;"T WEDGE
~~__~ ESTUARY
Black Sea. The modem, approximately 2000 m deep
Black Sea is an example of estuarine circulation with
distinctly stratified water masses (Figs. 4.1d, 4.2a,
and 4.4). It is an extreme case of an anoxie, ± marine
basin and therefore often quoted as an analogue for
euxinic basins in the past devoid of metozoic benthic
life.
The connection of the Black Sea with the Mediterranean
Sea via the Bosphorus Strait is narrow and only about 40 m
deep. Because the Black Sea belongs to the "humid" basin
type, its outflow at the Bosphorus is stronger than
subsurface inflow. Nevertheless, the limited inflow of sea
water has filled the major part of the modern deep basin
with saline water. Thus, the bottom and interrnediate water
mass of the Black Sea has a salinity of about 22%0 and is
therefore much denser than the surface water. Mixing be-
tween these two water masses is hampered by the pro-
nounced pycnocline, which also acts as a stable chemocline
separating weil oxygenated, nutrient-rich surface water
from stagnant, oxygen-deficient deeper water.
The surface water of the Black Sea exhibits phyto-
plankton productivity, including calcareous nanno-
fossils which accumulate on the sea floor. The
anoxie deeper water contains H 2 S and does not allow
any benthic life apart from anaerobic microorgan-
isms. For this reason, the bottom sediments are weIl
laminated and fairly rich in organic matter and heavy
Chapter 4 Adjacent Seas
Fig. 4.1a-d. Estuary in plan view (at top) and models
of estuarine water circulation in cross section (a
through d). Arrows marked with Sand narrowing
hatching indicate increasing salinity
metal sulfides. further details conceming the modem
sediments and t!J.e sedimentary his tory of this basin
are discussed in Sect. 4.3.1,
4.2.3 Adjacent Seas with Anti-Estuarine
Water Circulation
Adjacent "arid basins" are characterized by an excess
in evaporation, E, over the sum of precipitation, P,
and river runoff, R. As a result, the water surface of
these basins is slightly inclined towards the land (Fig.
4.2b), particularly if the connection to the open sea is
lirnited. In contrast to the "humid basin", sea water
flows as a warm surface current into the arid basin
(anti-estuarine circulation) and tends to become in-
creasingly saline due to continued high evaporation.
Examples of this basin type are the Red Sea, the Per-
sian Gulf, and the Mediterranean Sea.
Red Sea. At the northem end of the Red Sea, far
away from the opening to the Gulf of Aden, the sa-
linity becomes 42.5%0, and the water temperature
reaches 30°C in summer. Here, carbonate ooids form
in shallow water. In winter the surface water begins
to sink as a result of the combined effect of increased
salinity and falling temperature (about 20°e). Thus,
4.2 Water Circulation and Sediments
a "HUMID": ESTUARINE CIRCULATION. HIGH FERTILITY
SHALLOW (BALltC SEA)
E R
VERTICAL MIXING '\
°2-MINIMUM
<STAGNANT
LAMINATED. RICH IN ORG_ C
b "ARID": ANTI-ESTUARINE CIRCULATION. LOW FERTILITY
SHALLOW OR DEEP (RED SEA)
SINKING OF HIGH·DENSITY WATER
(EVAPORATION. COOLING IN WINTER)
Fig. 4.2a,b. Circulation models for adjacent seas with shallow, narrow entrances. See text for further
explanation
the deeper water is forced to· leave the basin as
subsurface outflow, which flows as an intermediate
water layer into the Gulf of Aden.
Planktonic and benthic biogenie productivity in
the Red Sea are only moderate, because river dis-
charge and nutrient influx are very low. The Holo-
cene deep-sea sediments of this basin consist mainly
of biogenie carbonate; laminated beds with high or-
ganic carbon contents are absent. On the other hand,
low-sediment influx and low-nutrient conditions are
favorable for the growth of coral reefs, mainly fring-
ing reefs, which border the coasts on both sides of
the basin.
The deep water of the Red Sea is surprisingly warm
(~20°C, up to a depth of more than 2000 m) and has a sa-
linity of ~40%o. Apart from some special deep brine pools
(Degens and Ross 1969), water stratification is absent, and
the oxygen content is high throughout the basin. The sedi-
mentary history of this basin is briefly described in Sect.
4.3.
Persian Gulf. In contrast to the Red Sea, the Persian
Gulf represents an example of a shallow adjacent sea
with a somewhat wider opening to the ocean (cf. Fig.
4.6). The mean dcpth of the gulf is only 25 m; water
temperatures vary between 15°C in the southeastern
169
DEEP (BLACK SEA)
PYCNOCLlNE. E R
CHEMOCLlNE
/
LAMINATED. VERY RICH IN ORG. C
AND HEAVY METAL SULFIDES
DEEP, SEGMENTED (MEDITERRANEAN SEA)
PJ. E R
-------- ------,-----.- ---------
HIGH SALINITY PARTIALLY LAMINATED
part near the entrance and about 35°C in the shallow
western and southwestern regions. In the latter areas,
the salinity increases (40 to 50%0) and may reach val-
ues up to 100%0 in the tidal zone. The tidal range is
mostly between 0.5 and 1 m.
In spite of the inflow of a large river, the Persian
Gulf shows the characteristics of an "arid basin". It is
well oxygenated and provides a limited supply of
nutrients for surface productivity. Biogenie carbonate
is the most important constituent of its sediments; it
also contains plankton influenced or carried by sur-
face currents from the Indian Ocean. Some reefs
grow along the coast and on topographie highs
within the shallow southwestem part of the gulf.
On the particularly arid southwestem side of the basin,
ealeareous oolites are eommon, and aragonite is preeipi-
tated in the hypersaline intertidal zone as eement, thin
erusts, or grain coatings (ooids). In the supratidal zone
behind the reefs and barrier islands, coastal sabkhas occur
(cf, Seet. 6.4,2; see also Sect. 14.3).
"Arid basins", or lagoons with a small opening to the
ocean, tend to develop highly concentrated brines
and to precipitate marine salts (Sect. 6.4). The pres-
ent entrances of the Red Sea (~25 km wide and 140
m deep) and Mediterranean Sea are too wide and
170
deep to pennit significant brine concentrations, but
during the late Miocene thick salt deposits were gen-
erated in these basins (Sect. 6.4.3). As in the Black
Sea, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf experienced
drastic changes during their history, leading to pro-
nounced variations in their sedimentary records
(Sect. 4.3).
4.2.4 A Composite Basin: the Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is divided into a western and
an eastern deep basin by a sill between Sicily and the
North African coast (Fig. 4.2b). The eastem basin in
particular is characterized by a large excess in evapo-
ration over precipitation, leading to relatively high
water temperatures and salinities. Three different
water masses can be distinguished in this type of ba-
sin: surface water, intennediate water, and deep bot-
tom water, which interact in several ways. Intennedi-
ate and bottom waters are fonned in winter, when
cooling of surface water in marginal regions, such as
the northern Adriatic Sea, leads to an increase in den-
sity. The intennediate water flows back over the mid-
basin sill and out as an undercurrent through the
Strait of Gibraltar into the Atlantic Ocean. The deep
water is somewhat cooler, and it circulates more
slowly than the other water masses. It mixes to some
extent with intennediate water and flows out into the
Atlantic.
Today, the oxygen content of the deep water is
fairly high in both basins, but during the early Holo-
cene and during several intervals within the late Qua-
ternary, the bottom water in the eastern basin, includ-
ing the Adriatic Sea, was more stagnant and repeat-
edly depleted of oxygen. This is documented by a
number of thin sapropel layers within hemipelagic to
pelagic sediments.
During the last ~0.3 Ma, up to more than ten discrete,
basin-wide, organic-rich sapropellayers formed in the east-
ern Mediterranean. The nature of these layers has been
Iively debated in recent years because they may result from
several processes: changes in sea level and/or water circu-
lation, as weil as c1imate change (e.g. Jung et aI. 1997;
Schmiedl et aI. 1998). Several authors have postulated that
the sapropels are associated with periods of high, mon-
soonal precipitation in eastern Africa and the general cli-
matic changes on the nearby land masses (Rossignol-Strick
1985; Ten Haven et aI. 1987; Murat and Got 1987). Fresh
water flooding by the Nile River may have caused the in-
flux of land-derived organic matter and have provided nu-
trients for high marine organic productivity. In addition,
the increased freshwater discharge may have favored the
formation of stratified waters and thus prevented convec-
tive overturn and ventilation ofbottom water.
Because of the presence of tephra 1ayers in wide regions
of the Mediterranean, precise radiometric age determina-
tions for Quaternary sediments could be carried out (e.g.
Keller et aI. 1978; Kraml 1997), in addition to stable oxy-
gen isotope determinations.
Chapter 4 Adjacent Seas
Whether or not a current reversal in the Strait of Gibral-
tar occurred during the transition from the last glacial
phase to the Holocene, as well as whether additional rever-
saIs resulted from earlier Pleistocene c1imatic changes, is
controversial (Diester-Haass 1973; Huang and Stanley
1974). A simulation of the oceanographic situation in the
Mediterranean has shown that anti-estuarine circulation
was maintained at the straits of Gibraltar and Siciliy also
during the last glacial maximum (Myers and Haines 1998).
For further details about the sediments ofthe Mediterra-
nean see, e.g., Stanley (1972, 1977), Emelyanov (1972),
Wezel (1980), Stanley and Wezel (1985), Van Hinte et al.
(1987), (Bouma 1990). Ocean drilling and associated seis-
mic studies have provided additional information about the
tectonic and sedimentary history ofthis complex basin. The
plate tectonic evolution of the Mediterranean is discussed,
e.g., by Westaway (1994) and Comas et aI. (1996). The
Miocene evaporites, backarc basin formation, and mud
diapirism of the Mediterranean are mentioned in Sects.
6.4.3 and 12.5.
All the larger and smaller subbasins of the Mediterra-
nean Sea contain similar fills, showing the following
sequence (from top to bottom):
- Pliocene to Quaternary predominantly clastic sedi-
ments.
- Miocene evaporites (cf. Sect. 6.4.3).
- Older deep-water sediments.
The present-day basinal sediments of the Mediterra-
nean are largely hemipelagic muds with low to me-
dium carbonate contents produced mainly by
foraminifera and coccoliths. In addition, several mid-
sized fans in front ofmajor rivers (e.g., Rhone, Ebro,
Nile, Rhone) and many smaller ones are observed.
Sedimentation rates are in the order of 10 to 30
cm/ka, but may be considerably higher in some areas,
particularly where mud flows and mud turbidites play
a role.
4.2.5 Basins with Horizontally Separated Inflow
and Outflow
Some marginal ocean basins have a horizontally sep-
arated inflow and outflow (Fig. 4.3b; Pickard and
Emery 1982). Due to the gain or loss of heat, salinity
and fertility in the adjacent sea, the characteristics of
the outflowing water may deviate considerably from
those of the inflow. Consequently, organic produc-
ti on and sediments may differ on the intlowing and
outflowing sides of the marginal sea. Present-day
examples of this basin type are the Caribbean Sea
(the American counterpart of the Mediterranean) and
larger, marginal parts of the world oceans, such as
the Norwegian-Greenland Sea.
The Caribbean Sea. The intlow of surface water
into the modem Caribbean Sea consists of a portion
4.2 Water Circulation and Sediments 171

a HIGH TIDES
b

INFLOW OF INTERMEDIATE SEPARATED INFLOW

WATER , RICH IN NU TRIENTS AND OUTFLOW

c
~ SURFACE CURRENTS
----~ DEEP WATER
CIRCULATION
~ MAJOR SEDIMENT
DRIFT BODIES
DSO, DENMARK STRAIT
OVERFLOW
ISO, ICELAND·SCOTLAND
OVERFLOW

GREEN-
LAND

Fig. 4.3. a,b Contrast between widely opened adja-
cent basin with surface outflow and intennediate wa-
ter inflow (e.g., Gulf of California, cf. Fig. 4.5), and
basin with horizontally separated inflow and outflow
of surface water (e.g., Caribbean Sea). c Norwegian-
Greenland Sea with simplified surface current pattern
and bottom currents in the neighborhood of the
Greenland-Iceland-Scotland Ridge. Note special sites
of bottom water overflow and associated huge sedi-
ment drift bodies to the south of the ridge. Asymmet-
rie sediment distribution is briefly discussed in text.
NACNorth Atlantic Current; NCNorwegian Current;
NCC N orwegian Coastal Current; EGC East Green-
land Current; JMC Jan Mayen Current; WSC West
Spitsbergen Current. (Based on Stow and Holbrook
1984; Thiede et al. 1989; Bohnnann et al. 1990)
172
of the trade wind-driven South Equatorial Current
which enters the basin in the southeast through the
Lesser Antilles Islands. The outflow of Caribbean
water takes place in the northwest through the south-
eastern Gulf of Mexico and the Straits of Florida
(Gordon 1966). Surface water temperatures are high
throughout the year (25 to 28°C), and salinities are
slightly above average (34 to 36.5%0). Such condi-
tions, in conjunction with limited nutrient supply,
enable optimal coral reef growth. During glacial peri-
ods, the water temperature was slightly lower (1 to
3°C). The Pliocene and Quaternary pelagic sediments
are predominantly nannoplankton-foraminiferal
oozes, reflecting the high temperature and lirnited
nutrient content of the surface waters.
The shape and extent of carbonate shelves associated with
the Caribbean islands and coral reefs are, among other fac-
tors, influenced by the wind pattern and surface current
system (Adey and Burke 1977; Geister 1983). The shelf off
west Florida and the platforms of Florida and Campeche
represent outstanding examples of a carbonate province.
In contrast to the Red Sea, the water rnasses of the Ca-
ribbean are distinctly stratified due to the wide connection
to the Atlantic. The Caribbean deep water has therefore a
much lower temperature and is less saline than its surface
water. It is weil oxygenated in the deep Colombian and
Venezuelan basins, but oxygen-poor in a small area in the
southeast (Cariaco Trench). The modern deep-sea sedi-
ments ofthis region, however, exhibit no c1ear relationship
with the separated inflow and outflow of surface currents.
This may result from the topographic and tectonic com-
plexity of the Caribbean Sea and its transition into the G~lf
of Mexico (Naim and Stehli 1975). As long as a seaway
existed between the Caribbean Sea and the eastern Pacific
(prior to about 5 Ma B.P.), ocean circulation and sediments
of the Caribbean differed significantly from the present
situation (cf. Sect. 5.6).
Older sediment cores recovered in the Caribbean sea by
the Ocean Drilling Program record other events of global
importance (Shipboard Scientific Party, ODP Leg 165,
1997), e.g. ejecta from a meteorite impact at the Creta-
ceous/Tertiary boundary, evidence for a global thermal
maximum in the late Paleocene, a Miocene minimum in
carbonate accumulation ("carbonate-crash"), a well-Iami-
nated sequence in the euxinic Cariaco Basin, and high ex-
plosive volcanic activity in the Eocene and Miocene.
The western part of the Gulf of Mexico and the Co-
lombian basin (western Caribbean Sea) receive large
amounts of terrigenous material delivered by major
rivers, as weIl as volcanic1astics from different
sources within the area. These sediments build delta
cones and deep-sea fans, inc1uding turbidites, and
dilute the biogenic sediment production in various
ways.
The Norwegian-Greenland Sea. This sea represents
the northern N orth Atlantic and forms a subpolar
deep-sea basin to the north of the Greenland-Iceland-
Faeroe-Scotland Ridge (Fig. 4.3c). In conjunction
with the Arctic seas, the Norwegian-Greenland Sea is
Chapter 4 Adjacent Seas
surrounded on all sides by land masses and largely
separated by submarine sills from the deep-water
circulation of the world oceans. At present, the Arc-
tic seas are perrnanently or seasonally coverd by ice.
On the eastern side of the Norwegian-Greenland sea, the
present-day Norwegian surface current is relatively warm
(4 to 13°C, salinity about 35%0). It originates from the
northern branch ofthe GulfStream, which flows northward
and transports heat and nutrient-poor water masses into the
northern ocean (e.g. Thiede et al. 1986). After substantial
heat transfer to the atrnosphere, the cold and relatively
dense surface water forms downwelling water masses
which flow southward and contribute to the deep-ocean
ventilation. In contrast, the outflowing surface current (the
East Greenland Current) is cold (-1.5 to +2°C) and less
saline (31 to 34%0). It is partly fed by waters entering via
the Fram Strait (between Greenland and Svalbard; Fig.
4.3c) from the Arctic Ocean.
The depositiona1 environment of the Norwegian-
Greenland Sea is markedly aSyllnnetric as a result of
basin morphology and water circulation. The sedi-
ments below the Gulf Stream (Norwegian Current)
tend to be relatively rich in biogenic carbonate, al-
though terrestrial material generally dominates in this
basin. The cold East Greenland Current is richer in
nutrients than the Norwegian Current and enab1es a
relatively high production of siliceous phytoplankton
(diatoms ) during the warmer season and thus the de-
position of sediments rich in bio genie silica
(Bohrmann 1988). In addition, the East Greenland
Current carries ice-rafted materials southward. At
present, the deep waters of the entire basin have high
oxygen contents.
The depositional environment of the high-latitude
oceans experienced great variations in temperature
and other characteristics in the geological past, par-
ticularly during the Cenozoic. These changes are re-
corded in the marine sediments explored by ocean
drilling (cf. Sect. 5.6).
4.2.6 Estuarine and Anti-Estuarine
Large Ocean Basins
FinaUy, the terms "estuarine and anti-estuarine circu-
lation" can also be applied to large ocean basins
(Berger 1970, 1976) which exchange their water
masses. For example, the present-day Atlantic Ocean
exhibits deep-water outflow into the Pacific and thus
anti-estuarine circulation (cf. Sect. 5.6). Conse-
quently, the Atlantic tends to accumulate more car-
bonate and less si1ica than the Pacific, which in turn
exhibits higher ferti1ity, especially for bio genie silica,
and increased carbonate dissolution. Generally, oce-
anic basins with estuarine circulation tend to develop
stagnant bottom waters and to accumulate anaerobic
sediments. Another consequence of slow inter-oce-
anic water exchange is the fact that, for example,
4.3 Modern Examples, Sedimentary History
Pleistocene carbonate-rich layers in deep-sea sedi-
ments are not necessarily coeval in the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans (e.g. Grötsch et al. 1991). Oceanic
circulation including the so-called conveyer belt is
further discussed in Sect. 5.2.
4.3 Sedimentary History of So me
Modern Adjacent Seas
4.3.1 The Black Sea
The young sedimentary history of the Black Sea is
particularly interesting (Fig. 4.4), but still not clear.
The specific development of this basin in the Neo-
gene was strongly affected by (I) repeated changes in
its connection with the Mediterranean Sea and the
world oceans, and (2) by significant climatic varia-
tions. The latter caused the late Miocene (Messinian)
"salinity crisis" and the Quatemary high-frequency,
high-amplitude sea-Ievel fluctuations in the Mediter-
ranean. The modem euxinic state of the basin with
estuarine water circulation (see above) evolved in the
Holocene.
The tectonic setting and pre-Miocene history of the Black
Sea basin are discussed, e.g., by Okay et al. (1994) and
Robertson (1996). The Neogene his tory of the Paratethys,
including the Black Sea, has been studied by Steininger
and Rögl (1984) and Rögl (1998). In the late Eocene, the
fonner wide Tethys Ocean was replaced in the west by the
Mediterranean Sea and in the east by the intercontinental
Eurasian Paratethys basin. The latter became finally en-
closed during the Miocene and experienced an endemic
evolution. It was separated into subbasins, the western one
being the Black Sea. The Bosphorus Strait seems to be a
complex feature produced by both fluvial processes and
graben tectonics (Gökalnn et al. 1997). It exists in its pres-
ent fonn since the Wünn glacial.
The results of deep-see drilling have been reported by
Degens and Ross (1974), Hsü (1978), Degens and Stoffers
(1980). Water exchange with the Mediterranean has been
dealt with by Stanley and Blanpied (1980) and Aksu et al.
(1999). The Holocene sapropels have attracted much inter-
est (e.g. Glenn and Arthur 1985; Calvert and Fontugne
1987; Arthur and Dean 1998; Calvert and Karlin 1998).
Miocene-Pliocene Development
The present-day connection ofthe Black Sea with the
Mediterranean via the Bosphorus Strait existed in the
past probably only for short time intervals, i.e. in the
Miocene and late Pleistocene. During these periods,
the depositional environment and sediments of the
Black Sea were influenced by inflowing marine wa-
ters (Fig. 4.4e, Sections A and C). In the late Mio-
cene, the Black Sea and Caspian Sea were euxinic
basins with marine fauna. During the subsequent "sa-
linity crisis" in the latest Miocene (Sect. 6.4.3), the
173
Black Sea (as well as the Caspian Sea) were closed
off from the Tethys ocean and transformed to
intracontinental seas of variable salinity. This is indi-
cated by the presence of endemie fauna and lacus-
trine shallow-water carbonates (Fig. 4.4e).
In the long interval between the late Miocene and late
Pleistocene (Fig. 4.4, Section B), the Black Sea was a fresh
to slightly brackish water lake with predominantly carbon-
ate deposition. Climatic variations generated altemating
marly and ca1careous beds with abundant siderite concre-
tions accumulated under changing redox conditions. The
organic matter of the last lake phase is predorninantly of
terrestrial origin (Calvert and Fontugne 1987).
The Holocene Black Sea
The modem history of the Black Sea began ~7.5 ka
B.P. when the Holocene transgression had reached
the sill depth of the Bosphorus Strait and enabled the
spillover of sea water into the former fresh to brack-
ish water lake. It took another 4000 to 6000 years
until the present-day environment was established.
Saline, anoxie bottom waters expanded and finally
filled the maj or part of the basin.
During this transitional interval, organic produc-
tivity in the surface water was particularly high be-
cause of vertical mixing of water masses and nutrient
. recycling. This led to the accumulation of laminated
sapropel rich in organic matter (up to about 15% or-
ganic carbon) and a carbonate content in the order of
10%. Later, the stratification of the Black Sea be-
came more stable and the organic productivity de-
c1ined. The last 1 to 2 ka in Black Sea evolution are
characterized by a shallow, stable chemocline, sepa-
rating oxygenated, fairly fertile surface water from a
thick deep-water mass. Coccolith-carbonate produc-
tion diluted the organic carbon concentration of the
deep-water sediment. A typical deep-water sequence
is shown in Fig. 4.4d, but intercalations of mud flow
deposits are omitted, which may occur between the
uppermost two units. The deep-water mass is anoxie
and contains considerable quantities of H 2S, NH 3,
and P (Fig. 4.4b and c).
Most of the hydrogen sulfide is produced by bacterial sul-
fate reduction within the water column. After a peak in
organic carbon deposition (in tenns of carbon concentra-
tion) ~5 ka B.P., the concentration of organic carbon in the
sediment decreased. The uppennost, varved coccolith ooze
on the abyssal plain commonly contains between 1% and
4% of organic carbon and between 15% and 55% of car-
bonate. The accumulation rate of organic carbon is low in
the Black Sea in comparison to that of modem, highly pro-
ductive coastal upwelling zones (Sect. 5.3.4).
Consequently, the formerly widely held opinion that
the Black Sea provides a particularly effective
depositional environment for hydrocarbon genera-
tion, should be significantly modified. Such a favor-
174 Chapter 4 Adjacent Seas

b C
0 10 °C MASS FLOWS AND 0
0 TURBIDITES
~-' 01
,
T= 9° \
\
\ HzS, NH3 • P
I'"
,,
\
16-22%0 \

2
a 2
km __L~

L. MIOCENE
LOW SEA LEVEL
e LATE PLEISTOCENE :
-r TERRESTR. + BIOGENIC MUDS,
I
I REFLECTING VARIATIONS
I IN OXYGENATION. SALINITY
'" AND BIOTA (E. G., DIATOMS)
d C I I I
TURBIDITES
200

-1- -- T Ili1!~~~f~~~
(15 TO 55% OOZE
CaC0 3)

: 0.5 m MUD FLOW , lOCALlY

HOLOCENE
: 1 SAPROPEL
(BRACKISH)
SIDERITE
400 EARlY I'lEISTOCENE :
, CALCAREOUS MUDS

~
I ~~t BANDED SIlT -ClAY.
(FRESH .WATER LAKE,
(SEEKREIDE). !: LAMINATED
I RHYTHMIC ALTERNATIONS
-'f - -- - TERRESTRIAL B DUE TO VARIATIONS IN
I
ORGANtC CARBON) CARBONATE CONTENT.
PlEISTOCENE : 600 BIOTURBATION. PYRITE

PliOCENE (?)
Yl
C : CONNECTED WITH }600 CARBONATE BRECCIA
MEDITERRANEAN I m
VIA BOSPORUS SHALLOW I
~~i- LAMINATED CARBONATES
-DRY' PHASE i ~ ~ (SHALLOW WATER)
B : LAKE
I
I
A : AS C MIOCENE (?) A BLACK SHAlE
.L

Fig. 4.4. Model of a "humid", Black Sea-type basin
with surface outflow of low salinity and more saline
subsurface inflow. a Basin configuration and
chemocline. b,c Relationship between salinity S, tem-
perature T, and chemical parameters with depth be-
low water surface. d PleistocenelHoloccne sediments
of the basin center. e Neogene sediments drilled at
DSDP Site 380 in the Black Sea (simplified se-
quence; age determinations are uncertain). (Based on
Degens and Ross 1974; Hsü 1978; Degens and
Stoffers 1980; Calvert and Fontugne 1987)
4.3 Modern Examples, Sedimentary History
able situation only existed during relatively short pe-
riods, as for example during the last 7000 years (see
also Sect. 10.3.3).
4.3.2 Gulf of California
General Setting
The Gulf of Califomia is a narrow, deep oceanic ba-
sin which originated from strike-slip movement and
some lateral extension. It resembles in its tectonic
style to some extent the Gulf of Aden (Sect. 4.3.3).
The spreading axes of the two basins exhibit several
offsets and thus generate a number of deep
subbasins. Both gulfs have wide, deep openings to
the world oceans, which allow the exchange of inter-
mediate and bottom waters without the restraints of a
barrier. For this reason, the salinity in these basins is
normal marine.
The tectonic setting of the Gulf of Califomia has been de-
scribed by Moore and Buffington (1968), Curray, Moore et
al. (l982a), Dauphin and Simoneit (1991), Ferrari (1995).
Oceanographic and sedimentological aspects are treated by
Rosen (1964), van Andel (1964), Calvert (1966), Einseie
and Niemitz (1982), Baumgartner et al. (1991), Thunnel et
al. (1994).
The Gulf of Califomia shows some special features,
which are summarized in the simplified model of Fig.
4.5. After a Miocene proto-gulf stage on continental
crnst, characterized by a shallow-marine basin, the
modem gulf began to grow 4 Ma B.P. Presently, the
gulf is in an early drifting stage in which new oceanic
crnst is generated in several specific spreading
troughs (pull-apart basins) separated by compara-
tively deep sills (Fig. 4.5, cf. Sect. 12.8). The long
gulf is surrounded by mountainous regions with cli-
matic conditions ranging from arid in the north to
moderately humid in the south. The sea floor of the
basin exhibits a rngged, complicated topography,
which favors the entrapment of sediments within the
gulf.
Hydrography and Sediments
Because of its wide, deep opening, the tidal range is
high at its shallowing, narrowing northern end. In
spite of the high relief and several rivers entering the
basin, the hemipelagic deep-water sediments and
redeposited gravity mass flows (mud turbidites) are
predominantly fine-grained.
The most striking hydraulic feature of this basin is
the subsurface inflow of very large volumes of cold,
nutrient-rich, intermediate ocean water and the out-
flow of warm surface water. Seasonally changing
offshore winds cause upwelling of nutrient-rich wa-
175
ter masses along the eastem or western margin of the
gulf. These coastal upwelling zones generate plank-
ton blooms, with diatoms being the most abundant
group with minor proportions of radiolaria, calcare-
ous nannofossils and foraminifera. In this way, one
of the most productive ecosystems of the world is
established (Thunell et al. 1994). Most of the silica
necessary for diatom skeletons is derived from
inflowing ocean water and recycling within the ba-
sin; only about 15-25% of the biogenic silica pro-
duced in surface water is preserved in the sediments.
The remainder is dissolved within the uppermost 500
m of water. Partial mineralization of the plankton
leads to an oxygen minimum zone at intermediate
depths along the slopes. This is recorded by annual
varves, consisting mainly of diatorns, indicating sea-
sonal high plankton production. In addition, fine-
grained detrital material, swept into the gulf by sea-
sonal rains, contributes to the formation of varves.
A large proportion of the slope sediments is rede-
posited and accumulates as mud turbidites in the
deepest troughs ofthe subbasins. The mean sedimen-
tation rate of the 4 Ma old modem gulf is about 50
mlMa (dry, solid material).
The organic matter preserved in the gulf sediments is de-
rived mainly from diatomaceous protoplasm. Its concentra-
tion is highest (2-4% organic carbon) in the varved sedi-
ments accumulated below the oxygen minimum zones
along the basin slopes. Sediments in the deep basins mostly
contain 1-2% organic carbon, because here the conditions
fluctuate between anaerobic and slightly aerobic. Some of
the organic matter transported by mud turbidites into the
deep subbasins is land-derived. On the average, the sedi-
ments of the gulf contain about 2% of organic carbon and
are therefore potentially good sources of oil and gas (Sect.
14.1).
The exceptionally high primary productivity in the re-
gions of upwelling is also indicated by the enrichment of
trace elements, such as P, S, Mo, Se, and Cd, in compari-
son with average shales (Brumsack 1986a). Calcareous
skeletons are partially dissolved and normally constitute
only a few percent of the sediment. During diagenesis, thin,
interbedded dolomites can form.
The sedimentation rate on the slopes below the zones of
upwelling is very high (about 400 to 600 mlMa of porous
sediment, corresponding to approximately 100 to ISO
mlMa of dry, solid rock). The long-term mean value for the
sedimentation rate (50 mJMa) does not represent the
present-day sedimentation rate, but is calculated from the
total sediment volume of the young gulf, taking into ac-
count the growth ofthe basin (cf. Sect. 11.3.6: extensional
basin filling). Biogenic silica has contributed about 15% of
the total sediment volume. Locally, the sedimentation rates
have varied from practically zero on bathymetric highs to
-1000 mlMa in some of the spreading troughs.
Despite high heat flow, the organic matter is thermally
immature (cf. Sect. 14.2), except for sediments affected by
intrusion of basaltic sills and hydrothermal processes in the
actively spreading oceanic subbasin centers. Here,
thermogenie hydrocarbons occur, and diatomaceous oozes
and terrigenous turbidites may be thermally altered to an
epidote-zoisite facies.
176 Chapter 4 Adjacent Seas

PROGRADING HIGH WIDE SHELF WITH SEASONAL UPWELLING. HIGH FERTllITY,

DELTA -TlDAL TIDES BIOCLASTS AND PRODUCTION OF DIATOMS
FLAT COMPLEX
SPREADING AXIS (TROUGH)
OF PULL -APART BASIN
a
GRAVITY MASS FLOWS
(MAINLY MUD
TUR BIDITES)

PULL·APART BASIN,
:t FILLED WITH
RIVER-DERIVED
SEDIMENTS SLOPE BASIN INFLOW OF
NUTRIENT-
RICH , COLD
SUBMARINE INTER -
CANYONS MEDIATE
YOUNG OCEANIC
BASIN OUTFLOW OF SPREADING WATER
PLAIN SURFACE WATER RIDGE

b c d
SLOPE SEDIMENTS SEDIMENTS OF AB YSSAL SEDIMENTS
(BELOW UPWELlING)
PULL-APART BASIN AT WIDE ENTRANCE OF GULF

'"I
I
LAMINATED
DIATOMACEOUS
OOZE (VARVES)
DIATOM . MUD AND
MUD TURBIDITES
DIATOM. MUD AND
MUD TURBIDITES
I
MUD FLOW , SLUMPS
I HOMOGENEOUS DIATOM. MUD
I DIATOM. MUD MASS FLOW
E ~:=:::'t>- T HIN MUD DOLOMITE I:P-~~- SAND AND
o TURBIDITES CHERT GRAVEL
o..,.
o ~~~SANDY LAMINATED DIATOM. MUD DIATOM. MUD OR
o
CII
TURBIDITE
~;l~ DOLE RITE SILL
MUDSTONE AND
MUD TURBIDITES
F='~f-- DIATOMITE
(VARVED)

THIN DOLOMITIC DOLERITE

INTERBED INTRUSION OCEANIC CRUST

Fig. 4.5. a Gulf of California-type marine strike-slip
basin, with several deep spreading centers and wide,
deep opening to the ocearr. lnflow of intermediate,
cold and nutrient-rich wlliter; causing seasonal
upwelhng and high plankton productivity along both
coasts of the gulf. b-d Simplified sediment sections
at different sites within the gulf (locations marked in
a). (Based on van Andel 1964; Calvert 1966; Curray,
Moore et al. 1982a)

Quatemary climatic changes and sea-Ievel tluctua- the sediments of the Gulf of California. Drilling
tions obviously exerted only a limited influence' on cores display thick alternat ions between laminated
4.3 Modern Examples, Sedimentary History
and homogeneous, bioturbated sediments. It is pos si-
ble that the latter seetions eorrespond with low sea-
level stands.
4.3.3 The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Tectonic Setting
The teetonie and sedimentary histories of the Gulf of
Aden and Red Sea are closely related. However,
basin-generating proeesses and marine deposition
eommeneed earlier in the Gulf of Aden than in the
Red Sea and first prograded from east to west and
then, i.e. in the Red Sea, from south to north.
The teetonie evolution of these basins, partieularly that of
the Red Sea, is diseussed in numerous artieles (e.g.
Coehran 1981 and 1983a; Le Piehon and Coehran 1988;
Makris and Henke 1992; Beydoun and Sikander 1992; Bott
et al. 1992; Bosworth 1994). Publieations on the pre-rift
and Neogene sedimentary history of these basins inelude
Cronan et al. (1974), Stoffers and Kühn (1974), Miller and
Barakat (1988), Montenat et al. (1988), Hughes and
Beydoun (1992).
The Gulf of Aden opened in the late Middle
Oligoeene along a transform fault with dextral mo-
tion aeeompanied and followed by extension. Its
present-day teetonie setting, displaying in its eenter
many small, deeply subsided pull-apart basins, re-
sembles that of the younger Gulf of California, but
the Gulf of Aden has beeome wider due to substan-
tial sea-floor spreading. However, the evolution of its
western portion, including the Afar region, is youn-
ger than the eastern part. Basin-forming proeesses
reaehed the southern Red Sea in the late Oligoeene
and the eentral and· northern Red Sea in the early
Mioeene. Following the teetonie evolution, syn-rift
marine sediments first inundated the eastern Gulf of
Aden, before they were deposited in the southern and
northern Red Sea.
The Red Sea is a young, narrow oeean basin in a
transitional mode from rifting to drifting (Fig. 4.6a,
ef. Seets. 12.1 and 12.2). Its teetonie evolution is
more eomplex than previously assumed. Here, the
Afriean and Arabian plates were also separated ini-
tially by a transform fault (with sinistral strike-slip
motion), before lateral extension beeame the domi-
nant proeess. This is doeumented by some small pull-
apart basins with oeeanie erust along the diseontinu-
ous northern axial trough. Seisrnie reeords aeross the
northern and eentral part of the Red Sea show that
the basin is asymmetrie with some oeeanie crust on
the western side and stretehed eontinental erust on
the eastern Arabian side.
In the northern Red Sea, rifting generated a wide
"main trough" on top of thinned, intensively faulted
eontinental erust (Fig. 4.6b) eharaeterized by tilted
177
bloeks and horst and graben struetures. The period of
extension and dike injeetion lasted for about 20 Ma
and affeeted an area of 100 to 160 km in width.
In contrast to the northern Red Sea still being in
the rifting stage, the rniddle and more southern part
of the basin experieneed drifting sinee ~4 Ma. Here,
the main trough is biseeted by a deep axial trough,
formed by sea floor spreading. To the north and
south of this region, the axial trough is represented
by aseries of deeps, alternating with shallower
intertrough zones.
Pre-Rift and Syn-Rift Sediments with Evaporites
Prior to transform motions and rifting, both the Gulf
of Aden and the Red Sea were lowlands or topo-
graphie depressions whieh allowed the deposition of
eontinental and shallow-marine sediments. In the
Gulf of Aden area, Jurassie to Eoeene marine sedi-
ments cover wide areas. In the Red Sea, marine sedi-
ments seem to be ineompletely present (in the south
sinee the Jurassie; in the north sinee the Upper Creta-
eeous.
During early rifting, eontinental, eoastal, and
shallow-marine sediments of mostly normal salinity
were deposited in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea. In
addition, some evaporites and dolomites formed dur-
ing short intervals.
The subsequent period (middle to late Mioeene) is
eharaeterized by limes tone deposition in the eastern
Gulf of Aden and gypsumJanhydrite in its western
part. In the Red Sea, thiek evaporites including halite
aeeumulated (see also Seet. 6.4.3) partially in
shallow-water and coastal sabkha environments, but
probably also in deeper water of the rapidly subsid-
ing basin. The evaporites reaeh thieknesses of more
than 1000 m in the northern part and up to 3000 or
4000 m in the eentral and southern parts of the basin.
During its "salinity erisis", the Red Sea was probably
eonneeted with the Mediterranean Sea and closed at
its southeastern end. Later, the Strait of Bab al
Mandab opened and eonneeted the Red Sea with the
Gulf of Aden and the Indian Oeean.
The evaporites probably formed prior to the generation of
the axial trough, i.e., on thinned eontinental erust.
Evaporites found in the axial trough are interpreted by sub-
sequent salt flow from the flanks of the rnain trough into
the axial trough (Girdler and Whitmarsh 1974). In the een-
tral Red Sea (DSDP Site 227), the drilled upper seetion of
the evaporites eontains, besides halite, several intervals of
anhydrite, dark shales, and dolomites, whieh c1early indi-
eate .that evaporite deposition oeeurred diseontinuously.
After evaporite deposition, extension eontinued, accompa-
nied by halokinetie struetures.
178 Chapter 4 Adjacent Seas

~ /-l
MAIN TROUGH
(CRUSTAL THI NNING» ~
~/ I
i FRINGING REEFS

t" I
I I PRE·EVAPORITE SEDIMENTS
I I COASTAL TO SHALLOW-MARINE
I I ANDST., SHALES, CARBONATES ,
I I SOME ANHYDRITE LAYERS)
a I
I
THINNED CONT . CRUST (FAULTS
NOT SHOWN) AND PRE-RIFT
PLATFORM SEDIMENTS
SURFACE
WATER

POST -EVAPORITE
SEDIMENTS (SANDS,
CLAYS, MARLS , CALC .
OOZES OR lI MEST.)

EVAPORITES, NEW OCEAN IC

MOSTLY HAllTE , ITH CRUST (SEA FLOOR
INTERBEDDED ANHYDRITE SPREADING)
AND SHALES (SABKHA CHANNELS WITH SHALLOW
AND DEEPER WATER EVAP .) BOTTOM WATER BIOCLAST ICS
GLACIO · EUSTATIC SEA
LEVEL CHANGE WATER

MARINE PlIO·
EV PORI TES PLEISTOCENE

----
BASEMENT

REEFAL ........_~rJ.. 5000

5 km SULFATES MAR LS CARBONATES , m
I---=--cc..:..:..c---jl RED CLASTICS I MARLS , CHALK ,
LOCALLY CLAS TICS

c FORAM. NANNO OOZE d

HOLOCENE (INTER-
GLACIAL)
....
I
~t~y~~~i,~y ==::---J.I=::----HOLOCENE------~- --r FORAM . NANNO OOZE
I ""'1 m
I I::c::<::::o:$t-- LlTHIFIED LAYERS
:
I ~~
\
-- ~-- ~--~- \
~ ~'~ \
1
.. ~
"'- .'~''''''
RICH IN ORGANIC
MATTER
E NANNO MARL TO CLAYST J ~ --+ - '" \ ..'
0 WITH DARK ORGANIC- DEGLACIATION GLACIAL :
0
10 RICH INTERVALS
"APLANKTlC' ZONE ,
RICH IN ARAGONITE
0 AND MG·CALCITE,
0 DARK SHALES
N HIGH Ö18 0
I BLACK DOLOMITIC
I SILTST. AND SHALE
t
~;mr- THICK EVAPORITES
(UP TO 3-4 km)

Fig. 4_6. a Sedimentary history of Red Sea-type,
"arid" basin in a transitional stage from rifting (main
trough) to drifting (axial trough). Early rifting is ac-
companied by coastal and normal to hypersaline,
shallow-marine sediments, which are followed by
thick sabkha salts and deeper water evaporites. Post-
evaporite sequences in shallow and deep water envi-
ronments reflect normal to slightly hypersaline condi-
tions. b Simplified cross section of northem Red Sea.
(After Montenat et al. 1988). c Idealized section of
drill hole in axial trough (based on Stoffers and Ross
1974). d Glaciallinterglacial variations in water cir-
culation of the Red Sea and resulting pelagic sedi-
ments. (Based on Locke and Thunell 1988)
4.3 Modern Examples, Sedimentary History 179

FOLD/THRUST BELT

PROGRADING SALT DOME ISL ANDS AND HIGHS

FLUVIO-DELTAIC
COMPLEX

BIOGENIC CARBONATE SANDS

(PARTIALLY RELlCS)

CALCAREOUS OOIDS

SUPRATIDAL COASTAL SABKHAS S = 40 -50

(EVAPORITES)

S > 50 INTERTIDAL CARBONATES

(INCLUDING ARAGONITE)

SAND DUNES

_J PRESENT
______HIGH
_ __ SEA
___, LEVEL
10-30 mI
HOLOCENE ---_....:~ ..,../ CARBONATE SAND, MUD. OR MARL

;{'::':>;:<-~
REWORKED CARBONATE AND SAND
LAST LOWSTAND ---~DUNES, CARBONATE -CEMENTED

i~l1~l~ ::~:: :~C;l:V::~ ::D:,O~~::UM

PLEISTOCENE

PLiOCENE

MIOCENE ~~T..{~ SHELF CARBONATES AND EVAPORITES

Fig. 4.7. Shallow, "arid" adjacent sea (Persian Gulf- and Ross 1979; and others). Miocene to Holocene
type foreland basin); salinity S in %0, and distribu- sediment sequence mainly characterizes shallow re-
tion of most important sedimentary facies. (Based on gions of gulf opposite to the mountain range. (After
Seibold 1970; Samthein 1972; Purser 1973; Stoffers Kassler 1973)

Post-Evaporite Sediments plankton productivity may have been lower. Thus,

Gulf of Aden. The Neogene sediments are mainly
hemipelagic and consist predominantly of nanno
oozes, with varying proportions of land-derived ma-
terial and calcareous, shallow-water biogenic compo-
nents. The planktonic component does not deviate
markedly from that of the Indian Ocean.
In contrast to the Red Sea (see below), surface salini-
ties and temperatures during the last glacial period
did not differ very much from present values, but
the "glacial" sediments in this region show lower
carbonate contents, lower organic carbon values, and
a reduced abundance of aragonitic pteropods than the
present-day sediments.
Red Sea. The post-evaporite Pliocene and Quatemary
sediments recovered by deep-sea drilling from the
central graben record variable depositional condi-
tions (Fig. 4.6c).
180
The first strata on top of the evaporites are dark grey,
dolomitic silty claystones and early diagenetie dolomites.
Intervals with high organic earbon and pyrite contents
point to periods of restricted water eirculation in the basin
(Fig. 4.6d). Then hemipelagie nanno oozes, marls and
marly claystones follow, which again exhibit dark, organic-
rieh interbeds. Locally, vo1canic ashes are interealated. The
youngest sediments consist of foraminiferal nanno ooze
and ehalk, which are more or less diluted by clay and silt
ftom terrestrial sourees.
Qnaternary Sediments in tbe Red Sea Controlled
by Sea-Level Cbanges
A characteristic feature of the young, unconsolidated
(or only slightly consolidated) Red Sea sediments is
the occurrence of so-called "aplanktic" horizons and
many lithified layers, containing high proportions of
chemically precipitated aragonite and Mg-calcite.
These layers obviously forrned during times of gla-
cial sea-levellowstand and increased salinity.
Further evidence for this assumption (Reiss and Hottinger
1984) is the faunal and isotopie composition of Holoeene
and late Pleistocene sediments in the central and southem
Red Sea (Reiss et al. 1980; Locke and Thunell 1988). Gla-
cial surface and bottom water salinities were significantly
higher than at present, up to 53-55%0 (HernIeben et al.
1996). The planktonic foraminifera vanished completely
during these intervals. Water exchange between the Gulf of
Aden and the Red Sea was markedly reduced and the bot-
tom waters were low in oxygen. At the same time the cli-
mate was extremely arid.
Ouring such periods, fertility in the photic zone was
relatively high in the northem Red Sea (Gulf of Aqaba),
whereas planktonic carbonate production was limited in the
southem re/fions. The resulting "aplanktic" layers also ex-
hibit high Ö 80 values (Fig. 4.6d). Ouring deglaeiation, i.e.,
about 11 000 to 8000 years B.P., the sea level began to
rise, but the bottom water in the Red Sea was still
hypersaline and rather stagnant beneath a surface water
zone of lower salinity and increasing exchange with the
open sea. The sediments of this transitional stage are rela-
tively rich in organic matter.
While the Strait of Bab al Mandab was kept practically
ftee of sediment by the outtlowing bottom eurrents, sedi-
ment aecumulation in the Gulf of Aden south of the strait
was high during this period.
4.3.4 Tbe Persian (Arabian) Gnlf
General Setting
The shallow Persian (Arabian) Gulf has been a
shrunken foreland basin in front of the Zagros fold
belt since the Upper Cretaceous (Fig. 4.7; cf. Sect.
14.3 and Fig. 14.12). Its deepest portion (80 to 100
m) is a structural feature running parallel to this
mountain range in the northeast.
References include Purser (1973), Kassler (1973), Stotfers
and Ross (1979), Murris (1985), Uchupi et al. (1996). The
Chapter 4 Adjacent Seas
Mesozoic and Paleogene development of this basin is
brietly outlined in Sec!. 14.3. Oligocene and Mioeene
sandstones and limestones, which are sealed by evaporites,
are the principal reservoirs of several giant oil fields. They
store hydrocarbons derived from older source rocks. The
present configuration and hydrographie situation of the
gulf is unfavorable for the accurnulation of significant
amounts of organic matter.
Qnaternary and Holocene Sediments
The young sediments in front of the fold belt are
mainly siliciclastic sands tones, silts, and shales, but
farther to the southwest an open-marine basin has
been maintained. This is bordered by a shelf region
characterized by carbonate and evaporite deposition.
In the central basin, marls and calcareous shales have
accumulated, because carbonate production has been
diluted by suspended river load carried into the basin
from the east and northwest. In the northwest, the
Tigris-Euphrates River system has built a fluvio-
deltaic complex out into the gulf.
The laIe Pliocene and Qualernary his tory of the
gulf was strongly affected by the glacial regressions
and transgressions. During low sea-level stands (up
to 110-120 m below the present level), the basin be-
came almost completely dry. Emerged shallow-ma-
rine skeletal carbonates, tidal carbonates, and oolites
were cemented and formed lithified layers, or they
were reworked. Fluvial sediments and eolian sand
dunes migrated into and across the basin (Fig. 4.7b).
Thus, the Holocene marine sediments rest on terres-
trial deposits in large areas of the gulf.
During the early Holocene transgression (18 to 12
ka B.P.), the climate was more humid than at present.
Large areas in the northem and northwestem gulf
were covered with terrigenous material. Since ~8 ka
the climate became dryer, allowing the deposition of
evaporites and eolian sediments in shallow gulf re-
gions. In areas covered by the transgressing sea, car-
bonate sands and light muds rich in aragonite needles
and pellets (carbonate content ;: 7 0%) accumulated.
Older aragonitic muds were partly reworked and re-
distributed throughout the gulf. Under the present
conditions, silty marls (carbonate content ab out 55%)
form in wide areas of the gulf. They are rich in
biogenic constituents and contain abundant high
magnesian calcite.
Thicknesses and sedimentation rates of the Holocene car-
bonate sands and ca1careous muds vary according to the
irregular pre-Holocene topography. Average sedimentation
rates are in the order of 10 to 20 cmlka; in depressions,
sediments accumulated at a rate up to about 300 cmlka,
whereas topographie highs may be almost free ofHolocene
sediments.
A specific feature of the present-day sea floor of the gulf
is a network of pockmarks produced by seepages of
thermogenie gas (Uchupi et al. (1996).
4.4 Summary (Adjacent Seas)
4.4 Summary (Adjacent Seas)
The water circulation systems, salinities, and
redox conditions of adjacent seas connected with
the open ocean largely vary with time and from
basin to basin. These properties are mainly
controlled by the inflow of river water and the
dimension of their opening to a neighboring
ocean.
Estuarine circulation with predominating surface
outflow favors the accumulation of black shales
(Black Sea, Gulf of Califomia, Baltic Sea). Anti-
estuarine circulation with strong subsurface inflow
produces well-oxygenated bottom water and the
tendency for increased salinity in shallow parts of
the "arid" basin (Red Sea, Persian Gulf).
181
Shallow and narrow sills generate either brackish
or hypersaline basins; this effect is reinforced by
relative sea-Ievel fall or closure of gateways,
transforming adjacent seas into lakes or evaporite
basins.
These general rules, however, are modified by other
factors controlling basin evolution and sediments.
Distinct, but weaker effects on sedimentary
characteristics are also observed in marginal ocean
basins with horizontally separated inflow and
outflow (e.g. Caribbean Sea, northem North
Atlantic).
5 Oceanic Sediments
5.1 Introduction 183
5.2 Water Circulation in the Oceans 183
5.2.1 Salinity and Density ofOcean Water
5.2.2 Density Stratification and the Pycnocline
5.2.3 Oceanic Water Circulation
Thermohaline circulation
Wind-Driven Circulation
Combined Effects of Thermohaline and
Wind-Driven Circulation
5.2.4 Current Speeds, Transport ofWater Masses,
Heat, and Nutrients
5.2.5 Summary (Ocean Water Circulation)
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Deep-Sea Sediments 188
5.3.1 Sources, Transport, and Classification of
Deep-Sea Sediments
Sediment Sources
Classification ofDeep-Sea Sediments
Transport Mechanisms and Deposition
5.3.2 Deep-Sea Carbonates and Carbonate
Dissolution
Biogenic Carbonate Production
The Chalk Problem
Carbonate Dissolution
Production and Dissolution ofCarbonate:
a Dynamic Equilibrium
5.3.3 Red Clay and Manganese Nodules
5.3.4 Sediments in Zones ofUpwelling
General Aspects
Coastal Upwelling and Its Sediments
5.3.5 Siliceous Sediments
Biogenic Production of Opaline Silica
Preservation ofOpaline Silica
Areal Distribution ofBiosiIiceous Sediments
Silica Diagenesis and Bedded Cherts
5.3.6 Summary (Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments)
5.3.7 Marine Phosphorites
Sources of phosphorus and phosphate
precipitation
Secondary Enrichment ofPhosphorite
Summary (Phosphorites)
5.3.8 Sediments on Marginal and Oceanic Plateaus,
Ridges and Seamounts
Deep Plateaus and Seamounts
Siopes and Basins Close to Submarine Plateaus
Submarine Ridge and Basin Topography
Summary (Plateaus, Ridges, and Associated
Basins)
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow Deposits and Turbidites. 210
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Gravity Mass Movements and Mass Flows
in the Ocean
Types of Gravity Mass Transport
Preferential Sites ofMass Movements
Deposits ofDebris Flows and Mud Flows
5.4.3 Turbidity Currents and Turbidites
Suspension (Turbidity) Currents
Types of Turbidites and Their Characteristics
Other Characteristics ofTurbidites
Bed Sets and Proximal-Distal Trends
of Turbidite Sequences
5.4.4 Volumes, Travel Distances and Frequency
ofMass Flow Deposits
5.4.5 Deep-Sea Fan Associations
Types ofDeep-Sea Fans
The Sediment Distribution System of
Deep-Sea Fans
Paleo-Current Directions in Deep-Sea Fans
Active and Inactive Phases ofFan Deposition
Sedimentation Rates ofDeep-Sea Fans
5.4.6 Deep-Sea Channels
5.4.7 Summary (Gravity Mass Flows, Turbidites,
Deep-Sea Fans)
5.5 Erosion and Redeposition ofDeep-Sea Sediments 235
5.5.1 Deep Bottom-Current Erosion
5.5.2 Contourites and Sediment Drifts
5.5.3 Stratigraphic Gaps in the Deep-Sea Record
5.5.4 Summary (Deep-Marine Erosion and
Redeposition)
5.6 Paleoceanogrgphy 238
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Processes Influencing Climate, Ocean
Circulation, and Marine Sediments
Solar Radiation and Feedback Systems
Greenhouse Gases
Air-Sea CO 2 Exchange: the Solution Pump and
the Biological Pump
Further Air-Sea-Land Interactions
5.6.3 The Conveyer Belt in the Modem Oceans
5.6.4 Effects ofLow Sea Level
5.6.5 Oceanic Gateways and Paleo-Ocean Circulation
5.6.6 The Cretaceous Ocean
5.6.7 The post-Cretaceous Cooling
5.6.8 Surnrnary (Paleoceanography)
5.2 Water Circulation
5.1 Introduction
The ocean basins are the ultimate sink for all the ma-
terial transported by rivers or blown by winds into
the sea. In addition, the oceans produce large quanti-
ties of autochthonous biogenic material. In their areal
extent, the sediments of the present-day deep ocean
basins surpass by far all the other sedimentary envi-
ronments. Even measured by volume and for a cer-
tain time slice, deep-sea sediments have presumably
predominated over other sediment types, for example
shelf deposits, for the last millions of years.
However, in the ancient record, a large proportion of
former deep-sea sediments is missing (cf. Sect. 1l.7).
They were either subducted at convergent plate mar-
gins, or incorporated into accretionary prisms and
orogenic belts and partially transformed into meta-
morphic rocks. After uplift, most of these rocks were
eroded. Nevertheless, even in ancient rock sequences
exposed on the continents, nonmetamorphic deep-sea
sediments playa significant part. Their identification
and interpretation are an important objective in basin
studies and paleogeographic reconstructions.
As a resu1t of intensive research during the last few de-
cades, including deep-sea drilling, our know1edge about
deep-sea sediments in the present and ancient oceans has
increased enormous1y. Much has .been written on the distri-
bution of marine sediments in space and time in relation to
the changing configuration of the ocean basins, varying
climate, and pa1eoceanographic conditions (e.g., Kuenen
1950; Emery 1960; Shepard and Dill 1966; Shepard 1973;
Schopf 1980; Berger 1981; Emiliani 1981; Kennett 1982;
Pickering et al. 1986; Rart1ey and Prosser 1995; Seibo1d
and Berger 1996; Stowet al. 1996). This brief summary
emphasizes some general princip1es for the generation and
distribution of deep-sea sediments and includes an over-
view of the most important processes controlling oceanic
circu1ation (Sect. 5.2).' Without an e1ementary know1edge
of these processes, many sedimentary features and their
regional variations cannot be properly understood. Special
case studies from both present-day and ancient ocean bas-
ins are mentioned in the additional references.
5.2 Water Circulation in the Oceans
5.2.1 Salinity and Density of Ocean Water
Circulation of water masses in the oceans is the re-
sult of an interplay between the atmosphere and the
oceans. Both atmospheric and oceanic circulation are
driven by the energy provided by the Sun's radiation.
The nature of these two circulation systems is, how-
ever, quite different. Atmospheric circulation, which
affects a medium of very low density, is extremely
fast and complex, and is not restricted to certain bas-
ins with strict boundaries like the oceans. Circulation
in the oceans is much slower, which is mainly caused
by the higher density of water in comparison with air.
183
Thus, much more energy is needed to move thick
water masses than to drive the atmosphere.
Besides absolute density, variations in density
also play an important part in controlling circulation
systems (e.g., Pickard and Emery 1982). The density
variations of sea water are controlled by salinity (S),
water temperature (T), and to a minor extent by pres-
sure. The average salinity of present-day ocean water
is about 35 gof salts per kg of sea water.
For exact determinations all carbonate has to be converted
to oxide, while bromine and iodine are rep1aced by ch10-
rine. Sa1inity is usually written as S = 35%0 or 35 ppt (parts
per thousand).
Whereas the total concentration of disso1ved salts, i.e.,
the salinity, varies from p1ace to p1ace and at different
depths, the ratios of the main components of sea water are
found to be almost constant in all parts of the oceans. This
fact is explained by the permanent mixing ofwater masses
not only within certain oceanic basins, but also by water
exchange from one basin to another. On the other hand,
this homogenization of sea water is counteracted by pro-
cesses continually di1uting or concentrating the salt content
of sea water in specific areas, for example by entering fresh
water from the continents, by forming or melting sea ice, or
by high evaporation in warm, shallow seas.
In the large oceans, salinity only varies between
about 33 and 370/00 (Fig. 5.la and b). Therefore its
influence on the density of sea water is generally
lower than that of temperature variations (Fig. 5.2a).
The surface temperatures of present-day ocean wa-
ters vary between about -2 and +30 °C (Fig. 5.la and
c). In low latitude regions the difference in tempera-
ture of surface water and deep water (> 1000 m
depth) is greater than 20°C. The combined effects of
salinity and temperature on the density of sea water
are generally depicted in Fig. 5.2a. At high tempera-
tures, the density change with t1 T becomes more pro-
nounced than at lower temperatures. The change in
density with t1S is about the same at all temperatures.
Provided salinity and pressure are kept constant, a increase
in temperature, d T, leads to a decrease in the density of sea
water. Example: for d T = 30°C and S = 35%0, the density
changes from about 1.028 to 1.022 glcm 3, Fig. 5.2a).
Although the effect of pressure changes on the density
of sea water may be re1atively high, for examp1e between
surface waters and deep ocean waters, its influence on wa-
ter circulation is usually neglected. The reason for this is
that water masses at the same depths are subject to the
same pressure. Thusno horizontal density gradient due to
pressure is generated which may initiate or enhance lateral
flow. This topic is not discussed further here.
Furthermore, it is of interest that both the tempera-
ture of maximum density as well as the freezing point
of sea water drop with increasing salinity. Low saline
water sinks before freezing, because its maximum
density is already reached at temperatures above the
freezing point. Consequently, the total water column
184
is overturned until it all reaches the temperature of
maximum density. On further cooling, the surface
water becomes lighter and finally freezes from the
surface downward.
At salinities above 25%0, the maximum density is reached
at approximately -2 oe at the freezing point. Thus, the
overtuming of the water column continues up to this tem-
perature. As a result, freezing is delayed.
5.2.2 Density Stratification and the Pycnocline
Everywhere in the ocean, the most dense water tends
to sink to the bottom and the least dense water comes
up to the surface. Particularly in smalI, closed basins
and basins with restricted water circulation, but also
in equatorial and tropical regions of the present-day
oceans, this process often leads to a rather stable
density-stratified water mass. Characteristically, wa-
ter density does not increase uniformly with depth.
Usually, a relatively shallow, wave-affected water
layer of lower density is underlain by a thick denser
water mass. The transitional layer between these
zones is called the pycnocline; it may frequently also
act as a thermocline and/or halocline (boundary be-
tween water rnasses of different salinity). Here, den-
sity increases rapidly with depth (Fig. 5.1d). As long
as the surface water remains less den se than the deep
water body, for example in warm climates, and the
bottom water cannot be replaced, the density stratifi-
cation and the pycnocline persist for long time peri-
ods.
This can also be observed in many lakes in warm, low-lati-
tude regions (Sect. 2.5), in the Black Sea, or in the Eastern
Mediterranean. In all these cases, the surface water may be
characterized by turbulence and circulation, but the bottom
waters are Iittle affected byatmospheric forces.
The pycnocline acts as an effective barrier to water
movement, either downward or upward. It is often associ-
ated with a chemocline indicating a major change in water
chemistry. The stability of such an internal boundary layer
is, however, essentially based on the rapid change in water
density with depth.
In mid- and high-Iatitude regions, where surface wa-
ters undergo cooling during winter time or are per-
manently cool, density stratification tends to be less
stable or absent (Fig. 5.1d). Density stratification can
Fig. 5.1. a Variation in surface temperature, salinity,
and average density relative to latitude. b Salinity-
depth profiles in the Pacific. c Temperature-depth
profiles, thermocline, and zones of "upper water" and
"deep water". d Typical density-depth profiles for
low and high latitudes. All data in a-d from present-
day oceans. (After Pickard and Emery 1982). e Rect-
angular ocean with idealized, simphfied circulation
system as a result of wind forces and thermohaline
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
be rnaintained if fresh water inflow generates low-
density surface water (e.g. in some Norwegian fjords
or in parts ofthe Baltic Sea).
5.2.3 Oceanic Water Circulation
Thermohaline circulation
Circulation in the oceans is essentially driven by two
mechanisms: Variations in water density and winds.
Because density is controlled by water temperature
and salinity, the first mechanism is called
thermohaline circulation. It enables deep-water cir-
culation. The second component is wind-driven near-
surface circulation.
Thermohaline circulation is essentially controlled
by the temperature gradient between the poles and
the equator. The horizontal and vertical density dis-
tribution in the modem oceans (Fig. 5.1a and d) devi-
ates from the ideal, horizontally stratified water
masses consisting of two layers of constant tempera-
ture and salinity indicated above. The density of sur-
face water changes in a north-south section through
the present-day oceans as a function of water
temperature and salinity (Fig. 5.1).
Although salinity decreases from low latitudes toward the
poles, density is greatest at high latitudes due to a lower
temperature and, in places, by the ejecting of salt when ice
freezes. Furtherrnore, density-depth profiles (as weIl as
salinity and temperature ) near the equator and tropical seas
considerably differ frorn those at high latitudes (Fig. 5.1 b, c
and d). Both locations show the expected increase in den-
sity with depth, but low latitudes are characterized by a big
jump in density creating a two-Iayer ocean, whereas at high
latitudes, the vertical density gradient is small.
Ocean water displaying such a density distribution
cannot be in a stable condition; it circulates. The rel-
atively dense surface water at high latitudes sinks and
is replaced by surface water from lower latitudes.
The sinking dense water approaches the sea floor,
and then flows as bottom current towards the equator
and then somewhere upwards.
Such a therrnohaline circulation is kept in operation as long
as the nonequilibrium conditions can be maintained. This
is accomplished by continuous heat transfer from the
warmer atmosphere to the low-Iatitude surface waters, or
effects. (Based on different sources). Note the dis-
tinct asymmetry of the gyres (STG subtropical gyre;
SPG subpolar gyre) , the intensified surface SC and
bottom BC currents along the western cll1argin of the
basin (longer arrows), and the zones of coastal
upwelling C UW along the eastern rnargin. ED equa-
torial divergence associated with equatorial
upwelling EUW; STC and PC subtropical and polar
convergence giving rise to downwelling DW
5.2 Water Circulation 185

OCEAN SURFACE SALINITY ~o)

a 11 HEAT ·C 30
b 33 35 37
-~--- , TEMPERATURE o .......----.---.----,--,
" -(/
,
\
/cm3 /,-- HEAT 20 \
9 DENSITY'-
,
1.028 \, -1'1'- 36
HIGH,

,,:!
, %0 10
1 LAT .....,
AND MID-
lATITUDES
"- ,, 35
..
1.026
'.'
, 0
-2 2
SALINITY 34
1.024
~,

<J
1.022 a: '. 33
o 3
a:
....
1.020L-~~~~U-~~~~~~~~~~ 32 km
60· S 40· 20· O· 40· 600 N 80· DEPTH
LATITUDE

d DENSITY (g / cm 3 ) C TEMPERATURE

-;1-
23 24 25 26 27 1.028 0 10 20 30·C

----
0 0
------
t
(
....
I
EQUATOR I ·UPPER
I
1 I WATER-
I THERMO-

PYCNOCLlNE ,
I
I
CLINE
~
2 1 I

t
I
I
I lOW,
-DEEP
HIGH lATITUDE HIGH

I
3 WATER-
LATITUDES

km DEPTH
2
4 km DEPTH

e TRADE WINDS WEST. W.

z;?
186 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

a
SAUNITY (1cool
10 20 30 40

FREEZING POINT 90% OF

TEMPERATURE OCEAN
OF MAXIMUM DENSITY

N c

CURRENT DIRECnONS
•••••••••,> WlTHOUT CORIOUS EFFECT
---==- WITH CORIOUS EFFECT

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE d

COASTAL DOWNWELLING COASTAL UPWELLING

Fig. 5.2. a Density of water Dw as a function of sa-
limty and temperature (at atmospheric pressure).
Note changing temperatures of maximum density and
freezing point. M mean value for present world
ocean; hatched field 90% of ocean. b Deflection of
wind-driven currents due to the Coriolis effect in the
northem hernisphere (Eckman spiral). c Oceanic con-
vergence and divergence causing downwelling and
upwelling as a result of the Coriolis forces in the
northem hemisphere. d Coastal downwelling and
upwelling caused by winds along the coast, northem
hernisphere. (After Pickard and Emery 1982; Stowe
1979)

by heat loss from the oceans to the cooler atmosphere at
high latitudes. Therefore, small ocean basins and long, nar-
row, east-west extended ocean regions which belong en-
tirely to the same clirnatic zone, are but little affected by
thennohaline circulation. If there was aperiod of more or
less unifonn climate on Earth, even large oceans, extended
widely from north to south, could hardly develop pro-
nounced thennohaline circulation.
5.2 Water Circulation
Wind-Driven Circulation
Wind blowing over the surface of a standing water
body causes both waves and motion of the surface
water. In the open ocean, waves transport energy but
not water masses (see Sect. 3.1). Hence in this case,
we must deal only with the second consequence of
atmospheric circulation: wind-generated currents.
On a gross scale, wind-driven currents reflect the
global wind pattern and only move surface waters.
However, surface currents are modified by the ocean
basin boundaries and by Coriolis forces. The com-
bined effect ofthese factors is shown in Fig. 5.le for
a hypothetical rectangular ocean resembling the
present-day Atlantic Ocean.
Trade wind belts to the north and south of the equator give
rise to a north equatorial and south equatorial current flow-
ing westward. Near the coast they turn either to the north or
to the south until they reach the west wind belts in the mid-
latitude regions. Then the surface waters flow eastward,
until they are divided into two branches, a northeast current
and a southeast current. In the northem hemisphere, the
southeast current turns south along the eastem continental
margin and finally feeds into the north equatorial current,
thus forming a large gyre with clockwise water circulation.
In the southem hemisphere, similarly a counter-clockwise
gyre is completed. Those parts of the eastward-directed
mid-latitude currents which turn poleward can again form
gyres, a counter-clockwise gyre in the northem hemisphere
and a clockwise gyre in the southem hemisphere.
Another conspicuous phenomenon, related to the rota-
tion of the Earth, is that the currents become narrower and
faster on the west side of an ocean, where the water is piled
up somewhat before it flows back in other directions, both
in the northem and southem hemisphere. Between the
westward-flowing equatorial currents, an eastward-directed
counter-current may develop.
This idealized current pattern in a rectangular ocean is,
of course, substantially modified by deviating atmospheric
circulation and, in particular, by the irregular topography
of a single or several connected ocean basins. The present
South Atlantic, for example, is openly connected with the
other large oceans. Therefore, water rnasses flowing south-
ward feed into an Antarctic circumpolar current system,
where large volumes ofwater sink due to cooling and initi-
ate thermohaline bottom circulation flowing northward
(Antarctic bottom water).
Due to the Coriolis force, surface current directions
deviate from those of the wind (Fig. 5.2b). In the
northern hemisphere, the Coriolis force deflects
wind-driven currents to the right, in the southern
hemisphere to the left. The clockwise gyre north of
the equator and the counter-clockwise gyre south of
the equator reflect this mechanism (Fig. 5.le).
At the surface of a deep water body, the angle between the
directions of wind and current may be up to 45° (Fig.
5.2b), in shallow water less. Below the surface, each layer
ofwater is dragged along by the layer above it. Hence, due
to the Coriolis force, each sublayer flows to the right ofthe
overlying layer. Since the Coriolis deflection increases with
187
slower current speeds, the slower moving deeper waters
turn even more to the right than the surface currents. The
resulting distribution of current directions at different
depths is called the Eckman spiral. The direction of net
water transport over all depths is 90° to the right of the
wind direction. In shallow waters the deflection of net wa-
ter transport is less than 90°.
Combined Effects of Thermohaline and
Wind-Driven Circulation
The phenomenon of the Eckman spiral clearly dem-
onstrates that wind-driven surface currents and
thermohaline circulation, prevailing in deeper waters,
cannot act independently. Ocean currents are the re-
sult of the combined effects of both factors. Wind
primarily causes horizontal motion, whereas the
thermohaline effects primarily generate motion with
a vertical component. Combined horizontal surface
currents can locally accelerate vertical motion
(downwelling and upwelling) and thus intensify deep
bottom currents. However, regions with substantial
exchange between the upper water layer (300 to 1000
m deep including the thermocline) and deep water
are limited in extent. Much larger areas in the ocean
display little exchange between these two water
masses.
In the open ocean, currents generated by easterly
winds near the equator tend, due to the Coriolis ef-
fect, to diverge to the north or to the south of the
equator (Fig. 5.2c). The resulting equatorial diver-
gence of surface waters leads to upwelling of deeper
water along this zone (Fig. 5.1e). The same phenom-
enon is created at the boundary of oppositely directed
currents if, for example, in the northern hemisphere
the more northerly current flows westward (Fig.
5.2c).
In contrast, converging surface currents tend to
pile up water and thus generate a downward motion
(downwelling). The most prominent example in the
present-day oceans is the subtropical convergence
and the Antarctic polar front in the southern hemi-
sphere, where eastward-directed currents are forced
to converge. Here, as weil as in northern polar re-
gions, downwelling is intensified by the cooling of
surface waters. Downward moving water reaches,
according to its density, intermediate depths or the
sea bottom and feeds into relatively slow subsurface
or bottom currents. These currents are also subjected
to the Coriolis effect and thus tend to turn to the right
in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
Of particular interest to sedimentologists are bot-
tom currents, because they may be able, at least 10-
cally, to transport sedimentary particles and even to
rework silty to fine-sandy sediments. Equator-di-
rected bottom currents, derived from downwelling
high-Iatitude waters, travel preferentially on the west-
188
ern boundary of an ocean, for example at the base of
the continental margin (Fig. 5.1 e). They approxi-
mately follow the contours of the ocean basin and are
therefore referred to as contour currents. Such cur-
rents mayaIso occur on the eastern margin, but they
usually flow poleward.
Upwelling and downwelling also occur in coastal
waters. Onshore surface currents tend to stack up
water along the coast, which will consequently begin
to sink and replace deeper water (coastal
downwelling). Offshore currents generate coastal
upwelling of intermediate or deep water. Due to the
effect of the Eckman spiral, these processes are initi-
ated or intensified by winds blowing parallel to the
co ast line, for example in front of a coastal mountain
range (Fig. 5.2d). These mIes allow predicting of
coastal upwelling or downwelling for locations in the
northern or southern hemisphere when the wind di-
rection is known.
If an ocean extends into polar regions and is partly
covered by sea ice during a glacial period, the high-
latitude area of downwelling high-density water, i.e.
the polar front, moves toward lower latitudes. At the
same time, the comparatively stable water stratifica-
tion at low latitudes will persist. Large quantities of
sea ice may lead to an increase in ocean salinity by 1
to 2%0 and thus stabilize the deep water mass. In ad-
dition, temporarily melting ice can locally dilute sur-
face water and further promote density stratification.
As a result of both processes, thermohaline circula-
tion may slow somewhat and oxygen transport into
deep water may become reduced. Further conse-
quences of glaciation are discussed in Sect. 5.6.
5.2.4 Current Speeds, Transport of
Water Masses, Heat, and Nutrients
Surface current speeds can locally reach values as
high as 150 to 250 crn/s (Gulf-Stream, Kuroshio off
Japan), but are often considerably lower. The
present-day Antarctic circumpolar current has a
speed of 4 to 15 crn/s. Deep bottom currents can 10-
cally develop about the same velocity (contour cur-
rents up to 15 to 20 crn/s), but are generally much
slower (1 to 3 crn/s).
Because oceanic currents affect water masses with
very large cross sections (in terms of both width and
depth) they transport enormous volumes of water
(e.g., the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio from 30 to
150 106 m3/s, the Antarctic circumpolar current
110106 m3/s, and the northward flowing Antarctic
bottom water in the South Atlantic 18106 m3/s).
Hence, oceanic circulation also transfers huge quan-
tities of heat from equatorial zones into high latitudes
and, vi ce versa, providcs for cooling in low latitudes
regions. In this way, the oceans also exert a very
large influence on the climate and the conditions of
life on the neighboring continents.
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
Surface currents carry fine-grained, suspended
particles and living organisms, including their larvae,
over long distances and thus distribute life and sedi-
ments. Currents, particularly those upwelling from
intermediate and deep water, transfer oxygen and
nutrients released by the mineralization of organic
matter or dissolution of biogenic skeletal particles
(see below) into coastal or equatorial regions. There,
in the euphotic zone, penetrated by sun light, the nu-
trients enable high phytoplankton productivity and
strong activity by its consumers (cf. Sect. 10.3.2).
5.2.5 Summary (Ocean Water Circulation)
~ Wind action and the exchange of energy (heat)
between the atmosphere and the ocean create
wind-driven surface currents and thermohaline
circulation of water masses at various depths.
~ Surface currents follow the main wind direc-
tions and are deflected by Corioli' s forces.
~ Changes in water temperature and salinity
cause density gradients which in turn lead to ±
stable stratified ocean waters (at low-latitude
regions) or to thermohaline circulation when
cold and dense water sinks (at high latitudes).
~ Downwelling cold water masses flow back as
intermediate or bottom currents toward the
equator. Near the equator and in mid-latitude
coastal zones, cold water masses come up the
surface (upwelling).
~ This simplified scenario is strongly modified
by the irregular morphology of the ocean bas-
ins and may have been different in the past.
Ocean currents transfer heat, nutrients, and to
some extent also fine-grained sediment. They
are an important factor in controlling the global
climate and the fertility ofthe oceans.
5.3 Hemil>elagic and Pelagic
Deep--Sea Sediments
5.3.1 Sourees, Transport, and Classification of
Deep-Sea Sediments
Sediment Sources
Deep-sea sediments are derived from several sources:
(1) Allochthonous sediments from the continents (see
also Sects. 9.3 and 11.5):
~ Suspended load ofrivers.
~ Eolian dust.
~ Volcaniclastic material (e.g. volcanic ash).
(2) Autochthonous biogenic sediments, mainly cal-
cium carbonate and opaline silica.
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments
(3) Authigenic sediment components, formed in
place.
The contributions of the different sources to the
present-day total sediment volume of the oceans are
not exacdy known. A great proportion of the river-
borne sediment is deposited on the shelves, continen-
tal slopes, and deep-sea fans (cf. Sects. 5.4 and 11.5).
In these environments, allochthonous terrigenous
sediments predominate.
On lower slopes and continental rises, fine-grained
siliciclastics commonly mix with biogenic material
and form hemipelagic sediments.
In deep-sea environments, far away form the
coastlines and the deltas of major rivers, the minor
contributors, such as biogenic material, eolian dust,
and volcanic ash, can reach high percentages in the
sediment. These deposits are referred to as pelagic
sediments.
Where terrigenous sediment input is very low
andJor interrupted by intervals of nondeposition and
erosion, authigenic sediment layers (e.g. mangane se
noduls, phosphorites) or specific minerals (e.g.
glauconite) can form.
Chemical precipitation of salts in deep oceanic basins does
not occur today, though it was significant during some pe-
riods in the past in specific deep marginal basins (Sect.
6.4).
Classification of Deep-Sea Sediments
Deep-sea sediments are commonly a mixture of
terrigenous and biogenic components, but the propor-
tions of these components vary greatly.
Hemipelagic sediments, primarily formed by slow
pelagic settling, contain a large proportion of
terrigenous silt and clay. At least 25% of their grain
size fraction 2:5 flm is terrigenous and volcanogenic
in origin, or it is derived from shallow-marine sedi-
ments (Berger 1974, Jenkyns 1986). The median
grain size of hemipelagic sediments is 2:5 flm. This
group may be subdivided into:
- Terrigenous muds and mudstones (CaC0 3 content
:$30%).
- Volcanogenic muds (predominantly volcanic ash,
CaC03 content $30%).
Calcareous muds and marlstones (CaC0 3 content
2:30%).
Pelagic sediments commonly contain less than 25%
terrigenous material of the fraction 2:5 flm. Their me-
dian grain size is $5 flIn, apart from authigenic min-
erals and skeletons of microfossils. This group is
subdivided into:
189
- Pelagic (silty) clays and claystones containing
$30% CaC03 and biogenic Si02 (calcareous clays
or siliceous clays and claystones).
- Calcareous oozes, marls and marlstones, chalk and
pelagic limestones (CaC0 3 ~30%).
- Siliceous oozes, silicified claystones, porcellanite,
diatomites, radiolarites, chert (Si0 2 ~30%).
Within these subgroups, more special types of sediments
can be defined. Black shales containing relatively high
amounts of organic matter may be either rich or poor in
carbonate or silt-size terrigenous material (cf. Sect. 10.3.3).
They cannot be clearly attached to one of the groups or
subgroups listed above. Hemipelagic and pelagic sediments
are frequently redeposited and partially mixed with
shallow-water material by gravity mass movements, and
they may be winnowed and reworked by deep bottom cur-
rents (Sects. 5.4 and 5.5).
Transport Mechanisms and Deposition
Deep-sea sediments can also be classified in terms of
transport mechanisms and deposition:
- Current-transport in suspension.
- Slow pelagic settling.
- Redeposition of shallow-water and slope sedi-
ments by gravity mass movements (Sect. 5.4).
- Winnowing and current-reworking of pre-existing
sediments and their redeposition in the deep sea
(cf. Sect. 5.5).
The river-borne terrigenous component. In front of
deltas, river floods provide highly concentrated sus-
pensions of terrigenous material. These can, particu-
larly near the river bed, directly reach the deep sea as
underflows. Less concentrated suspensions float for
a short time as a fresh water wedge on top of sea wa-
ter. As already mentioned in Section 3.5, clay sus-
pended in fresh water is generally much less aggre-
gated than in sea water. Thus it can be widely distrib-
uted (Fig. 5.3) before it comes in contact with more
saline water promoting aggregation. Once floc-
culated, ~he settling velocity of the aggregates in-
creases to values of several meters up to several tens
of meters per day.
Their additional lateral transport is a function of water
depth and the velocity and depth range of the ocean cur-
rents (McCave 1984). This can be demonstrated by a very
simple example, which does not take into account effects of
large-scale turbulences: If a surface current has a mean
velocity of 0.2 mls (= -17 kmld) to a depth of up to 200 In,
an aggregate settling from sea level with a velocity of 10
mlday can reach a point 340 km away from its original
position.
It should be pointed out here, that transport, deposi-
tion, and erosion of fine-grained sediments do not
190
follow the comparatively simple rules found for
cohesionless materials such as sand and gravel. Clay
and fine silt-sized particles stick together due to van
der Waals forces or electrostatic attractions which
are large relative to the small weight of the single
particles. In addition, they may be bonded by organic
secretions of bacteria, algae, diatorns, and other
micro-organisrns living on top of or within the sedi-
ment. The combined result of all these processes is
described and measured as cohesion.
Fecal pellets, consisting mainly of inorganic, fine-grained
partieles bound together by organic compounds, are abun-
dant on widely extended areas of the sea floor. Further-
more, the same assemblage of partic1es may vary in water
content or degree of compaction. Consequently, the same
general type of mud may display quite different values of
cohesion and thus require lower or higher critical current
stresses for its erosion, which are difficult to predict. Small
partieles and aggregates colliding in the water column can
adhere to one another and form larger aggregates (Gibbs
1985; Kineke and Stemberg 1989). Fully flocculated sus-
pensions settle much faster than their individual partic1es
do in a disaggregated state. In most marine environments,
such aggregates have diameters greater than 1 mm, but
under higher fluid shear c10se to the sea bed they break up
into sizes :>,100 f.1m, unless they have strong biological
binding as, for example, fecal pellets. In this broken-up
state the aggregates are deposited on smooth or rough beds,
where some sorting between larger, more stable aggregates
and smaller aggregates may take place.
Thus, clay aggregates and fecal pellets need higher
current velocities to be transported over long dis-
tances than individual clay particles. To erode cohe-
sive aggregates, current velocities higher than those
required for clean coarse silts or sands are necessary,
even if the grain fabric of the aggregated mud is dis-
turbed by burrowing organisms or other discontinu-
ities. Erosion usually does not occur particle by parti-
cle, but in the form of variously sized aggregates.
Apart from floating suspensions emanating from
river mouths, silts and clays entering the sea as river
load are sorted out by wave action and move offshore
via nepheloid plumes associated with ocean currents
(Fig. 5.3). Depending on the stratification of the wa-
ter masses and the density of the suspensions, such
turbid plumes may migrate near the surface, at mid-
depth, or they reach the deep sea where they drop
most of their suspended material. The finest-grained
particles or aggregates can be kept in suspension by
weak bottom currents for a long time. They form the
so-called nepheloid layer in many parts of the mod-
em oceans. The thickness of this layer is on the order
of 100 to 1000 m, but the concentration of suspended
matter is very low.
Eolian dust. Although fine-grained terrigenous parti-
cles are distributed in a number of different ways
(including gravity mass flows as described below)
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
over relatively long distances, large areas in the
oceans receive very little river-borne terrigenous
mud. In this regions, a great portion of the
terrigenous component sterns from dustfall from the
stratosphere, where fine-grained particles are rapidly
distributed around the globe (cf. Sect. 4.3.5). Wind-
borne dust seems to be, for example, the main con-
stituent of red deep-sea clay. The contribution of
eolian dust to the modem pelagic deep-sea sediments
is particularly_ significant in ocean regions on the lee
side of continental deserts.
Frequently addressed modem examples are the eastem
Atlantic off West Africa where trade winds carry Saharan
dust into the ocean, or the Arabian Sea which is affected by
southwest monsoons delivering dust from Asian deserts to
the sea (e.g. Sirocko et al. 1993). The central North Pacific
experienced high dustfall since about 3.6 Ma B.P., which is
related to the deposition of huge amounts of loess in China
(cf. Sect. 2.3). A change to dryer c1imate in central Asia,
associated with the buildup of ice -sheets in the northem
hemisphere and the uplift of the northem portion of the
Tibetan Plateau, may have caused this drastic increase of
dustfall (Rea et al. 1998).
The dust, transported over wide distances, is character-
ized by a narrow grain-size distribution (with a distinct
mode at about 2 f.1m) and relatively high contents of hema-
tite and goethite (Rea and Hovan 1995; Balsam et al.
1995). Fine-grained plant debris indicative of desert envi-
ronment mayaIso be present.
The biogenie component of the hemipelagic and pe-
lagic sediments is produced either in surface waters
(plankton) or on the sea floor (benthos). In the deep
sea, the latter contribution to the sediment mass is of
minor importance, although it may be a significant
indicator of ancient water depth. Primary planktonic
production varies significantly in different parts of
the oceans (cf. Sect. 10.3.2); in addition, a great part
or, in certain regions, virtually all of the organic and
skeletal remains is mineralized or dissolved on its
way to the sea floor. Thus, the ultimate contribution
of biogenic components to the deep-sea sediments of
an individual basin may differ greatly in space and
time. Generally, the following situations can be dis-
tinguished:
(1) Strong dilution of the autochthonous biogenic
component by allochthonous terrigenous material.
The resulting sediments are hemipelagic silty clays or
clayey silts, characterized by relatively high sedimen-
tation rates (often greater than ~5 cm/ka) and low
biogenic carbonate andlor opaline silica contents.
Many fine-grained sediments on gentle continental
slopes belong to this category, but they mayaiso con-
tain redeposited material (see below).
(2) The biogenic component is moderately diluted by
terrigenous material, creating hemipelagic calcareous
andlor siliceous silty clays or clayey silts. Their sedi-
mentation rates often range from 2 to 4 cm/ka.
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments 191

SEDIMENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN THE DEEP SEA

a OEEP $E:A AGGREGATES OF CANVON SLOPE GlllES

TRENCH FNE·GRANEO CATCHNQ
LONGSHORE SHELf MUD
SAN) TRANSPORT

PLANKTON
PAOOUCTION,
SlOW PElAGIC
FRESH WATER
WEooe OURNO
FLOOOS WITH

INCREASNG
PROPORTION
OF BIOGENe LATERAL
COMP0/IEN1S: CURRENT
HEMlPELAGIC TRANSPORT
-PELAGIC SEO. OF FLOC·
Cl.lI.ATEO
RlVER MUD

OEPOSlTIONAL ROGES
WITH MUD ANO S,6Hl WAVES
(RICH I'l SKELETAL MATERIAL)
SEOtMENT WEOGE OF
CONTI'lENTAL AlSE
(SLOPE APRON, OEEP·SEA
OEEP·SEA CHANNEL FAN, CONTOUFIITES,
(I'l CEATAIN REGIONS) HEtvllPELAGlCS)

CARBONATE CARBONATE
DISSOLUTION
o ..---,.,L---_-+
PRESERVATION
o ~-------y-.
b
DEEP-SEA
CARBONATE
CARBONATE DISSOLUTION
$UPPLY

2 Fig. 5.3. a Principles of sediment

distribution by surface and bottom
currents in deep-sea environ-
ments, and the accumulation of
LY$OCLlNE hemipelagic and pelagic sedi-
ments. b Supply, dissolution, and
preservation of carbonate as a
function of water depth and the
4 positions of the lysocline and cal-
cite compensation depth CCD.
Note that lysocline and CCD may
rise or fall with time and from
basin to basin. See text for further
explanation.
192
(3) The biogenic component is only slightly diluted
by terrigenous material, resulting in pelagic calcare-
ous or siliceous oozes, chalks, limestones,
diatomites, radiolarites etc., usually with a sedimen-
tation rate in the order of ;:;2 cmlka. These sediments
are particularly sensitive to relatively small environ-
mental changes and therefore frequently produce
rhythmic and cyclic sequences (cf. Sects. 7.1 and
7.9).
(4) Partial or entire dissolution of the biogenic com-
ponent and a very low influx of terrigenous matter
produce pelagic clay (usually reddish brown, known
as red deep-sea clay) and a very low net sedimenta-
tion rate (;:; 1 cmlka).
Under euxinic conditions and in poorly oxygenated
areas (cf. Sect. 10.3), the sediments of groups (1) to
(3) can be transformed into "black shales" of rather
differing composition. Group (4) is frequently asso-
ciated with the occurrence of manganese nodules
(see below).
5.3.2 Deep-Sea Carbonates and
Carbonate Dissolution
Biogenic Carbonate Production
Planktonic carbonate is produced mainly by cocco-
lithophores (nannoplankton), foraminifera, and free-
swirnrning molluscs over wide areas of the tropical,
subtropical and temperate zones of the modem
oceans. It is less abundant at high latitudes where
cool temperatures deteriorate the living conditions
for these organisms and, in addition, promote their
dissolution in carbonate-undersaturated waters.
Oceanic carbonate production is (1) a function of
the evolution of life, i.e., the efficiency of organisrns
to extract calcium carbonate from sea water, (2) the
availability of calcium delivered by rivers from the
continents, or other (minor) sources, and (3) the recy-
cling of calcium and nutrients (particularly nitrogen
and phosphorus) by the oceanic circulation system.
In addition, plankton growth depends (4) on the pres-
ence of special organic compounds, such as vitamins.
These "micronutrients" are mainly produced by bac-
teria and required by many phytoplankton species.
A summary on these and other growth factors is given by
Grant Gross (1980); rates of carbonate production are dis-
cussed in Sect. 10.2.
Over the Earth's history there have been times with low
and high global marine production and preservation of car-
bonate. A peak in shallow-marine carbonate production
occurred in the middle to late Paleozoic; an additional era
of high carbonate production began around 100 Ma ago
which has persisted into present times. Since that time the
fixation of calcium carbonate as calcite by marine plankton
has become an important factor.
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
The Chalk Problem
Y oung, soft, calcareous muds are commonly de-
scribed as calcareous oozes. Hemipelagic to pelagic
oozes are transformed into chalk as a result of incom-
plete, moderate diagenesis (e.g., Neugebauer 1974;
Zijlstra 1995; see also Sect. 13.1).
The term chalk refers to a variety of ancient, white to light
grey calcareous marine sediments, which are still porous,
friable, and composed predominantly of tiny, calcitic skele-
tal remains, such as coccolithophorides. Apart from pure
chalk, there are also chalks containing sands, larger shells,
glauconite, pyrite, phosphorite (see sections below), and
considerable proportions of clay (marly chalk) and organic
matter (bituminous chalk).
Although chalk consists predominantly of planktonic
skeletal remains, it was formed not only in the deep
sea above the calcite compensation depth, but also in
shallow seas, particularly in the upper Cretaceous.
The formation of chalk on shelves and in epiconti-
nental seas was favored by a high sea-level stand and
low influx of terrigenous material, high production of
calcitic nannoplankton, and scarcity of aragonitic
skeletal remains which commonly promote lithi-
fication and cementation. Wide and stable shelves, as
weIl as flooded continental regions were exposed to
wind patterns and current systems providing nutrients
for planktonic productivity. The sedimentation rates
of chalk often exceed 10 cmlka.
The presence of abundant sighted ostracods in chalk sug-
gests that the late Cretaceous sea floor in Alabama and
Mississippi was within the photic zone, i.e., not deeper
than 65 to 90 m (Puckett 1991). Most of the typical, wide-
spread chalk deposits in Europe, North America, in the
Middle East, and Australia were generated during this pe-
riod (Hattin 1986b, 1989; Hancock 1989; Zijlstra 1995). A
pure chalk facies may grade landward into marly chalk and
mudstone or, in high-energy environments, into shelly
chalk and skeletallimestone. Basinward, the chalk tends to
become laminated and richer in organic matter. On slopes
and in special morphological depressions, part of the mate-
rial forming chalk may be derived from shallower water
and be redeposited by mass flows and turbidity currents
(Sect. 5.4). On submarine highs where continuous chalk
deposition is prevented by wave and current actions, or
hampered by low sea level stands, the chalk sequences are
frequently condensed and contain hardgrounds and omis-
sion surfaces. Many chalk sequences contain chert and
show rhythrnic bedding in the Milankovitch frequency
band (cf, Sect. 7.9).
Carbonate Dissolution
The modem oceans and their living commumtles,
including those in shaIlow-water environments (Sect.
3.4), extract considerably more calcium carbonate
per unit time than can be replaced by river influx of
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments 193

calcium hydrogen carbonate and by smaller contribu- Production and Dissolution of Carbonate:
tors, for example hydrothermal sources along mid- aDynamie Equilibrium
oceanic ridges. The deficiency in biogenic calciu~
carbonate consumption is balanced by the oceamc For a limited geologic time period which is not af-
circulating system which recyc1es p~rt ?f the e~­ fected by major c1imatic or other global changes, the
tracted material. Calcium carbonate lS d1ssolved m position of the lysoc1ine and CCD can be expected to
the deep sea by cold bottom currents coming from remain constant. These boundaries then signify that a
high-latitude regions (in the present oceans by Ant- kind of steady-state condition is being maintained
arctic and Arctic bottom waters). between (biogenic) precipitation of calcium carbon-
ate retrieval of calcium carbonate from the ocean by
Prior to their downwelling, these water masses flow dis~olution, and supply of calcium carbona~e fr?m
poleward as surface currents. On their way to high lati- outside sources. Figure 5.4e shows such a sltuatlOn
tudes, they become depleted in calcium ~~rbonate .but rich
in free CO2 due to near-surface productJV1ty, coohng, and for the sediments of a mid-oceanic spreading center.
uptake of CO 2 from the atmosphere. Later, after they have With continuing accretion of new oceanic crnst, the
sunk into intermediate depths or to the sea floor, they can ridge crest moves away from it~ former pos~tion
take up CO 2 from the decomposition of organic matter on (from location I to 2) and the coohng crnst subs1des.
their way toward the equator (cf Fig. S.le). Thus, they As a result, the depositional area sinks below the
become undersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate CCD and the calcareous sediments sitting directly on
and therefore dissolve carbonate shells settling through pillo~ lava or basaltic flows are overlain by light
deep waters or already resting on the sea floor. gray or red siliceous sediments and later by red c1ay.
In the history of many ocean basins, however, the
Aragonite shells and thin skeletons of calcite are CCD (inc1uding the lysoc1ine) did not maintain a
more readily dissolved than robust calcitic shells. constant position, particularly when long time peri-
Carbonate wrapped into fecal pellets has a better ods are considered. Biogenic carbonate production in
chance of being preserved than do free floating shallow waters and carbonate dissolution in deep
shells. waters may be considered as a system being in a dy-
From mapping the sea floor and testing its surface namic equilibrium. The steady-state model men-
sediments, one can find two boundaries (Figs. 5.3b tioned above implies a raising or lowering of the
and 5.4a): CCD, if one or several·of the parameters controlling
the system are changed.
(1) A contour zone on the sea floor, where dissolu- Decreasing oceanic circulation, for example due
tion of less stable shells (consisting of aragonite) to a more balanced c1imate between the poles and the
starts to reduce significantly the normal carbonate equator, can lead to a drop in the overall fertili~ of
content of the sediment found at higher elevations. the oceans and thus to lower carbonate productlOn.
This boundary is referred to as the lysocline. Ihis in turn will reduce the need for carbonate disso-
(2) The second, deeper boundary, is known as the lution in deep waters to keep the carbonate budget
calcite compensation depth, or CCD. Here, the balanced and consequently cause a drop of the CCD.
planktonic calcium carbonate supply rate is balance~ A similar result can be achieved by an increase in the
by the dissolution rate. Below this depth, the sed1-
input of hydrogen carbonate from the ~ontinents. or
ment should be free of calcium carbonate. by dissolution of emerged carbonate bUlldups durmg
low sea-Ievel stands.
In the present-day oceans the CCD is observed gen-
In contrast, intensified oceanic circulation and
erallyat depths between 3.5 and 5.5 km. It is usually mineralization of organic matter can enhance fertility
depressed in low-latitude regions and below zones. of and thereby raise the CCD. Ihe same effect may be
equatorial divergence (upwelling) due to the h1gh generated by increased carbonate production on
production of calcium carbonate, and it is rai~ed in shelves and in reefal structures. The problem in inter-
high-latitude areas with low carbonate productlOn. A preting the situation in the geological past is that
higher CCD is also found along western continental some of these factors can counteract each other.
margins, where coastal upwelling is widespread. In
this case dissolution of carbonate near or at the sea From information gathered by deep-sea drilling, the CCD
floor ma~ be enhanced by decomposition of or~anic has moved up and down several times (by as much as 2 to
matter, which releases CO 2 provided by the h1ghly 3 km) in the last 100 Ma (e.g., Hay 1987; Seibold and
fertile photic zone (see below). Berger 1993; Berger and Wefer 1996). Sometimes these
variations were synchronous in the three major ocean bas-
ins sometimes the CCD behaved quite differently in each.
Th~ CCD was very low around the Cretaceous/Tertiary
boundary in the Pacific Ocean, while it stayed relatively
high in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. A CCD ~arke~ly
higher than at present was found for the early TertJary, W1th
194
the result that far fewer pelagic deep-sea carbonates were
preserved than during other periods.
The carbonate system of the oceans is also closely
linked with the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere.
Warm periods in the Earth's history appear to have been
associated with high CO 2 partial pressures in the atmo-
sphere. Wether and in which way this influenced carbonate
dissolution in the oceans is a topic which is beyond the
intention of this book.
In the transitional zones between full carbonate pres-
ervation above the lysoc1ine, carbonate-bearing sedi-
ments between the lysoc1ine and the CCD, and sili-
ceous red c1ay (see below), a fluctuating CCD can
generate an altemating succession of these two bed
types (Fig. 5Ab and c, cf. Sect. 7.9).
Adjacent seas with narrow openings to the world
oceans and therefore limited exchange of water
masses (Chap. 4, Fig. 4.2) are characterized by their
own carbonate budget and a CCD which may deviate
significantly from that ofthe major ocean basins.
Such smaller basins are controlled mainly by the climate
and river input of neighboring continents. A high influx of
calcium hydrogen carbonate and limited carbonate produc-
tion, as frequently observed in humid, mid-Iatitude zones,
cause the CCD to drop to or below the sea bed. Dissolution
of calcium carbonate can then only take place within the
sediment as a result of organic matter decomposition (e.g.,
in the Baltic Sea, cf. Sect. 4.2). Similarly, adjacent basins
surrounded by hot, arid regions will not necessarily de-
velop a high CCD, because their carbonate production is
usually kept low due to a shortage of nutrients, if their wa-
ter exchange with the open ocean is limited. Thus, a CCD
appears to be absent in most of these basins, i.e., it lies
below their basin floors (e.g., in the Red Sea).
5.3.3 Red Clay and Manganese Nodules
Red Deep-Sea Clay
The water masses of large oceanic gyres (Fig. 5.1e)
have little exchange with nutrient-rich coastal waters
or intermediate waters welling up in equatorial re-
gions. The planktonic productivity of the central
ocean basins is therefore low, and carbonate is dis-
solved below the CCD. Organic matter is mineralized
in the water colunm or at the sea floor where it is
exposed for a long time to oxygenated bottom water.
These basins receive little terrigenous input (a major
part of it being eolian dust), and their bottom waters
are well oxygenated.
Under these conditions, the so-called red clay is
deposited at an extremely slow rate (Fig. 5Aa and d).
In a fresh state, this material has a reddish brown
color, because it contains finely dispersed iron
oxyhydroxides as pigment.
The clay mineral assemblage of red clays is controlled
mainly by their source areas and therefore varies in space
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
and time. Illite, smectite, kaolinite, and chlorite are major
constituents in wide regions. Eolian dust is assumed to
contribute a large portion of such red clays, and even some
cosmic dust (spherules of nickel-iron, minerals of
chondrites) has been discovered (Bryant and Bennett
1988).
In the transition zone between highly and poorly fer-
tile surface waters, biogenic carbonate may already
dissolve in the water colunm, whereas part of the sili-
ceous remains n::aches the sea bottom. In this case,
red c1ays contain considerable proportions of
radiolaria (predominantly living in warm equatorial
waters) or diatorns (mainly from colder waters).
Manganese Nodules
In large areas of the present oceans, particularly in
the central Pacific, the red c1ay is covered by manga-
nese nodules which mayaiso contain various
amounts of iron and relatively high quantities of
nickel, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, and other trace
metals (e.g., Seibold 1978; Calvert and Piper 1984;
Halbach et al. 1988). The nodules are concentrated
on the sea bed and mostly become sparse some tens
of cm below the sediment-water interface.
For this reason it has been postulated that the nod-
ules dissolve under reducing conditions at some
depth below the sea floor and that Mn migrates by
diffusion to the interface and precipitates at the con-
tact with sea water. If the chemical environment in
interstitial waters remains oxidizing, the nodules are
preserved. Manganese nodules do not form at the sea
floor below an oxygen minimum zone, e.g. along
continental slopes. Then the sediment can become
depleted of Mn (e.g. Dickens and Owens 1995). It
has also been noted that bacteria play a role in the
fixation of manganese.
Most nodules are flat at their base and show concentric
growth structures. Their growth rates vary from relatively
high values (several mmlka) to very low rates (several
mmlMa). The low values are even lower than the sedimen-
tation rate of pelagic red clay (0.5 to about 5 mmlka,
Andreyev and Kulikov 1987; Halbach et al. 1988). No rela-
tionship was found between the growth rate of nodules and
their host sediments.
The finding that most manganese nodules have a higher
age than the surrounding surface sediment leads to the con-
clusion that they "migrate" upward with the sea bed. This
may be accomplished either by continuous dissolution and
reprecipitation, by burrowing organisms lifting the nodules,
or by bottom currents, which are occasionally strong
enough to move and turn over porous nodules. Bottom cur-
rents also prevent continuous sediment accumulation and
thus are responsible for the very low average sedimentation
rates characteristic of deep-sea sediments rich in manga-
nese nodules.
The source of manganese, iron, and the other metals is a
matter of debate. They may derive from the metal content
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments
of organic compounds, which were produced in surface
waters, but were decomposed at, or near the sea bottom.
Other sources may be submarine exhalations and normal
bottom currents containing the metals in very low concen-
trations, either in solution or adsorbed to suspended parti-
eIes. In addition, the composition of the nodules is influ-
enced by diagenesis, particularly their variable Mn/Fe ra-
tios.
In recent years, these widely distributed nodules and
particularly their contents in Co, Ni, and Cu have aroused
considerable economic interest. Tests were run by several
groups for underwater mining of these enormous ore de-
posits. These activities, ineluding our present knowledge
on the formation and geochemistry of manganese nodules,
have been summarized in a special volume (Halbach et al.
1988). In ancient sediments, mangane se nodules formed in
the deep sea ar~ relatively rare (Cronan et al. 1991). Ifthey
occur on top of paleo-seamounts or in former basinal set-
tings, they resemble lithologically, mineralogically, and
geochemically the modern ferromanganese deposits. In
many cases, however, the manganese nodules have either
been subducted with their accompanying sediments and
transformed by metamorphism, or they have been dissolved
as mentioned above.
5.3.4 Sediments in Zones ofUpwelling
General Aspects
In zones of coastal and equatorial upwelling, where
nutrient-rich waters come to the surface, the produc-
tivity of phytoplankton (e.g., coccoliths and diatoms )
and zooplankton (e.g., forarninifers) is significantly
enhanced (Fig. 5.4a). The availability of abundant
food attracts larger organisms (e.g., fish) which feed
on the micro-organism. Although most of the primary
production is used up and rnineralized in the water
colurrm, the overall sedimentation rate of biogenic
material increases considerably in zones ofupwelling
as compared to areas of normal fertility. Therefore,
deep-sea sediments associated with equatorial
upwelling usually still contain biogenic carbonate
and silica and more organic matter than their
neighboring sediments. This means that the CCD and
possibly also the lysocline drop below the sea floor
(Fig. 5.4a).
Coastal Upwelling and Its Sediments
Preservation of organic matter, biogenic silica, and
carbonate is particularly significant in zones of
coastal upwelling where the nutrient supply from
intermediate waters is concentrated in rather narrow
zones on the upper slope and outer shelf along conti-
nental margins (Fig. 5.1e).
The modern oceans display four major areas of year-round
coastal upwelling as part of the eastern boundary currents
in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Thiede and Suess
195
1983): off northwest and southwest Africa, western North
America, and northwestern South America. There are also
areas of seasonal upwelling associated with prevailing
wind regimes, for example in the northern Indian Ocean,
off northwest Australia, and in the Gulf of California.
The lower part of the water colurrm below coastal
upwelling is often characterized by a pronounced ox-
ygen minimum zone. Oxygen demand for total miner-
alization of the large quantities of organic matter pro-
duced in surface waters is higher than oxygen supply
in the relatively short (shallow) water colurrm. In ad-
dition, the particulate organic matter needs less time
to sink through the water colurrm and reach the sea
floor than in the deep ocean.
Thus, oxygen transfer from outside the zone of
coastal upwelling cannot compensate for rapid oxy-
gen consumption below the area of high biogenic
productivity. Consequently, benthic li fe at the sea
bottom is reduced or entirely e;tbsent, the sediment
can become laminated, and a large part of the organic
matter reaching the sea floor is preserved. The cen-
ters of upwelling are, however, not fixed to a certain
location, but may move along the coast and seaward.
Sirnilarly, the intensity of upwelling varies with time,
because it is controlled by fluctuations in the wind
and oceanic current patterns. For example, rapid oxy-
gen depletion by a sudden plankton bloom can cause
a mass mortality of fish and other organisms
(Brongersma-Sanders 1957).
Black shales originating from coastal upwelling
usually display frequent changes from anoxic to low-
oxygen conditions, as can be seen by the appearance
or disappearance of a particular ichnofauna (Savrda
and Bottjer 1987, 1989). Sirnilarly, the occurrence of
molluscan shell beds in black shales indicates an in-
terval, in which the upper boundary of the oxygen
minimum zone dropped to the sea floor (Schneider
and Wefer 1990). The fauna preserved in sediments
below upwelling zones is generally characterized by
a limited number of species which indicate a cooler
environment than in adjacent regions. Due to a high
productivity of diatoms and/or radiolaria, sediments
from upwelling zones are often rich in siliceous lay-
ers or chert nodules.
Diatoms prevail in cool, high-Iatitude waters where the
production and preservation of carbonate are low. In warm,
lower latitude regions, the carbonate content in upwelling
sediments can become rather high and attain those values
typical of marls, and sometimes even those of marly lime-
stones. During diagenesis, dolomite may form, a process
which is favored by the decomposition of organic matter
(Lippmann 1973; Suess et al. 1987).
The organic matter in such sediments usually reaches a
few percent, but sometimes also up to 10% by dry weight.
It is entircly or predominantly of marine planktonic and
bacterial origin (Summerhayes 1983; ten Haven et al.
1990), which is an important indicator for the type of black
shale. The sediments in zones ofupwelling mayaiso con-
196 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

-- ----
SUBSIDENCE
/
f

CCD DROPPING .---

--r---
I ---... -...

e -- --
2 __ -:::,
I

h I ".- .-
=-__- BIOT
MARL
CARB.
~ING TERRIGENOUS ·CLAY ·
SUPPLV OF

-
CARBONATE e _ CHER T
- " . '- (RADIOLARIA)
ZONE OF
LOW L ATI TUDE: COASTAL
BL ACK SHALE RICH_ __UPWELLING

VARY ING

L AMINATED

·t-
BLACK SHALE, IN
HIGH L ATITUDE
PELAGIC
PREDOMINANTLY
MARL TO , SILICEOUS
LIMESTONE,
SILICEOUS
PELAGIC CLAY I (DIATOMS)

I
PELAGIC MARL
TENDENCY (:!; SILICEOUS) s BIOTURBATED
TO VARIATIONS

I
.r.sD<lZIr- MANGANESE
IN CARBONATE NODULES CHERT
CONTENT , ORG. RELATIVE
MATTER, ETC. SEDIMENTATION
RATE r REDDISH·BROWN
CLAY , FREE OF CARB.
-~ . i-

Fig. 5.4. a Zones of high and low fertility, calcite
compensation depth CCD and lysocline, and corre-
sponding distribution of pelagic sediments (b,e,d) in
a hypothetical ocean segment from the equator to
polar regions (diatomaceous oozes of polar and sub-
polar zones ornitted). Note that a fluctuating CCD
can cause carbonate-bearing beds to alternate with
carbonate-free interbeds (e). e,f Successions of cal-
careous, siliceous and c1ayey sediments on top of
oceanic crost adjacent to mid-oceanic ridge, as con-
trolled by a more or less constant (e) or lowering
CCD (f). g,h,i Onshore-offshore (g) and latitudinal
variations (h,i) in the composition and bed sequences
of black shales accumulated under coastal upwelling.
For further explanation see text
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments
tain abundant fish debris (bone beds) and a relatively high
amount of phosphorus due to the accumulation of abundant
fecal pellets and coprolites. Several trace metals, particu-
larly U, Mo, Cd, Zn, and Ni occur in considerably higher
concentrations than in normal deep-sea sediments (e.g.,
Baturin 1983; Brumsack 1986a,b).
The sedimentation rates in coastal upwelling zones are
largely controlled by terrigenous influx. In the Peru
upwelling region, the mean sedimentation rates of late
Pleistocene sediments (drilIed at water depths of 250 and
450 m) are about 7 and 17 cmlka, respectively (Wefer et al.
1990); older sediments accumulated more rapidly.
The Plio-Pleistocene sediments of the Angola-Benguela
upwelling system off Southwest Africa and those of the
Congo Fan show glacial-interglacial precession cycles
(Berger et al. 1998). These are produced by current-in-
duced changes in biogenic productivity (mostly opaline
silica).
Coastal upwelling was certainly also an important
process in ancient marine environments. The forma-
tion of many black shales is now ascribed to this
mechanism not only in the Cenozoic and Mesozoic,
but also in older times (Parrish et al. 1983; Parrish
1987; Pedersen and Calvert 1990. Most of these
black shales occur along west-facing coasts, in set-
tings similar to the present-day major centers of
upwelling. In the completely different paleogeo-
graphie situation in the Paleozoic, however, it can be
assumed that coastal upwelling also operated along
east-west trending coastlines.
5.3.5 Siliceous Sediments
Biogenie Production of Opaline Silica
Skeletons of opaline silica are produced in the mod-
em oceans by several groups of organisms (diatoms,
radiolaria, silicoflagellates, and sponges) in large
quantities. The radiolarians re ach a weight percent-
age of ab out 60 to more than 95% of the silica pro-
duction in tropical waters, but ;:; 1% in the Antarctic.
In addition, the radiolaria have a much higher poten-
tial for being preserved in marine sediments than the
other groups. It is assumed that the importance ofthe
radiolarians in the formation of siliceous sediments
was even greater in pre-Cenozoic times.
By number, diatoms are the most abundant siliceous organ-
isms in the modem oceans. In tropical regions they make
up between 30 and 75% of the total amount of opal-con-
centrating organisms, in Antarctic waters 99% (Lisitzin
1972; Blueford 1989). The most abundant group by
weight, however, are the radiolarians. On the average, 1 mg
of silica corresponds to 2000 radiolarian skeletons, but 100
000 diatom cells and 250 000 dinoflagellates equal that
weight (thus yielding a weight ratio of 250:5: I).
As with carbonates, the organisms extract much more
silica from ocean waters than is added by rivers and
197
voIcanic activity. Consequently, the sea water near
the surface is extremely undersaturated (it normally
contains ab out 1 mg/l Si0 2), particularly with respect
to opaline silica. The solubi1ity of the tiny opaline
tests is around 110 mg/I, in contrast to that of quartz
which is on1y about 5 mg/l. Therefore, most of the
siliceous tests of microorganisms are already dis-
solved within the upper water co1urnn, before they
reach deeper waters and the sea floor, which have
higher silicon concentrations. But even here, a great
part of the remaining tests is still dissolved within the
uppermost sediment layer (Hein and Obradovic
1989). For average conditions in the present oceans,
it is assumed that perhaps 1% of the originally pro-
duced biogenic silica is stored in the sediment. For
that reason, there are large areas on the sea floor
where bio genie silica is completely absent or can be
neg1ected as an important constituent of deep-sea
sediments.
Preservation of Opaline Silica
The possibility of preserving siliceous skeletal re-
mains is enhanced if they settle comparatively fast
through the water colurnn. This is true for relatively
robust skeletons, such as those of radiolaria, and of
course in shallower waters, e.g. in zones of coastal
upwelling. Particularly favorable for the preservation
of rnicroorganisms is their incorporation into fecal
pellets, which protect the skeletons from being dis-
solved. The most effective way to increase the pres-
ervation of this material is, however, high productiv-
ity in zones of upwelling.
It has been repeatedly pointed out that submarine volcanic
activity, releasing substantial amounts of silica into the
ocean, may locally enhance biogenic silica production and
reduce its dissolution in sea water. However, one has to
bear in mind that the input of silica alone (e.g., by volca-
ni sm) into surface waters cannot enhance fertility, unless
other nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are also
available in sufficient quantities.
In order to have high concentrations of opaline si1ica
in sediments, the preserved part of the primary pro-
duction must not be diluted by terrigenous material
or carbonate. Consequently we can expect highly
siliceous or almost pure biosiliceous sediments only
in areas which meet the following conditions:
(1) High primary productivity.
(2) Very low influx of terrigenous material.
(3) Biogenic carbonate production must not substan-
tially exceed carbonate dissolution, i.e. the lysocline
and CCD are so high that most of the carbonate is
dissolved in the water colurnn or within the sediment.
198
These requirements are often met in deep seas far
away from land masses. However, siliceous beds can
also form in shallow waters.
Areal Distribution of Biosiliceous Sediments
In the modem oceans biosiliceous sediments mainly
occur at high latitudes far away from the coasts.
Here, diatomaceous oozes are deposited in two wide,
circumpolar belts, particularly around the Antarctic
and in the northern Pacific. Sediments very rich in
diatoms and poor in carbonate are also found in sev-
eral regions of present-day coastal upwelling, for
example off southwest Africa, Peru, Baja California,
and in the Gulf of California. During the Miocene,
great parts of the coastal waters around the Pacific
(e.g., along North America) were characterized by
rapid deposition of diatomaceous oozes (known as
Monterey Formation).
Another, less weIl developed belt displaying
biosiliceous sediments is observed in zones of equa-
torial upwelling. Here, the sediments are dominated
by radiolarians (see above) and contain variable
amounts of biogenic carbonate. At the lateral transi-
tion to red clay below the CCD, carbonate is dis-
solved. This leads to a relative enrichment of
biogenic silica.
The widespread radiolarites in the Triassic-Liassic and
Middle und Upper Jurassic Tethyan Ocean probably were
also associated with an equatorial zone of high fertility
(Jenkyns and Winterer 1982; Hein and Parrish 1987; Hein
and Obradovic 1989). In addition, the CCD must have
been very high, because radiolarites were found not only in
deep basins, but also on subsiding carbonate platforms and
outer shelves. A simplified model of such a scenario is
shown in Fig. 5.4f. Since prolific planktonic carbonate
production, tending to raise the CCD, is not known prior to
the Late Jurassic, the high CCD was probably caused by
large, widely extended carbonate platforms bordering the
northem and southem rim of this east-west-oriented sea-
way. They extracted and fixed most of the carbonate avail-
able in the Tethyan Ocean.
In zones of coastal upwelling with bottom waters low
in oxygen, Neogene and Recent siliceous oozes are
frequently laminated and rich in organic matter. They
form thick, dark layers and may contain intercala-
tions of calcareous beds, carbonate nodules and
phosphorite (see below). Siliceous oozes deposited in
deeper water, for example on mid-oceanic ridges and
in ponded basins on oceanic crust, tend to become
fully oxidized and therefore red-colored (Fig. 5.5).
Bioturbation in such layers is sparse or absent, be-
cause there is not enough organic matter left to live
on.
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
Silica Diagenesis and Bedded Cherts
Silica Diagenesis. Because of the relatively good sol-
ubility of opaline silica, which is enhanced with in-
creasing temperature at growing burial depths,
biosiliceous sediments undergo marked diagenetic
modifications. Near the sea floor and up to several
hundred meters subbottom, siliceous oozes normally
remain more or less unchanged and maintain a very
high porosity (75 to 90%). Below this depth range,
which depends significantly on the temperature gra-
dient and other factors, the original skeletal material
(opal-A) is dissolved and reprecipitated as
cristobalite and tridymite (opal-CT). Sediments rich
in this phase are still porous and are referred to as
porcellanite. Later, with increasing temperature and
burial depth, these Sial modifications are in turn
transformed into quartz (chalcedony). Coeval with
these mineral transformations, the porosity of the
siliceous sediments is drastically reduced in two
steps (Fig. 5.6a, cf. Chap. 13).
First the intratest porosity of the microfossils is diminished,
and then the normal pore space between the grains is filled
with quartz cement provided by dissolution of opaline si 1-
ica. The first skeletons to be destroyed are the delicate tests
of diatoms, which are followed by the more robust radio-
larians and sponge needles. These processes have been
described by many authors in detail (e.g., Lancelot 1973;
Calvert 1974; Kastner 1981; Pisciotto 1981; Isaacs et al
1983; Thein and von Rad 1987; Füchtbauer 1988; Hein
and Obradovic 1989; Ruiz-Ortiz et al. 1989; Tada 1991).
Layers particularly rich in primary Si0 2 andlor layers
more porous than others may be the loci of preferential
reprecipitation of quartz. Thus, they are transformed into
chert beds of secondarily enhanced SiO 2 concentration
(Fig. 5.6a). Migration of Si0 2 and growth of chert bands
and nodules cease when the sediments become imperme-
able as a result of cementation.
In Mesozoic-Cenozoic clayey siliceous oozes drilled
below the present sea floor, the transformation of opal-A
into opal-CT and quartz took place about 50 Ma after their
deposition. This is valid for average values of sedimenta-
tion rates and thermal gradients (Thein and von Rad 1987).
However, the silica in calcareous oozes, diatomaceous
oozes, and oozes associated with reactive volcanic material
can be transformed into porcellanite and quartz after
shorter time periods, particularly if the thermal gradient is
high.
Part of the silica released from microfossils mayaIso
be utilized to form clay minerals (zeolites) if suffi-
cient AI l 0 3, alkali and alkaline earth ions are avail-
able in the pore water. Thus the formation of chert
bands or nodules (see below) is hindered or com-
pletely prevented if the opal content in the primary
sediment was limited. In the case of silica-poor cal-
careous oozes which cannot provide enough addi-
tional ions for the generation of zeolites, the silica is
diagenetically concentrated in chert nodules (Fig.
5.6b).
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments 199

ARAGONITE COMPENSATION HIGH FERTILITY LOW TERRIGENOUS

--,,
DEPTH (LYSOClINE ) (SILICEOUS AND _ -- ___ ~ INPUT
CALCAREOUS __ -- - __ ~

1
--_~
PLANKTON) __. ..,-: --
CALCITE COMPENSATION -.-:~:: . ~ ....
,.---..
OEPTH (CCO) ........... ",. ~ ..,~
-- -:--::::: ...----f ,. - ....

-- -- '" .--
-- .
-.~:'. :: ". ~ ~ -,"' . - '

--'
...~. , . ' ..'
MIO-OCEANIC
RIDGE
, ,,'
. .....- .

Sil. SED.
(PE. -CA ) AND
Sil. TM (+CA) SIL. (+CA) AND
SIL. SED. (PE), FROM PLAT- CALC. SED. (PE.
-CA (BELOW FORM ABOVE CT) AND CALC.
CCD), RED CCD. BUT TM. TS ANO OB
SIL. SED., RED Sil. SED. (PE, TM, CT), AND GREEN BELOW FROM CARBONATE
(TM.-CA) IN MOSTL \REO. -CA LYSOCLlNE SHELF, Sil. SED.

J
\a
PONDED BASINS MOSTLY DARK

I
b
OEBRIS

~!HER_ I
FLOW (DB)
TM (+ CA)

TIME
(+CA) I~E_D PE, TM. TS.

CT
CA
-CA ..............-+CA

OLDER LL"---r-
r-:-.,..,......_ SHELF
ROCKS CARB.

PE, DEPOSITION FROM

PELAGIC SETTLING
RISING CCD TENOS TO CAUSE REVERSE SEQUENCES ! TM, TURBIOITE MUD

I 11
(BIOCLASTICS)
TS, TURB1DITE SAND
(BIOCl. CARBONATE)
SILICEOUS OOZE, Sil. AND CALC. PELAGIC OOZE CT, NORMAL CURRENT
BANDED CHERT OR OOZE. CHALK OR LIMESTONE TRANSPORTED
RADIOLARITE OR CALC. CHERT _ Sil. CALC. OOZE + CA, CARBONATE -
= RHY THMICALLY AND RADIOLARITE OR CHERTY BEARING
BEDDED = BEDDED - PEl. LIMESTONE , CA, CARBONATE-FREE

Fig. 5.5. Siliceous sediments, e.g., radiolarites, in a
relatively narrow oceanic basin with regionally high
fertility, bordered by a wide, block-faulted continen-
tal margin (e.g., a former uniform carbonate plat-
form). The different types of radiolarites originate
either from pelagic settling or siliceous mud
turbidites, or the radiolaria were sorted and trans-
ported by normal currents, with or without carbonate.
The siliceous sediments are further controlled by the
submarine topography and the elevation of the CCD
and lysocline. a-e Vertical changes in lithology due
to a lowering CCD. (A raising CCD from an mitial
low position causes reverse sequences.) (Based on
several sourees, e.g. Bemoulli and Lemoine 1980;
Hein and Obradovitch 1989; Vecsei et al. 1989;
Ruiz-Ortiz et al. 1989)
200 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

SILICA DIAGENESIS a
POROSITY Si0 2 CONTENT LlTHOLOGY
(PREDOMINANTLY
o 20 __ 40
O+-__ ~
60 80
- L_ _- L__~-,__~
% SILICEOUS)

/
/
/
OPAL-A I / SILICEOUS
INTACT OOZE
(:!:
I //
SKELETONS) -=--...=--=t=\.
I " :!: BIOTURBATED
I "-
500 I "- LAMINATED
"- :!:
"-

I
I . PORCELLANITE
I AND NEW CLAY
1000 I MINERALS
OPAL-CT I / (ZEOLITES)
(+ SOLUTION 1:../
AND REPRECI- I'
PITATION. I \,
+ MECHANICAL I '
COMPACTION) I "" I-:-::..iiiiiil...... CHERT
I

1500 MIGRATiON OF Si02 BY DIFFUSION

(AND ADVECTlON)
I
I CHERT
QUARTZ I SILICEOUS
CHALCEDONY I / CLAYSTONE
~<
I \,
CHERT
m °c ~ " (10+30 %
DEPTH TEMPERATURE \, IMPURITIESj

SILICEOUS MJ\RLS AND LIMESTONES

b c e VEINLETS
OF CHERT

1~~~f1~~
LIMESTONE WITH MARL WITH
~~. LAYERS AND
.l~" CHERT NODULES NODULES OF
CHERT AND
LIMESTONE
DIRECTION ~. , ..
OF GROWTH :':

IMPURE CHERT ...

. ':,
..' ..
.,.,:'
- ,-
CALCAREOUS
TURBIDITE

Fig. 5.6. a Processes and results of silica diagenesis
in pelagic, siliceous oozes. (Based on several
sourees, see text). Note that banded cherts may be
partially generated by a kind of rhythrnic unmixing,
which accentuates primary minor differences in tex-
ture or composition of beds. b-d Diagenetically
formed bands and concretions of chert or carbonate
in limestones and marls. e Veinlets of chert or lami-
nated marl deformed after silica (quartz) precipita-
tion. (After Lancelot 1973)
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments
The formation of these nodules appears to have started
rather early in diagenesis, because their cores are fre-
quently richer in Si0 2 than their outer rims. More features
of silica and carbonate diagenesis are shown in Fig. 5.6c
and d. Precipitation of both phases can be more or less co-
eval, that is, chert may form the center of a carbonate nod-
ule, or pre-existing carbonate concretions may influence
the formation and shape of chert. In this respect it is impor-
tant whether or not carbonate was originally present as un-
stable aragonite or high-Mg calcite in some quantity.
In clayey and marly sediments, gravitational compaction
continues after the formation of concretions, in special
cases deforming chert "veinlets" (Fig. 5.6c and d). Sili-
ceous turbidites and calcareous turbidites rich in opaline
silica are affected by diagenesis in a way similar to that
described for pelagic sediments (Fig. 5.6e; e.g. Elorza and
Bustillo 1989)..
Bedded cherts. The silica of lithified biosiliceous
sediments is frequently concentrated in chert bands
and layers of chert nodules. Some of these features
are of primary origin, others are caused by
diagenesis. In contrast to layers deposited from pe-
lagic settling, many rhythmically bedded radiolarites
represent bioclastic, fine-grained turbidites deposited
by low-density turbidity currents.
Individual beds displaya sharp lower boundary and some
grading (either in grain size or in composition; cf. Sect.
5.4.2). They are derived from the slopes of submarine
highs (ridges, hills, deep plateaus; Fig. 5.5) which receive
little terrigenous material (e.g. Barrett 1982). If they accu-
mulate below the CCD, the siliceous turbidites are devoid
of carbonate.
These types of red or greenish colored, banded chert
layers rnay alternate with more or less siliceous red
or greenish muds tones and are usually interpreted as
deep-water deposits.
Carbonate-bearing biosiliceous sediments and
cherty pelagic limestones indicate a depositional
depth above the CCD or between the aragonite and
calcite compensation depth (Fig. 5.5; Sect. 5.3.2).
However, successions of purely pelagic, biosiliceous
sediments overlain by siliceous carbonates and pure
carbonates do not necessarily signify shallowing se-
quences, but can originate from a drop in the CCD as
well (Fig. 5.5a through e). Similarly, pelagic lime-
stones followed by chert layers are not always the
result of subsidence and consequent deepening of the
basin in question.
In particular, radiolarites in ancient rocks are frequently
ungraded and show well developed laminations and low-
angle cross-bedding. Because it is unlikely that beds with
these sedimentary structures have been deposited from
suspension currents, they are assurned to originate from
normal traction currents at the sea bottom, which sorted
and concentrated hydrodynamically equivalent partic\es
(e.g., Barrett 1982; Gursky 1988; Ruiz-Ortiz et al. 1989;
Vecsei et al. 1989). Due to subsequent strong compaction
of the highly porous primary beds, the initially steeper an-
201
gles of the cross-laminae have been modified. Such beds
may have formed at different water depths and may thus
contain carbonate and siliciclastic material (Fig. 5.5).
5.3.6 Summary (Hemipelagic and Pelagic
Sediments)
- Hemipelagic and pelagic deep-sea sediments
consist of allochthonous terrestrial components
(river-borne and eolian dust) and autoch-
thonous planktonic biogenic components (skel-
etal carbonate and opaline silica).
- Transport, deposition, and erosion of clay- and
silt-sized particles are affected by the formation
of aggregates.
- Calcareous or siliceous oozes accumulate in
regions of very low terrestrial input. Chalk also
formed in shallow waters.
- A great part of the planktonic production of
biogenic carbonate and silica is dissolved in the
deep sea (e.g. below the CCD), depending on
the balance between production in surface wa-
ters and the supply of Ca and Si by external
sources.
- Below the CCD, red clays ± manganese nod-
ules are common.
- The sedimentation rates of pelagic sediments
are in the order of 0.5 to 5 cm/ka.
5.3.7 Marine Phosphorites
Sources of phosphorus
and phosphate precipitation
Sediments containing phosphorite horizons and
larger phosphorite deposits have attracted geologists
for a long time. These features generally represent
significant indicators of a certain depositional envi-
ronment, and some of them are of considerable eco-
nomic interest. Phosphorites are known from conti-
nental margin settings, epicontinental seas,
seamounts and guyots, and oceanic islands. The latter
occurrences of phosphorite are mostly associated
with guano provided by sea birds; they are not dis-
cussed further here.
The phosphate phase of the common phosphorites
consists of the mineral francolite, i.e., carbonate
jluorapatite. This mineral contains variable amounts
of trace elements, particularly uranium and rare earth
elements, which have been studied in detail by geo-
chemists.
202
Numerous papers on phosphorites and their genesis were
collected and summarized in several volumes and articles
(e.g. Baturin 1982; Garrison et a1. 1987; Notholt and Jarvis
1990; Föllmi et a1. 1991; Glenn et a1. 1994; Trappe 1994,
1998). These and further publications deal with a variety of
problems, e.g. physicochemical considerations for the pre-
cipitation of phosphorites, their contents of trace elements,
and their radiometric dating. Other topics are the burial
rates, budget, and recycling of phosphorus in the ocean
(e.g. Föllmi 1995; Filippelli 1997; Schuffert et a1. 1998),
paleoceanographic reconstructions for the depositional en-
vironment of phosphorites, the role of diagenesis and re-
placement of carbonate in phosphorite genesis, effects of
repeated reworking and weathering, economic evaluations,
etc. Some of these problems are still not very weil under-
stood. We can touch here only a few general points.
For some time it was believed that francolite can be
precipitated direct1y from nutrient-rich sea water. The
requirements for this process were thought to be a
high phosphorus concentration in the upwelling sea
water, decreasing partial pressure of CO 2, and in-
creasing temperature and pH. This view is now
mostly rejected, although the formation of
phosphoritic hardgrounds is not clear. Most workers
now assurne that phosphorus is released from organic
matter and skeletal parts within the uppermost layer
of organic-rich sediments and that phosphate is pre-
cipitated during early diagenesis.
Buried organic matter contains considerable amounts of
phosphorus (often around 1%), which is released by micro-
bial decomposition. In addition, the phosphorus in bones
(e.g., fish), fecal pellets, and coprolites may be dissolved
and thus increase the phosphorus concentration in intersti-
tial waters to values much higher than in sea water. Some
workers authors have pointed out the signifieanee of miero-
bial mats for the uptake of phosphorus and the precipita-
tion of phosphate (O'Brien et a1. 1981; Lueas andPrevot
1984; Martin-Algarra and Sanchez-Navas 1995; Wilby et
a1. 1996), whieh can also take place in lagoonal environ-
ments (Soudry and Lewy 1988).
Phosphorus is also provided by the suspended load of
rivers, partieularly those draining regions with lateritic
soils (Glenn and Arthur 1990). In this case, phosphorus is
predominantly adsorbed to iron hydroxides and released
later, when the river load has been deposited in a shallow
sea.
The uppermost sediment zone with phosphorus release
appears to be characterized by a weakly reducing, mildly
anaerobic environment (Fig. 5.7b). Henee, nitrate and some
ferric iron can be redueed, thus also providing ferroan iron
for the generation of glauconite. Sulfate reduction and the
preeipitation of iron sulfide commonly do not yet take
place at this shallow burial depth. These processes require
strongly redueing eonditions, which ean affeet the upper-
most sediment only in a very weak eurrent regime. In this
case, pyrite may be precipitated simultaneously with phos-
phate.
Reprecipitation ofphosphorus takes place within the
sediment or directly below the sediment-water inter-
face (Fig. 5.7b). Due to the concentration gradient
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
between the pore water and sea water, phosphorus
tends to migrate upward by diffusion, and fluoride
from sea water (with its higher concentration) down-
ward into the sediment. Poorly soluble carbonate
fluorapatite will precipitate preferentially where
(1) Phosphate nuclei are already available (e.g., m
fecal pellets or coprolites).
(2) Calcium concentration in the pore water is also
high, and/or
(3) Calcium carbonate is present.
The phosphate forms ooid-like pellets, nodules, and
hardgrounds or crusts. Coatings on other materials
are also common, particularly on the surface of car-
bonates and calcareous shells, which can be more or
less replaced by phosphate in the course of time. Be-
sides the upwelling zone off Baja Califomia men-
tioned below, modem phosphogenesis takes place
beneath coastal upwelling off -Namibia, Peru, and
some other continental margins, mainly on the west-
ern sides of continents. Under these conditions, most
of the present-day global P burial is accomplished,
but upwelling water is not the only mechanism for
phosphogenesis.
Secondary Enrichment of Phosphorite
Processes. The phosphorus content in the primary
organic matter of marine sediments, including those
beneath zones of high fertility, is limited. A sediment
layer of a certain thickness can produce only a small
quantity of phosphate. Such a situation can be ob-
served in some present-day and ancient sediments
which were deposited more or less continuously in
zones of upwelling. They contain thin layers of small
phosphate grains or phosphatized lenses and laminae
consisting of fecal pellets, microbial filaments, or
foraminifera.
These observations were made in the Miocene Monterey
Fonnation of California interpreted as a result of eoastal
upwelling (Garrison et a1. 1987; Föllmi et a1. 1991). In
modern, organie-rieh mud on the upper continental slope
off Baja California, Mexico, aseries of thin (1-3 em), par-
tially indurated phosphorite layers has been found
(Sehuffert et a1. 1998). These hardgrounds formed in a
poorly oxygenated benthie environment during the last 15
ka.
Significant concentrations of phosphorite can be pro-
duced only in an environment alternating between
- Sediment accumulation and in situ phosphogene-
sis, and
- Winnowing and reworking (Fig. 5.8b and c, see
also Baturin 1982).
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments 203

SE~LEV~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ __________ _ BENTHOS,

BIOTURBATlON,
INTENSIVE
DECOMPOSITION
OF ORGANIC

~
MATTER AND
RELEASE OF Fig. 5.7. a Schematic
.. // P AND OTHER cross section of con-
PARTIAL DECOM· NUTRIENTS tinental margin or
. ... ANOXIC, NO BENTHOS, POSITION OF ORG. INTO SEA WATER
MATTER, MAIN
submarine plateau,
LAMINATED, LlMITED
(ANAEROBIC) DECOM· ZONE OF showing main zones
POSITION OF ORG. M. PHOSPHOGENESIS of phosphogenesis in
AND PRECIPITATION OF P relation to oxygen
minimum and inten-
RELATIVE
CONCENTRATIONS b PHOSPHO- sity of decomposition
(:OXIC, IN CERTAIN AUTHIGENIC GENESIS
of organic matter.
SEA WATEA TIMES AND PLACES MINERALS (After Slansky 1980).
ALSO ANOXIC) b Chemical environ-
, ment within upper-
,:"F most sediment (not to
scale), which enables
microbial release of P
from organic matter
(and/or bone re-
PHOSPHORITE
mains) and precipita-
WEAKLY (CARBONATE FLUOR· tion of carbonate
REDUCING APATITE) IN PELLETS, fluorapatite and/or
(PARTLY NODULtS, COATINGS, replacement of car-
Fe+++ - Fe ++) ETC. OR REPLACING bonate by phosphate.
CARBONATE
The weakly reducing
milieu also allows the
STRONGER PYRITE release of ferroan
INTERSTITIAL REDUCING iron and the forma-
WATER OF (SULFATE·
IN PLACES CARBONATE
tion of glauconite.
ORGANIC·RICH
SEDIMENT
REDUCTION,
METHANE· V NODULES, DOLOMITE, Pyrite and dolomite
as weil as chert may
PRODUCTION ) 1II CHERT be formed at greater
DEPTH depths below the
sediment-water inter-
C face. (Based on sev-
VERTICALLY MIGRATING ZONE eral sources, e.g.,
SEDIMENT
BUILDUP OF PHOSPHOGENESIS (::: GLAUCONITE) Ouwehand 1986;
McArthur et al. 1988;
NEW SEDIMENT CARBONATE Froelich et al. 1988;
REPLACEMENT
AND NEW PREClp· G lenn and Arthur
ITATION OF
PHOSPHATE
1988). c Time-sedi-
ment buildup dia-
grams demonstrating
the vertical migration
of the zones of
phosphogenesis, py-
rite precipitation, and
possibly dolomite
• • • and chert formation .
For further explana-
tions see text

Simplified examples representing such a situation on
a large scale are shown in Figure 5.9. As a result
from reworking, phosphorite grains and nodules are
frequently concentrated on submarine highs, on shelf
breaks, or in shallow, channel-like depressions on the
shelf where high wave or current energy leads to
maximum winnowing and erosion and long-term
nondeposition. The original parent sediment for pri-
mary phosphate precipitation may be completely re-
worked andlor dissolved at the site of maximum
phosphorite concentration (Fig. 5.8c and 5.9b).
204 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

SECONDARY ENRICHMENT OF PHOSPHORITE

INCREASING INTENSITY
OF WINNOWING AND
REWORKING SEDIMENT RICH MULTI-EVENT
IN C-ORG OR PHOSPHORITE
,.,.,...,.",.,.,.,....... FISH BONES ETC. DEPOSIT, ±PHOS-
PHATE-CEMENTED

•~I~IIIIIII~l
AUTOCHTHONOUS
PHOSPHORITE

c ~
PARTIALLY

a!.~~:'$a~

INCREASING PHOSPHORITE
EROSION AND DEPOSITION THICKNESS (TREND
WINNOWING TO COARSENING
UPWARD)
b

TIME

SEDIMENT
BUILDUP
±CONTINUOUS
SEDIMENTATION

IN SITU-GENERATED

a PHOSPHATIC LAYER
OR PARTICL

TIME

Fig. 5.8. Time-sediment buildup diagrams demon-
strating different types of phosphorite deposits in
relation to winnowing and reworking. a Continuous
accumulation of sediment rich in organic matter with
thin layers of early diagenetic phosphate particles or
phosphatic layers. b Discontinuous accumulation and
winnowing of phosphate-bearing sediment generat-
ing increasingly thick, more or less autochthonous
layers of phosphorite. Net sedimentation rate ap-
proaches zero. c Different episodes of phosphorite
concentration by winnowing, reworking, and possi-
bly redeposition (allochthonous phosphate) of pre-
exiting phosphate formed within the sediment. Note
that only layer B was rich in organic matter or bone
fragments delivering P, but this layer may be com-
pletely gone except for phosphatized pebbles. These
are preserved together with pebbles from layer A in
the final, partly phosphate- or carbonate-cemented
phosphorite deposit. Here, net erosion exceeds net
sedimentation. (Based on different sourees, e.g., von
Rad and Kudrass 1984; Föllmi et al. 1991, greatly
modified)
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments
Relative sea-Ievel changes favor such a process.
Condensed sections on shelves and upper slopes,
produced during sea-Ievel rise (cf. Sect. 7.2) can be-
c<?me r~ch in organic matter and allow early
dtagenehc phosphogenesis. The subsequent sea-Ievel
fall then causes partial or total reworking of the con-
densed section leaving behind lag sediments rich in
phosphorite. In consequence, the net sedimentation
rate over a considerable time period is very slow,
approaches zero, or becomes even negative.
This m~ans that .th~ accumulation rate of P, forming a
phophonte deposIt, IS not necessarily greater than that of
normal continental margin sediments deposited at relatively
high rates but with low P contents (Filippelli 1997).
For the same reasons, the phosphorite of an individual
deposit may show a considerable age range, as identified
with the aid of inc1uded fossils or radiometrie age determi-
nations (e.g., von Rad and Kudrass 1984; Thomson et al.
1984; McArthur et al. 1988).
With rising or falling sea level the zone of phosphor-
ite formation can migrate upslope or downslope and
thus create a broader deposit along a shelf-slope or
bank-ridge setting (Figs. 5Ag, 5.7a, and 5.9a and b).
Generally, weathering processes in emerged for- These observations point to a relatively long and complex
mations can further enhance the concentration of ma- depositional, erosional, and diagenetic history of these
rine phosphorites, e.g. by preferential dissolution of phophorites, in which sea-level changes and periods of
emergence playa significant part. It is, however, not c1ear
the accompanying carbonate (e.g. Valeton 1988). . in this case, whether upwelling waters of the Tethys ocean
Co-Existing Authigenic Mineral Phases. The weakly
reducing environment enabling phosphogenesis to
occur, particularly in combination with repeated win-
nowing and reworking, is also favorable for the for-
mation and relative enrichment of glauconitic miner-
als (Sect. 6.1). Glauconite is therefore frequently
associated with phosphorite deposits and may occa-
sionally occur in large quantities as, for example, in
the upper Cretaceous of Egypt (Glenn and Arthur
1990). Pyrite mayaiso be present in phosphorites,
but is frequently precipitated subsequent to
phosphogenesis at somewhat greater burial depths,
when sulfate reduction has already started (Fig. 5.7b
and c). Carbonate nodules, calcite cement, and silici-
fication phenomena present in phosphorite horizons
are assumed to be a result of later diagenesis.
Ancient phosphorites. During certain time periods in
the Earth's history, phosphorite seems to have formed
preferentially, for example in the late Proterozoic and
Cambrian, Permian, late Cretaceous/early Tertiary,
a~d Miocene (e.g. Valeton 1988). However, the prin-
clpal processes of phosphogenesis probably did not
differ from the present situation (Trappe 1994).
Rather, a fundamentally different paleogeographic
configuration of the oceans and continents may have
allowed the generation of "phosphorite giants".
Prominent examples are the existence of Pangea in
the Permian and Triassic (Herring 1995), or the
205
circum-equatorial N eo-Tethys ocean in the U pper
Cretaceous. In addition, wide shelf seas, shifts of the
clirrtatic belts, and sea-Ievel changes may have fa-
vored deposition and enrichment of phosphorite in
specific regions.
The widespread and economically important Late
Cretaceous-Eocene phosphorite province of the Tethyan
equatorial belt, inc1uding Jordan and several other Middle
East countries, formed on a wide shelf or epicontinental sea
at the northern margin of the North African-Arabian conti-
nent (e.g. Abed and Kraishan 1991; Abed and Fakhouri
1996). The sea floor was characterized by lows and swells
and affected by relative sea-level changes. The abundant
phosphorites mainly occur in the inner part of this wide
carbonate shelf. They represent the top of shallowing car-
bonate/chert cyc1es and are associated with limestones,
dolomites, and chert. The granular phosphorite is reworked
and rests in places on erosional surfaces, locally even on
calcrete or si1crete. Reworked chert indicates that a consid-
erable time span must have elapsed between the deposition
of biosiliceous ooze, its lithification, and reworking. Fur-
thermore, thick oyster beds and their pore space can be
phosphatized, or granular phosphorite is in places silici-
fied.
or river-borne iron compounds delivered the large amounts
of phosphvrus necessary for this huge phosphorite prov-
ince.
Summary (Phosphorites)
Phosphorite preferentially forms on continental
shelves and shelf-breaks, and atop submarine
highs (e.g. seamounts and drowned carbonate
buildups).
Sources of P are organic matter, bones, and
microbial mats. In some cases, rivers may have
supplied mud rich in P adsorbed to iron hy-
droxides.
Zones of coastal upwelling and condensed sec-
tions are favorable for phosphogenesis.
Reworking of early diagenetic phosphorite
leads to lags rich in granular phosphorite
which are frequently associated with chert,
dolomite, and glauconite.
206 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

SHELF OFF NAMIBIA

a
o
YOUNG PHOSPHORITE
SHELL SAND NODULES
100
<:I 0 0 ~

"\iI'~" •••:.::'!~:':'" 0 <:;) . '. ,.:.'

~.:"~,:",, /" " ' : ', : ~:, ",; ', ',' ,:~'.:' : ,',',' OLD PHOSPHORITES 200
C~ASTIC SANDS DIATOMACEOUS (EARLY QUATERNARY
AND SILTS OOZE OR MUD OR PRE-QUATERNARY)
EROSION AL UNCONFORMITY I - - .-v20 km --; 300
m

WATER DEPTH
I'V 400 m
POST -MIOCENE EROSION
AND REDEPOSITION

CATHAM RISE OFF NEW ZEALAND

SEVERAL EPISODES OF LATE MIOCENE

PHOSPHATIZATION (NODULES AND
b2
HARDGROUND)

C BLAKE PLATEAU, OFF FLORIDA d SENONIAN, PARIS BASIN

CALCARENITE PHOSPHORITE, PHOSPHATIC TERTIARY

Fe-Mn-IMPREG : CHALK
NATED
T

_~i*f0il®iMWji;;'_j
SOm
1
SILTY LIMESTONE CHALK (SENONIAN) HARDGROUND
1-------- 2 km - - - - - - - - l I 1 km I

Fig. 5.9. a Schematic cross-section of continental
margin demonstrating zones of different sedimenta-
tion rates, condensation, and phosphorite ages. This
situation resembles that of the present-day shelves
off Namibia and Peru. (After Baturin 1982),
b Phosphorites on the Chatham Rise to the east of
N ew Zealand, in two stages of development (b 1 and
b2), concentrated at the ridge crest by pronounced
erosion and reworking, The primary phosphate-bear-
ing strata (Late Miocene) can only be observed at the
ridge flanks. (After von Rad and Kudrass 1984),
c Model of phosphorite lag deposits of the inner
Blake Plateau, derived from Miocene strata and ex-
humed by the Gulf Stream, (After Manheim et al.
1980), d Senonian phosphorites of the Anglo-Paris
Basin, concentrated on top of hardgrounds in
current-eroded channels and troughs, (After Jarvis
1980)
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments
5.3.8 Sediments on Marginal and Oceanic
Plateaus, Ridges, and Seamounts
By applying the general rules described in the previ-
ous sections most of the sedimentary processes ob-
served on deep submarine plateaus, on isolated
seamounts, and on ridges and bank tops of block-
faulted, topographically structured shelf areas can be
easily understood. Their present-day deep position
below sea level is frequently the result of long per-
sisting subsidence which, in contrast to shelf seas,
could not be compensated for by sediment accumula-
tion. Some simplified examples for such a situation
are shown in Fig. 5.l0a. In most ofthese cases, sedi-
mentation on older rocks started with shallow-marine
deposits, but was later followed by pelagic and
hemipelagic material. This second depositional phase
is considered further here.
The sediments of these specific settings are signif-
icantly controlled by their topographie position on
the sea floor, the intensity of ocean currents, and lati-
tude (water temperature etc.). One can distinguish
between
Deep plateaus, marginal or isolated, and sea-
mounts subjected to weak currents.
Plateaus affected by strong currents.
Slopes and basins close to submarine plateaus.
Submarine marginal ridge-and-basin settings.
Several of these plateaus, seamounts, ridges and associated
basins have been explored by geophysical studies, sea floor
sampling, and deep-sea drilling. Many volumes ofthis pro-
gram (Initial Reports DSDP; Proceedings ODP, Initial Re-
ports and Scientific Results, e.g. ODP Legs 130, 133, 143,
144, 167, etc.) and special articles (e.g. Bralower et a1.
1997) give detailed information about these studies.
Deep Plateaus and Seamounts
Weak Currents. Deep, isolated oceanic or marginal
plateaus (Fig. 5.1 Oa) which are little affected by sur-
face and intermediate currents can preserve a fairly
complete record of pelagic to hemipelagic sediment
accumulation. Elevated above the CCD, they tend to
be carbonate-dominated in low- and mid-latitude re-
gions.
This is true ofmost ofthe modem oceanic plateaus, e.g. the
Bermuda Rise, Galicia Bank, and Rockall Plateau in the
Central and North Atlantic, the Kerguelen-Broken Ridge
Plateau in the southwestem Indian Ocean, and the huge
Ontong-Java Plateau in the southwestem Pacific (e.g.
Zimmerman et a1. 1984; Berger et a1. 1994; Bralower et a1.
1997).
At high latitudes or during certain times, platform
sediments mayaiso become rich in bio genie silica.
207
Sea floor spreading and associated plate tectonic mo-
tions may shift their position either from lower to
higher latitudes or vice versa. A change in the oce-
anic current system with time, e.g. from weak to
strong current action affecting the submarine plateau,
can lead to unconformities. Both factors cause a
gradual or even abrupt change in the facies of the
platform sediments which may be used to reconstruct
the oceanic paleo-environment. Marked vertical fa-
eies trends can be expected in sediment successions
deposited in polar and subpolar regions which expe-
rienced greater variations in temperature and
thermohaline circulation through the Earth· s history
than those formed in low-latitude zones.
The sediments on deep plateaus frequently record rninor
climatic oscillations, which generate rhythrnic or cyclic
calcareous ooze (limestone)-marl successions (Die ster-
Haass 1991) or, in subpolar regions, alternations between
layers rich in biogenic carbonate or silica as reported from
the Meteor Rise in the South Atlantic (Shipboard Scientific
Party 1988a; cf. Sect. 7.9).
Such phenomena can also be observed at the tops of old,
sunken seamounts which lie at considerable depths below
sea level (more than 100 to 200 m). They are often covered
by pelagic material consisting of nannofossils, forarninifers
andJor siliceous remains and the corresponding lithified
sediments. If the seamounts are situated below equatorial
upwelling or have passed through such a zone due to plate
tectonic motion, their sediments can contain phosphorites.
The likelihood that submarine plateaus and sea-
mounts show a kind of steady-state, undisturbed
depositional environment for a very long geological
time span is low. Ongoing subsidence of these struc-
tures, in conjunction with changes in climate and
morphology of the ocean basin considered, can mod-
ify or completely alter the regional oceanic current
pattern and thus strongly influence terrigenous and
biogenie sedimentation at these sites.
Strong Currents. If a fairly deep marginal plateau is
subjected to the influence of powerful, deep-reaching
surface currents, deposition of pelagic and some ben-
thic carbonate as described above is drastically cur-
tailed or completely prevented (Fig. 5.l0a, example
for tropical-subtropical waters). The resulting se-
quence is markedly condensed and displays
hardgrounds with sessile benthos (sponges,
serpulids, sometimes deep-water corals, signs of bor-
ing organisms etc.). In zones of particularly strong
current action, forexample near the shelf slope, ero-
sional uncoriformities and lag sediments are com-
mon. At least some of these carbonate sediments will
become completely oxidized and later red-colored.
During times of virtual nondeposition, nodules and
erusts of ferromanganese may develop. Other peri-
ods, allowing the deposition of some day and or-
ganic matter, may enable the formation of glauconite.
208
The modem 800 to 1000 m deep Blake Plateau offthe east-
ern Florida shelf belongs to this type of deep plateau
(Sheridan and Enos 1979). Its older sediments represent
shallow-water carbonates, but at the beginning of the
Paleocene deep water environments were established. The
sediments deposited since that time contain considerable
quantities of phosphorite and some chert. The phosphorite
occurs in the form of phosphatized carbonate debris, pel-
lets, pebbles and conglomeratic layers, as weil as continu-
ous pavements (Manheim et al. 1980, cf. Sect. 5.3.6). It is a
lag deposit derived from Miocene strata which accumu-
lated in an oceanographic regime quite different from the
present situation under the Gulf Stream.
Another example for a subsiding, sediment-starved,
Jurassic-Cretaceous continental margin at low latitudes is
the Mazagan Plateau off Morocco (Bemoulli and Kälin
1984; Jansa et al. 1984; Winterer and Hinz 1984). Here,
the constructional phase of carbonate buildup ended in the
early Cretaceous. Hence, greatly condensed, reworked,
middle to upper Jurassie reddish limestones are overlain by
hemipelagic Tertiary beds.
An ancient example is the widespread occurrence of
condensed nodular red limestones of the Ammonitico
Rosso-type in the Jurassie Tethys Ocean (Bemoulli and
Jenkyns 1974; cf. Sect. 3.4.2).
In cooler, temperate and subpolar waters with less
Current influence but greater influx of terrigenous
material, the pelagic to hemipelagic sediments of a
marginal plateau display mixtures of terrigenous
mud, and siliceous and calcareous ooze (Fig. 5.l0a).
Depending on climate change and oceanic circula-
tion, one of these three main components may domi-
nate over the others.
The example in Fig. 5.lOa is based on drilling results from
the approximately 1000 m deep Voering Plateau off the
Norwegian coast (Eldholm et al. 1987). Here, pelagic sedi-
mentation began in the Miocene, after the plateau had sub-
sided from a position near the sea level down to a consider-
able water depth. Since that time, the composition of the
sediment cover (200-300 m in thickness) varied between
dominantly siliceous, mixed siliceous and calcareous, to
dominantly siliciclastic deposits. Carbonate-dominated lay-
ers rarely accumulated. With the onset of glaciation in the
northern hemisphere in the Late Pliocene, alternating dark
and light mud layers were deposited. The dark ones repre-
sent glacial periods, are poor in carbonate, and contain ice-
rafted debris. The light layers are richer in carbonate and
sand deposited during interglacials. Two groups of benthic
organisms, sponges and foraminifers, only are abundant
throughout the entire sequence, which is more or less
bioturbated. The mean sedimentation rate in the Neogene,
including the Pleistocene, was around 2 crnlka and thus
Fig. 5.10. a Sediments on deep submarine plateaus
under different environmental conditions, for exam-
pie temperature, currents, nutrient supply. (Based on
several sources, e.g., Sheridan and Enos 1979; Stow
1986; Eldholm et al. 1987). b Sediments of complex,
segmented shelf (Califomia borderland-type) with
basins and ridges of various depths below sea level;
structural elements of wrench tectonics omitted.
(Based on Howell et al. 1980; Teng and Gorsline
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
considerably higher than for the Blake Plateau. Neverthe-
less, reworking and hiatuses indicate the activity of bottom
currents. During certain time intervals, the biogenie car-
bonate settling on the sea floor was entirely dissolved
within the sediment.
Siopes and Basins Close to Submarine Plateaus
The slopes and basins adjacent to submarine plateaus
may be considerably affected by sediments shed from
the plateaus (see also Sects. 12.2.2 and 12.2.3). This
occurs, as long as the plateaus are within the reach of
oceanic currents strong enough to move sediment.
The sediments of slope aprons and peri-platform
oozes reflect to some extent the environmental condi-
tions ofthe submarine plateaus.
Such sediments have been described from the present
oceans and ancient examples (e.g., Mullins and Cook 1986;
Schlager and Camber 1986; Schlanger and Premoli Silva
1986; Eberli 1989; and others, cf. Sect. 7.5). On shallow
carbonate platforms, aprons and peri-platform sediments
are markedly controlled by sea-1eve1 variations, e.g. by
"highstand shedding". In contrast, deeper plateaus may in-
crease carbonate production during sea-Ieve110wstands.
Submarine Ridge and Basin Topography
Some continental margins display a series of topo-
graphic basins and ridges with markedly diversified
sediments. A very simplified, generalized view of
such a borderland scenario is presented in Fig. 5.l0b.
The narrow elongate ridges and basins have various
depths below sea level.
Such settings may originate from listric faulting a10ng di-
vergent p1ate boundaries (provided that sediment accumu-
1ation is too 10w to smooth out the submarine relief), from
strike-slip motions, or from the accretion ofterranes.
A prominent modem example is the Califomia conti-
nental borderland which has a complicate tectonic history
(e.g. Ingersoll and Ernst 1987; Legg 1991; .Bohannon and
Geist 1998). Hs ridge-and-basin topography started to form
in the early Miocene as a result of oblique extension, right-
lateral strike-slip in conjunction with clockwise rotation of
the coastal ranges, and uplift of parts of the structure. The
young sediments of this continental borderland have been
described, e.g., by Emery (1960), Garrison et al. (1987),
Gorsline and Douglas (1987), Teng and Gorsline (1989),
Gorsline (1992) and others.
1989). Note that only the youngest sediments are
shown, which may still be influenced by lower sea-
level stands and temporal variations in the intensity
of coastal upweUing. (Based mainly on Emery 1960;
Garrison et al. 1987). Older sediments may be
strongly affected by block faulting, causing uncon-
forrnities, pinch outs of certain layers, and slump
aprons of varying size and position along the foot of
the slopes. For further explanations see text
5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments 209

DEEP MARGINAL PLATEAU DEEP OCEANIG PLATEAU

WARM, STRONG CURRENTS
a SILICICLASTIC
SHELF
WEAK CURRENTS. TEMPERATE TO COLD,
:!: COMPLETE PELAGIC SEQUENCE
( CALCAREOUS AND/ OR SILICEOUS,
:!: PHOSPHORITE), RARE
UNCONFORMITIES

PELAGIC PELAGIC TO HEMI·

CARBONATE PELAGIC SILICEOUS
PARTIALLY RED, S MUD :!: CARBONATE
STRONGLY CONDENSED, SHALLOW·WATER
UNCONFORMITIES, LAG DEPOSITS, CARBONATE PLEISTOCENE MUD WITH
FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS AND NODULES, SEAMOUNTS LIGHT ·DARK ALTER·
SO ME GLAUCONITE. WITH PELAGIC
CARBONATE \NATIONS, :!: CARBONATE
( NANNOS, FORAMS) IN PLACES PERI·PLATFORM
:!: PHOSPHORITE
REDISTRIBUTED CALC. MUD
AND BRECCIAS
RIDGE AND BASIN TOPOGRAPHY
(CALIFORNIA BORDERLAND·TYPE)

ISLAND SHELF SEDIMENTS,

b HEMIPELAGIC DEEP·SEA FAN,
TERRIG. AND BIOGENIC MA1NLY TERRIGENOUS MAT.,
CALCAREOUS SANDS AND HIGH SEDIMENTATION
RATE ( 20·50 em/Ka )

PHOSPHORITE
AND GLAUCONITE, CALCAREOUS SAND AND
RELIC AND MUDS (MOLLUSCS, FORA·
RESIDUAL SED. MINIFERS, ETC.
FROM UNDER·
LYNG ROCKS BIOGENIC HEMIPELAGIC AND REDEPOSITED
ROCKY BOTTOM PELAGIC SEDIMENTS SLOPE SED. (MEDIUM SEDIM.
(OLDER ROCKS) (SILICEOUS AND/ OR CARB.) RATE, 5·10 em/ Ka )
210
Narrow ridges and banktops. Deposition ontop of
narrow topographie highs is controlled by the factors
mentioned above. The distance from siliciclastic sed-
iment sources and local topographie features also
play a significant role. In the example of Figure
5.l0b, the climate is semi-arid and sediment supply
by rivers is fairly high. Oceanic circulation is charac-
terized by southward-directed cold surface currents
and moderate coastal upwelling fed by northward
flowing intermediate waters. Under these conditions
one can distinguish between several depositional
zones:
- Rocky bottoms with some sessil organisms, practi-
cally devoid of sediment. This situation is observed
on hills rising above the level of island shelves and
large, flat bank tops, at the outer edges of island
shelves and large bank tops, on the upper parts of
steep basin slopes, and on the walls of submarine
canyons.
- Mainland continental shelves and island shelves.
Terrigenous, and mixed terrigenous and biogenie
sand and mud, decreasing grain size and increasing
carbonate content with depth (for further details see
Sect. 3.4).
- Large bank tops at medium depths (about 100 to
300 m). Biogenie sands and muds, relic sediment and
residual sediment from underlying rocks, abundant
phosphorite and glauconitic sand. Depressions on the
flat ridges are filled with sediment.
- Large bank tops at greater depths (<:300 m), far
away from the coastline. Thick cover of biogenie
pelagic sediment, in this example mainly siliceous.
Layers of small nodules of phosphorite and other
authigenic minerals are, if present in certain hori-
zons, diluted and buried.
The phosphorite occurs in small grains, nodules, and slabs,
or it forms thin coatings on rocky grounds and gravel. It is
usually covered by a film of manganese oxide. Frequently,
older nodules are cemented together by younger
phosphorite to form a nodular conglomerate. The phospho-
rite is often associated with glauconitic foraminiferal sand
(banktop glauco-phosphorites), which is found either
within or surrounding the nodules. In the Califomian bor-
derland, the age of the phosphorite dredged from the sur-
face of large banks is Late Miocene to Quatemary. Hence
the net sedimentation rate at these locations was extremely
low during the last 10 to 15 Ma (cf. Sect. 5.3.7).
Narrow basins. Most ofthe sediments filling the nar-
row, elongate basins between the ridges are delivered
via gravity mass movements (cf. Sect. 5.4). The in-
ner, landward basins are fed primarily by submarine
canyons collecting sand and mud from the continent
and inner shelf; they are filled mainly by deep-sea
fans and display high sedimentation rates in the order
of 20 to 50 cmlka. The outer basins are cut off from
direct terrestrial supply. They accumulate pelagic to
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
hemipelagic sediments derived from their slopes and
produced in the water column; minor amounts of ma-
terial mayaiso come from island shelves. The sedi-
mentation rates in these distal basins drop to moder-
ate values (5 to 10 cmlka).
Summary (Plateaus, Ridges, and Associated
Basins)
On marginal and isolated plateaus of some
extent, ± complete pelagic carbonate and
biosiliceous sediments can accumulate under
weak current regimes and above the CCD.
Narrow ridges, banktops, and current-swept
highs commonly display strongly reduced,
condensed, or irregular deposition (inciuding
phosphorite and glauconite).
Adjacent basins may collect some of the pla-
teau sediments, but can also be controlled by
different and more effective sediment sourees.
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow Deposits
and Turbidites
5.4.1 Introduction
Gravity mass movements and mass flows are very
common both in mountainous regions on the conti-
nents and on the floor of water-filled basins with a
high-relief subaquatic topography, such as along the
margins of deep ocean basins. The mechanics of
mass flows on land and below the sea differs in sev-
eral respects, but it is of great importance here that
the preservation potential of marine mass flow de-
posits is much higher than that of continental envi-
ronments. Mass flow deposits on land are mostly
removed by subsequent erosion, apart from those
which are rapidly buried in strongly subsiding areas.
Their marine and lacustrine counterparts are com-
monly buried by younger sediments and therefore
preserved in the geological record. On the other
hand, the various types of mass movements on land
can be weIl observed and have in fact been studied
intensively in many countries. Mass flows below the
sea are more difficult to study and have rarely been
observed in operation. This may be one of the rea-
sons why so much has been written and speculated
about these processes. The deposits of marine mass
flows often reach much larger dimensions than those
on land, and they can make up a great portion of the
total sediment body of many marine basins. In addi-
tion, lacustrine and marine sediment gravity flows
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow
often evolve into turbulent suspension currents which
generate specific beds termed turbidites. Particularly
in orogenie belts, these bed types form thick flysch
sequences.
In this chapter, only mass flow deposits of the ma-
rine realm are described. Their most characteristic
features and depositional environments are demon-
strated by a few, simplified conceptual models. Most
of these can also be applied to lake sediments (Sect.
2.5), but large-scale phenomena are commonly miss-
ing in small and shallow aquatic environments.
For summaries on terrestrial mass wasting and sediment
gravity flows see, e.g., Brunsden et al. (1979), Selby
(1994), Iverson et al. (1997). Special features are described
by Major (1997), Blair and McPherson (1998).
On marine gravity mass flow deposits and turbidites nu-
merous articles and some special books have been pub-
lished in the last decades (e.g. Mutti and Ricci Lucchi
1978; Walker 1978, 1984a, c; Stanley and Kelling 1978;
Kelts and Arthur 1981; Saxov and Nieuwenhuis 1982;
Schwarz 1982; Mutti et al. 1984; Prior and Coleman 1984;
Stow and Piper 1984; Thornton 1984; Stanley 1985; Mutti
and Norrnark 1987; Mutti 1992).
The flow behavior of the different types of gravity mass
movememts is treated, e.g., by Middleton and Hampton
(1976), Blatt et al. (1980), Stow (1980), Allen (1982),
Lowe (1982), Komar (1970, 1985), Postma (1986), Einseie
(1989), Middleton (1993); Piper and Savoye 1993; Mulder
and Cochonat 1996; Mohrig et al. 1998; and summarized
by Stowet al. (1996).
In the following figures, displaying individual beds, bed
sets, and their internal sedimentary structures, a number of
symbols are introduced. These are purely descriptive and
partially supplement or rcplace symbols which have been
used earlier (e.g. those for sandy turbidites after Bouma
1962; see also Lowe 1982; Walker 1984a, c; summaries in
Ghibaudo 1992; Stowet al. 1996). For example, sandy
turbidites are discriminatcd trom mud turbidites by using
the symbols TS and TM, respectively; ig signifies inversed
grading, Im laminated umd, etc.
5.4.2 Gravity Mass Movements and Mass Flows
in the Ocean
Types of Gravity Mass Transport
The most important types of gnlvity mass movements
found in both ocean and lake basins are summarized
in Fig. 5.11. They can be subdivided into several
groups:
- Mass movements of lithified, jointed rocks: Rock-
fall along eoastal cliffs or steep submarine slopes and
fault scarps (Fig. 5.11 a). The transport distance of
such fallen rocks is commonly limited. However on
steep slopes, such as present around volcanic islands,
huge block-rich rock falls and slides extending SO-
100 km out in to the sea have been observed (e.g. on
the flanks of the island of Hawaii; Moore et al.
211
1995). Another means of producing larger transport
distances is a composite mass movement, as indi-
cated in Fig. 5.lli.
- Creep, sliding and slumping of semi-solid to soft
sediments (Fig. 5.llc through e) on slopes ofvarious
angles (as little as a few degrees). Movement takes
place if the shear stress exceeds the shear strength of
the sediment at some depth below the sedimentary
surface, which is usually tested by stability analysis
(Fig. 5.l1b). The shear stress increases with the
slope angle and depth below the sea floor. Deep be-
low the surface of a gentle slope, the shear stress can
be as high as on a steep slope at shallow depth. For
this reason, there is a tendency for thick mass move-
ments to develop on gentle slopes, whereas thin ones
are characteristic for steep slopes. The shear stress
can, in addition, be significantly enhanced by earth-
quakes and, in shallow water, by the effect of storm
waves on the sea bed. Furthermore, the sudden load-
ing by an approaching slide or slump often generates
seeondary failure planes and propagation of the mass
movement. Similarly, a drop in sea level or tectonic
uplift can lead to an additional loading of emerging
sediments which, when losing buoyancy, may trigger
slope failure.
The shear strength of sediments usually increases
with depth below the sea floor, but is reduced by
high porc pressure in underconsolidated sediments.
Such a situation frequently occurs in areas where
fine-grained sediments are deposited rapidly, for ex-
ample in front of deltas. A further reduction in shear
strength is caused by the rather common develop-
ment of bio genie gas in the uppermost tens of meters
in slope sediments rich in organic matter. Finally, the
release of methane from crystallized gas hydrates
within the sediment may locally diminish the shear
strength and thus cause large mass movements.
In creep and slides, the sediment masses do not
change their mechanical state, i.e., they move as a
kind of rigid plug without significant internal distur-
bance. The distance of transport is normally short.
Slumps show considerable internal disturbance, for
example slump folding, and frequently several slip
faces (Fig. 5.lle). They often evolve into debris or
mud flows.
Gas hydrates have been recently mentioned by several au-
thors as a mechanism of triggering mass movements (e.g.
Haq 1993. 1998; Paull et al. 1996; Maslin et al. 1998).
Methane gas can be released from solid gas hydrates when
the bottom water temperature increases (resulting from
climatic changes or shifting of currcnt systems), and/or
when the water pressure decreases due to relative sea-level
fall.
Gravitational collapse structures are associated with
faults and often produce aseries of slides and slumps. They
are ascribed to earthquakes and high fluid pressures
and may affect loose sediments and consolidated rocks
212 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

a ROCKFALL b STABILITY ANALYSIS C SEDIMENT CREEP

~OPE
~.:::: ANGLE
:·Z .· " .. T,. SHEAR
".: ."::.~. STRESS
_ SHEAR
- STRENGTH
SLIP
PLANE

SEA LEVEL
____ ____ _
d
_:.::l.~

SUDE

e SLUMP

NON·COHESIVE
(COARSE) f GRAIN FLOW

GRAIN FLOW
DEPOSIT

METASTABLE
GRAIN PACKING
9 DEBRIS FLOW
-+ LlaUEFACTION
/
/

(J) ~----, "

~ COARSE.GRAINED ' " OUSTOSTROME
ii TURBIDITES
>-
I-

~
er
(!)
I-
Z k::--- -
W
MEDIUM· GA.
~
15
w
TURBIDITES h MUD FLOW
In
\ SUSPENSION
.,,{Ir:::::'"
.. : "",,'
BY UPTAKE
LONG·DISTANCE TRANSPORT
BY TURBIDITY GURRENTS OF WATER ~r<)l"<:,. :;~;
(UP TO SEVERAL 100's 10
FLOW DEP. ~. ~ ' '
/ 1000's km)
,'0 "

:::", ." LlaUEFIED

MUD TURBIDITES
-E:,------ GLASTS
MUDDY SILT (PARTLY
MIGROFOSSILS ),SJ= 1.4 -1 .7 g/cm 3

FINE,
SEA LEVEL - ---- -- ------
COHESIVE
i COMPOUM:~' GRA\-MUD FLOW (DGRAIN FLOW :;' .
• , ~.ot(
LOAD ON TOP OF MUD ,.;';;"
LOCALLY:
PEBBLY LUMPS ~
MUDSTONE
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow
(Hesthammer and Fossen 1999). Such collapse structures
have been identified in the northern North Sea where they
range in scale from small to very large features (up to ~ 100
km).
- Sediment gravity flows. Flow may occur in several
different ways:
(1) Viscoplastic flows with internal shear planes and
virtually no movement at the base of the flow. Such
gravity movements usually need a rather high slope
angle (5 to 10°) and reach limited thicknesses.
(2) Slide-debris flows, or slideflows move as a more
or less rigid plug over a basal shear zone. In this zone
the water pressure is in excess of hydrostatic pres-
sure and thus reduces the shear strength of this mate-
rial, which may even become liquefied. It seems that
a basal lubricating layer of water underneath the de-
bris flow enables acceleration and long run-out dis-
tances of the mass flow (Mohrig et al. 1998). Such
flows can reach great thicknesses and occur on very
gentle slopes (0.1 to 1°). in some cases, the flows can
develop erosional features in the form of broad fur-
rows or channels.
(3) Liquefied mass flows. Sediment masses on sub-
aqueous slopes can be frequently transformed, e.g.
by earthquake shocks, into fluids of high density and
viscosity. Aprerequisite to this behavior is a high in-
situ water content and meta-stable grain packing.
Partial or entire remolding of the sediment creates a
small surplus of pore water which cannot immedi-
ately escape. As a result, the shear strength of the
material drops drastically and approaches zero with-
out the uptake of additional water. The liquefied
masses start to flow downslope, even on very gentle
slopes (::;OS), and become further remolded and dis-
organized. Similarly, already moving slump masses
may be converted irito slow, plastic debris flows or
mud flows. Typical examples of this type of liquefac-
tion are non-cohesive or low-cohesive sands and
silts, but it appears that many sediments rich in dia-
toms, nannofossils and other micro-organisms are
also susceptible to this process.
(4) Grainflows consisting ofpure sand are character-
ized by their frictional strength. To overcome friction
between the grains, a kind of dispersive pressure
must develop. This can only be achieved on fairly
steep slopes (18 to 37°), as at the head of submarine
canyons and on some prodelta slopes. Grain flows
...
require an environment with ready supply of sand,
Fig. 5.11. Summary of submarine mass movements
and gravity mass flows. (Based on many sourees,
e.g., Middleton and Hampton 1976, Walker 1978,
Moore DG et al. 1982, Prior and Coleman 1984;
Stow 1986, Einseie 1989). Rockfalls (a), slides (d),
and slumps (e) occur if the shear stress exceeds the
shear strength of the rock or sediment at some depth
(b stability analysis). g and h Debris and mud flows
213
and they usually travel only short distances. The de-
posits of individual grain flow processes are thin
(several centimeters) and may show reverse grading.
Grain flows have been described, e.g., by Shepard and Dill
(1966), Lowe (1976), Dingler and Anima (1989).
Because many sediment gravity flows evolve from lami-
nar to fully turbulent systems (flow transformation; see also
Lowe 1979; Postma 1986), an exact correlation of natural
tlows to idealized tlows (tluidized flow, liquefied flow,
grain flow, mud flow or cohesive debris flow) is often diffi-
cult. The preserved gravity flow deposit and its internal
fabric and sedimentary structures only record the mode of
final deposition, but cannot fully reveal the (possibly
changing) character of the tlow on its path from a failed
slope to the site of redeposition (Einseie et al. 1996 ).
In the oceans, the most important flow types are mud
flows and cohesive debris flows. They contain vary-
ing proportions of mud, which provide them with co-
hesive matrix strength supporting larger particles.
When. their excess pore water dissipates, the flow
masses come to rest.
By uptaking additional water from the overlying
water body, individual gravity flows or parts of them
can evolve into masses of lower density and viscosity
and, if there is a long, sufficiently steep gradient,
finally generate turbulent suspension currents of high
velocity (turbidity currents).
- Compound mass movements result from the sudden
loading of slope sediments by other masses, e.g.,
slides, slumps, or grain flow deposits originating
from higher slope areas (Fig. 5.11i). In this way, the
underlying sediment is transformed into a loaded,
undrained condition with reduced shear strength.
Compound mass movements provide a mechanism
for transporting coarse gravel over long distances and
on very gentle slopes into the deep sea.
Moore DG et al. (1982) reported an interesting case from
the southern Gulf of California, where coastal sand and
gravel were first transported as a grain tlow and debris flow
via a steep submarine canyon, down to amid-fan and lower
slope region (around 2500 m deep). There, the superposi-
tion of a great load of coarse c1astics onto siliceous silty
clays (porosity 70 to 80%) triggered a second, considerably
larger mass movement on a much gentIer slope (about
1.5°), which carried the coarse material "piggyback" down
to a 3000 m deep marginal basin plain (slope angle 0.1°).
The mass spread over an area of approximately 300 km 2,
forming a sheet several tens to about 100 m thick. Due to
the remolding and differential settling of the flow mass
usually originate from slides and slumps by liquefac-
tion of the primary, metastable grain packing (in situ
water content, w, greater than liquid limit, wL ). Tur-
bidity currents evolve from gravity flows by uptake
of additional water. i A composite, two-step grain-
mud flow mechanism can explain long-distance
transport of pebbles and gravel into the deep sea
214
particles, the coarse material now forms the base of the
mass flow deposit, 70 km away from its source area.
Loading of slope sediment by a debris avalanche proba-
bly also triggered the very large Canary debris flow which
travelled 700 km from the West African slope to the Ma-
deira abyssal plain (Masson et al. 1993; Masson et al.
1998).
Preferential Sites of Mass Movements
Figure 5.12 summarizes the most important tectonic
and environmental settings for the occurrence of
large gravity mass movements. Most of theses set-
tings provide both high influx of sediment and strong
relief.
- The prodelta slopes of marine deltas exhibit a vari-
ety of mass movements. Very common are slides and
mud flows which occur even on extremely gentle
slopes in shallow water. Furthermore, large-scale
creep generating growth faults and mud diapirs may
form (Fig. 5.12a).
Such features have been described, e.g., for the Mississippi
delta (Prior and Coleman 1984) and Niger delta (Cohen
and McClay 1996). Weil documented examples include the
1929 Grand Banks slump and turbidity current offthe Lau-
rentian Channel of North America (Piper and Shor 1988;
Hughes Clarke et al. 1990) and the 1979 mass-wasting at
the prodelta slope of the Var river in the northwestem
Mediterranean (Auffret et al. 1988; Piper and Savoye 1993;
Savoye et al. 1993).
- The heads of submarine canyons, extending to the
inner shelf and foreshore zones, can collect sediment
transported parallel or obliquely to the coastline (Fig.
5.12a). This sediment moves episodically by gravity
processes down the canyon into the deep sea.
- "Shelf break erosion". Rapid subsidence and active
faulting during rifting and early drifting (right-hand
side of Fig. 5.12a) can create a submarine relief par-
ticularly favorable for extensive gravity mass move-
ments along the shelf break of young basins
(Bourrouilh 1987; Eberli 1987). The resulting debris
flows may carry soft and lithified material of various
age.
- Subduction-related depositional envIronments pro-
vide several possibilities for different types of gravity
mass movements.
Fig. 5.12. Depositional environments (overview), in
which large gravity mass movements and turbidite
sedimentation take place. a Passive continental mar-
gin in an early rifting-drifting stage with active faults.
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
Deep-sea trenches adjacent to a main continent (not shown
in Fig. 5.l2b), such as the modem Peru-Chile trench, fre-
quently collect high quantities of river material. A major
proportion of these sediments consists of sandy and muddy
gravity flow deposits (Thomburg and Kulm 1987).
Trenches far away from significant terrestrial sediment
sources (Fig. 5.12b) are fed by slumps and debris flows
originating from an accretionary wedge or young,
autochthonous slope sediments. For that reason, they often
contain material of varying age and nature (polymict clast
composition), sometimes including ophiolites and meta-
morphic rocks.
- The sedimentary fills of forearc basins, and to
some extent those of backarc basins (not shown in
Fig. 5.12b), are usually characterized by high propor-
tions of volcaniclastic material, transported by grav-
ity mass movements into the basin.
- Redeposited gravel-sized rock fragments and skele-
tal material (rudites), sand-sized shell fragments
(arenites), and finer-grained lutites (including pellets)
play a great part in deep-sea carbonate depositional
envirOnments (Fig. 5.12c). The main sources ofthese
materials are carbonate shelves and isolated carbon-
ate platforms. Due to early differential lithification
and the oversteepened slopes of many reef buildups,
rock falls and collapse events are fairly common.
These processes generate large-scale slurnps and de-
bris flows including large blocks.
Part of the dislocated coarse and fine-grained shallow-wa-
ter carbonate is transported by turbidity currents farther
basinward (see e.g. Remane 1960; Wilson 1975; Cook and
Enos 1977; Scholle et al. 1983a; McIlreath and James
1984; Eberli 1987).
Deposits of debris flows and mud flows
Flow masses come to rest if the applied shear stress
drops below the shear strength of the moving mate-
rial and/or, on land, if their excess pore water dissi-
pates. The flows "freeze", which is accomplished
either by cohesive freezing or, in the case of a
cohesionless sandy matrix, by frictional freezing, or
by both processes. In subaqueous environments,
parts of the flow masses can take up additional water
from the overlying water body and evolve into turbu-
lent suspension currents of high velocity (turbidity
currents, see below).
The principal features of debris flow and mud
flow deposits are summarised in Figure 5.13. They
reflect the final flow processes immediately before
deposition, which can be characterised as more or
b Convergent margin with forearc basin. c Mass
flows and deep-sea fan fed by detritus from carbon-
ate shelf or platform. (Based on different sources,
e.g., Stow 1986)
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow 215

a
MUD DIAPIRS AND SHELF, DELTA PLATFORM SEDIMENT SHELF
GROW TH FAULTS (CREEP ) (HIGH SEDIMENTATION RATE ) ACCUMU· BREAK
LATION IN SOF T AND SEMI· EROSION
MUD FLOWS WITH OVER· CANYON CONSOLIDATED
LAPPING TOE LOBES HEAD SLOPE SEDIMENTS (STRONG
MAINLY SLUMPS • RELIEF )
AND MUD FLOWS

DEEP-SEA
DELTA FAN
LARGE ACTIVE
AND BURIED
SAND·FILLED
CANYON
CHANNEL DEEP-SEA FAN
SYSTEMS, SYSTEM ROCKFALL ,
MAINLY MUD UPPER FAN: .SOME TRANSITION SLUMPS,ANQ Qf:BRIS
TURBIDITES, SLUMPS. FLOWS OF
GRAINS, DEBRIS
SLOPE APRON TO HIGH AND LOW· "\ FLOWS (POLYMICT),
SOME MUD SLUMPS, MUD FLOWS DENSITY TURBIDITY UNDERCUTTING OF
FLOWS AND MUD, CURRENTS, SAND SLOPE BY CONTOUR
CHANNEL FILLS. PREDOMINANTLY
MUD TURBIDITES AND MUD TURBIDITES CURRENTS
LOWER FAN: MAINLY
SAND TURBIDITES,
SOME CHANNEL FILLS

b c
RAPID ACCUMULATION . VOLCANIC ARC CARBONATE PLATFORM CARBONATE SHELF
OF VOLCANICLASTICS (SAND (ANDESITlC) WITH REEFS, L AGOON,ETC. EARLY INDURATION
AND SILT), BEACH GRAVEL SLUMP AND LlTHIFICATION
FLOW
TURBIDITES
(SAND AND
DEEP-SEA
TRENCH _
r<':
I
-
I
I

FOREARC BAS1N: ......~~tJ;L~

CHANNEL FILLS,
DEBRIS FLOWS ,
TURBIDITES (SAND
AND MUD),ASH FALLS

ACCRETIONARY (CALCAREOUS TURBIDITES

WEDGE (:!:OPHIOLITES) (SAND AND MUD)
216
less laminar, cohesive flows of comparatively dense,
sediment-fluid mixtures of plastic behavior.
Debris flow deposits (debrites) and olistostromes
(very thick, extensive debrites) consist of a medium
to fine-grained matrix and a varying proportion of
matrix-supported elasts. The typical debrite is rich in
elasts of different sizes; the elasts may be derived
from older sediments and rocks within the basin
(intraelasts) or from sources outside the basin
(extraelasts, typical for olistostromes). Single elasts
or blocks (olistoliths) in olistostromes can reach the
size of a house and more.
The base of thick and coarse-grained debrites may
be scoured. The basal sediments often displaya thin
sheared zone and inverse grading caused by
prograding frictional freezing. The higher portion
may exhibit indistinct normal grading. Internally,
most debrites lack any bedding phenomena or
imbrication of elasts; in some examples only, elon-
gate elasts are aligned horizontally, indicating the
direction of flow. The top of the bed is either sharp
or grades into an overlying turbidite, thus forming a
compound debrite-turbidite couplet (e.g. Stanley
1982; Mutti et a1. 1984). In places, the top of a
debrite may be current-winnowed and therefore
transformed to a elast-supported lag deposit. Then,
traces of burrowing organisms are missing. In some
cases, adebrite or mud flow deposit is directly over-
lain by a second debrite or an overlapping lobe of the
same mudflow (Fig. 5.13).
Calcareous debrites resulting from Iarge-scale
slope collapse of semi-lithified carbonate buildups
often form sheet-like megabreccia beds (Fig. 5.12c)
which contain little fine-grained matrix material and
are therefore primarily elast-supported.
For further details see, e.g., Mullins and Cook (1986),
Surlyk and Ineson (1992), Spence and Tucker (1997).
Brecciation of serni-lithified platform carbonates mayaIso
result from tectonic deformation, for example during rift-
ing, and thus generate "internal breccias" which can be
incorporated into debris flows (Füchtbauer and Richter
1983).
Mud flow deposits have much in common with
debrites; in fact there is no sharp boundary between
these two end members of the same group (Fig.
5.13b). Mud flow deposits have a muddy matrix with
a high silt (or micro-fossil) content and contain no or
only a small amount of elasts, mostly intraelasts
which are frequently deformed by the preceding pro-
cesses of slumping and mass flow. The admixture of
gravel or other coarse material from submarine can-
yons rnay locally generate pebbly mud or mudstone.
There are also couplets of debrites (or mud flow
deposits) with sandy and muddy turbidites (Fig.
5.13). The latter sit on top ofthe debrite or replace it
basinward.
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
Such couplets have been observed in several ancient sedi-
mentary sequences (e.g., Stanley 1982; Mutti et al. 1984;
Bourrouilh 1987; Souquet et al. 1987).
Elmore et al. (1979) described a modem example from
the Hatteras abyssal plain in the western Atlantic. The rede-
posited bed is 500 km long, more than 100 km wide, up to
4 m thick, and of upper Pleistocene in age. It consists pre-
dominantly of fluvially derived sand and shelf mud with a
large proportion of mollusc shell fragments. In proximal
regions, the poody sorted lower part of the bed (~20%
mud) may have been deposited as a sandy debris flow,
whereas its upper part and more distal portions reflect de-
position from a turbidity current.
Another compound, but carbonate-bearing, debrite-
turbidite was observed in the Exuma Sound, Bahamas
(Crevello and Schlager 1980). This bed is 2 to 3 m thick
and covers an area ofmore than 6000 km 2.
Hieke (1984) reported a Holocene example from the
Ionian abyssal plain (water depth -4000 m) in the Mediter-
ranean Sea. Here, a 12 m thick homogenized mud layer
containing around 50% carbonate, partially from interme-
diate and possibly even from shallow waters, covers an
area of 1100 km 2 • Locally, the layer has a sandy base com-
posed of shell fragments.
Some workers have introduced additional terms for
some mass flow deposits which they ascribed to specific
triggering mechanisms: "unifites" (Feldhausen et al. 1981),
"homogenites" (Cita and Ricci Lucchi 1984), mega-
turbidites or "seismo-turbidites" (e.g. Mutti et al. 1984). As
mentioned above, it is norrnally difficult to infer the trig-
gering mechanism from the character of the final bed.
5.4.3 Turbidity Currents and Turbidites
Suspension (Turbidity) Currents
The turbidity current hypothesis as a mechanism for
producing graded, sheet-like beds (sandy, silty or
muddy turbidites) in marine and lake environments
was inferred from the study of ancient rhythmic bed
successions, the internal structures of the sand beds,
and their allochthonous shallow water fauna (Kuenen
and Migliorini 1950).
Turbidity (or suspension) currents commonly
evolve from slope failures by uptake of water (Fig.
5.15a). As long as the density of the suspension is
greater than that of the surrounding water body, it
tends to move downslope, gain in speed, and form a
turbulent undelcurrent transporting its load into
deeper water. The density of suspensions caused by
river floods, however, is usually not high enough to
produce such undercurrents (density of sea water
1.027 g/cm3). Because of the rare occurrence of tur-
bidity current events in relation to the human life
span, such currents of some size could never be di-
rectly observed in operation, apart from some mea-
surements in lakes, water reservoirs, or artificial
flumes. Indirect evidence for the high transport ca-
pacity of turbidity currents was gained from reports
on the breakage of submarine telegraph cables on
continental slopes as well as at the foot of some sub-
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow 217

a DISTAL (BASIN PLAIN, LOWER FAN)

..L.-
~ - - - - - - - - - - -
PROXIMAL
(BASE OF SLOPE, SLOPE )

LOW ·DENSIT Y HIGH·DENSITY , SLOW COHESIVE

TURBIDITY ~ HIGH·VElOGITY ~ FLOW OF PlASTIC MASS
GURRENT TURBIDITY GURR.
(UPTAKE OF ADDITIONAL WATER) DEBRIS FLOW DEPOSITS MIXED
(DEBRITES, OllSTOSTROMES) SEDIMENT
MUD TURBIDITES SANDY TURBIDITES DF I 0 SOURCE

. ......-'II~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~·d';b~,~O~Q
TM TS 0, • ~ ( SILT. SAND.
! Cl • • I .. • SOME CLAY .

. .... .:.: ....... "..:-:.:('.::..... .. ~-f' °0 C::> 1°

I r CARBON~ES•
~~~~IA6~Y
LlTHIFIED)
see tigs. tor GURRENT AUTO- I SCOURING DUE TO
sand and mud EROSION SUSPENSION I LOAD-GENERATED
turbidites J FAlL URE PLANES :!: DEFORMED, FROM
",...- ... J SUBSTRATUM
=-===
~ -- <J DOWNsLOPE GRADATION
_- sI
PE __ ~ - (TRACTION) WINNOWED MATRIX L--..........~_- cm. AMALGA -
TM ec. EXTRACLASTS '" MATION
_ _ 7' (pm, POLYMIGT) c:::> ~ gr, NORMAL
TS C)o~
MATRIX.SUPPORTED ~~ GRADING
DFgr ClASTS c>" 01, OliSTOLITH
DF <:)10
ie, INTRAClASTS 0 0
T T (mm, MONOMICT) D. ig, INVERSE
0.1-10 1-10 GRADING
m.l-t=::::J::::::,-': DF ig m .1 p:...<t-"'T"'- FINE-GRAINED
_ L A R_ L A R bi, BIOTURBATION L A R MATRIX
LUTITE ARENITE RUDITE

SLUMP
b SL

MUD TURBIDITES MUD FLOW DEPOSITS PREDOMI·

TM MF

I
I I
see fig. for
mud turbidiles j I I lAMINAR FLOW
I (MUD LOBES)

""
\ <1 ...../ /",..)
INDISTINCT DOWNSLOPE GRADATION ===-~L r!-r--
' SLUMP FOlDS
\ \ - .... ...- LOCALLY : • -
...... ' \ ' PEBBLY MUD OR 0 MUDDY MATRIX
...... gm, GRADED MUDSTONE _ (HIGH CONTENT
: (MASSIVE) MUD MF .... OF SllT AND /OR
ee, EXTRACLASTS (:) DIATOMS, NANNOS,
Im, (PLANAR) lAMI· ETe,)
NATED MUD
MF MF WITH FEW SOFT
CLASTS INTRACLASTS
0, ~2I 0 BACKGROUND SED. (ie)
1Dm:;:=-.., BIOTURBATED (bi) MF ig
. L A L A L A R
Fig. 5.13. Conceptual models for proximal and distal on different sourees, e.g., Lowe 1982; Stow 1986;
debris flows (a) and mud flows (h), finally evolving Bourrouilh 1987; Souquet et al. 1987). See text for
into high- and low-density turbidity currents_ (Based further explanation
218
marine canyons associated with major rivers. The
driving force of turbidity currents is primarily a func-
tion of the difference in the densities of the suspen-
sion and the overlying water body, the submarine
relief, i.e. the angle and length of slope, and the
thickness of the suspension current.
High-density and thick turbidity currents usually
originate from large gravity mass movements on the
slopes of deep basins well supplied with sediment.
Their densities range from 1.10 to 1.17 glcm 3 and they
reach thicknesses of several hundred meters (e.g. Piper and
Shor 1988). Due to their high current velocities (up to 10-
20 mlsec), they can carry relatively coarse-grained sand,
pebbles, and intraclasts.
Within the confines of submarine channels, large-
scale turbidity currents have the competence for
transporting gravel (up to at least 10 cm in diameter)
as bedload, and may thus generate lenses of con-
glomerate at the foot of prodelta slopes. On deep-sea
fan lobes and basin plains, suspension flows often
erode the uppermost mud layer in extensive areas
(Fig. 5.15b-d). The eroded material feeds the suspen-
sion with new sediment which replaces coarser mate-
rial settling out of suspension in the slackening body
and tail of the current. In this way, and by the mainte-
nance ofturbulence by gravitational forces (auto-sus-
pension), the current is kept in motion and can travel
over long distances.
Low-density turbidity currents flow slowly and
can therefore keep only silt and elay-sized material or
larger aggregates of fine particles in suspension.
Their erosional capacity is very low or non-existent,
but weak turbulence maintains such suspension cur-
rents for relatively long periods of time. They can
attain considerable thicknesses and distribute their
suspended load as a thin bed over wide areas. It is
assumed that low-density, muddy turbidity currents
often are the final stage of sand-bearing suspension
currents, which have lost their coarser grain size frac-
tion underway (Fig. 5.15d).
A more comprehensive treatment of this topic including a
specific nomenclature for the various processes involved in
the generation ofthese event beds is given, e.g., by Middle-
ton (1993), Stowet al. (1996).
Types of Turbidites and Their Characteristics
The final products of turbidity currents are various
types of turbidite beds (turbidites). Texture, internal
sedimentary structures, and composition of turbidites
vary greatly. At least four types of turbidites can be
distinguished:
(1) Coarse-grained turbidites are commonly found in
proximal regions in relation to the sediment source.
They are generated by high-density turbidity currents
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
carrying pebbles and elasts as bed load and finer-
grained material in suspension. They often show an
initial stage of traction sedimentation (coarse-grained
conglomeratic sand with plane lamination, cross-bed-
ding, internal swur, and possibly some inverse grad-
ing (Figs. 5.14a and 5.15d). This division is followed
by sedimentation from suspension creating either a
structureless or normally graded higher division
(Bourna division Ta; Bourna 1962). Typical features
are water-escape structures (pillar and dish struc-
tures).
Erosional truncation of the upper part of the bed by a
subsequent suspension flow is eommon, leading to
"amalgamation" of several turbidite beds.
Coarse-grained turbidites seem to occur preferentially in
the wide feeder channels of deep-sea fans. The high-veloc-
ity turbidity currents have the capacity of eroding sandy
and gravelly beds of the channel floor where they leave
behind large-scale bed forms such as flutes and antidunes
(Morris et al. 1998).
The transformation of a cohesionless debris flow into
a high-density turbidity eurrent, generating a basal
traction carpet, may take plaee within a short dis-
tanee downslope (Falk and Dorsey 1998).
(2) Medium-grained sandy turbidites (silieielastics
and carbonate) re fleet deposition from suspension
currents of moderate density. The event bed is graded
from bottom to top, but grading may beeome indis-
tinct if the souree area does not provide material of a
wide range of grain sizes. Due to the uptake of
eroded deep-sea mud, the amount of autoehthonous
fauna (nekton, plankton) often inereases toward the
top of a turbidite bed.
A "elassie", medium-sized sand turbidite, shows
the following sequenee (or divisions) of internal sed-
imentary struetures (from top to bottom; Figs. 5.14a
and 5.l5b and d):
- Struetureless and indistinetly graded mud interval
(Bourna Te)' originating solely from suspension
sedimentation.
- Laminated mud (Bouma Td)' explained as mixed
traetionlsuspension sedimentation.
- Ripple eross-bedded sand (Bouma division Tc) due
to fallout of sand from suspension and current
traction in the lower flow regime.
- Plane laminatedsand (Bouma division Tb) refleet-
ing traction struetures of the upper flow regime.
- Graded division (Bourna TJ, mostly struetureless,
often with water eseape struetures, oceasionally
displaying antidunes which indicate a high flow
regime.
The lowermost Bouma division may rest on a coarse-
grained, inverse graded traetion carpet as mentioned
above.
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow 219

MUD TURBIDITES
TM
a SAND TURBIDITES
TS
SLUMPS, DEBRIS AND MUD FLOWS
SL, DF, MF

PE. PELAGIC TO am, AMALGAMATION

HE MI PELAGIC (TI ) r.:;........-r- ee, EXTRACLAST
PE (F) Im, LAMINATED MUD (Td,e) le, INTRACLAST
bi, BIOTURBATED ev, CONVOLUTE BEDDING
kJ~~.-- wl, WINNOWING
I~~~ cb, CROSS·BEDDED ( Te)
gr, NORMAL GRADING
LOW 15, (PLANAR) LAMINATED

gm, GRADED,
DE~NSITY /i}/;.
SAND (Tb)
am, AMALGAMATION
OB
01 , OLiSTOLITH
ig, INVERSE
(MASSIVE) TS -.; ':IJ ,.
mv, MASSIVE AND :!: gr S . GRADING
TM MUD (E2) . .t .. '
.':" -:: ',", gr, GRADED (SUS·
PENSION SEDI·
Im, l AMINAT':D MENTATION, Ta)
MUD (EI ) Ig, INVERSE GRADING
(TRACTION CARPET)
I-oii-ß-!-'J="gs, GRADED SAND
(FOR FURTHER SI, STRATIFIED (NORMAL
DETAILS SEE TS) CURRENT - TRAC TlON)

SYMBOLS MAY BE COMBINEO TO

TM FOR NON·DIFFERENTIATE D TS gr,15 TSIg.mv SL sh DBig.gr MFie

TS-TM TM Im,gm eIe. TSgr_lm eIe. DB-TS ls.eb MF-TM eIe.

INCREASE
b MINOR FEATURES OF GRADING IN CARBONATE,

8 T.
"/
SILlCA, ETC.

T 2·cm
10 :'
5mm .;; h.
105 ef .i
.....
>-/' ,~/.
GRADED GRADEO MINERALOGICAl CHEMICAL
LAMINATION CROSS·BEDDING GRADING GRADING
(gi) (geb) (gmi) (geh)

Fig. 5.14. a Descriptive terms and symbols far the Other characteristics such as sole marks and trace
internal sedimentary structures of mass flow deposits fossils (lebens spuren) are omitted. b Minor features
and turbidites; Bouma divisions in parentheses. and different types of grading

Upward-decreasing grain size (normal grading) can be ob-
served not only within division gr (Bouma Ta) and gener-
ally from bottom to top in a turbidite bed, but often within
the parallellaminated and small-scale cross-bedded divi-
sions Tb to Te (Fig. 5.14b). In these cases, the thicknesses
of individual laminae or cross-bedding sets decrease from
bottom to top (graded lamination, graded cross bedding).
However, weil sorted material in the source area does
not allow the formation of distinctly graded beds. A good
example of this type, indicated in Fig. 5.12a, are nongraded
yellowish sand turbidites in the eastem Atlantic, which are
derived from Saharian desert sands. During glaciallow sea-
level stands, these sands were blown by offshore winds
onto the shelfbreak and carried by slumps and turbidity
currents into the deep sea (Samthein and Diester-Haass
1977).
A still controversially discussed problem are thick mas-
sive and structureless sands lacking normal grading (e.g.
Kneller and Branney 1995). Their thin graded tops and
other criteria indicate that they originate from turbidity cur-
rents. These beds may have been generated by prolonged
(sustained) high-density turbidity currents.
(3) Carbonate turbidites (also called calciturbidites
or allodapic limestones; Meischner 1964). They
mainly consist of skeletal material produced on car-
bonate shelves and platforms (Fig. 5.12c). Abundant
shell material, reef detritus, and early lithification of
different types of carbonates provide various
medium- and coarse-grained materials. Hence,
allodapic limestones may alternate with carbonate
breccias and sands derived directly from platform
margins.
Biogenic carbonate particles behave hydraulically differ-
ently from siliciclastic sands. Quartz sand in Ta and Tb may
be replaced by skeletal particles with diameters >2 mm, or
sand-sized microfossil shells are transported and settle in a
manner similar to compact silt grains (T J. Instead of a car-
bonate silt division, a chert layer may be present, which
was formed diagenetically from hydraulically equivalent
siliceous sponge needles and radiolarians. As a result, a
graded carbonate turbidite can show distinct jumps in its
220 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

a SEA LEVEL PAOGAADING DELTA, SHELF

BASIN PLAIN
DEEP-SEA FAN

TURBIDITY CURRENT
BY UPTAKE OF WATER
ACCUMULATION
OF SAND AND MUD

SUBMARINE CANYON,
SUDING-SLUMPING
v
PELAGIC OR HEMI PELAGIC FAN ASSOCIATION ~
GRAVITY FLOW
(::: MUD TURBIDITES)

SANDY TURBIDITES
(MEDIUM TO FINE -GRAINED)

EROSION LOAD CASTING

d (:--- SUBSEOUENT EROSION

TRUNCATION BY

DISTAL ~---------------- - ------ PROXIMAL

RELATIVE
BED THICKNESS
cb(c )

11

~ - - BASAL DIVISIONS - - - - - -'» PRIMARY

MISSING TOOL SURFACE
MARKS OF BED TRACTION CARPET TRACTION

f
e PRE- DEPOS1TIONAL

TAAC~
EROSION OF COHESIVE
MATERIAL

GROVE CASTS

POST-
DEPOSITION AL TRAGE FOSSILS

FLUTE CAST S GRANULARIA PHYCOSIPHON SCOLICIA

5.4 Gravity Mass Flow
vertical succession of grain sizes andlor sediment composi-
tion (Fig. 5.16b).
As with silicic1astic turbidites, the maximum thick-
ness of an individual bed is commonly not attained in
the neighborhood of the source area, but at some dis-
tance downcurrent (Fig. 5 .16b); then it decreases dis-
tally.
(4) Mud Turbidites. This common turbidite type has
been frequently overlooked, although the sediment
fills of many basins and the sediment bodies of
prominent deep-sea fans, ancient and modem, consist
to a large degree ofmud turbidites (see below).
Mud turbidites may be regarded either as an end
member of gravity mass flows of mixed gra-
nulometry which have lost their coarser grain size
fraction (Chough 1984; Stanley 1985), or they are
derived solely from muddy sediment sources such as
fine-grained slope sediments. In addition to gravity
movements, large river floods or muddy sediments
stirred up by storms in shallow seas can contribute to
the formation of mud turbidites. Because these beds
are deposited from low-density suspension currents,
they are usually thin.
However, in the transitional stage from mud flows to
muddy suspension currents (hyperconcentrated flow) they
also fonn thick, indistinctly graded beds (EinseIe and Kelts
1982). Thick mud turbidites mayaIso result from flow re-
versals of large suspension flows in a narrow basins
(Porebski et al. 1991).
The mode of mud turbidite fonnation has been dis-
cussed, e.g., by Piper and Stow (1991). The sediments at
the foot of the modern continental slopes, the fillings of
deep, relatively narrow basins (e.g. Mediterranean, Black
Sea, Gulf of California) and many deep-sea fans contain
high proportions of mud turbidites (see, e.g., summary by
EinseIe et al. 1996).
The most characteristic features of mud turbidites are
a sharp basal contact to the underlying bed, internal
normal grading (indistinct) corresponding to the
Bouma divisions Td and Tc. Proximal mud turbidites
may contain a thin laminated sand layer at their base
(Fig. 5.17b). Under oxic environments, the tops of
mud turbidites are bioturbated. Thin, distal mud
turbidites tend to become obscured by intense
bioturbation. Then they can only be recognized if
their material andlor fauna differ substantially from
the pelagic or hemipelagic background sediment.
Fig. 5.15. Models for the generation of proximal and
distal sandy turbidites and their internal structures.
a Transition from slope failures (slumps, debris and
mud flows, grain flows) on continental slopes and
canyon heads to turbidity currents. b "Classic", com-
plete proximal turbidite showing the total succession
of Bouma divisions (in parentheses). See Figure
5.14a for further descriptive symbols. Note
autosuspension due to turbulence. c More distal
221
Taking into account the provenance of the muddy
material, one can distinguish between hemipelagic,
pelagic (fine-grained bioc1astics) and volcanic1astic
(ash) mud turbidites (Kelts and Arthur 1981; Fig.
5.17c and d). The redeposition of siliceous ooze,
mainly consisting of diatoms and radiolaria, is an
important process in the formation of rhythmically
bedded marine cherts.
Upward increasing contents of biogenic opal or carbonate
within aI'. individual bed can produce chemical grading
(Fig. 5.14b; see also Korsch et al. 1993). Internally, a lami-
nated division (according to Piper EI) is often followed by
a structur~less, indistinctly graded division (E2). Turbidite
radiolarian beds alternating with fine-grained ash turbidites
have been observed in the Upper Jurassic of the western
Carpathians (Misik et al. 1991).
Other Characteristics of Turbidites
Many of the various types of turbidites display evi-
dence of pre-event trace fossil associations of the
pelagic to hemipelagic host sediment and post-event
assemblages in the freshly deposited turbidite layer
(Fig.5.15t).
The burrows of the first group are exhumed by the erosive
force of the turbidity current and immediately afterwards
filled up with sediment settling out from the slowing sus-
pension current. These "lebens spuren" are preserved on the
sole of the turbidite besides casts produced by current ero-
sion (flute casts) or the imprints ofvarious objects dragged
by the current over the sea bottom (groove casts, tool
marks; Fig. 5.15d and e). The recolonizing trace fossil as-
semblage has to dig down into the turbidite from a new,
higher level. If the turbidite is thin, some of the burrowing
organisms may reach its base and feed on the background
sediments; but if the turbidite is thick, its top section only
can be burrowed (see also Seilacher 1962).
All types of turbidites can contain biogenic carbonate
or silica derived from shallow-water environments. If
deposited below the calcite compensation depth
(CCD) where the background sediments are poor in
or free of carbonate or opaline silica, these event de-
posits produce ahernating layers with and without
carbonate or biogenic silica. Thus, in particular mud
turbidites can form "banded" sequences. Similarly,
mud turbidites containing high amounts of organic
turbidite, no erosion, basal Bouma divisions are
missing. d Idealized proximal-distal development of
turbidite bed; proximal channel fills may show sedi-
mentary structures due to traction by normal currents
(st), as wen as traction carpets (ig inversely graded).
e Different sizes of flute and groove casts in relation
to bed thicknesses. (Based on several sources). f Pre-
depositional and post-depositional trace fossils. (Af-
ter Seilacher 1962; Kern 1980)
222 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

a PREDOMINANTLY SIUCICLASTIC SANDY TURBIDITES

DISTAL <E<~----------­ PROXIMAL
(BASIN PLAIN, LOWER FAN LOBE) (UPPER FAN LOBE,
BASE OF SLOPE)

!: ANOXIC OXIC OXIC DEEP WATER,

DEEP WATER DEEP WATER, ABOVE CCD, REDE-
BELOW CCD POSITED ORGANIC
SL
MATIER S
TM
TM bi bi
TS TM TS
MF gr
TM WATER
TM Im
eb TS ESCAPE
eb TS STRUCT.
gr
T TS TM OM PE . ig
eb
Im TS
em Is
PE

1 gm
PE
gr,mv
sI
TM Im
TM TS

TI:"m
Im eb
DF
TS TS MF
PE PE 5-10
em ,;._ _ Im,gm ig
L A L A R L A 1 .,- m
/' I \
LUTITE ARENITE RUDITE OVERBANK
DEPOSITS L A
1 R

b GRADED CALCARENITES CALLODAPIC UMESTONES)

l AND ASSOCIATED CARBONAtE SEDIMENTS OF SLOPES)

DISTAL ~-- -- -- ---- ---- .------- PROXIMAj..

(UPPER SLOPE, PLATFORM MARGIN)

st·ig I TRACTION COARSE SHELLS

\ /' REEF TALUS
FREQUENTLY EROSION
CHERT(BANDS ANO TRACTION CARPET) AND CLASTS \, Jtt/
OR NODULES)
I
-V \ MIXED SEQUENCE
IDEAL, COMPLETE \.
,
~ r.:'.;>,'''~''''
",,,,;...-- LlME SAND,
:!: CROSS-
CARBONATE TURBIDITE \ BRECCIA BEDDED
FINE-GRAINED (REEF DETRITUS
CARBONATE TURBIDITE LlTHIFIED CARBONATE)
(MUD TURBIDITE TM) PE \ , TS ~~~
~ TS, GRADED
bi CALCARENITE
PE PE
TS SLUMP IHEMI-
gr
T
1
gm LlME OOZE I!: SHELLS
PELAGIC SLOPE
1·5
OR MARL
:!: PLANT T AND SHELL
FRAGMENTS,
1-10
CARBONATES)
em Im REMAINS 0,2-1 CL ASTS )
m m
l jE.ULr-r-

/'
L A R
I "
1 L A R
1 ~""~--TM

R
+ CHERT
LUTITE ARENITE RUDITE

Fig. 5.16. a Proximal-distal trends in vertica1 succes-
sions of mass flow deposits and turbidites altemating
with hemipe1agic beds. The 1atter may be deposited
be10w the CCD (- carb free of carbonate) or under
anoxic conditions (black). Converse1y, mud
turbidites can be rich in organic matter (GM). Thin-
bedded turbidites occur in overbank deposits of mid-
fan regions and in more distal areas (cf. Fig. 5.18).
Note the different vertica1 sca1es. b Proximal and
distal carbonate turbidites associated with p1atform
margins and slope sediments; various vertica1 sca1es.
(After Meischner 1964; Scholle et al. 1983a;
McIlreath and James 1984)
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow
matter from their source area (e.g., slope sediments
under regions of upwelling) can alternate with deep
sea sediment poor in organic carbon (Fig. 5.17c). In
contrast, slow "normal" black shale deposition can be
interrupted by turbidite interbeds poorer in organie
matter.
Both types of alternating host sediments and turbidite beds
can be used for paleoceanographic reconstructions (e.g.,
Berger and von Rad 1972; Hesse 1975; Hesse and Butt
1976; Degens et a1. 1996).
A specific problem is the discrirnination of distal
tempestites, deposited on the rnidd1e to outer shelf
(cf. Sect. 3.1), from deep-water distal turbidites origi-
nating main1y from slope failure. Both types of event
deposits result from suspension currents and tend to
display grading and the same internal sedimentary
structures (i.e. the upper divisions of the Bouma se-
quence). In the case of tempestites, however, body
fossils and trace fossils are both of shallow-water
origin. In contrast, turbidites contain displaced
shallow-water fauna but alternate with host sedi-
ments characterized by deep-water faunal elements
(Einseie and Seilacher 1991).
Bed Sets and Proximal-Distal Trends in
Turbidite Sequences
Proximal turbidites inc1uding channel fills are often
relatively coarse-grained and thick-bedded, and their
tops may be truncated by a subsequent turbidity cur-
rent (amalgamation). Many turbidites displaya strik-
ing correlation between the dimension of their sole
marks, their grain size distribution, and their bed
thicknesses. Large flute or groove casts, for example,
are often associated with particularly thick and
coarse sandy turbidites (Fig. 5.15e). Downslope, i.e.
more distal, the percentage of sand layers in the total
fan volume often decreases, a tendency which was
also observed in the modem ocean basins (Pilkey et
al. 1980). Distal turbidites, far away from the sedi-
ment source, become thinner and finer grained, and
they suceessively lose their basal divisions with sole
marks (Fig. 5.15d; see also, e.g., Macdonald 1986;
Stowet al. 1996).
However, the proximal-distal concept should be
applied with caution if deep-sea fan associations with
channe! systems (e.g. thick beds) and overbank de-
posits are considered (thin beds, see below). Taking
into aecount channelized sediment distribution sys-
tems and variations in the size of turbidity currents, it
is obvious that bed sets and vertical sequences of
turbidites can be quite irregular (e.g., alternating
thick and thin beds, or coarse and fine-grained beds;
Fig. 5.16a). Nonetheless, thiekening and coarsening-
upward or thinning and fining-upward trends can be
frequently observed within larger sequences. Minor
223
trends (asymmetrie eyc1es) of some meters up to sev-
eral tens of meters in thickness can be interpreted by
prograding, retrograding, or laterally shifting channel
systems and fan lobes (e.g. Mutti 1992; Stowet al.
1996; Einseie et al. 1994).
5.4.4 Volumes, Travel Distances and
Frequency of Mass Flow Deposits
The various types of mass flow deposits and
turbidites can be regarded as a farnily of related phe-
nomena. Here, some of their charaeteristics are dis-
cussed together in one section.
(1) Volumes. Many mass movements range between
0.001 and several 100 km3 in volume. The same or-
ders of magnitude are characteristic of the volumes
of large mud flows and turbidity currents which
evolved from slides and slumps. The famous 1929
Grand Banks earthquake off Newfoundland led to
the dislocation of sediment in the order of 100 km3,
including current-induced erosion on the upper slope
(Hughes Clarke et al 1990). In addition, a number of
extremely large slides and slumps (1000 to 20 000
km3 ) has been reported from the modem ocean mar-
gins (summary in Schwarz 1982).
However, many of the mass flow deposits and
turbidite beds to be observed in normal field expo-
sures represent smaller sediment displacements with
volumes between 103 and 106 m3 •
(2) Travel distances. Debris flows and mud flows
can travel distances of several 100 up to about 1000
km, as observed in the present-day oceans (Akou
1984; Simm and Kidd 1984). Turbidite flows may
redeposit sediments as far as several 1000 km away
from their primary location (cf. Sect. 5.4.2).
In ancient rocks (e.g. in the Eastern Alps, Apeninnes, Pyre-
nees) it was possible to trace specific marker beds across
100 to 170 km (Hesse 1974; Ricci Lucchi and Valmori
1980; Mutti et a1. 1984). Pure calcareous gravity flows,
lacking clayey matrix, show shorter travel distances or
higher bed thickness/lateral extent ratios than their
siliciclastic counterparts (Colacicchi and Monaco 1994).
(3) Frequency. It is obvious that the frequency of
gravity mass flows and turbidite events is a fimction
of both their volumes and sediment supply. There-
fore, deep-sea fans with average sedimentation rates
from 100 to more than 1000 mlMa are also locations
where event deposits have short recurrence intervals.
Thin-bedded (some mm to some cm) silt and mud
turbidites, as observed in interchannel areas or in
some modem backare basins, have recurrence inter-
vals of tens to hundreds of years. Thicker turbidite
sands and muds in middle and lower fan regions as
well as in adjaeent marine basins (Mediterranean,
224 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

a MUD TURBIDITES
MUD FLOW
DISTAL oE- - - - - - - - - - - - - - PROXIMAL
..
.."

b
COMPLETELY "BIOGENIC GRADING" "-
BIOTURBATED ( INCREASING CONTENT PE
"-
I ,
OF NANNOS, DIATOMS. ETC.) ,
bi bi TM-
gm

T
(mv/ rn)
1
1·5
T r;',)

gm 1-5 1-10
dm gm dm m
10 m - --
L
bi

A ..........
1
L
Im
bi
A
1 Im 1
TS
1 ~

LUTITE ARENITE A

L A

d PELAGIC MUD TURBIDITES C HE MI PELAGIC TO PELAGIC

MUD TURBIDITES
RICH IN RICH IN CALCAREOUS REDEPOSITED RICH IN ORGANIC
BIOGENIC Si02 MICRO FOSSILS VOLCANIC ASH MATTER (OM)
PE
TM
CLAY . bi

CHERT
'LAYERS
TM
PE
I
bi INCREASE
IN NANNOS,
DECREASE
IN FORAMS
TM

PE bi
PE

TM
OM,
ALLOCH-
THONOUS

bi
CHERT TM OM •.
NODULES

i
+ BIOGENIC PE AUTOCH·
INCREASE IN TM CARBONATE 'THONOUS
BIOGENIC TM
__ CARBONATE (BLACK
OPAL SHALE)
DISSOLVED

Fig. 5.17. Different groups of mud turbidites. a ganic matter (e). d Pelagic mud turbidites, rich in
Proximal-distal trend. b,e Hemipelagic, predomi- either carbonate or opaline silica
nantly siliciclastic (b), volcaniclastic, or rich in or-

Gulf of Califomia) were deposited at intervals of
several thousands to some ten thousands of years.
Turbidites appear to be less frequent in distal fan
regions than in more proximal channel and overbank
settings. The longest recurrence times are to be ex-
pected for thick mud flows and turbidites (mega-
turbidites) which form extensive sheets on submarine
fans and basin plains.
In a deep-sea drillhole at the foot of the slope of Baja Cali-
fomia, only one of these mega-event deposits (of last gla-
cial age) was found in a mud turbidite sequence represent-
ing 3 to 4 Ma (Moore et al. 1982). This recurrence interval
is of the same order as that for thick key or marker beds in
ancient rock sequences, which occur once every 50 000 to
one or several million years (Mutti et al. 1984).
Another well-studied example is the compound
slide/mudflow/turbidity current event in the Canary basin
(16 to 17 ka old; Embley 1980; Masson et al. 1993;
Masson et al. 1998). Here, a 10 to 20 m thick mud flow
deposit covers an area of 30000 km 2 , and the subsequent
turbidity current travelled over 1000 km.
Examples ofthin and high-frequency turbidite beds have
been described from the Sea of Japan (Chough 1984), the
Coral Sea (Klein 1985a) and the Califomian continental
borderland (Malouta et al. 1981; Thomton 1984; Gorsline
1992). Mud turbidites in the Mediterranean and Gulf of
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow
California were deposited in time intervals ranging from a
few hundred years up to 10 ka, depending mainly on the
thicknesses of the beds (Rupke and Stanley 1974; Einseie
and Kelts 1982). There is probably an inverse (logarithmic)
relation between bed thicknesses and frequency in ancient
turbidites (Piper and Normark 1983. Furthermore, it ap-
pears that frequent earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or
rapid uplift in the source area cause relatively short recur-
rence intervals for redepositional events.
The shortest time interval (some tens to hundreds of
years) between (mostly amalgamated) turbidite events is to
be expected within submarine channels. Small suspensions
currents are not thick enough to spill over channel levees
and deposit their suspended load as overbank deposits (cf.
Fig. 5.18 C). Similarly, the frequency of preserved
turbidites in distal fan regions appears to be less than that
in more proximal channels and overbank settings.
Sediment redeposition and turbidite sequences of
some thickness are affected by relative sea-Ievel
changes which mayaiso result from "pulses" of tec-
tonic activity. Lowering of sea level accentuates
terrigenous sediment input, gravity mass movements,
and rapid progradation andJor upbuilding of deep-sea
fans. The resulting sequences displaya coarsening or
thicking-upward trend. In contrast, sea-Ievel rise re-
duces lateral sediment supply from terrestrial
sourees, backstepping of the depocenter and a fining
or thinning-upward trend.
Finally, progress in basin filling will lead to a
long-term trend from distal to proximal turbidites and
ultimately to shallow-water and continental deposits,
as known from remnant basins, foreare and backare
basins, and foreland basins (cf. Chap. 12).
5.4.5 Deep-Sea Fan Associations
Deep-sea fans collect large volumes of sediment, the
maj or part of which is of terrestrial origin and depos-
ited by mass flows and turbidity currents. These large
wedge-shaped sediment bodies and their sandy chan-
nels are important not only for the filling of several
types of sedimentary basins but also as sites of the
generation and storage of hydrocarbons. For these
reasons, deep-sea fans have attracted much interest
by academia and oil companies. Early studies on up-
lifted ancient examples were mainly based on expo-
sures on land which are commonly not large enough
to reveal the architecture of such huge depositional
systems. One has to realize that many deep-sea fans
have lengths of some 100 km, and their channels may
be hundreds of meters wide. For these reasons, the
study of modem and ancient deep-sea fans with the
aid of geophysical methods only allows a better un-
derstanding of these sediment bodies.
A summary of earlier publications (including Barnes and
Normark 1985; Shanmugan and Moiola 1985, 1991; Mutti
and Normark 1987; Damuth et al. 1988; Nelson and
225
Maldonado 1988; Mutti 1992) is given by Reading and
Richards (1994) and Stowet al. (1996).
Types of Deep-Sea Fans
The size, granulometry and facies architecture of
deep-sea fans vary greatly. Several authors have pro-
posed specific schemes for the various fan systems,
but it appears that up to date no universal classifica-
tion system exists which is generally accepted. In the
past, many workers distinguished between three
types offan systems (e.g. Mutti and Normark 1987):
- Type I turbidite deposits. The turbidites originate
from a highly efficient sediment source and accumu-
late on the plain of elongate basins. There is a sedi-
ment bypass zone between the feeder channel, in-
cised into the slope, and the detached, unchannelized
fan lobes (cf. Fig. 5.18, D). This is the "classical"
model explaining the proximal-distal trends of indi-
vidual turbidite beds.
- Type 11 turbidite deposits. These fan systems are
strongly affected by a channelized sediment distribu-
tion system (Fig. 5.18 A through E). They are nor-
mally fed by sediment input from large rivers, i.e.
from efficient point sources and their depositional
lobes are attached to the slope channels. Most of the
modem large deep-sea. fans belong to this category.
They develop aggrading, rnigrating, sinuous channel-
levee complexes with crevasse splays similar to those
of subaerial meandering rivers (cf. Fig. 5.18 Band
C).
- Type III turbidite deposits. In these relatively small
fan systems, sand-filled channels are restricted to the
upper fan whereas the interchannel areas and the ba-
sin plain is dominated by fine-grained, thin-bedded
silt and mud turbidites.
These relatively simple fan models have been re-
cently replaced by a wide spectrum of deep-water
clastic models which, in particular, take into account
the rate and grain size distribution of the terrestrial
sediment input, the type of feeder system (point
source versus linear, multi-source system), the mor-
phology of the sea floor, and relative sea-Ievel
changes. The influence of the first two points is sum-
marized in Fig. 5.19).
Some authors distinguish between deep-water fans, fed by
individual, deeply incised canyons, and fans aggrading and
prograding on ramps of shallower basins (e.g. the North
Sea). These ramps comprise the slope and base-of-slope of
such basins. The sediment accumulating on submarine
ramps is often delivered by multiple sourees. In this brief
overview, the differences between deep-water fans and
ramp fans are not discussed further. For more details about
the various architectural elements of deep-sea fans, their
226 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

FACIES ASSOCIATION OF DEEP-SEA FAN

SAND AND GRAVEL, sI and ig (NORMAL
CHANNEL MOUTH BAR TRACTION AND TRACTION CARPET)
ATTACHED FAN,
CHANNEUZED

DEBRIS FLOW

LEVEE TERRACE ACTIVE FAN VALLEY

BASIN PLAIN
DETACHED LOBES,

:::;IIIIII~iiillll_
I
NON-CHANNELIZED
:?,z(~;:" PE-- ~X~~~~~I~T~I,N!ND
:-~ '. MUDS, THIN- _
~ BEDDED, GRADED - SUSPENSION SEDIMENTATION
~ - TScb-1m (T c.d) AND TRACTION SEDIMENTATION
1-10 TM (LOW-DENSITY T. C.) (PARTIALLY INVERSED GRADING)
cm ,~ CREVASSE SPLAY

OVER BANK
THIN-BEDDED
HEMI- TURBIDITE
=COMPLETE ·CLASSlCALo
PELAGIC MUDS AND MUD SANDS AN[) MUDS
SANDY TURBlDtTES
TSgr.lm (Ta.d,e) TURBIDITES

EROSION SUAFACE
(AMALGAMATION)
TS AND TM
FROM LOW·
DENSITY
TURBIDITY
CURRENTS

gr
ig

(TRACTION CARPET FROM HIGH·

HEMIPELAGIC MUD AND DENSITY TURBIDITY CURRENTS)
MUD TURBIDITES TMlm,gm (E1-3)

Fig. 5.18. Model of the facies association of a deep- nelized, attached fan and detached, nonchannelized
sea fan. (Based on several sourees, e.g., Mutti and fans which show a more regular turbidite sequence.
Ricci Lucchi 1978, Walker 1978, Shanmugam and F or explanation of symbols see Fig. 5.14a
Moiola 1985). Note the difference between chan-

channel systems, and slope aprons see, e.g., Clark and ing turbidity currents, slope canyons and channel systems
Pickering (1996), Galloway (1998). on the fan, and the sediment distribution on the fan rnay
Generally, facies models of deep-sea fans have to be ap- greatly vary in relation to basin topography and other fac-
plied with caution. The triggering of mass failures produc- tors (e.g. Normark and Piper 1991).
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow
Coarse-grained, gravel-rich deep-water fans (and
fans on submarine ramps) develop on slopes in front
of alluvial fans. They can be classified as fan deltas
(cf. Sect. 2.2.2) or "short-headed delta front" fans.
They are restricted to relatively shallow water and
therefore do not correspond to the "normal" type of
deep-sea fan. Part of these wedge-shaped bodies con-
sists of gravity flow deposits; muddy interbeds are
more or less missing.
Sand-rich deep-water fans with a sand to mud ratio
>70:30 often develop either in front ofthe mouths of
small mountainous rivers or at the lower ends of
shelf-slope canyons collecting sand from longshore
transport on the shelf. The sand is distributed by radi-
ally diverging braided channels on the fan; levees
and individual depositional lobes are absent. The ra-
dii of fans evolving in small basins is commonly 5-10
km in length; sand-rich fans on Atlantic-type passive
margins can be larger. Multi-source systems form
channelized coalescing lobes.
Sand-rich fans have been described, e.g., from the Califor-
nian borderland (deep-sea fans), the North Sea, and the
Atlantic margin of South America (Campos Basin, off
Brazil, ramp settings).
Mudlsand-rich deep-water fans are fed by mixed-
load rivers (30-70% sand) or shelves cut by subma-
rine canyons. Their size is mostly intermediate (some
tens to some hundreds of kilometers in length), and
their shape tends to be lobate rather than elongate.
Their slope gradients are in the order of 10%0
(10m/km). Due to their mud content, these fans de-
velop sinuous channel-Ievee systems which divide in
the mid-fan region into distributaries which feed in-
dividual outer fan lobes.
Modem examples are the Rhöne fan in the Mediterranean
and some ofthe deep-sea fans offthe Pacific coast ofNorth
America (Delgada, La Jolla, and Navy fans). Of 26 small
submarine fans (mainly less than 10000 km 2 in area) iden-
tified in the Tertiary of the North Sea Basin, one half has
sand contents >30%, the other half is mud-rich (Reynolds
1994).
Mud-rich deep-sea fans are commonly associated
with individual major rivers and therefore fed by
point sourees. These deliver sediment either direct1y
by highly concentrated suspension currents from the
river, or by far-travelling large sediment gravity
flows originating in the prodelta region. Most of the
modem examples are very large, elongate sediment
bodies dominated by mud turbidites. The slope gradi-
ents of these fans, ranging from about 1%0 to 50/00 in
the mid-fan and distal fan regions, are greater than
those of comparable subaerial rivers. The upper and
mid-fan regions are characterized by sinuous mean-
dering channel-Ievee systems which can be up to sev-
eral kilometers wide. The levees may rise by tens up
227
to 100 m above the surrounding sea floor. Large
slump and debris flow deposits occasionally bury
parts of the pre-existing channel-Ievee system and
thus cause changes in the sediment distributary sys-
tem.
The modem Bengal, lndus, Laurentian, Amazon, Missis-
sippi (see below), Monterey, Congo and Nile fans are 250
to 2500 km long and display wide channels (up to 5-25 km;
Mutti and Normark 1987; Wetzel1993; Reading and Rich-
ards 1994; cf. Fig.l1.30). In addition to large mass flows
originating from the slopes, smaller mass flows down the
backside ofthe levees have been observed (e.g. on the Am-
azon fan; Damuth et al. 1988).
All these fan types, c1assified by grain size, can also
evolve from linear sources and then show laterally
coalescing composite fans (Fig. 5.19). During long-
term basin evolution, e.g. from a continental rift zone
to a wide ocean basin, the nature of deep-water fans
may change. In an early stage ofrifting, when a deep,
narrow basin and high relief are established, a num-
ber of small gravel- and sand-rich fans are likely to
develop. With increasing size of the ocean basin and
enlarged drainage systems of the entering rivers,
sand/mud-rich and finally mud-rich deep-water fans
tend to form.
Slope aprons develop at the foot of continental
slopes or along the flanks of submarine ridges,
seamounts and plateaus (cf. Fig. 5.12a). They com-
monly result from linear sources and consist of rede-
posited material from the upper slope or outer shelf.
Slope aprons dominated by silicic1astics are mostly
fme-grained, whereas those on the foot of carbonate
buildups are frequently coarser in grain size. The
deposits of slope aprons are mostly nonchannelized.
The Sediment Distribution System
of Deep-Sea Fans
The sediment distribution in a deep-sea fan system is
described here in more detail for the type 11 turbidite
deposits (Mutti and Normark 1987) or the deposits of
mud/sand-rich deep-water fans (Reading and Rich-
ards 1994).
(I) Channel fills. Moving down the feeder channel,
one may encounter deposits of cohesive mass flows,
coarse grained sands and conglomeratic sandstones.
The latter represent traction carpets, partially display-
ing inverse grading, and normally graded beds
(Bouma divisions Ta,b' cf. Fig. 5.18 A). The channel
fills cut into or pass laterally into thick or thin-bed-
ded turbidites of the more c1assical types on the lev-
ees and fan lobes (cf. Fig. 5.18 Band C).
(2) Challnel-Iobe transition. In the transition zone
between relatively high-gradient channelized flow
228 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

CLASSIFICATION OF DEEP-WATER FAN SYSTEMS

GRANULO- POINT MULITPLE SLOPE APRON,

METRY SOURCE SOUACE LINEAR SOURCE

GRAVEL-
RICH

CHUTES COALESCING SLOPES

SAND·
RICH

CHANNELIZED COALESCING
LOBES TURBlqlTE SANDS

SAND/ MUD·
RICH

COASTlIN~:~.~
~ - - - ---:...:--=-=--==
MUDDY SHELF=---::....-
----- ----
----
MUD· ~~~~== - ---- -
~
--- -
-'
- -===-=:::=.=:-
-...;-..;;
RICH

~--
'a-:; ~r ·.\- ':'-~\'
,....
..... . \ ' ..,r__ ~ ~-
..... ....- ..
.,~
CHANNEL· LEVEE· -.....
COMPLEX
MAINLY SLUMPS
SHEETS

Fig. 5.19. Criteria for the elassification of deep-water sized. (Based on Reading and Richards 1994, modi-
fans, and principal features of these fans. Note that fied and simplified)
reservoir characteristics (sand bodies) are empha-

and unconfined flow on a gentler gradient at the be-
ginning of a depositional lobe, the turbidity currents
may suddenly change their flow regime from rapid to
more tranquil flow. Such a hydraulic jump is accom-
panied by increased turbulence, enlargement and di-
lution of the suspension flow. The sea bed is fre-
quently marked by large-scale scour features, mud
elasts, and rapid deposition of sand and coarser mate-
rial. This may lead to thick massive sand beds, shal-
low braided channels, and a kind of "suprafan" in the
upper to middle fan region. Mud-dominated currents
tend to deposit the bulk of their suspended load
downstream of the hydraulic jump. Theycause less
scouring and leave only some cross-stratified sands.
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow
(3) Levee and overbank deposits. Thick low-velocity
suspension currents of limited density spill over the
confines of channels and drop their fine-grained load
onto the channel banks and in interchannel areas. In
this way they build up levees and overbank deposits
(cf. Fig. 5.18 Band C). The thin-bedded overbank
deposits predominantly show the Bouma divisions
Tc•e of fine-grained sands and silts alternating with
mud turbidites. The directions of flow deviate from
that of the main channel and may be deflected by
Coriolis forces. Sand deposition is almost entirely
restricted to the infills of minor channels emanating
from the main channel. Levee erosion can take place
locally.
(4) Lower fan and basin plain. In particular thin, rela-
tively dense and fast turbidity currents tend to flow
basinward within the confines of the channels and
their levees. They can transport sand and mud to the
(switching) lower fan lobes and basin plain (cf. Fig.
5.18 D). Only very large, rare debris and mudflows
and their subsequent turbulent flows do spread their
load over large areas of the total fan and basin plain.
According to a comparative study of sand layers in present-
day ocean basins (Pilkey et al. 1980), the percentage 0/
sand layers in the total sediment volume of deep-sea fans
decreases distally, as also observed in ancient flysch se-
quences. The thickest layers were found in basins which
have large drainage areas. Single sand beds could be traced
over distances as great as 500 km (Hatteras abyssal plain in
the western Atlantic). However, as a result of flow confine-
ment to channels, distal parts of a deep-sea fan can become
richer in sand than mid-fan regions.
Paleo-Current Directions in Deep-Sea Fans
Paleo-current directions of turbidity currents can be
derived from sole marks (cf. Fig. 5.l5e), internal
structures such as cross-bedding, elast and grain ori-
entation, and current ripples (see, e.g., Collinson and
Thompson 1989). Studies on ancient turbidite se-
quences deposited on lower fan lobes and plains of
elongate narrow basins have frequently shown a
striking constancy of current directions over large
areas. Similarly, current directions on slope aprons
fed by outer shelf and upper slope sediments can be
expected to vary only moderately. In more proximal,
channelized fan associations as well as in basins sup-
plied with sediment from different sources, however,
the palaeocurrent patterns become less regular and
sometimes rather complex. When the fan lobes have
room to switch (cf. Fig. 5.l8), the sediments are dis-
persed radially. In interchannel areas, the paleoflow
directions are gene rally deflected from those of the
main channel and may show a great variation. Fi-
nally, the current patterns of turbidites can occasion-
ally become overprinted by contour currents (Sect.
5.5).
229
Paleoslope orientations can be inferred from slide
scars, slump folds, and sometimes from the
imbrication of elasts in debrites and mud flows. For
reliable measurements, good, large exposures are
needed.
Active and Inactive Phases of Fan Deposition
An ideally prograding slope-fan association with a
more or less fixed channel system produces an up-
ward increase in proximality, i.e., a coarsening,
thickening sequence. However, this scenario is fre-
quently modified.
(1) As a result of shifting channels and changing
sites of mass movement on slopes, vertical sections
of an individual deep-sea fan can show bed succes-
sions of apparently widely differing proximality (cf.
Fig. 5.l8 Band C). Normal, current-transported ma-
terial may alternate with debrites and mud flow de-
posits, sandy and muddy turbidites, and hemi-pelagic
or pelagic sediments. Switching offan lobes in con-
junction with migrating channel systems (Fig. 5.20a)
can generate both fining (and/or thinning) upward as
weil as coarsening (and/or thickening) upward se-
quences.
Similarly, substantial basin subsidence may lead to
an aggradational fan system with insignificant verti-
cal but marked lateral facies change (Macdonald
1986).
(2) In response to variations in the amount of sedi-
ment input by their feeder system, deep-sea fans un-
dergo phases of rapid progradation and/or
upbuilding, or per iods of inactivity, including some
reworking. Prograding and upbuilding are usually
correlated with a relative lowering of sea level, when
the gradients of rivers entering the sea are steepened,
and former coastal and shallow-water sediments are
eroded and swept into deeper waters. Then coarsen-
ing (and/or thickening) upward stratigraphic se-
quences are generated (Fig. 5.20b, sections F through
G). Relative sea-level fall is also one of the main
mechanisms for the incision of submarine valleys on
shelves and upper slopes.
The cutting of deep submarine canyons in shelf-slope set-
tings has been controversially discussed in the past (e.g.
Shepard and Dill 1966; Greene et al. 1991). A single pro-
cess, such as slumping, outflowing bottom currents or
turbidity currents, cannot explain these features. It seems to
be now generally accepted that Pleistocene low sea levels
and subaerial valley cutting, accompanied by submarine
erosional processes on the slopes, are responsible for most
of the present-day submarine valleys and canyons on pas-
sive continental margins (cf. Sect. 7.6). The head of the
Mississippi Canyon, for example, was widened by several
phases of gravity mass movements (Goodwin and Prior
1989).
230 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

a
CONSTANT SEA
LEVEL ./
~ /././"
./

./
./ "
~ ---- ---

A
E TENDENCY TO
FINING·UP
(THICKENING)

A FINING·UP B C COARSENING·UP 0
(THINNING ) (THICKENING)

- HEMI·
PELAGIC OR
SANDY AMAlGA· MUDDY PELAGIC
TURBIDITES MATION TURBIDITES INTERVAL
(TS) (TM) (PE)

C
b
FAL LING
PROGRADING
LOWSTAND
WEDGE

:;,-: •....,~.~'
L..::::;;'-'-::""Iii~~...J,."'l,..-'A~~ COARSEN-
H
ING·UP
(THICK.-UP) - .... . ('=:., "
lOWSTAND DEPOSITS
LOWSTAND G~"': ::"i~· Sl TD CS
(DEEP-SEA FAN ASSOC .)
F G DEP
I
:.~!:~t:i.~'" DF A t
r;~!l5t.:
-PROXIMAL· COARSENING
TS I HIGHSTAND DEPOSITS (HSD)
I
DF I "-J.';; CONDENSED SECTION (CS)
I (PEL. LlMEST., BLACK SH)
.. ........ TM TS I
I TRANSGRESSIVE
DF "DISTAL" TURB. DEPOSITS (TD)
I
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow
However, sea-Ievel changes contributed only to a small
degree to the cutting of many deep canyons on active conti-
nental margins. Particular intriguing are large canyons
without a major river, "headless" canyons, deep submarine
canyons in granitic rocks (e.g. the Monterey Canyon), and
canyons oriented obliqueiy to the coastline. Many exam-
pies of this group occur along the Califomia continental
margin. They formed since the Miocene and are clearly
tectonically controlled. They commonly follow major fault
lines characterized by rock fracturing and strike-slip. Uplift
and subaerial erosion must have been the main process in
shaping these spectacular features.
(3) In contrast, sea-level rise usually leads to reduced
sediment supply from terrestrial sources. Most of the
incoming sediment is deposited on the shelf and, in
addition, may fill submarine valleys and canyons.
Gravity mass movements become rare or cease, and
pre-existing fan deposits are often draped by normal
hemipelagic to pelagic sediments (Fig. 5.20c, section
I). In particular the transition from the transgressive
to the highstand phase is characterized by reduced
sediment accumulation (cf. Sect. 7.2). The resulting
condensed section is frequently represented by pe-
lagic oozes, limestones, or thin black shales.
The best modem examples showing the impact of
both changing sediment supply and high-frequency,
high-amplitude sea-level changes are the Mississippi
deep-sea fan in the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 5.21) and
the Amazon fan in the western Atlantic (Fig. 5.22).
Both fans are mud-dominated, but the evolution of
the Mississipi fan is complicated further by the lat-
eral migration of its feeder system from southwest to
northeast.
Only the youngest feeder canyon of the Mississippi fan is
preserved. This canyon was cut more than 500 m deep into
older shelf and slope sediments during the late Pleistocene
(prior to 30 ka; Goodwin and Prior 1989). Older canyons
are completely filled with sediments and incorporated into
the prograding slope, which also includes localized slope
fans. Since 19 ka B.P., even the youngest canyon was par-
tially filled with the material of a prograding delta and
gravity mass movements along the originally steep canyon
flanks. Thus, the canyon widened by retrogressive slope
failure and mass movement processes. Erosional uncon-
formities within the channel fill indicate two to three epi-
sodes of erosion and subsequent deposition. About 7.S ka
B.P. the delta moved northward away from the canyon
Fig. 5.20. Response of deep-sea fan to sea-level
change and vertical sediment sections within fan.
a Constant sea level and steady position of continen-
tal slope, permanently high sediment input via sub-
marine canyon (point source); switching fan lobes
(1,2,3) and migrating fan valleys. Note that both fin-
ing (andJor thinning) upward (A and B) and coarsen-
ing (andJor thickening) upward sequences (C and D)
occur; the overall tendency is fining upward (E).
b Relative sea-level fall favors rapid prograding and
upbuilding of fan due to increased sediment input.
231
head (Fig. 5.21a). Since that time, hernipelagic muds drape
the fill of the feeder canyon.
In the upper and middle fan regions, the older, buried
channel systems, as revealed by multifold seismic
data, show a complicated pattern of superposed,
mostly branching channels (Fig. 5.21b) which gener-
ally young from west to east. The individual se-
quences consist of channel-levee systems, which may
be branched, and associated overbank deposits (Fig.
5.2Ic).
The Mississippi fan sediments are up to 4 km thick
and can be subdivided into 13 to 17 depositional se-
quences (Fig. 5.21c) reflecting the same number of
sea level oscillations. Most of the fan sediments ac-
cumulated during the last 2.4 Ma at rates up to more
than 1000 m1Ma.
Several sequences are bounded by erosional unconformi-
ties truncating the upper portion of the pre-existing fan
surface. Deposits of slides and gi-avity mass flows fre-
quently form the base of a new depositional sequence.
They are interpreted to have formed during a 10wering sea
level, whereas the channel-Ievee systems were deposited
when the sea level was near its lowest position. Deposition
of turbidites continued into the period of early sea-Ievel
rise as a result of increased sediment supply during the last
deglaciation. Then, a thin layer of hemipelagic sediment
accumulated on the fan. For more details see Feeley et al.
(1990), Weimer (1990), Wetzel and Kohl (1986).
Similar to the Mississippi fan, the channe1 system of the
Indus deep-sea fan (second largest fan, covering an area of
1.210 6 km2) migrated from west to east (Kolla and Coumes
1987).
Hemipelagic draping of fan deposits of glacial age is
also known from the modem Amazon fan. This large,
cone-shaped fan reaches a thickness up to 7 km near
the shelf break and developed since the middle Mio-
cene. In the mid-fan region (water depth ab out 3500
m), the late Pleistocene sediments display a charac-
teristic alternation between thick, sandy to muddy
channel-levee complexes, deposited during glacial
lowstand periods, and thin pelagic to hemipelagic
calcareous oozes (interglacial highstand deposits,
Fig. 5.22a and b). The sand-filled channels and their
finer-grained levees often changed their course
which resulted from crevasse splays leading to bifur-
cation. The channel-levee complexes partially rest on
Most of the sections tend to coarsen (andJor thicken)
upward (F,G,H). c Relative sea-level rise and result-
ing large reduction in sediment supply may terminate
fan growth. Coarse-grained channel fills and
turbidites are overlain by fine-grained transgressive
deposits (TD) and possibly by a thin condensed sec-
tion (CS; cf. Sect. 7.2). Highstand deposits (HSD)
may again increase in thickness and coarsen upward.
(Partially based on Walker 1978; Bally 1987, greatly
modified)
232 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

SHELF EROSION OURING

LOW SEA LEVEL

r-"'~::...
ESc.-I\PMENl ".; -

~~__L -__~__~__~_1_0_0_k_m_·~e~5.~ --------8T9-0--------------~----------,-----A-G--E~

17 0 .025
BASE OF MODERN f!o
SLOPE (EDGE OF 13 0:5
SALT FRONT)
11
10 -- 1.2
t
6 2. 1
•
c

50 km

MASS FLOW DEPOSITS CHANNEL SEDIMENTS

LEVEE-OVERBANK
SEDIMENTS
X ----- 50km
1°,5
!

d V.E. 30x km

EROSIONAL SURFACE DEFORMED SEDIMENTS

e wsw ENE
V.E. 1: 1
5.4 Gravity Mass Flow 233

a AMAZON DEEP-SEA FAN (MID-FAN REGION)

SAND SHEET (CHANNEl MOUTH, lOWER FAN lOBEI E
W MASS FlOW DEPOSIT

[500 m

~
I
MASS FlOW DEPOSIT UPPER LEVEE COMPLEX
(90-10ka)
CAlCAREOUS MUD (lNTERGlAGIAl AND HOlOGENE)

942

/ ---===~~-:::;:=~
MIDDLE lEVEE COMPLEX / _---.-~:.------t--
(190-130 kat LOWER LEVEE COMPLEX BonOM LEVEE COMPLEX
(250-190 kaI 1330-250 kat

b CHANNEL CROSS SECTION CHANNEL FILl

lOGAl SlUMPS AND DEBRIS FlOWS
(MASSIVE. GRADED AND GROSS-
BEDDED SANDS WITH MUD GLASTS)
OVERBANK DEPOSITS
(THIN SANDY, SllTY AND
MUDDY TURBIDITES

SAND SHEET OF CREVASSE SPLAYS,

GRAVI TY MASS FLOW DEPOSITS CHANNEL MOUTH , AND LOWER FAN lOBE
(HOMOGENEOUS AND GHAOTIG SANDY MUD (GRADED AND GROSS-BEDDED SAND l A VERS,
WITH lARGE AND FOlDED MUD GlASTSI ± GRAVEl)

Fig. 5.22. a Cross seetion of Amazon Fan in mid-fan level lowstands) and thin hernipelagic drape
region as revealed by seisrnic investigations and drill (highstand). b Close-up of individual channel-levee
holes (Site numbers of ODP Leg 155). Note contrast system, schernatized. (After Flood and Piper 1997;
between thick levee complexes (formed during sea- Pirmez et al. 1997, modified)

Fig. 5.21. a Extension of the late Pliocene-Pleisto-
cene Mississippi deep-sea fan in the northem Gulf of
Mexico. Numbers refer to DSDP drilling sites. (After
Wetzel and Kohl 1986). b Lateral shifting of
Mississippi-type delta-canyon-deep-sea fan system.
Canyon cutting and fan building occur mainly during
lowering sea level. Note smaller slope fans and other
complications caused by salt diapirism. (After Feeley
et al. 1990). c,d Superimposed channel-levee systems
of 17 (oldest to youngest) depositional sequences of
late Pliocene-Pleistocene age, revealed by seisrnic
investigations and several drill holes (a). d Cross
section through proximal fan. Note eastward migra-
tion of depositional sequences with time; strong ver-
tical exaggeration as compared to true vertical scale
(e). (After Weimer 1990)
234 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

sheet-like gravelly sand bodies (up to 25 m thick)
which fonn a great part of the outer fan. The channel
fills consist of thick amalgamated massive as well as
graded and cross-stratified sands including many
mud elasts and gravity mass deposits derived from
the levees. The channel-levee complexes are partially
overlain by large mass flow deposits (Fig. 5.22).
For further details about this relatively weil investigated
deep-sea fan see, e.g., Flood and Piper (1997).
In accordance with these results and those from other
investigations on shelf/slope settings, one can con-
c1ude that sediment gravity flows and turbidites fonn
preferentially during the lowstand systems tract. On
the other hand, rising and high sea level do not al-
ways lead to hemipelagic drapings (condensed sec-
tions) on deep-sea fans. Highly efficient sediment
sources can maintain fan growth even during high-
amplitude sea-level oscillations as known, e.g., from
the Bengal Fan (cf. Sect. 11.5.6). On convergent con-
tinental margins with narrow shelves, steep slopes
and high sediment supply, deep-sea fans continue to
grow during every stage of a relative sea-level cyele
(lto 1998).
In mixed carbonate-silicielastic systems, lowstands
are frequently characterized by silicielastic turbidites
and carbonate megabreccias.
reach lengths of 2000 to more than 3000 km and
widths of a half to several kilometers.
They resemble in many aspects sub aerial river sys-
tems. Ancient examples of this type of channel are
probably not known.
These channels have been described in some detail, e.g., by
Carter (1988), Hesse (1989a), Hesse et al. (1996), Hesse et
al. (1997). The most prominent example is the Northwest
Atlantic mid-ocean channel of the Labrador Sea, which
represents a submarine, river-like drainage system with
numerous tributaries. Of these many originate from the
Labrador slope dominated by mud. The others, corning
from the Labrador Strait and Greenland, are fed mainly by
sand delivered by ice sheets. The mud-dominated channels
are sinuous and build levees; the sand-dorninated tributar-
ies generate a braided channel system. The trunc channel
has a low longitudinal gradient similar to large subaerial
rivers. The channel is rnaintained by relatively high-veloc-
ity high-density turbidity currents flowing within the con-
fines of the levees.
The infillings of these channels, far away from any land
source, consist of sandy to graveUy fining-upward se-
quences. On the levees, parallellaminated, thin mud
turbidites were observed. The channel system may end an a
kind of submarine braidplain.

Sedimentation Rates of Deep-Sea Fans

Deep-sea fans and adjacent basin plains are areas of

high sedimentation rates (cf. Sect. 10.2). This is par-
ticularly true of time intervals of lowering sea level
or times oftectonic activity creating increasingrelief.
In modem fan environments, ineluding Miocene to
Pleistocene deposits, average sedimentation rates
between 100 and 1000 mlMa are common, but near
the sediment source and in over-supplied basins
(Mutti et al. 1984), higher values also occur.

The giant Bengal fan, lndus fan, Amazon fan, Mississippi

fan, and some other elongate, present-day deep-sea fans
represent wedge-shaped sediment bodies which reach max-
imum thicknesses on the order of 5 to 10 km which have
been built up in time spans of a few Ma to 20 Ma (Curray
and Moore 1974; Bouma et al. 1985; Bouma et al. 1986;
Kolla and Coumes 1987; Damuth et al. 1988; Wetzel
1993). The same applies to many thick, ancient flysch se-
quences.

5.4.6 Deep-Sea Channels

A continental rnarginldeep-sea fan system, character-

ized by a submarine canyon and channelized fan
lobes, may continue into a deep-sea channel which
finally ends in an abyssal plain. Such deep-sea chan-
nels were observed in the present oceans, where they
5.5 Erosion and Redeposition ofDeep-Sea Sediments
5.4.7 Summary (Gravity Mass Flows, Turbidites, Deep,-Sea Fans)
Subaqueous gravity mass movements and turbidity currents ean episodieally displaee large volumes of
sediment and generate a family of related strata and bed types:
Debris flows deposits eontain elasts supported
by sandy and muddy matrix. Calcareous
megabreeeias are commonly poor in fine-
grained matrix. Large-seale olistostromes typi-
eally earry elasts from sources outside the basin
(e.g. olistoliths).
Mud flows may display a limited number of
floating elasts or pebbles.
Sandy, ealcareous, and muddy turbidites eom-
monly result from gravity mass flows whieh
were transformed by uptake of water into turbu-
lent suspension currents. Turbidites show grad-
ing (textural, ehemieal-mineralogical), speeifie
5.5 Erosion and Redeposition of
Deep-Sea Sediments
5.5.1 Deep Bottom-Current Erosion
Some decades ago it was largely assumed that sedi-
ment aeeumulation in the deep sea is a continuous
proeess and that deep-sea sediments represent a com-
plete record of past environmental changes. This is
not true. Intensive investigations of the sea floor,
aided by underwater photography, eurrent measure-
ments, sampling and drilling, bio- and magnet-
ostratigraphy, and improved radiometrie dating have
revealed that the sediments of all large oeean basins
are subjeeted to winnowing and reworking by bottom
currents (cf. Fig. 5.3).
In the North Atlantic, for example, large erosional furrows
(several meters deep, 100 to 1000 m long) were discovered,
which also display smaller-scale sand dunes and current
ripples. The current directions indicated by both furrows
and ripples run largely parallel to the measured bottom
currents.
A speeifie type of bottom currents, generating so-
called sediment drifts, are contour eurrents. They are
assoeiated with changes in the sea-floor topography
and preferentially oceur along submarine slopes in-
fluencing the paths and veloeities of deep oeean eur-
rents. Due to Coriolis forces, equator-directed bottom
eurrents are defleeted to the western margin of oee-
anie basins in both the northern and southern hemi-
spheres. They follow the contours of the continental
slope and rise (Sect. 5.2) or the foot of slopes of oee-
anic plateaus and ridges. Conversely, poleward flow-
ing bottom eurrents eonverge along the eastern
boundaries of such basins. These so-called contour
235
sole marks, internal sedimentary structures, dis-
placed shallow-water biota, pre- and post-event
bioturbation, and a distinct proximal-distal
trend. All primary features of an individual
turbidite bed ean be explained by one single
sedimentologieal event.
Massflow deposits and turbidites form deep-
water fans of varying size (up to ~ 1000 km in
length) , granulometry and architeeture (e.g. mi-
grating channel-levee systems, overbank depos-
its, and often sand-rieh distal fan lobes).
Active fan growth may alternate with periods of
hemipelagic draping (during sea-level rise).
currents sometimes reaeh veloeities (probably ~30
cmls) suffieiently strong to erode and transport fine-
grained sediments. The erosional and depositional
features of these eurrents (see below) are therefore
partieularly weH developed along the paths of such
contour eurrents. Contour eurrents eontrolled by mi-
nor topographie features on the sea floor, such as
oceanie gateways, seamounts, or gaps in oeeanie
ridges, deviate in their direetions from the pattern
governed by the eontinental margins. Bottom cur-
rents of deep bays elose to land masses ean be quite
irregular in direetion.
In times of strong elimatie contrast between the
poles and the equator, eontour eurrents are intensi-
fied and able to undereut eontinental slopes and trig-
ger large submarine slides and slumps in eertain re-
gions. Even silts and sands of deep-sea fans and
slope aprons ean be partially reworked by these eur-
rents.
Deep-sea erosion and sediment redeposition is documented
in numerous publications (e.g. Kennett 1982; Tucholke and
Embley 1984; Sarnthein and Mienert 1986; Stein et al.
1986; Okada and Ohta 1993). Undercutting of slopes and
triggering of mass failures has been quoted, e.g., by
Sheridan (1981) and von Rad and Wissmann (1982). Con-
tour currents and contourites have been described, e.g., by
Heezen and Hollister (1971) and later in more detail by
additional authors (e.g. Stanley 1988a; Locker and Laine
1992; Faugeres and Stow 1993; Faugeres et al. 1993;
Jansen and Raymo 1996; summary in Stowet al. 1996).
5.5.2 Contourites and Sediment Drifts
The sediment eroded by bottom eurrents is redepos-
ited on the sea floor where it forms speeifie
depositional ridges, sheets, terraces, or fans. A neu-
236
tral tenn for these sediment bodies is "sediment
drifts"; if they are related to contour currents, they
are referred to as "eontourites". Sediment drifts or
eontourites ean be divided into different groups:
- Giant sediment drifts. These are very large elongate
sediment bodies, tens to hundreds of kilometers long,
tens of kilometers wide, and 0.1 to > 1 km high (cf.
Fig. 4.3c and Fig. 5.23). Theyfonn along lower
slopes or at the foot of slopes at different water
depths. They consist mainly of silty, muddy and
biogenie skeletal material sorted out from older sedi-
ment. Many of these drift bodies are mantled with
flat mud waves a few tens of meters high.
- Contourite sheets are thinner than the sediment
drifts, but they can also cover large areas, e.g. on the
eontinental rise or on abyssal plains. They mayaiso
display large sediment waves on their tops.
- Channel-related sediment drifts (contourite fans).
They are associated with submarine channels or pas-
sages where bottom currents gain in velocity and be-
eome able to erode.
Many examples of sediment drifts have been deseribed
from the northem North Atlantie (e.g. Faugeres et al. 1993;
Wold 1994). Many of them were generated by strong
south-direeted bottom eurrents to the south of the
Greenland-Seotland Ridge (ef. Fig. 4.3e). These sediment
drifts were built up sinee Eoeene in three growth phases
whieh were related to episodie mantle plume aetivity (ef.
Seet. 5.6.5). Contourites also formed along the lower slope
of the Barents Sea off Norway (Fig. 5.23e; Yoon and
Chough 1994). Other examples inelude the western margin
of the North and Central Atlantie (Faugeres et al. 1993;
Sarnthein and Faugeres 1993), theWeddell Sea elose to
Antaretiea (Fig. 5.23f; Weber et al. 1994), and the SW Pa-
eifie (Carter and MeCave 1994). In the eentral Mediterra-
nean Sea, the Quaternary sediment drifts formed in shal-
10wer water (mostly between 500 and 2000 m waterdepth)
and are eommonly assoeiated with oeeanie ehanne1s foeus-
sing the bottom eurrents between topographie highs (Fig.
5.23d; Marani et al. 1993).
Due to fluctuations in the velocity of bottom cur-
rents, sediment drifts and eontourites cannot be ex-
peeted to aeeumulate eontinuously. Average sedi-
mentation rates of large drifts are in the order of5
emlka. They display either small-seale cross-bedding
or ± even lamination, indieating eurrent traetion.
However, these struetures are often disturbed by
bioturbation. The identification of eontourites is fa-
eilitated by the presenee of layers eonsisting entirely
of pelagie microfossils sorted out from mixed sedi-
ments (e.g. radiolarites).
Contour eurrents ean also affeet deep-sea fans and
their turbidite beds. Some of these may be eroded
and redeposited as eontourites displaying, in eontrast
to the turbidites, eurrent direetions parallel to the
strike of the slope.
In some eases it was observed that the basal, graded subdi-
vision of an individual turbidite is preserved, while the
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
higher portions are replaced by structures characteristic of
normal tractive transport. Such phenomena ean only be
found if subsequent bioturbation has not destroyed the evi-
dence. For that reason, contourites are often masked or dif-
ficult to recognize.
On mature passive eontinental margins, the foot-of-
slope or continental rise sediments fonn thiek
wedges whieh thin seaward (cf. Figs. 5.3 and 12.15).
These slope aprons often include deposits of gravity
mass flows, slope ehannels, and small deep-sea fans,
apart from nonnal hemipelagie sediment. In addition,
they may eomprise sediment drifts or eontourites
eonsisting of llldterial of different provenanee (Fig.
23a-e).
The diserimination of fine-grained turbidites,
contourites, and nonnal hemipelagie material is often
diffieult in such settings, partieularly in sediments
whieh are intensely bioturbated.
5.5.3 Stratigraphie Gaps in the Deep-Sea Reeord
Seismie reeords, numerous gravity eores, and hun-
dreds of drill holes from deep sea drilling have
shown that erosional features are not restrieted to the
present sea floor.
This was pointed cut by several authors (e.g. Van Andel et
al. 1977; Moore et al. 1978; Berger 1981; Thiede 1981;
Ehrmann and Thiede 1985; Burckle and Abrams 1987;
Wright and Miller 1993; Ramsay et al. 1994: Spencer-
Cervato 1998).
Time intervals of nondeposition, stratigraphie gaps
(hiatuses), and erosional uneonfonnities of both short
and long duration are ubiquitous in the deep oeean
and oeeur throughout the his tory of these large bas-
ins. In the South Atlantie, ab out one third of the ag-
gregated time represented by all drill sites is oecu-
pied by stratigraphie gaps. About 10% of all Ceno-
zoie seetions drilled in the Indian Ocean do not con-
tain hiatuses.
Here, the hiatus es have been correlated with periods of
decreased Antaretic glaciation in which, due to ice-free
shelves, more bottom water formed than during larger-ex-
tended ice cover (Ramsay et al. 1994). The flow paths of
the northward directed eroding bottom currents ehanged
with time and thus generated hiatuses whieh are not time-
equivalent in this ocean basin.
Generally, more than half of the record is missing in
the Paleogene in which a few (worldwide ~ simulta-
neous) hiatuses represent several millions of years.
The Neogene is characterized by shorter but more
frequent hiatuses with the result that between one
tenth and one half of the sedimentary record are
missing.
5.5 Erosion and Rede[!osition of Dee[!-Sea Sediments 237

a e
BARENTS SEA

LAYERED MUD ,
IRREGULAR SIL T-RICH
AND SILT-DEPLETED
MUD LAYERS , SOME
BIOTURBATION
(CONTOURITEI

HEMIPE LAGIC MUD,

BIOTURBA TED

- THIN -BEDDED MUD

WITH ICE-RAFTED

~l
100 km MUD CLASTS AND
I I
ROCK FRAGMENTS

SIL T-CLAY COUPLE TS

(MUD TURBIDI TES I

b HEMIPELAG IC MUD ,
BIOTURBATED
CROS S INDISTINCTL Y LAYERED
SECT ION MUD , ± BIDTURBATED
(CONTOURITE )

INDISTl NCTL Y LAYERED

MUD, ± BIOTURBATED
(CDNTOURITEI

f
WEDDELL SEA
5 km
I WATER CROSS-STRATI FIED
DEPTH SILT AND CLAY
(CONTOURITEI

HEM IPELAG IC CLAY

WITH ICE-RAFTED
DEBRIS,
± BIOTURBATED

. _ . _ . _ . _ ._~.'_ .".." ~
_I--- SIL T AND CLAY ,
MESSINA RIDG E S .. .. .-_. .. .. .. LAMINATED
. ....
.. ...., ............
- . ..
. -...-
(CON TOURITE I

Fig. 5.23. Sediment drifts and contourites. a-d Com-
piex sediment buildup of Iower siope and rise sedi-
ments, including sediment drifts, on North American
continental margin off Washington D.C. (Modified
from Locker and Laine 1992). e Seismic facies of
sediment drifts on the Messina Ridge, Mediterra-
nean. (Modified from Marani et al. 1993). f Core
section with contourites, base of siope, Barents Sea.
(Modified from Yoon and Chough 1993). g Core
section with contourites, Weddell Sea, Antarctica.
(Modified from Weber et al. 1994)
238
Hiatuses have fonned even in periods in whieh ther-
mohaline eireulation is believed to have been sluggish.
Few loeations have been found in the present-day oeeans
where a really eomplete Cenozoie seetion exists. However,
beeause of the limits of stratigraphie resolution, short hia-
tuses remain diffieult to be identified.
MaeLeod and Keller (1991) have stressed the impor-
tanee of hiatuses as a signifieant faetor for the far-reaehing
global events at the Cretaeeous/Tertiary (KlT) boundary.
They postulate that mass extinetion, abrupt shifts in earbon
isotope abundances, and speeifie traee element eoneentra-
tions in deep-sea sediments are related to long intervals of
nondeposition. The stratigraphie hiatuses may have re-
sulted from a marked sea-level rise during the latest
Maastriehtian and earliest Danien. This eaused the loeus of
sediment deposition to migrate landward aeross the eonti-
nental shelf, where stratigraphie seetions are more or less
eomplete over the same time interval (cf. Seet. 7.3). In any
ease, the effeets of ineomplete or extremely eondensed
stratigraphie deep-sea reeords should be taken into aeeount
when rare events such as bolide impacts and their eonse-
quenees for the evolution of marine organisms are dis-
eussed.
5.5.4 Summary (Deep-Marine Erosion
and Redeposition)
Erosion and redeposition in the deep sea is
more eornrnon than previously thought. Bottom
eurrents are strengthened along the slopes of
topographical highs (eontour eurrents) where
they ean erode large furrows and undereut
slopes.
The redeposited silt and mud, including
biogenie skeletal material, often form very
large sediment drifts or eontourites, overridden
by smaller sediment waves. These features
may alternate with deep-sea fans and beeome
ineorporated into slope aprons.
- Deep-marine erosion and nondeposition is in-
tensified in times of strong thermohaline eircu-
lation and leaves behind many stratigraphie
hiatuses which cornrnonly cannot be correlated
over long distances.
5.6 Paleoceanography
5.6.1 Introduction
In the last decade, paleoceanography has become a
field of great interest. The term paleoceanography
eomprises not only ocean eirculation and related pro-
cesses, such as water chemistry, recycling of nutri-
ents, organic productivity, etc., but also the (chang-
ing) configuration ofthe continents (paleogeography)
and climate change (paleoclimatology) in the past.
Variations and trends in the evolution of the global
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
climate have become an issue of outstanding impor-
tance in our modem world. Climate and ocean circu-
lation are closely linked. To predict the future evolu-
tion of the climate, the factors controlling the past
climate have to be known. One of the best records of
the past climate are marine sediments and their biota.
Reeently, high-resolution studies on long sediment
cores gained by deep-sea drilling have provided ex-
tensive data for the reconstruction of the climate his-
tory of the Neogene and Quaternary periods. Both
marine and nonmarine sediments are in turn largely
controlled by paleoceanography.
For all these reasons, paleoceanography is a eom-
plex topic for which the cooperation of several dis ei-
plines is necessary, including oceanographers, clima-
tologists, glaeiologists, sedimentologists, marine bi-
ologists, geochemists, and others. In addition, extra-
terrestrial processes playa significant role in trigger-
ing short-term climatic variations. The longer term
evolution of the Earth is affected by peaks in the vol-
canic activity, associated with rapid oeean spreading
or specific magmatic plumes generating large igne-
ous provinces. Plate tectonic reconstructions, periods
of mountain building, and even the evolution of life
(e.g. plants spreading out on the continents, or the
appearance of specific planktonic organisms in the
ocean) have to be taken into account.
Presently, detailed investigations on Neogene and
Quaternary marine sediments have reached astate in
which sound syntheses are possible. For older peri-
ods, our knowledge of the paleoeeanographic situa-
tions is still limited, although many attempts have
been made to reconstruct and better understand these
paleo-environments (cf. Seet. 7.8).
In this book, the impaet of paleoceanography on
sedimentary proeesses is of primary interest. How-
ever, only abrief introduction can be given here.
One of the first summaries of our knowledge in paleoge-
ography has already been presented by Schopf (1980). In
the meantime numerous articles have been published de-
seribing speeifie sediment sueeession of deep-sea eores
(e.g. in the "Initial" and "Seientifie Reports" of the Deep-
Sea Drilling Projeet, DSDP, and the Oeean Drilling Pro-
gram, ODP). The~e publieations eontain detailed informa-
tion on the stratigraphy and sedimentary eharaeteristics of
the eores, including biostratigraphy, oxygen isotope stratig-
raphy based on planktonie and benthie foraminifera, the
type and provenanee of organie matter, ete. These "proxy"
data are used to infer paleo-temperatures of surfaee and
bottom waters, marine organie produetivity, the depth of
the CCD and the redox eonditions in deep water. With the
aid of this infonnation, the loeation and effieieney of the
fonner oeean eireulation ean be evaluated. Many articles
dealing with paleoeeanography are published in the jour-
nals "Paleoeeanography" and "Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoeeology", and others. Quite a
number of them presents summaries for speeifie topies in
this field.
Overviews of the geologie and sedimentary history of all
oeeans basins, including the Gulf of Mexieo, the Caribbean
5.6 Paleoceanography
Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea, are found in nine special
volumes edited byNaim AEM, Stehli FG, Uyeda S (1973-
1985, Plenum Press, New York). Concise sumrnaries
stressing principal processes have been provided, e.g., by
Seibold and Berger (1996) and Hay et al. (1997). Various
aspects of the relatively young evolution of the South At-
lantic are discussed in Wefer et al. (1996).
5.6.2 Processes Influencing Climate, Ocean
Circulation, and Marine Sediments
Many workers have asked the question: Is the present
the key to the past? In other words: are the observa-
tions we can rnake in the modem world also valid for
times in which the Earth and its climate were quite
different from the present situation? We are stillliv-
ing in a "glacial world" and have to take into account
that the modem oceans are poor analogs for long
time spans in the Earth's history (e.g. the Mesozoie
and Paleogene). What we can assurne with confi-
dence is that the general physical and chemical laws
also ruled in the geological past. However, the inter-
action between the different compartments of the
Earth, such as that of the atmosphere and the oceans,
operated in a modified way and at different rates.
The major processes influencing the interaction of
clirnate and ocean circulation and thus also marine
sediments are:
- Solar insolation, i.e. radiation received from the
Sun, modified by the orbital parameters of the Earth
(Milankovitch cyclicity, cf. Sect. 7.8).
- Atmospheric greenhouse gases, absorbing incom-
ing or outgoing radiation.
- Changes in ocean circulation (the present-day to-
pography of the ocean basins remaining unchanged).
- Paleogeography, i..e. changes in the configuration
of the ocean basins and continents, the location of
oceanic gateways, high mountain ranges, etc.
- Variations in both the vegetation on land, i.e. its
nature and areal extent, and in the organic production
of the ocean basins.
Some of these points are briefly discussed below. For
more details see, e.g., the references mentioned
above including Hay et a1. (1997).
Solar Radiation and Feedback Systems
The variations in solar radiation can be amplified or
subdued by the so-called feedback system of the
Earth. If the Earth has reached astate in which polar
ice can just begin to form, then a minor reduction in
solar radiation can cause the onset of ice sheet
growth. The growing ice sheets and, in addition,
growing desert areas reflect more solar energy (i.e.
they have a high albedo) than the surfaces of water
239
and densely vegetated land. Thus, they amplify the
effect of reduced solar radiation (positive feedback).
Conversely, an increase in solar radiation may trigger
the melting of pre-existing ice and thus diminish the
albedo of the Earth's surface, leading to global warm-
ing. A rising sea level flooding land can reinforce
this effect and enable additional warming.
A negative feedback is brought about, when the
global climate warrns due to an increase in atmo-
spheric carbon dioxide, but the area covered by veg-
etation simultaneously grows and stores more atmo-
spheric carbon than before. Similarly, higher organic
production in the ocean can reduce the atmospheric
carbon dioxide content (see below) and thus contrib-
ute to climate stabilization.
Greenhouse Gases
Atmospheric greenhouse gases comprise all air mole-
cules with more than two atoms, such as H20, 03'
CO 2, CH4 and man-made gaseous compounds.
Water vapor is the most effective greenhouse gas. Its
concentration in the atmosphere strongly depends on
the air temperature. Presently it reaches relatively
high concentrations in warm equatorial and tropical
regions. During the Mesozoic, the vapor pressure for
H20 in the atmosphere was generally higher than
today, particularly so in high latitudes where the tem-
peratures dropped hardly deeper than to the freezing
point. This allowed the transfer of more heat via the
atmosphere over the entire globe; the cloud cover
was denser and absorbed more radiation (positive
feedback); the hydrological cycle became intensified
and the globe wetter than today.
Carbon dioxide is thought to be the second important
greenhouse gas. In the late Pleistocene the atmo-
spheric CO 2 content varied by about 30% from gla-
cial to interglacial intervals (with higher values in the
interglacials; based on "fossil" air trapped in ice
cores). Of several processes proposed as an explana-
tion of this finding, exchange of CO 2 between the
atmosphere and the ocean, holding 50 times more
carbon dioxide than the atmosphere, is important
("biological pump" and "solution pump, see below).
In the greenhouse state of the Earth, the CO 2 con-
tent, mont likely supplied by enhanced volcanic activ-
ity, is assumed to have been as much as 4 to 5 times
higher than at present. The reduced solubility of CO 2
in warmer ocean water may have played a role in this
respect.
Methane is produced by microorganisms in swamps
and tundra regions as weIl as in marine sediments
containing organic matter. It is stored in large quanti-
ties as solid crystallized gas hydrate in the sediments
240 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

STATIC SYSTEM
a SOLUTION PUMP
(± CLOSED)
DYNAMIC SYSTEM
TA1R = T SEA (LOCALL Y AND REGIONALL Y OPEN)
OUTGASSING

COLD SEA W A TER,

RICH IN CO 2

d HEAT PUMP
COLD AIR
b BIOLOGICAL PUMP

Fig. 5.24a-c. CO 2 ex-

change between the atmo-
sphere and the ocean by
C COMBINED EFFECTS OF the "solution {lump" (a)
BIOLOGICAL PUMP AND SOLUTION PUMP and the "biologlcal pump"
± INPUT AND (b), combined and further
LOW-LATITUDE UPWELUNG BURIAL OF controlled by low- or
(HIGH PRODUCTION _UTTLE OUTGASSINGI TERRESTRIAL high-latitude upwelling of
ORG . MATTER intermediate waters rich
\ in nutrients (c). d "Heat
CO 2 \..- pump", operating, e.g., in
~ the modem Norwegian-
Greenland Sea. Quantifi-
cation of these processes
is one of the rnain targets
of modem oceanography
HIGH-LATITUDE
UPWELLING illli~~llllii ON and marine sedimentology

of continental slopes (cf. Sect. 5.4.2 and Chap. 14).
Part of the sedimentary methane escapes via seepages
from the sea floor into the atmosphere in quantities
comparable to methane sources on land (Judd et al.
1997). Furthermore, it has been pointed out that
methane can be released from gas hydrates by falling
sea level (reduced hydrostatic pressure) and/or
increasing bottom water temperature, escape into the
atmosphere, and cause rapid global warming (e.g.
Haq 1998).
Air-Sea CO 2 Exchange: the Solution Pump and
the Biological Pump
The solubility of CO 2 in sea water increases with
falling temperature. A warm ocean, as assumed for
long times in the Jurassie, Cretaceous and lower Ter-
tiary, can therefore store less CO 2 than a cold ocean.
For a given temperature, the surface water of the
ocean and the atmosphere tend to establish a thermo-
dynamic equilibrium with respect to their CO 2 con-
5.6 Paleoceanography 241

ATMOSPHERIC CO 2 CONTROLLED BY WEATHERING

AND THE OCEANIC CARBONATE SYSTEM

SILICATE WEATHERING CARBONATE WEATHERING

b
OCEANIC CARBONATE PUMP: LOW SEA LEVEL:
RELEASE AND UPT AKE OF CO 2 DECREASE IN DEPOSITION
AND DISSOLUTION (?)

EMERGED SHELF
RIVERINE Ca 2 +, HC0 3 ', etc. (± CARBONATE
, DISSOL.) ~ CO 2 RIVER INPUT
-~ I
::.:. :.:. :.:. :.:. :.:. : .:: :.: .:: .: : :.: :.,: :.':.~.::-
"..:' ~- - - - - -C-0 2- - - - -- - -r - - -- - -- - . - -- - - - - - --- ~::;1::::::::::
c~~ä·ö~lTE">}:::::.. CO 2 .JCÖ2 - ~"Äur~~~w~~~U~~{~~:~:}:::::
DEPOSITION "'\}\."---- --'<-ceD ~ .i~~~~ONATE DEPOSITION

··:t~I::. . . . . . . :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:. ~:;:~:;::::::·:~:·:::H( .

CARBONATE DISSOLUTION::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::~CARBONATE DISSOLUTION

Fig. 5.25. a Relationship between continental weath- the CCD and dissolution below the CCD are not
ering of silicate and carbonate rocks and marine car- equal for a certain time period. Long-term net car-
bonate deposition. Silicate weathering extracts atmo- bonate deposition is mamly controlled by riverine
spheric e02 whereas the carbonate system consumes input of calcium and bicarbonate. Decreasing shelf
and releases CO 2 (recycling of CO~). The water tem- carbonate production (falling sea level) tends to re-
perature is kept constant, and marme carbonate dis- duce overall production and dissolution of carbonate
solution does not occur in this model. b The oceanic which leads to a drop of the CCD (cf. Sect. 5.3.2).
"carbonate pump" can lead to a net consumption or (Based on several sources, see text)
net release of e0 2 if deposition of carbonate above

centrations. If the temperatures of the air and/or sea The "biological pump" of the ocean extracts e0 2
later change, air-sea e0 2 exchange takes place (Fig. from the atmosphere by phytoplankton production in
5.24a). surface waters and transfers particulate organic mat-
This is the case, for example, when upwelling ter to the sea floor (Fig. 5.24b). Plant debris swept
cold, e0 2-enriched subsurface water is warmed in into the sea and buried in sediments can contribute to
regions of low latitude. As a result, e0 2 is outgasing the extraction of atmospheric eo 2 • Times and re-
from the ocean. Conversely, cooling surface water, gions of high productivity tend to draw down the
depleted of e0 2 (e.g. by phytoplankton production) atmospheric peo 2 • Both the solution pump and the
on its way to high latitudes, can take up carbon diox- biological pump work simultaneously (Fig. 5.24c).
ide from the air. In this case the ocean acts as a "so- Their efficiencies are largely controlled by
lution pump", but this physical process can work in thermohaline circulation including upwelling of
opposite directions. nutrient-rich intermediate waters.
242
FRACTIONATION OF STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE OCEAN
OXYGEN ISOTOPES
THE RATIO 180rSO, COMMONlV
EXPRESSED AS (0 18 0), REVEAlS:
(1) t.T BETWEEN SURFACE
AND BOTTOM WATER.
(2) A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ICE
BUllDUP AND SEA-lEVEl FAll.
Fig. 5.26. The shells of planktonic and benthic
micro-organisms record the fractionation of oxygen
and carbon isotopes in the ocean between surface
and deep waters. Fractionation of oxygen isotopes is
caused by differences in water temperature T and the
buildup or melting of ice (Stages 1 and 2). Fraction-
High organic production and carbon burial in the Califor-
nian Miocene Monterey Formation and widespread correla-
tive deposits in the circum-Pacific area are thought to have
caused global cooling imd major East Antarctic ice-sheet
growth about 15 Ma B.P. (e.g. Flower and Kennett 1993;
Berger and Wefer 1996).
Quantification of the effects of the solution pump and
the biological pump at a regional or global scale and their
impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide is difficult (see, e.g.,
Struck et al. 1993; Keir 1995; Schneider and Müller 1995) .
Further Air-Sea-Land Interactions
The process of heat transfer from warm surface water
to cold air, or vice versa, is sometimes referred to as
"heat pump" (Fig. 5.24d). In high latitudes, this
pump transfers enormous amounts of heat from the
ocean to the atmosphere.
Further mechanisrns affecting atmospheric and
oceanic CO 2 are the weathering of silicate and car-
bonate rocks on land and the "carbonate pump" in the
ocean (Fig. 5.25a and b). The latter process refers to
the deposition or dissolution of carbonate which may
lead either to a net release or net uptake of CO 2 •
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
CARBON ISOTOPES
- HIGH 13C (0 13 C) VAlUES IN
PlANKTONIC FORAMS INDICATE
INCREASED PRODUCTION AND
BURIAl OF OM.
- RElATIVElV lOW 13C (0 13 C)
VAlUES IN BENTHIC FORAMS ARE
CAUSED BV lOW OM PRESERVATION
ation of carbon isotopes is produced by preferential
uptake of 12C by organic matter (DM) from surface
water and its (partial) release by remineralization in
deeper water. This is recorded in the calcitic shells of
organisms, (e.g. forarninifera). (Based on several
sources, see text)
Oxygen and carbon isotopes in the tests of micro-
organisms are widely used to unravel the past his tory
of the ocean basins (Fig. 5.26). This point cannot be
discussed here.
In conjunction with the surface uplift and exhumation of
the Hirnalayas, both an increase in silicate weathering and
enhanced nutrient supply in the ocean, stimulating the bio-
logical pump and carbon burial, have been postulated to
cause global cooling since the Miocene (e.g. Raymo 1994;
France-Lanord and Derry 1997).
5.6.3 The Conveyer BeIt in the Modern Oceans
In the present-day topographie situation, even a
change in climate andlor drop in sea level can funda-
mentally influence the so-called oceanic conveyer
belt. i.e. the main paths and intensity of ocean cur-
rents exchanging water masses between the three
large ocean basins (e.g. Broecker and Denton 1989;
Fig. 5.27a).
The principle characteristics of the modem conveyer belt
can be described as folIows: Warm water from the northem
5.6 Paleoceanography 243

1
2
-
CLOSURE OF '
INDONESIAN SEAWAY
EAST MEDITERRANEAN GATEWAY
OPENING OF
5 DRAKE PASSAGE
6 TASMANIAN PASSGE
3 STRAITS OF GIBRALl'AR 7 NORTH ATLANTIC
4 PANAMA STRAITS GATEWAYS

CLOSING OF OLDER
AND OPENING OF NEW
OCEANIC GATEWAVS

Fig. 5.27. a Exchange of warm surface and colder opening of oceanic gateways which led to a drastic
deep water along the conveyer belt of the modem reorganization of thermohaline circulation. (Modified
oceans. (Modified and simplified from Broecker from Seibold and Berger 1996)
1998). b Eocene oceans and post-Eocene closure or

Pacific flows as surface current via the Indonesian passage gions, the salinity of the surface water increases. After
to the Indian Ocean, around South Africa, and then north- cooling in the subpolar regions of the North Atlantic, the
ward into the Caribbean Sea and, as Gulf Stream, into the relatively dense water masses sink and flow as deep-water
North Atlantic. On its way through warm low-Iatitude re- current again southward to the South Atlantic, where they
244
mix with cold Antarctic water. Then they flow eastward
around Australia and finally back into the North Pacific
where they come up to the surface. Minor complications of
this huge transport system of oceanic water masses, inc1ud-
ing heat and nutrient transfer, are neglected here.
This transport system can be shut down by increased
freshwater inflow into Arctic or sub-Arctic ocean
basins (e.g. the northern Atlantic and Norwegian-
Greenland Sea) or by a strongly reduced equator-pole
temperature gradient. Both mechanisms prevent a
sufficient increase in surface water density to estab-
lish substantial subpolar downwelling. If this hap-
pens the enormous heat transfer by the Gulf Stream
to the northern hemisphere is weakened or com-
pletely terminated. As a result, the climate in the
countries around the North Atlantic would drastically
deteriorate and the marine sediments would become
rich in cold-water organisms (e.g. diatoms) rather
than in temperate-water biota (e.g. foraminifers).
In the Pleistocene interglacial periods, invasions of temper-
ate Atlantic waters into the Norwegian-Greenland Sea were
only short-lived and irregular (Thiede et al. 1998). The ef-
ficiency of the conveyer belt was also reduced in the Youn-
ger Dryas (a time period of about 1 ka duration, around 11
ka B.P.) in which the temperature dropped and glaciers
again prograded (Broecker 1999). In addition, submarine
ridges and highs strongly affected the conveyer belt during
the low sea level stands of the glacial maxima.
5.6.4 Effects of Low Sea Level
Sea-level lowstands were caused by several pro-
ces ses during the Earth's history (cf. Chap. 7). The
glacio-eustatic lowstands of the Pleistocene have
been intensely studied in the large ocean basins as
well as in marginal seas (cf. Chap. 4). The impact of
a lowered sea level may differ from basin to basin;
submarine ridges and swells and other topographic
features of the sea floor can strongly modify their
circulation patterns. Nevertheless, some general mIes
inferred from times of glacial maximum can also be
applied to basins outside ofthe ice-covered regions:
- The input of terrigenous material to the outer shelf,
slope, and deep-sea fans increases. The input of dis-
solved matter from the continents into the sea proba-
bly did not change significantly because emerged
shelf areas compensated for ice-covered areas (e.g.
Gibbs and Rumpp 1994).
- Benthic carbonate production on emerging carbon-
ate shelves and platforms ceases. It either continues
to some extent on the slopes of these carbonate
buildups, andJor it can be partially or completely re-
placed by increased planktonic carbonate production,
depending on the supply of nutrients. If the entire
oceanic carbonate production decreases and river
supply of calcium remains constant, then less carbon-
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
ate dissolution in the deep sea is required for
biogenic carbonate production than during high sea
level. This means that the calcite compensation depth
(CCD) drops.
- Whether or not thermohaline circulation becomes
intensified is not clear. It appears that the response of
ocean circulation to a lowered sea level differs re-
gionally. Furthermore, one has to distinguish be-
tween bottom currents and the behavior of intermedi-
ate water masses. During glacial times with a greater
temperature gradient between the ice-covered polar
region or polar front and the equator, winds driving
surface currents may be stronger and strengthen
upwelling. These effects can lead to a higher organic
productivity, particularly that of diatoms, in mid- and
high latitude regions. In the central equatorial Pa-
cific, the sediments of glacials are richer in carbonate
than those of interglacials which are markedly af-
fected by dissolution. Other ocean regions may be-
have in a different way. It is possible that bottom
currents rich in carbon dioxide locally dissolve more
carbonate than during high sea level.
Some of these points have been controversially discussed
(see, e.g., Struck et al 1993; Walker and Opdyke 1995;
LaMontagne et al. 1996). The mechanism of reducing at-
mospheric CO 2 in the glacial phases, as found in the polar
ice cores, seems to be not fully c1arified. Among the vari-
ous factors mentioned above, an increase or decrease in
global carbonate deposition or carbonate dissolution plays
an important role (e.g. Howard and Prell 1994). In addI-
tion, a certain lag time between an orbital signal (change in
solar radiation) and the response of processes operating in
the ocean and atmosphere have to be taken into ac count.
It appears that the ice-core CO 2 data for the last 150 ka
can be correlated with the deep-sea Öl8 0 record preserved
in the shells of foraminifera (Berger 1996). This correlation
may allow the reconstruction of the atmospheric CO 2 of
older periods.
- The reduced surface area of the ocean and colder
water diminish evaporation and generate a dryer cli-
mate, particularly in high latitudes.
- Polar seas covered by ice may become more stag-
nant and poor in oxygen. Their fertility is limited and
terrigenous sediment influx is also low during this
stage.
In periods of deglaciation (glacial terminations) the
situation in high- and partially also mid-latitude re-
gions drastically changes. Ocean circulation tends to
become instable because substantial amounts ofmelt-
water reduce or inhibit downwelling in subpolar re-
gions (e.g. Zahn et al. 1997). Oxygenation of deeper
water masses deteriorates and may lead to the deposi-
tion of layers rich in organic matter. Red deep-sea
clays are replaced by grey material. The climate of
this transitional interval is characterized by rapid
changes.
5.6 Paleoceanography
5.6.5 Oceanic Gateways and Paleo-Ocean
Circulation
All observations discussed in Sect. 5.2 have per-
tained to modem oceans under the present climatic
conditions. Thermohaline circulation is driven by the
strong temperature gradient from the poles to the
equator causing the formation of cold bottom water
in the polar regions. This and the present-day config-
uration of the ocean basins prevent, for example, the
existence of large bodies of stagnant bottom water,
apart from adjacent basins and very limited coastal
sea areas (Chap. 4).
However, the shape of the ocean basins and the
location of submarine ridges and swells, island
chains, and oceanic gateways changed in the course
of the geologie history.
The development of oceanic gateways and their influence
on marine sediments over the Earth's history is a topic of
current research (see, e.g., Seibold and Berger 1996;
Heinze and Crowley 1997).
The impact of these changes on ocean cireulation and
sediments is first demonstrated here for some oeeanie
gateways, later for an entire oeean basin.
Figure 5.27b shows a paleogeographie sketch map
for the Eocene including several oeeanic gateways.
During this time, the global climate was warmer than
today, and a circum-equatorial ocean (Tethys) and
current system allowed free water exchange between
alliarge oeean basins.
Later, the eircum-equatorial gateways closed and
several higher-Iatitude gateways opened. This led to
a fundamental reorganization of the thermohaline
oceanic circulation. Since that time the three ocean
basins are fully connected only far in the south and
therefore more separated than before. Some results of
these teetonically controlled events are demonstrated
by the following examples.
The Drake Passage. The opening of a seaway, the
Drake Passage, between South America and
Antarctica around 32-30 Ma B.P. caused, in combi-
nation with the Tasmanian seaway, a drastic change
in the ocean circulation of the southern hemisphere.
Since that time, a circum-Antarctic circulation system
was established which strongly reduced the heat
transfer from low-Iatitude regions to Antaretica. As a
result, large and thick ice sheets could grow which
reinforced the albedo and promoted global eooling.
However, the outflow of Antaretic deep bottom wa-
ter was weakened, except in the eastern South Atlan-
tic. The Neogene sediments around Antarctica and in
the neighboring southern ocean basins refleet in-
creased, but varying terrigenous sediment supply in-
cluding ice-rafted material. Waters rich in nutrients
enhanced the production of biosiliceous material
245
which is well preserved in the sediments. The CCD
dropped by about 1000 m.
The Isthmus 01 Panama. Prior to the closure of this
gateway (around 5 Ma ago), a seaway existed be-
tween the North and South American continents al-
lowing direct water exchange between the Atlantic
and the Pacific. Tradewind-driven, westward directed
warm surface currents from the Atlantic entered the
Pacific. Furthermore, it has been postulated that rela-
tively eold Pacific waters flowed into the Caribbean
Sea for some time (Nesbitt and Y oung 1997). The
closure of the seaway led to a reorganization of the
global conveyer-belt eirculation including the Atlan-
tic cireulation system. As a result, the intensified
Gulf Stream transported warm and relatively saline
water masses to the North Atlantic. These in turn
favored deep-water formation in the northern oceans
(e.g. in the Labrador Sea) and strengthened
southward-directed Aretie bottom water flow. En-
hanced atmospheric moisture, induced by the Gulf
Stream, has probably promoted ice-sheet growth in
the northern hemisphere since 3.1-2.5 Ma.
Ocean drilling in the Caribbean Sea has revealed that the
planktonic foraminiferal assemblages changed from those
of nonnal saline water to assemblages indicating an in-
creased surface water salinity in the time period from about
7 to 2 Ma (Haug and Tiedemann 1998). Increased oxygen
supply of the bottom water is indicated by better carbonate
preservation since the c\osure ofthe Panama Strait.
The Norwegian-Greenland Sea. The depositional
environment of this basin was not only controlled by
its asymmetrie surface current system (cf. Sect. 4.2.5
and Fig. 4.3c), but also by the Greenland-Scotland
Ridge in the south and the Fram Strait in the north
connecting it with the Arctic Ocean. These topo-
graphie features in turn strongly modified the
thermohaline circulation during low sea-Ievel stands.
The present-day situation of this basin is briefly described
in Sect. 4.2.5. The Pleistocene and Neogene history was
explored by sediment coring and deep-sea drilling (e.g.
Bohnnann et al. 1990; Jansen and Raymo 1996; Hebbien
and Wefer 1997; Henrich 1998; Thiede et al. 1998).
The overflow of water from the north was largely con-
trolled by the sill depth of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge
which in turn was episodically affected by mantle plume
activity in the Neogene (Wright and Miller 1996). High
plume aetivity tended to separate the Norwegian-Greenland
Sea from the North Atlantic, whereas times of low activity
(in the early Miocene and early Pliocene) allowed better
water exchange over the ridge and thus caused climatic
optima in the northem basin. This example also demon-
strates the great influence of minor topographic changes
within an oceanic gateway on a large basin.
In the Neogene to Quaternary, the Norwegian Sea
(i.e. the eastern basin) was characterized by both cal-
careous and siliceous sediment eomponents. After
246
the closure of the Isthmus of Panama and with an
increasingly cooling climate in the upper Miocene
and Pliocene, the Norwegian Current and import of
pelagic carbonate became stronger. Ocean circulation
varied from stronger to more reduced inflow of At-
lantic surface water. As a result, the sediment compo-
sition fluctuated from carbonate-rich to opal-rich sec-
tions. Periods of intensified bottom water circulation
are also evident from several hiatuses or condensed
horizons and phases of enhanced carbonate dissolu-
tion observed in drill cores. Ice-rafted material in
significant quantities and a pronounced cyclicity in
the sediments (cycles of 41 ka and later 100 ka) be-
gan not earlier than about 3 Ma B.P. along the Nor-
wegian margin. During cold periods, the southward
prograding polar front, sea ice, and lowered sea level
led to a marked decrease in water exchange with the
Atlantic, reduced oxygenation of the deep water
masses, and sediments characterized by higher pro-
portions of organic matter and biogenic silica.
In the Greenland Sea, i.e. in the western part of
the basin, biosiliceous sediments relatively rich in
warm-water species and marine organic matter pre-
vailed in the lower to rniddle Miocene. High fertility
may have been caused by river-supplied nutrients
(not by upwelling). Ice-rafted debris in deep-sea sedi-
ments can be traced back to the rniddle Miocene. In
the Fram Strait it first appeared 14 Ma B.P.
Simultaneously, bottom water from the Norwegian-Green-
land Sea began to flow over the Greenland-Scotland Ridge
into the North Atlantic Ocean and caused the formation of
very large, e10ngate sediment ridges (or "sediment drifts";
Fig. 4.3c) described in Sect. 5.5.
5.6.6 Tbe Cretaceous Ocean
The Mesozoic "greenhouse" world was characterized
by a warm, relatively equal climate with a reduced
temperature gradient between the poles and the equa-
tor. The CO 2 content of the atmosphere nay have
been four times that of the present-day, and the aver-
age global temperature is estimated to have been
higher by about 6°C. The South Atlantic opened dur-
ing the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, but the
geographical position and morphology of the other
ocean basins also differed from the present situation.
The circum-equatorial Tethys Ocean was still wide
and therefore significantly influenced the global
ocean circulation. However, ocean circulation was
even more controlled by regional differences in salin-
ity, reinforced by high freshwater inflow from "wet"
continental areas. Temperature-induced changes in
water density probably were less important. Thus,
thermohaline circulation was fundamentally different
from the present situation, which does not differ pro-
foundly from the that of earlier icehouse states in the
Earth's history (cf. Sect. 7.8 and Fig. 7.16).
Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments
The Cretaceous oceans tended to develop wann,
stagnant and more saline bottom waters with temper-
atures sirnilar to those of surface waters. These wa-
ters presumably formed in low-Iatitude regions where
evaporation was high on shelves and, due to high sea
level, flooded wide land areas. Thus, most of the oce-
anic circulation at this time may have been restricted
to surface and intermediate waters. Some upwelling
of intermediate waters possibly occurred in polar and
subpolar regions, and the climatic belts on the conti-
nents, e.g. the location of deserts, probably differed
significantly from the present situation. Some of the
consequences of such a pattern are mentioned in
Sects. 10.3.3 and 7.8.
Warmer oceans with slower circulation caused
poorly oxygenated waters and thus promoted the de-
position of black shales (cf. Sects. 5.2 and 10.3.3),
either in basins of stagnant deep water or in enlarged
zones of weak coastal upwelling and oceanic diver-
gence (e.g. Parrish 1987). At the same time, the vege-
tation. cover on the continents expanded into high
latitude regions and may have contributed to the en-
richment of organic matter in marine sediments (e.g.
Stein et al. 1989).
The situation ofthe Middle and Upper Cretaceous and par-
ticularly the Cretaceous "anoxie events" have been dis-
cussed by many workers (e.g., Thierstein 1979; Berger
1981; De Graciansky et al. 1982; Hay 1987, 1997; several
papers in Brooks and Fleet 1987; Larsen 1991; Arthur and
Sageman 1994; Bralower et al. 1994; Barron et al. 1995;
Norris and Wilson 1998; Poulsen et al. 1998; and many
others).
In the mid-Cretaceous, rudists experienced a rapid evo-
lution and expansion in the shallow parts of the warm
"Supertethys" while hermatotypic corals retreated to mar-
ginal regions of this ocean (e.g. Stanley 1995). Black shale
deposition in deep water was accompanied by a decrease in
the öl3 C values of carbonate rocks (e.g. Arthur et al. 1988;
discussed further, e.g., by Menegatti et al. 1998) reflecting
the transfer of sedimentary organic carbon to the oxidized
inorganic carbon in limestones. At the same time, sulfur
was transferred from evaporitic sulfate rocks to the reduced
sulfur reservoir of pyrite in sediments, resulting in an in-
crease of Ö34 S values of evaporitic sulfate minerals (Mac-
kenzie 1990). In addition, oolitic ironstones and
phosphorites appear to have been formed in re1ativeiy large
quantities (V an Houten and Arthur 1989).
Adjacent or marginal seas of the Cretaceous oceans
should also have recorded the greenhouse state of the
globe. The question whether the Cretaceous Western Inte-
rior seaway ofNorth America had a brackish lid and/or was
subjected to estuarine circulation is still open (e.g.
Slingeriand et al. 1998; Jewell 1998). A mid-Cretaceous
rapid lateral facies change between calcareous and
noncalcareous shale, observed in Montana, is thought to
have been generated at the boundary between two different
water masses (Fisher et al. 1994). One of these entered
from the Arctic Ocean, the other from the Tethys Ocean.
Toward the end of the Cretaceous, the climate seems
to have become unstable. According to a stable iso-
5.6 Paleoceanography
tope study on sediment cores from the mid-latitude
South Atlantic, a major warm pulse was followed by
rapid cooling prior to the Cretaceous-Tertiary bound-
ary (Li and Keller (1998). In the formerly widely
opened Caribbean Sea, W-flowing bottom currents,
measured in uplifted flysch deposits, indicate the
presence of deep-water circulation during this time
(Stanley 1988). These contour currents affected
flysch deposits which were shed from north to south
into the deep basin.
5.6.7 The post-Cretaceous Cooling
The paleoceanographic and climatic development of
the post-Cretaceous world was characterized by con-
tinued plate-tectonic motions, fundamental changes
in the oceanic thermohaline circulation as mentioned
above, a trend to falling sea level (caused by decreas-
ing ocean spreading and mountain building), and
cooling. After the tropical oceanic gateways had been
successively closed, the circum-tropical connection
of the Pacific and Atlantic ocean basins was termi-
nated and replaced by the present-day restricted wa-
ter exchange in the south ("southern exchange").
The rates of ocean spreading and subduction, as
weH as the activity of large mantle plumes, tended to
slow since the mid-Cretaceous. As a result, the rate
of outgasing greenhouse gase"s (mainly CO 2) into the
atmosphere decreased with time. Due to falling tem-
perature, evaporation and cloudiness simultaneously
declined and thus weakened the greenhouse effect of
water vapor. The greenhouse effect of the atmo-
spheric pC02 could be further reduced by:
- Uptake of CO 2 by the cooling ocean (the solution
pump mentioned above).
- Increase in the rate of silicate weathering, pro-
moted by widely exposed plutonic and crystaHine
rocks and high runoff.
- The biological pump and organic carbon burial in
the ocean and in lake basins (see above). This pro-
cess appears to have been particularly important be-
cause the sedimentary organic carbon reservoir has
grown since the Neogene (Derry and France-Lanord
1996).
- Dissolution of oceanic calcium carbonate (con-
sumption of CO 2) and/or reduced production of
biogenic calcium carbonate in relation to earlier peri-
ods (less release of CO2).
The cooling trend was reinforced by an increasing
albedo (falling relative sea level, reduction in cloudi-
ness).
Processes releasing CO2 into the atmosphere and
thus counteracting this trend, have obviously been
insufficient to prevent further cooling. These pro-
ces ses include:
247
- An excess of carbonate burial (including sub-
duction of carbonate), releasing carbon dioxide, in
relation to carbonate weathering on the continents
and carbonate dissolution in the deep sea, consuming
carbon dioxide.
- Soil deterioration leading to oxidation of organic
matter.
- Reduction of the plant mass on the continents, in-
cluding forest destruction by fire.
The complex global carbon cycle and the CO 2 balance have
been discussed since about two decades by many workers.
Recent publications include, e.g., Bemer (1994, 1997),
Kerrick and Caldeira (1994); Raymo (1994), Beck et al.
(1995), Keir (1995), Compton and Mallinson (1996). Two
problems stand out as particularly difficult: (1) the great
number of factors influencing ocean circulation, organic
production, production and dissolution of biogenic carbon-
ate, and climate, and (2) the reliable quantification of the
individual processes and their interrelationships.
The present-day knowledge of the climatic and pale-
oceanographic evolution also relies significantly on studies
of the oxygen and carbon isotopes of planktonic and ben-
thic foraminifera. Further information is gained from the
nature (including biomarkers) of the organic matter pre-
served in sediments. An increasing number of oceano-
graphic models try to simulate both paleo-circulation and
the distribution of certain sediment types in the ocean.
The warm climate of the Cretaceous more or less
continued up to the Paleocene in which a new peak
in temperature was reached (as, e.g., in sediments of
the Caribbean Sea, mentioned above). Carbonate de-
position was restricted to the shelves and continental
slopes, and biosiliceous sediments were produced in
widespread ocean regions, including low-latitudes.
Thereafter, the cooling of the globe took place in
several distinct steps (e.g. Berger and Wefer 1996):
- At the end ofthe Eocene, 35-40 Ma B.P.: begin of
deep-water cooling; switch from low-latitude to high-
latitude deep-water formation; deepening of CCD
due to regression of the sea; first evidence of ice in
East Antarctica. Somewhat later: opening of the
Drake Passage and separation of Australia from
Antarctica; restriction of the circum-equatorial ocean.
- About 14 Ma B.P.: accelerated growth ofice sheets
in Antarctica, including West Antarctica; further de-
crease in atmospheric pC0 2 due to the highly effec-
tive biological pump (Monterey Event, mentioned
above); increased diatom production in high lati-
tudes. The closure of the Panama Strait delays north-
ern glaciation.
- About 3 Ma B.P.: buildup of large ice sheets in the
northern hemisphere.
The increasing meridional temperature gradients
caused increased North Atlantic deep-water forma-
tion and hence also more nutrient supply to
upwelling regions. North Atlantic deep water reached
248 Chapter 5 Oceanic Sediments

the South Atlantic and fed the high diatom produc-
tion around Antarctica (the "opaline silica ring").
Increased diatom production in high latitudes was
also observed in the northem Pacific. Ice-rafted ma-
terial could trave1 with surface currents over long
distances and record the repeated growth and waning
of large ice sheets in deep-sea sediments.
This summary only deals with some important points of
this cooling history. The evidence or "proxies" for this evo-
lution is more complicate and includes some methods not
mentioned here (see also Abreu and Anderson 1998; Wil-
son et al. 1998).
Other specific topics in paleoceanography, such as the
evolution and nature of the pre-Cretaceous ocean basins,
the evolution of sediment-forming micro-organisms, the
migration of faunal and floral communities in relation to
the changing configuration of the ocean basins, or the his-
tory of sea water chemistry cannot be discussed here.

5.6.8 Summary (Paleoceanography)

Paleogeography, volcanism, circulation and greenhouse gases of the atmosphere and the ocean are closely
linked. Their interplay has largely determined the past global climate and, in particular, the biogenic ma-
rine sedimentation. The nature and areal distribution of marine sediments (e.g. carbonates, biosiliceous
sediments, black shales) serve, among other methods, as "proxies" for the reconstruction of the environ-
mental conditions of former ocean basins. The following processes playamajor role:

- Decreasing reflection of solar radiation (albedo) opening or closure of marine gateways. It is

due to transgressions, enlarged areas of vegeta-
tion, and retreat of glaciers, furthers global
warming.
- Extraction of atmospheric CO 2 by silicate weath-
ering, organic carbon burial (the biological
pump), and net dissolution of marine carbonate
lead to global cooling. The latter two processes,
including recycling of nutrients and oxygenation
of deep water, are largely controlled by
thermohaline ocean circulation. This in turn is
influenced by ocean basin topography and the
strengthened by high meridional temperature
gradients and weakened by warm and higher
saline deep water (as in the Cretaceous ocean).
- All of these (and some more) processes form a
complex feedback system in which rninor
changes of single factors can be amplified or
subdued.
- It appears that the post-Cretaceous cooling his-
tory and the Neogene sedimentary processes of
the large ocean basins are now fairly under-
stood.
6 Special Depositional Environments
and Sediments
6.1 Green Marine Clays
Introduction
Remarks to the Nature ofGreen Particles
Greenish Sediments in the Modem Oceans
Summary (Green Marine Clays)
6.2 Oolitic Ironstones
Depositional Environment
Provenance of Iron
Effects of Reworking and Sea Level Changes
Summary (Oolitic Ironstones)
6.3 RedBeds
General Aspects
Primary, Allochthonous Red Beds
In Situ (Secondary) Formation ofRed Beds
Depositional Environments ofBrown and Red Beds
Summary (Red Beds)
6.4 Marine Evaporites
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Models for Primary Evaporite Deposition
Tbe Closed Sea-Water Basin
Shallow Salt Lagoon (Barred Basin or
Seepage Basin)
Drawdown ofWater Level in Deep Basin
Deep-Water Salt Basin
Minor Evaporite Cycles Controlled
by Sea-Level Changes
Coastal Sabkhas
Tbe Combined Deep and Shallow/Sabkha
Salt Basin
6.4.3 Examples of Giant Salt Deposits
6.4.4 Varves and Sedimentation Rates ofEvaporites
6.4.5 Sequences and Sedimentary Structures
ofEvaporites
6.4.6 Diagenesis ofEvaporites (Secondary and
Tertiary Evaporites)
Tbe Active Phreatic Zone
Mechanical Compaction and Compaction Flow
Early Cementation
Large-Scale Subsurface Dissolution
Tbermobaric Flow Regime and Phase Changes
of Salt Minerals.
Exhumation of Buried Evaporites
(Tertiary Evaporites)
6.4.7 Trace Elements, Stable Isotopes, and
Accessories in Marine Evaporites
6.4.8 Salt Tectonics
Introduction
Mechanics of Salt Flow
Evolution of Salt Structures
Economic Aspects ofEvaporites and
Salt Structures
6.4.9 Summary (Marine Evaporites)
6.5 Nonactualistic (Precambrian) Depositional
Environments
6.5.1 Introduction
6.5.2 Evolution ofthe Atrnosphere
6.5.3 Evolution ofthe Hydrosphere and Clirnate
6.5.4 Early Life
6.5.5 Precambrian Sediments
Carbonates
Stromatolites, Phosphorites
Bedded Quartzites and Chert
Banded Ironstone Formations
Red Beds
Evaporites
Clastic Deposits
6.5.6 Summary (Precambrian Sediments)
6.1 Green Marine Clays
Introduction
Sediments greenish in color are fairly common in the
present-day oceans at various water depths. Theyare
also frequently observed in ancient sediments, but in
these cases the minerals causing the green color may
differ from those found in young sediments due to
diagenesis. The correct identification, crystallo-
graphie and geochemical characterization of fine-
grained green minerals is difficult and can be done
only in the laboratory using special methods in clay
mineralogy. For simple rock descriptions in the field,
barely more than the greenish color can be noted,
which in turn may be modified by other sediment
components such as organic matter and fine-grained
particles of different composition.
For these reasons and the unavailability in the past of spe-
cial investigative techniques, much uncertainty existed
about the nature of greenish marine sediments. Most geolo-
gists and sedimentologists used the mineral names
glauconite, chamosite, and chlorite for green particles,
which were often poorly defined. In the last decade, how-
250
ever, much new information has become available in this
field (Odin and Matter 1981; Van Houten and Purucker
1984; Odin 1988; Odin and Morton 1988). Some important
aspects of our present knowledge are briefly summarized
here.
Remarks to the Nature of Greeu Particles
Green partieles in the oceans are authigenic alumi-
num silicates (clay minerals, mica) rich in iron and
magnesium. In addition, they may contain various
amounts of potassium and other cations. While mag-
nesium and potassium are present in sea water in rel-
atively high quantities, the concentration of iron in
oxygenated waters is extremely low. Therefore, nor-
mal sea water cannot be the source of iron.
Iron is delivered to the oceans by two principal
sources (Fig. 6.1): (l) by rivers from the continents
in the form of detrital partieles and colloids of iron
oxyhydrates, and (2) by volcanic activity within the
oceans, such as is common at mid-oceanic ridges,
island ares, and other volcanic islands. In the second
case, iron can be leached from basaltic rocks either
on the sea floor or from deeper sections of the oce-
anic crust by sea water circulating through basaltic
rocks and generating hydrothermal systems.
The green minerals contain either ferrous iron or
iron in both the ferrous and ferric states. Thus, their
formation is associated either with overall slightly
reducing conditions, or with reducing microenviron-
ments within the sediment near the sea floor. The
authigenic growth of green pigment is referred to as
verdissement (Odin 1988) and includes glauconitiza-
tion, verdinization, and chloritization.
Greenish Sediments in the Modern Oceans
In the present-day oceans, several zones of greenish
or brown, iron-rich sediment facies can be distin-
guished from shallow to deep water (Fig. 6.1):
- Pyrite and siderite occur in sediments in front of
rivers entering the sea. The iron is derived from detri-
tal iron minerals which are deposited and frequently
redistributed in such areas. In conjunction with si-
multaneously delivered organic matter, reducing con-
ditions are established within the sediment. Iron is
released from terrigenous material and made avail-
able as easily soluble ferrous iron to form early
diagenetic pyrite and siderite.
- Verdine jacies. In warm tropical to subtropical re-
gions, this facies zone is found on the inner shelf in
front of the delta-front zone (at water depths of 20 to
60 m). The verdine facies occurs in areas of fairly
rapid sediment accumulation and is characterized by
various marine green clays ofthe phyllite group. This
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
facies differs from the glaucony facies (see below) in
both the depositional environment and mineral com-
position. Similar to the glauconitic minerals, these
green clays are found as pigment in microtest cham-
bers, fecal pellets, or in pores between other sedi-
ment particles. The green clays are predominantly
ferric and rich in magnesium.
This facies is known from modem shelf sediments off the
mouths of the rivers Amazon, Orinoco, Niger, Senegal,
Congo, and other tropical rivers (Odin et al. 1988a). Green
marine shales of considerable thickness are also common in
the ancient record, for example in the Lower Cretaceous.
- Iron ooids. If delta-front and inner shelf sediments
rich in iron are frequently reworked and redeposited
in areas some distance away from the zone of rapid
sedimentation, the ferrous iron compounds may be-
come partially oxidized, transformed to ooids and
concentrated as oolitic iron deposits (see Sect. 6.2).
- Brown iron oxyhydrates. Detrital iron minerals
transported along the coast in shallow water are
chemically and/or biochemically alte red, particularly
so in tropical waters. The iron released is precipitated
as brown iron oxyhydrate (limonite, goethite).
- Glauconitic minerals commonly form in deeper
water along the shelf edge and upper slope or on the
tops of submarine highs, i.e., outside the influence of
deltaic or various other types of continuous sedimen-
tation.
Glauconitization takes place in rather cold waters and
is a long-lasting process in environments of slow,
discontinuous deposition. The sediment should con-
tain clay minerals and mica and develop microenvi-
ronments with slightly reducing conditions. As a re-
sult of the interaction between the sediment particles
and sea water, the original minerals are slowly al-
tered to green grains or thin filrns on the surfaces of
larger particles or hardgrounds. Glauconitic minerals
may fill small cavities, for example the tests of
microfossils, or partially replace fecal pellets and
bioclasts. After deep burial, glauconitic minerals are
subject to modifications, particularly in their chemi-
cal composition.
Glauconitic minerals constitute a wide spectrum of miner-
als from K-poor glauconitic smectites to K-rich micas and
are known only from marine environments. Marine sedi-
ments characterized by the green pigment of these minerals
may be referred to as glaucony facies (Odin 1988).
- Iron-rich smectite. In the deep sea, iron is fre-
quently concentrated in either iron-rich smectites or
ferromanganese nodules (Sect. 5.3.3). At least some
of the iron and manganese required for these sedi-
ments is delivered by volcanic activity (known as
juvenile iron).
- Celadonite or celadonitic minerals are typical clay
minerals rich in ferric iron and potassium, which
6.1 Green Marine Clays 251

GREEN MARINE CLAYS AND GLAUCONITE

HYDROTHERMAL VERDINE FACIES PARTIAL REDUCTION FLUVIAL INPUT
SYSTEMS PROVIDING (PHYLLlTE- TYPE OF IRON OF DETRITAL
IRON CLAY MINERAL, .. PYRITE, SIDERITE / ' IRON
.. PYRITE RICH IN Fe + Mg)
Fe -SMECTITE ~
FERRO-
MANGANESE
NODULES
..-..-----....-

---

GLAUCONY FACIES
(WITH GLAUCONITIC
MINERALS)

CELADONITE FACIES Fe-RICH SMECTITES

(Fe-R ICH CLAY MINERAL)

Fig. 6.1. Generalized model demonstrating source submarine leaching of basaltic rocks. See text for
and distribution of iron-rich marine sediments, explanation of the various facies types. (After Odin
mostly green clays. Note that iron is provided either 1988)
by fluvial input or by volcanic activity, including

have a higher silica content than glauconitic miner-
als. The iron is derived from oceanic basalts. It is
incorporated into clay minerals at the contact with
sea water around volcanic islands and along mid-oce-
anic ridges (Fig. 6.1). Celadonitic minerals fill vesi-
eIes, veins, and other small voids in porous lava
flows. Celadonite-be.aring rocks may be regarded as
an additional, independent green facies characteristic
of marine environments.
- Pyrite and iron-rich smectite also occur at active
mid-oceanic ridges, where sea water intrudes into
basaltic rocks and returns as hot submarine springs to
the ocean.
The water in such hydrothennal systems is frequently de-
pleted in oxygen and can leach considerable quantities of
ferrous iron and other metals (Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, Cd, Pb,
etc.) on its way through hot basaltic rocks. The vents of
these hydrothennal fluids are known as "blaek smokers",
because they discharge water containing tiny, suspended
particles of metal sulfides. These are distributed over the
sea floor in the neighborhood of the vents. In this way,
sediments rieh in pyrite are fonned which may pass later-
ally into sediments characterized by iron-rieh smectites.
Other portions of the metal sulfides derived from mid-oce-
anic hydrothennal systems may be precipitated as massive
ore deposits on and below the sea floor (ealled "stoekwork
mineralization", see e.g. Oberhänsli and Stoffers 1988).
In contrast to earlier views, some workers now as-
sume that the various green minerals are not the re-
sult of a slow transformation of pre-existing clay
minerals and mica, but represent newly formed min-
eral phases. Each of these mineral groups (verdine,
glauconitic minerals, celadonitic minerals) character-
izes a specific marine depositional environment.
The verdine facies found in modem shallow seas
off the coasts of subtropical regions may be wide-
spread in ancient rocks and typify rather thick se-
quences. The glaucony facies, on the other hand, de-
velops on various initial substrates and occurs both at
considerable depths (about 50 to 500 m) and across
many latitudes. Due to its relation to very low or in-
terrupted sedimentation, the typical glaucony facies
is usually restricted to thin strata or special layers in
both siliciclastic and carbonate rocks.
252
Summary (Green Marine Clays)
- Green authigenic particles in marine sediments
comprise a variety of poorly defined minerals
of varying chemical composition. They contain
ferrous iron.
- These minerals form in slightly reducing envi-
ronments close to the sea floor (glauconiti-
zation, verdinization, and chloritization).
The verdine facies develops in shelf sediments
off the mouths of subtropical to tropical rivers.
- Glauconitic minerals (glaucony facies) form
outside the influence of deltas in deeper water
(shelf edge, upper slope, tops of submarine
highs) in areas ofvery slow or interrupted sedi-
mentation. They are not restricted to warm wa-
ter or a specific climate zone.
6.2 Oolitic Ironstones
Oolitic ironstones are known throughout the
Phanerozoic, but seldom from Neogene sediments.
Stirred by substantial economic interest, much has
been written and speculated about these particular
deposits. In the last decades, however, mining of
these ore deposits has declined, because their iron
content is considerably lower than that of the large
Precambrian banded iron deposits (Sect. 6.5) which
are now exploited in several continents.
The genesis of oolitic ironstones is still controversial and
obviously not fully understood (e.g., Gygi 1981; Maynard
1983; Odin et al. 1988; Schneider and Walter 1988;
Dreesen 1989; Young and Taylor 1989; Kimberley 1979,
1994). The influence of sea-level changes has been dis-
cussed, e.g., by Hallam and Bradshaw (1979), Bayer et al.
(1985), Bayer (1989a) and Burkhalter (1995). Reasonable
modem analogs of the marine ironstones are missing, al-
though iron ooids (oolites) were also found in lakes, for
example in Lake Chad, North Africa (Lemoalle and
Dupont 1976).
A special type of iron ooids has been observed in a
modem shallow-marine volcanic setting in Indonesia
(Heikoop et al. 1996). Here, the limonitic and siliceous
ooids are precipitated around hydrothermal vents in
andesitic rocks and cover only a small area.
Depositional Environment
Ancient iron oolites consist to a large degree of
"iron" ooids, which form pure oolitic layers or oolitic
clay beds. The ooids are sand-size grains consisting
of smaller nuclei surrounded by concentric layers of
goethite and/or chamosite. Their formation requires
repeated reworking under turbulent hydrodynamic
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
conditions (Fig. 6.2). This is indicated by the shrink-
age, fractioning, and overgrowth of individual ooids.
Such an environment should be permanently oxidizing, but
the presence of ferrous iron in chamosite, which is a
diagenetic chlorite mineral, indicates that the ooids devel-
oped partially within the sediment under reducing condi-
tions.
An alternative hypothesis is given by Dahanayake and
Krumbein (1985), who assume that iron ooids form under
coatings of microbial films. Fecal pellets and algal-pro-
duced oncoid particles may be transformed into iron-rich
ooid size particles due to their organic matter content fa-
voring a reducing microenvironment. The occurrence of
iron ooids and ferruginous microbialites in the same se-
quence, as observed in the Middle Jurassie of the Swiss
Jura mountains, suggests a common biogenie origin
(Burkhalter 1995).
Iron oolites commonly contain marine fossils and
exhibit sedimentary structures and depositional se-
quences charac~eristic of shallow-marine environ-
ments, As with oolitic carbonates, an environment is
needed where input or ultimate deposition of
terrigenous silicates is low or virtually absent. After
burial, the primary iron-rich sediment and its constit-
uents are more or less modified by diagenetic over-
print, including the precipitation of some pyrite
and/or siderite. Carbonate ooids may be replaced by
iron compounds (diagenetic ferruginization).
Provenance of Iron
A further problem is the source of iron present in
thick ironstones. Unlike the formation of carbonate
ooids, which are precipitated from sea (or lake) water
supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate, the
iron required for the ironstones has to be delivered
either by rivers draining deeply weathered, vegetated
and quartz-depleted soils, or some other effective
mechanism.
Oxygen-free groundwater rich in ferrous iron, discharging
directly into the sea (Fig. 6.2), may be such a mechanism.
However, this process is probably not sufficient to produce
iron concentrations on the order required for the large and
widely extended ancient ore bodies. Thin (mostly $0.5 m)
Ordovician iron oolitic clay beds on the Baltic platform
may result from volcanic ash delivering both iron-rich clay
minerals and iron for the formation of iron ooids
(Sturesson 1999). These beds are intercalated with oolitic
limestones and can be traced over 1200 km from Norway
to Russia.
Rivers supply iron in the form of detrital iron-bearing
minerals or as mixed iron oxyhydrate-organic-matter
colloids. This process is accompanied by the trans-
port of considerable quantities of other clastic materi-
als into the sea. These cause relatively high sedimen-
tation rates near the river mouths and thus dilution of
6.2 Oolitic Ironstones 253

a POSSIBLY SO ME
GROUNDWATER
DISCHARGE
MUDFLATS.
MICRO-CON·
CRETIONS OF
DEEPLY WEATHERED SOlLS OF
TROPICAL TO SUBTROPICAL CLiMATE

WITH Fe++ Fe·CHLORITE

(CHA MOSITE)
REWORKING POSSIBLY INPUT
AND RE- OF SOlL IRON
DEPOSITION ~::::-:...-:::--...:::;::=- 0010 S
DURING
REGRESSION

DELTAIC MUD WITH

SOME PYRITE AND
SIDERITE
IRON OOLITES
IRON OOLITES
SEA LEVEL
RISE FALL
c (GOETHITE AND CHAMOSITE)

REPLACEMENT
POSSIBLY PHOSPHORITE OF Fe+++ BY
AND GLAUCONITIC MIN. Fe ++ ~
IRON OOLITE FE RROUS ClAY
(CHAMOSITE
SHELL BED
SAND
SIDERITE
.........~_ DARK SHALE
WITH PYRITE

Fig. 6.2. a Iron supply to the sea either by suspended
river load from deeply weathered soils or by ground-
water rich in ferrous iron. Repeated winnowing and
reworking of iron ooids in shallow water; final depo-
sition of iron oolites during lowermost sea level of
transgressive-regressive cycles. b Formation of ooids
in two stages: (1) oxidizing conditions at the sea bot-
tom, growth of limonite-goethite coatings including
some organic matter and silica. (2) Under mud cover
providing reducing conditions: ferric iron is reduced
to ferrous iron and incorporated into elay minerals
(ehamosite). Note that fecal pellets ean also beeome
enriehed in ferrous iron. c Idealized transgressive-
regressive sedimentary eycle with iron oolites as
"roof beds". (Based on several sourees, e.g.,
Maynard 1983; Bayer et al. 1985; Van Houten and
Purucker 1984; Odin et al. 1988; Bayer 1989a)

any kind of chemical or biogenie sediment. Conse-
quently, comparatively pure iron oolites of substan-
tial thickness can only form at some distance away
from major deltas.
This also applies to those iron oolites which may consist
predominantly of eroded ooids formed in lateritic soils, as
assumed by Siehl and Thein (1978) for the large, shallow-
marine Jurassie iron deposits of the minette ores in
Lorraine, eastem France. The nuclei of the ooids in many
oolitic ironstones, however, originate from marine environ-
ments and therefore indicate that the ooids were produced
in shallow seas (Maynard 1983).
Effects of Reworking and Sea Level Changes
Some of the above mentioned problems ean be
solved by assuming that iron oolites are the product
of repeated reworking, winnowing, and sorting of
sediments containing disseminated ooids. During the
first stage of this meehanism, detrital, iron-bearing
minerals aecumulate in marine deltaic regions, and
iron may be precipitated as pyrite, siderite, green par-
ticles, and limonite as described in Sect. 6.1 (Fig.
6.1). After abandonment or lateral migration of the
deltaic sediment supply away from the site of subse-
quent iron eoncentration, the bulk of the fine-grained
254
sediment is reworked, and the various pre-existing
iron compounds are partially oxidized, dissolved, and
replaced by iron ooids, possibly with the aid of mi-
croorganisms. Alternating exposure to aerated waters
and reducing conditions, after shallow burial below
mud, may lead to oolite growth under changing redox
conditions (Fig. 6.2b).
During repeated transgressions and regressions,
the sand-sized ooids are sorted out and concentrated
in ooid bars in the foreshore zone or on submarine
swells. This zone alternatively migrates landward and
seaward with rising and falling sea level. If the sea
level becomes particularly low, the ooids move far
basinward and tend to become stable and buried un-
der the subsequent finer grained transgressive sedi-
ments. In fact, many iron oolites represent the roof
beds of transgressive-regressive, shallowing-upward
sedimentary cyc1es. These typically show the follow-
ing sequence (Fig. 6.2c, from top to bottom):
- Oolitic ironstone, distinctly cross-bedded (some-
times bipolar, indicating subtidal environments).
Summary (Iron Oolites)
- Oolitic ironstones occur predominantly in clastic
shallow-marine sequences and represent a kind
of condensed lag sediment.
- The iron of large ore deposits appears to have
been supplied as c1astic particles by rivers drain-
ing deeply weathered lateritic soils. In some
cases, volcanic ash may have delivered iron and
silica.
- The ooids and other iron-rich partic1es formed in
coastal waters, probably with the aid of benthic
microbial communities and under repeatedly
6.3 Red Beds
General Aspects
Red beds inc1ude claystones, sandstones, arkoses,
radiolarites, some limestones, and occasionally other
rock types such as tephra layers. The striking reddish
color of red beds, in contrast to the drab gray color of
most other ancient sedimentary rocks, has always
roused the interest of both lay persons and profes-
sional geologists alike. Most authors assurne that the
staining pigment of red beds is very fine-grained,
uniformly dispersed hematite (Fe20 3), whereas hema-
tite concentrated in larger crystals or at certain spots
does not cause red color.
It was frequently pointed out that red beds indicate
ancient arid environments, because they are often
associated with evaporites. Indeed, this type of red
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
The oolites often alternate with shell beds and
other lag deposits and are sometimes overlain by
thin layers containing phosphorite nodules and
glauconitic minerals.
- Quartz sand, predominantly fine-grained.
- Greenish shales with some siderite concretions.
- Dark pyritic shales (peak oftransgression).
Oolitic ironstones are frequently excellent marker
beds.
Most Phanerozoic ironstones formed in epiconti-
nental seas during periods of long-term high sea level
(Ordovician to Devonian and Jurassic to Paleogene),
superimposed by short-term high-frequency sea-Ievel
fluctuations (Van Houten and Arthur 1989). During
these times, the c1imate was warm and humid,
terrigenous sediment influx into the sea was low, and
deeper water masses tended to become poody oxy-
genated. Thus, black shale deposition, coeval with, or
shortly before or after iron oolite formation was com-
mon.
changing environmental conditions.
- In tidal-dominated regimes, the iron oolites
mostly represent sediments of the subtidal to
lower intertidal zones.
Phanerozoic ironstones formed preferentially
during long-term sea-Ievel highstands, but mi-
nor transgressive-regressive cycles led to win-
nowing, repeated migration, and final deposi-
tion of oolitic sand bodies (offshore bars or
more widely extended sheets of iron oolite).
bed is particularly common and occurs in regions of
low paleolatitude. In the Perrnian and Triassie, thick,
widespread red beds accumulated on all continents.
However, red sands or soils are rare and not typical
in present-day deserts. In addition, red beds were
identified in a variety of other depositional environ-
ments, inc1uding lake and marine sediments. In prin-
ciple, they can occur even in glacial sequences.
These findings led to much controversy over the origin of
red beds. Summaries on the current state of knowledge
were published by Glennie (1970), Van Houten (1973),
Turner (1980) and in several textbooks on sedimentology
and stratigraphy (e.g., Dunbar and Rodgers 1957; Leeder
1982).
Torrent and Schwertmann (1987) have pointed out that
the red color is produced by the special optical behavior of
tiny hematite clusters; the color of synthetic hernatite-clay
mixtures varies with the grain size of the hernatite crystals.
6.3 Red Beds
The hydrous ferric iron oxides, such as goethite and the
less well defined limonite, are brown to ocher in color.
The aspects of diagenetic reddening have been dis-
cussed by Walker (1967, 1976, 1979), Füchtbauer (1988),
and Dubiel andSmoot (1994).
To generate the red staining of clays and silts less
than I % of hematite is sufficient. The total iron con-
tent of claystones, however, is comrnonly two to
three times higher than that needed by the staining
pigment, because clay minerals and other mineral
phases contain both ferric and ferrous iron. In alter-
nating red and green claystones, the iron content of
red beds is, if at all, generally insignificantly higher
than that of green beds.
The red color of sands tones is caused by grain
coatings containing hematite; their hematite content
may be even less than that in claystones. Reddish
colored top layers of sandstones can be caused by
mechanical infiltration of detrital clay.
The presence of limonite or hematite indicates that
the sediment is in an oxidizing state. This is generally
better achieved and maintained in continental envi-
ronments above the groundwater table than in aquatic
systems. Red beds are therefore particularly comrnon
in fluvial deposits. During the early history of the
Earth, when the atmosphere was poor in or free of
oxygen (cf. Sect. 6.5.1), the formation of red beds
was 1imited or impossible.
Oxidizing conditions within a sediment can be
maintained for a 10ng time when little or no organic
matter or reducing pore waters are available to re-
duce the ferric to ferrous iron. Then, iron cannot be
incorporated into iron-bearing carbonates, clay min-
erals, or form iron sulfide (pyrite). Furthermore, the
practically insoluble ferric iron cannot be carried
away by circulating pore water like dissolved ferrous
iron. However, if the buried sediments contain suffi-
cient organic matter to reduce all the pre-existing
limonite and hematite, the brown or red pigment can-
not survive. Hence, these sediments become drab
gray in color. Secondary reddening can occur if the
excess organic matter is destroyed by oxidizing pore
water or some other mechanism.
Having these basic rules in mind, the occurrence
of red beds in various depositional environments is
easy to understand.
Primary, Allochthonous Red Beds
Red, lateritic soils develop preferentially in tropical
regions with seasonally wet and dry climates (wet-
dry tropics). These soils contain hematite in addition
to hydrated iron oxide and other stable minerals such
as quartz and clay (cf. Sect. 9.1). Such soils can be
eroded and carried by rivers or wind into regions
with differing climates (Fig. 6.3a). In rare cases, red
dust and red-stained sand rnay reach deserts and form
255
primarily red sand dunes and clay dunes (cf. Sect.
2.3). However, most modem eolian dunes are yel-
lowish and ocher in color.
The reddr-ning of sand dunes in Australia is only observed
in old eoJian sands where originally brown-coated sand
grains have become red by aging (Wopfner and Twidale
1988, see below). Red soils and sand dunes have been de-
scribed, e.g., by Millot (1964), Solle (1966), Valeton
(1983) and rnany others.
More frequently, river-transported red soils accumu-
late as fluvial deposits in semi-arid and arid
lowlands, or they are swept into lakes where they
may alternate with carbonates and playa evaporites.
If the redeposited soils contain sufficient organic
matter, hematite and ferric iron hydroxides are
slowly reduced. As a resu1t, the bed becomes drab
gray or greenish in color. Alternations of red and
green beds, as observed in many ancient lake depos-
its, may be caused by minor differences in primary
organic matter content. Red silts and sands, or
carbonate-rich muds, which originally contain little
hematite and ferric iron hydroxides, require less or-
ganic matter for decoloring than do silty clays and
clayey silts with relatively high ferric iron contents.
For that reason, sandstones, limestones, and
evaporites, intercalated into red claystones, fre-
quently show drab gray colors.
Redeposited lateritic'soils on river floodplains can
maintain their original color when, as in semi-arid
regions, Gparse vegetation cannot provide sufficient
organic matter for ferric iron reduction. Ancient ex-
amples of this type of red beds frequently contain in
situ pedogenic calcrete (cf. Sects. 2.2.3 and 9.2), in-
dicating a relatively dry paleoclimate. Similarly,
rapid deposition of carbon-poor prodelta sediments
in lakes and in the sea may allow the maintenance of
the primary red color in parts of the prodelta se-
quences.
Red prodelta deposits are known, for example, from the
marine deltas of the Orinoco, Amazon, and Yangtze
Rivers, i.e., rivers draining tropical and subtropical regions.
In shallow seas with limited inputs of lateritic soils, the red
pigment mostly vanishes at depths of a few centimeters to
decimeters below the sediment-water interface, as observed
in the Adriatic Sea (Hinze and Meischner 1968) or in the
western part of the Gulf of Aden (pers. observ. ).
If red soils are carried into lakes and swamps in hu-
mid regions, they are usually reduced and form gray
deposits alternating with organic-rich layers such as
peat. Occasionally, a thick red bed may be preserved
within a sequence with coal searns, as for example in
some Tertiary coals in Europe. Another instructive
example is the barren red Carboniferous coal mea-
sures of Britain. Here, the red beds occur adjacent to
the productive coal measures of the same age (Glen-
nie 1970; Turner 1980). Conclusive evidence for the
256 Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments

a PRIMARY ALLOCHTHONOUS RED BEDS

l
WET -DRY TROPICS DESERT
HUMID ~ RED-STAINED WINDBLOWN

~~~ DUST
SW~MP PEAT /, RED LATERITlC SOlL ~»",,,m
---\----1=;-/ I PLAYA LAKE

;, ; : 'RED MUD EVAPORITES

GREEN MUD
(PRIMARILY RED,
HEMATITE REDUCED
BY ORGANIC MATTER) GREEN

b RED BEDS FORMED IN SITU

VARIOUS SEDIMENT SOURCES
(GENERALLY BROWN, OXIDIZED MATERIAL)

~
VARIOUS, WELL OXYGENATED
FLUVIAL ~A DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
(E_G., ARID, SEMI-
ARID WITH LlTTLE
VEGETATION) SEDIMENT SURFACE

DELTAIC, SUPRA-
TIDAL (WITH ZONE OF RAPID OXIDATION
LlTTLE ORG. C ) (FAST EXCHANGE OF GAS
// '"
'/// AND WATER) .
':S~"p':'''~~:.c(_!_ ~!/..t.
DRAB GRAY C-ORG CONTENT}TO REDUCE
DEPTH - - SUFFICIENT FERRIC
7nr,7j7rnTnrnT/'7T/n COMPOUNDS
~ BROWN (LIMONITE;/ ~~~~ INSUFFICIENT

..
(DESTRUCTION OF
ORGANIC MATTER /'/I')//'/"GOETH'TE)~'///
BY REWORKING) /// /~~~':~~~;~~ / / / / /
C BURIAL DEPTH,
AGE, AND
d
DEEP SEA, OCEANIC TEMPERATURE
ALTERATION OF IRON-
RISE , DEEP PLATEAUS BEARING MINERAL
(V ERY SLOW SEDIMEN-
TATION, OXIDATION
OF ORG. MATTER OXIDIZING
INTERSTITIAL
WATERS

e PRIMARY BEDDING
RED
IN SITU WEA -
THERING, NEO-
FORMATION OF
CLAY MINERALS
DRAB
AND HEMATITE

Fig.6.3. Various ongms of red beds.
a Allochthonous primary red beds formed by eroded,
redeposited lateritic soils. b Secondary red beds re-
sulting from buried brown, well oxygenated sedi-
ments too poor in organic matter to allow complete
reduction of ferric iron present in primary limonite
and goethite. c Slow transformation of brown limo-
nite and goethite into hematite (red pigment) with
increasing burial depth, temperature, and age.
d In situ alteration of iron-bearing minerals (e.g.
pyroxene, biotite) by interstitial water with high re-
dox potential; release of ferric iron and neo-forma-
tion of hernatite within sediment. (After Walker
1967, 1976). e Secondary discoloring of red beds by
circulation of waters with low redox potential along
faults . (After Franke and Paul 1980)
6.3 Red Beds
primary nature of these red beds is, however, not
available. They mayaiso result from originally
brown material or reflect post-depositional oxidation
processes (see below).
In Situ (Secondary) Formation of Red Beds
Many red beds do not result from redeposited
lateritic soils, but reflect in situ diagenetic processes
and may therefore be referred to as secondary red
beds. In this case, the source area and its climate are
of minor importance. The principal factor controlling
the subsequent sediment color is a weil oxygenated
depositional environment in which the organic mat-
ter, either autochthonous or allochthonous, is miner-
alized completely or to a very high degree. Then the
potential of the relic organic matter for reducing all
ferric iron compounds present in the sediments is too
low (Fig. 6.3).
The precursors of such red beds are either brown
soils or brown sediments, because ferric iron
hydroxides left behind after the consumption of or-
ganic matter are commonly brown or ocher in color
at or near the sediment surface. With increasing
burial depth, temperature, and age, these iron com-
pounds lose their water and are transformed into he-
matite. Hence, one can generally expect that present-
day brown sediments, found below the zone of active
aeration and bottom life, alter their color after burial
and become red. The formation and preservation of
brownJred colored sediments are favored by:
- High iron content in the sediment (e.g., siliciclastic
material rich in biotite, pyroxene, amphibole, olivine,
and iron-bearing clay minerals).
- Low production and rapid mineralization of or-
ganic matter in the depositional area (e.g., fluvial
plain with sparse vegetation in semiarid climate).
- Slow or intermittent sedimentation, allowing the
sparse organic matter to be largely consumed in the
soil zone or at the floor of lakes and the sea.
- Redox and pH conditions in interstitial water favor-
ing the formation of iron oxide after burial, if sub se-
quent reduction is absent.
Depositional Environments
of Brown and Red Beds
Examples of depositional environments with a high
potential for forming brown beds can be easily de-
duced from these general roles. They include both
continental and marine systems (Fig. 6.3b). The flu-
vial red muds tones of many formations can be inter-
preted as originally brown floodplain sediments de-
rived from muddy suspension load or aggregated
river bed load (Rust and Nanson 1989; cf. Sect.
2.2.3).
257
Environments with relatively rapid sedimentation
such· as many river floodplains, prodelta deposits in
lakes and in the sea, or supratidal sediments can
maintain an oxidized state only when their primary
organic carbon content is low. In contrast, slowly
deposited pelagic sediments on submarine plateaus
and in the deep sea may originally contain relatively
high amounts of organic carbon, but benthic life in
oxygenated waters has sufficient time to destroy the
organic :natter before it is finally buried under youn-
ger sediments. Red deep-sea clay accumulating be-
low the calcite compensation depth (Sect. 5.3.2) is
representative of this group of red beds, which does
not depend on a specific clay mineral source.
Red deep-sea sediments are restricted to basinal sites and
mid-oceanic ridges without major clastic influx (Franke
and Paul 1980). They rnay contain biogenic silica and car-
bonate. Red clays sometimes alternate with gray turbidites
which are deposited rapidly and obtain their organic mate-
rial from source areas with higher sedimentation rates
(Faupl and Sauer 1978).
Carbonates poor in iron only require a little pre-
served organic carbon to be held in a reduced state.
Therefore, most ancient carbonates are light gray in
color. Red limestones indicate a particularly well oxi-
dized environment, a low sedimentation rate, and in
some cases the emergence above sea level.
Some red limestones, sandstones, and to a lesser
degree claystones with irregular color boundaries
across primary bedding planes may result from
postdepositional processes, such as circulating
groundwaters with a high redox potential. Similarly,
reducing pore waters can destroy red staining, partic~
ularly along zones of high fracture permeability (Fig.
6.3e).
Transgressions ofthe sea over brown or red conti-
nental s{;diments normally leave behind gray depos-
its, but can also affect the underlying sediments by
providing circulating, reducing pore waters. Thus,
the uppermost portions and locally deeper zones of
these sediments may be discolored.
Finally, it is important to note that iron is also re-
leased from unstable, iron-bearing minerals during
diagenesis. Oxidizing interstitial waters lead to in
situ weathering of these particles and to the forma-
tion of new clay minerals, as well as ferric iron hy-
droxide. The latter slowly alters to hematite and thus
causes red staining as mentioned earlier. This process
commonly takes place in sediments which were origi-
nally brown and did not contain sufficient organic
matter to maintain reduced conditions in the
subsurface.
258
Summary (Red Beds)
- Red beds contain small amounts (often less
than 1%) of very fine-grained, uniformly dis-
persed hematite (Fe 20 3), or grain coatings con-
taining hematite.
- Solely the color of red beds has no particular
paleoclimate significance. . ..
- Red beds reflect either redeposlted latentlc
soils (allochthonous red beds derived from
wet-dry tropics) or sediments which were origi-
nally brownish in color and diagenetically al-
tered (secondary red beds).
- Oxidizing conditions within a sediment and
thus the red color can be maintained for a long
time when little or no organic matter or reduc-
ing pore waters are available to reduce the fer-
ric to ferrous iron.
- This is achieved in environments where sedi-
ments poor in organic matter are deposited rap-
idly (e.g. in some prodelta areas), or in settings
of very low or interrupted sedimentation where
the organic matter is mineralized before being
buried (e.g. on floodplains or in the deep sea).
- Sediments containing little ferric iron tend to
become gray.
6.4 Marine Evaporites
6.4.1 Introduction
Marine sea water-derived salt deposits are often more
uniform, thicker and wider extended than continental
evaporites (Sect. 2.5). Their large representatives, how-
ever, impose some difficult problems because modem
analogs do not exist. Marine salt deposits are kno~n
from the late Precambrium throughout PhanerozOlc
times, but there were some major epochs ofhalogenesis
(cf. Sect. 6.4.3). Due to their importance in geology and
economy, including the oil industry, salt deposits have
received much attention by earth scientists of different
specific disciplines.
Numerous publications have summarized our knowledge in
this field (e.g., Richter-Bemburg 1968; Braitsch 1971;
Kirkland and Evans 1973; Nissenbaum 1980; Zharkov 1981;
Sonnenfeld 1984; Dronkert 1985; Peryt 1987b; Kendall1988;
Müller 1988; Schreiber 1988a and b; Sonnenfeld and
Perthuisot 1989; Warren 1989, 1996, 1997). Publications
dealing with salt tectonics are mentioned below.
Because marine evaporites originate from sea water of
more or less constant composition (at least since the
Cambrian), their chemical characteristics can be pre-
dicted to some degree. Sodium carbonate salts typical
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
of many lake evaporites are commonly absent in sea
water-derived salts. However, potash salts only indicate
sea-water origin when they are associated with salts
containing considerable amounts ofMgS04 • More prob-
lematic is the mode of mineral precipitation in various
types of salt basins. There is only a limited number of
cases in which the sequence and amount of marine salts
can be explained just by evaporation of a certain volume
of sea water.
Normal sea water has a density of 1.025 g/cm3 and
contains about 35 g per liter dissolved constituents.
These can theoretically fonn the following (water-free )
salts (in percent by weight of the total salt content, Fig.
6.4a and b):
- 78% NaCl (halite),
18%potash salts, i.e., chlorides andsulfates ofKand
Mg (e.g., sylvite KCI, camallite MgC12KCI.6HzÜ,
kainite MgS04 KC13HzÜ, kieserite MgS0 4 HzÜ,
etc.),
- 3.5% CaS0 4 (gypsum and anhydrite),
0.3% carbonates, and some minor constituents such
as bromides, fluorides, borates.
Considering the order of precipitation from brines of
increasing concentration, the evaporite minerals can be
subdivided into the following two main groups (Warren
1996):
- Evaporitic alkaline-earth carbonates (aragonite, dolo-
mite, low-Mg calcite and high-Mg calcite).
- Evaporite salts (gypsum, anhydrite, halite, trona, car-
nallite, etc.).
The evaporitic carbonates fonn in the initial stages of
brine concentration with salinities ranging from 35-
1400/00 (degree of evaporation 1-4 x in relation to nonnal
sea water, or water loss of 0-75%). The evaporite salts
are precipitated in the higher saline stages when the
salinities have reached ~ 140-250% (degree of evapora-
tion ~7-11 x, or water loss ~75-85%).
The following models for the depositional environ-
ment of primary evaporites were developed from recent
examples and the study of ancient salt deposits. All of
them have in common that the depositional basin lies in
an arid to semi-arid zone and loses more water by evap-
oration than it receives by precipitation and inflow of
river water. Consequently, ancient salt deposits are im-
portant paleoclimatic markers, indicating arid, nonnally
low-latitude zones as opposed to wet tropical or temper-
ate and cold high-latitude regions.
After burial and subsequent exhumation, primary
evaporites undergo significant changes. In addition,
subsurface brines can fonn evaporitic cements in the
matrix of nonnal sediments. F or these reasons, several
types of evaporites have to be distinguished (after War-
ren 1996, simplified):
6.4 Marine Evaporites
- Primary evaporites. These are precipitated via solar
radiation from a brine pool or brine-filled larger basin
under normal temperature.
- Secondary evaporites. These comprise the bulk of
ancient evaporite beds and are subdivided into three
groups:
(1) Shallow subsurface salt precipitation driven by
solarradiation (e.g. sabkha nodules, described here un-
der the heading ofprimary evaporites).
(2) Evaporites affected by burial diagenesis. Earlier
evaporite beds are partially replaced by other mineral
phases (replacive and cement textures). The subsurface
temperature may be higher than that on the surface.
(3) Subsurface evaporite precipitation as cement or
replacement of non-evaporite matrix.
- Tertiary evaporites. These commonly form afteruplift
and erosion (exhumation) by partial dissolution ofpre-
existing evaporite beds. This can occur in a zone of
stagnant water (brine) or active flow (phreatic circula-
tion).
6.4.2 Models for Primary Evaporite Deposition
As a result of an excess in evaporation, the water level
in a basin tends to fall. Simultaneously, both the salt
concentration and the density ofthe water increase. We
distinguish several basic models of primary evaporite
deposition:
Closed sea-water basin.
- Shallow salt lagoon (barred basin or seepage basin).
- Drawdown of water level in deep basin.
Deep-water salt basin.
- Minor evaporite cyc1es controlled by sea-level
changes.
- Coastal sabkhas.
- Combination of different salt basin types.
The first two models are largely based on modem exam-
pIes, whereas the others are deduced from both modem
and ancient examples inc1uding geological reasoning.
The basic processes ofbrine concentration and evaporite
precipitation operate in a similar way in all models.
Main differences result from variations in the tectonic
setting and evolution of the basins. Many ancient
evaporite deposits of relatively small to medium dimen-
sion can be interpreted satisfactorily with these models,
but secondary and tertiary processes altering the primary
situation also have to be taken into account (see below).
The Closed Sea-Water Basin
This model is based on the following conditions: (1) the
initial sah content is equal to that of normal sea water;
(2) the full basin is assumed to hold 100 volume units
of water; (3) there is no inflow of sea water or outflow
259
ofbrine (Fig. 6.4a). One can distinguish four stages of
evaporite precipitation:
- Stage 1. The water volume is reduced to about 30%
and its density is raised to 1.126 g/cm3• Throughout this
period a small quantity (ab out 0.3% ofthe total salt con-
tent) is deposited as biogenic carbonate and later, possi-
bly chemically precipitated, as aragonite. Upon the ex-
traction of Ca, the Mg/Ca ratio of the developing
hypersaline water increases and thus favors the early
diagenetic transformation of aragonite and calcite to
dolomite.
- Stage 2. The brine volume is reduced from about 30%
to 10% (density 1.214 g/cm3) by evaporative drawdoWll.
During this interval, gypsum is precipitated (3 .5% ofthe
total salt content). The formation ofanhydrite at normal
field temperatures (:$25 oe) is possible only in the last
phase ofthis period, when the concentration ofthe brine
has nearly reached saturation for halite.
- Stage 3. The brine volume dropsbelow 10% resulting
in the precipitation ofthe maj or part of rock sah (halite).
The halite crystals usually start to grow at the air-water
interface before they settle through the water colurnn.
Precipitation of some anhydrite may continue, particu-
larly in winter time or during periods oftemporary brine
dilution caused by ephemeral fresh water inflow.
- Stage 4. The final stage ofthis "static brine concentra-
tion" begins with a volume of about 6% (density 1.257
g/cm3) and is characterized, in addition to continuing
halite precipitation, by the deposition of chlorides and
sulfates of K and Mg (partly bittern salts, 18% of the
total sah contentofthe original sea water). Halite makes
up about 78% of all salts precipitated (cf. Fig. 6.4b).
The areal distribution of the different salts reflects the
evaporative drawdown (Fig. 6.4a). The comparatively
poorly soluble carbonates and calcium sulfates occupy
the margin of the basin, whereas the most soluble salts
are found in the center ofthe basin. Such a facies distri-
bution is referred to as a "bull's eye" pattern. The dry
salt pan may be overlain by wind-blown sand and silt.
An ideal vertical section of such a development is
shown in Figure 6.4e.
This model is seldom verified in nature in its pure
form. Additional influx of sea water may augment the
volume of salts precipitated, but cannot change the con-
tribution of the different evaporites to the total salt
body. However, the salt content of a c10sed basin with
initial normal sea water composition is often also sup-
plemented and modified by inflowing surface and
ground water of differing composition. Thus, the basin
is slowly transformed into a continental salt lake or
playa, where additional salts may gain importance (Sect.
2.5).
260
Shallow Salt Lagoon
(Barred Basin or Seepage Basin)
This basin type is connected with the open sea by a
small opening (Fig. 6.4c). Lowering of the lagoonal
water level by intensive evaporation leads to influx of
surface water from the open sea. Salt concentration and
density of the inflowing water inciease landward and
cause the surface water to sink and flow seaward as
underflow and over the sill back into the sea (brine re-
flux, cf. Chap. 4, arid adjacent seas). Consequently, salts
are transported continuously into and out of the lagoon.
Because the influx of salts is greater than their reflux,
part ofthe salts can be precipitated in the lagoon. Such
a situation can be described as a "dynamic system of
evaporite deposition".
The type of salts precipitated depends on the salt
concentration which is reached in different parts ofthe
lagoon. If the entrance to the lagoon is relatively large,
the water exchange between open sea and lagoon is little
hampered, and the concentration of the lagoonal water
remains low. With decreasing area of inflow, the salt
concentration in the lagoon increases.
Thus, a certain opening in conjunction with the surface area
ofthe basin may cause a brine concentration which leads to
the precipitation of gypsum in large parts of the lagoon, but
not yet to the crystallization ofhalite. In this case, the ratio of
the areas ofthe evaporite basin and its inlet is often between
107 and 10 8 (Lucia 1972). Under these conditions, NaCI is
returned by brine reflux to the open sea before it reaches satu-
ration. Such a situation can be maintained for a considerable
time period and thus enables the deposition of a thick layer of
gypsum or anhydrite.
Consequently, the lagoonal sediments may start with the
preferential deposition of carbonate, followed by gyp-
sum and anhydrite. Then the halite stage is reached and
finallypotash salts (chlorides and sulfates ofK and Mg)
can be precipitated. However, in contrast to the closed
basin model, the thickness or volume of these different
evaporites is no longer a function of normal sea water
composition; it rather depends on how long a certain
stage of evaporite deposition is maintained.
Figure 6.4f shows a vertical section of such a la-
goonal evaporite sequence, in which the carbonate and
calcium sulfate stages lasted much longer than the halite
stage and therefore generated comparatively thick lay-
ers. In this example, the stage of potash salt precipita-
tion was realized for a short period, but in many cases
in nature neither this nor the halite stage were ever
reached.
Deepening or widening of the inlet, or a relative sea-
level rise (e.g. due to rapid subsidence, also see below)
cause again increased water circulation in the lagoon
and thus dilution ofthe brine. Consequently, the devel-
opment of the depositional system can be reversed with
the result that stages ofhigh salt concentration are fol-
lowed by the precipitation of lower soluble evaporites
(upper part of section in Fig. 6.4f).
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
Particulady in shallow lagoons, the concentration of
the brine mayaiso change laterally and become higher
in alandward direction. As a result, different evaporites
can form simultaneously as shown in Fig. 6.4c, i.e.,
carbonates precipitate near the entrance of the lagoon,
while rock salt and possibly K and Mg salts are depos-
ited at its landward end. In plan view, such a facies dis-
tribution is caHed a "tear drop pattern".
A famous recent exarnple described in many textbooks is the
Kara Bogas Goi (lagoon) on the eastem side ofthe Caspian
Sea. It covers an area of approximately 20 000 km 2but has a
maximum depth of only 8 m. Although the Caspian Sea has
a salinity of only 1.3% and its salt composition differs from
that of normal sea water, this lagoon inspired Ochsenius in
1877 to propose a silled lagoon as model for the generation
of marine evaporites. This is the "bar theory" (in German
"Barren-Theorie", see, e.g., Sonnenfeld 1984; Müller 1988).
Carbonate and gypsum are precipitated near the entrance of
the KaraBogas lagoon; glauberite (Na2S04.CaS04) andhalite
follow landward.
The sill between the open sea and the lagoon or shallow
adjacent sea is often controlled by tectonic movements, but
mayaiso be generated by sedimentary processes such as reef
structures, nearshore sand bars, or barrier islands (Sect. 3.2).
In the ancient record, shelf carbonates and reefs of different
nature (e.g. algal structures) in front of a reeflagoon are fre-
quently associated with evaporites, because warm climate
favors both carbonate production including reef growth and
high evaporation.
Modifications of the shallow lagoon model are the seep-
age basin and the synsedimentary subsidence basin.
Seepage basin. The lagoon is separated from the open
sea by a permeable subaerial bar or ridge (Fig. 6.4d).
Similar to the processes in the silled basin, evaporative
drawdown of the water level in the closed lagoon then
causes sea water to flow underground into the lagoon
and denser brine to flow back into the ocean. Due to the
restricted inflow and reflux, this system creates a transi-
tional situation between a hydrologically closed and an
open silled basin. In contrast to the silled basin model,
the ratios ofthe different salts precipitated tend to devi-
ate less from those given by the composition of normal
sea water. Consequently, the predominant salt in a seep-
age lagoon will often be halite.
A weil studied example ofthis type ofbasin is the MacLeod
evaporite basin in western Australia (Logan 1987), where
carbonates, gypsum, and halite were precipitated in the Holo-
cene.
The brine reflux in both the subaeriaHy separated and
the barred basin ceases when the permeability of the
underground ridge becomes too poor or the water level
in the lagoon drops too deep to enable reflux. The latter
case is verified for the KaraBogas GoI (see above). In
this manner, a kind of semi-closed system is established
which, in contrast to the fuHy closed basin, is fed by
inflowing sea water for a certain period oftime (also see
below).
6.4 Marine Evaporites 261

CLOSED MARINE SALT BASIN AND SALT LAGOON

b
PROPORTION OF
SAlTS PRECIPITATED
0.3
(TOTAL SALT
CROSS CONTENT = 100)
SECTION

a
PLAN VIEW :
BULL'S EYE ClOSED BASIN,
FACIES STATIC CONCENTRATION OF
PATTERN
SEA WATER

CARBONATE

HAllTE GYPSUM & ANHYDRITE

EVAPORATION INCREASING CONCENTRATION OF BRINE

OPEN SYSTEM
SAlT lAGOON WITH FREE
C REFLUX OF BRINE
(BAR MODEL)
PLAN VIEW: TEAR'DROP PATTERN

SEEPAGE MODEL
(PERMEABLE BAR) d

f
llDEAl EVAPORITE SEQUENCE n. EVAPORITE SEQUENCE OF lAGOON,
OF ClOSED MARINE BASIN VARYING INFlUX AND REFLUX
WIND-BLOWN SANDS AND SILTS I-'!+'r.!"cI"'" BIOGENIC
1-
UMEST. INLE T WIDENING

-------------r---------
POTASH SALTS (+HALlTE) DECREASING BRINE
DOLOMITE CO~CENTRATION
c:II=-- HAUTE
~ANHYDRITE (pERIODS
OF BRINE DILUTION)
....."""'_ A INLET NARROWING
G INCREASING BRINE
(G) & ANHYDRITE (A) O::::::Z::::;;t- DOLOMITE
CARBONATE --------g:;2i~ UMESTONE,
OLDER ROCKS
I
CONCENTRATION

NORMAL MARINE

Fig. 6.4. Models of evaporite deposition. a Closed
basin with "static" concentration of sea water and
"bull's eye" facies pattern. b Proportions of different
evaporites precipitated under conditions of a. c Silled
salt lagoon, open system with brine reflux ("dy-
namic" system of evaporite deposition), frequently
causing a "tear drop" facies pattern. d Lagoon sepa-
rated from the open sea by permeable bar (sand
dunes, reef etc.) allowing slow influx of sea water
and reflux of brine. Situation similar to c with ten-
dency to high brine concentration and therefore pre-
dominance of halite. e Idealized evaporite sequence
of closed basin (a). f Idealized example of evaporite
sequence of silled lagoon (c) with reversed develop-
ment (prograding dilution) in upper half. For further
explanations see text
262 Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments

SALT BASIN MODELS EVAPORATIVE

DRAWDOWN

a
SYNSEDIMENTARY
SUBSIDENCE CONTINENTAL
CRUST

POSSIBLE
ACCUMULATION
OF RESIDUAL
BRINE

DIFFERENTIAL SYNSEDIMENTARY
SUBSIDENCE

1 : WATER CIRCULAJ'ION AND

PYCNO- / CHEMOCL\NE DURING

b EUXINIC STAGE
2 : EVAPORITIC
STAGE

DEEP BASIN,
DEEP WATER

GRAVITY MASS
MOVEMENTS.
PARTIALLY
SlliCICLASTICS

EUXINIC
FACIES

EOLIAN
DUNES

K-AND MG -
SALTS

c
GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE
MORE
lIMITED
WATER NORMAL MARINE PELAGIC lIMESTONE
EXCHANGE

Fig. 6.5. a Synsedimentary subsidence model with
bnne reflux explaining fairly thick salt deposits pre-
cipitated in shallow barred basin (see Fig. 6.4b).
b,c Deep basin, deep water model with brine reflux.
(After Schmalz 1969). Normal marine conditions are
followed by 1 an euxinic stage with high plankton
productivity, but stagnant deep water body. 2 In-
creasing brine concentration leads to deep circulation
and later to the precipitation of gypsum, anhydrite,
and halite in th~ center and landward part of the ba-
sin. The basin i.> rapidly filled up with salts; K and
Mg salts may be formed in special ponds; the dry salt
pan is overridden by eolian sand
6.4 Marine Evaporites
Brine mayaiso be lost to the underground where it
drives away less dense groundwater. Such leaky basins
normally lose their best soluble salts and therefore rarely
preeipitate and preserve potash or bittern salts.
Thesynsedimentarysubsidence model (Fig. 6.5a). This
model was proposed to explain the formation of salt
deposits thieker than the limited depth of a silled lagoon.
Normal slow tectonic subsidenee is enhaneed by the
isostatie effeet ofthe rapidly aeeumulating salt deposits
on top of (usually) eontinental erust (cf. Seet. 8.1). In
addition, differential subsidenee within the basin may
eause lateral variations in the evaporite thickness. Ifthe
basin is filled up, the residual brine precipitating K and
Mg salts may be eolleeted in ponds above the areas of
maximum subsidence.
However, the great thicknesses of individual cyc1es of salt
deposits frequently observed cannot be interpreted adequately
by this mechanism, except for rapidly subsiding rift zones and
strike-slip basins (Sect. 1.2). If the shallow basin is rapidly
filled up by one evaporative phase, the time for the ernst to
react to the applied load is too short to cause substantial addi-
tional subsidence.
Thick salt deposits can be deposited only if a subsiding
basin experiences several evaporative cycles interrupted by
long intervals of starved sedimentation or non-deposition.
During these intervals, continued tectonic and salt load-driven
subsidence can create sufficient space for further significant
salt accumulation (see below).
Drawdown ofWater Level in Deep Basin
A number of salt deposits, whieh most likely formed in
deep basins, clearly show evidenee for shallow water
and even sabkha environments. These occurrences are
explained by two related processes: (1) evaporative
drawdown of the water level after the basinal brine had
already reached a relatively high eoneentration, and (2)
closing of the barrier to the oeean. Seepage below the
barrier or episodie spill-overs may deliver further sea
water, besides some fresh water, into the shrinking
basin (cf. Seet. 7.5.6, Fig. 7.25). Saturation for the
different evaporites is established in a similar way as
deseribed for the closed sea-water model. In order to
initiate halite preeipitation, the water level must fall
deep below the original level, and the final stages of
evaporite preeipitation oeeur under playa and sabkha
conditions. The areal distribution of the resulting salt
deposits therefore resembles a bull's eye pattern (Fig.
6.4a).
Deep-Water Salt Basin
This model (Fig. 6.5b,c) is another attempt to explain
a rapidly deposited thick evaporite sequence without
synsedimentary subsidenee (Schmalz 1969). The deep
basin represents an adjaeent basin on thinned eontinen-
263
tal or oeeanic erust close to the open oeean. The prinei-
pal points of this model are briefly summarized as
follows:
- Stage 1. The gateway to the open sea is narrowing.
As a result, the former deep-reaching water circulation
is replaeed by a eireulation system restrieted to the
upper water layer (Fig. 6.5b). In this stage, the lower
water body has already reached a higher density (1.07
to 1.08 g/cm3) than the surface water, where the pro-
duction of phytoplankton continues. Normal
hemipelagie and biogenic marine sediments are then
followed by bituminous marls or limestones
(Stinkkalke) deposited in stagnant suboxic or anoxie
deep water.
- Stage 2. In the sueceeding stage, caused by further
narrowing or shallowing of the sill, the surfaee brine
increases in density and starts to sink on the landward
side of the basin. At the beginning of this proeess,
gypsum and halite preeipitate at the water surface and
are re-dissolved when they sink into less concentrated
deeper water.
- Stage 3. The subsequent development of the basin is
controversially diseussed. Aeeording to Schmalz
(1969), halite, gypsum, and some carbonates are de-
posited rapidly and more or less simultaneously, gener-
ating a lateral facies suecession as shown in Fig. 6.5c.
Onee the basin is partially or nearly filled up, residual
brines oceupy smaller ponds on top of halite.
Field evidence from many large evaporite basins, in-
cluding the European Zechstein basin (see below), and
the sequence stratigraphie coneept for such settings
(cf. Sect. 7.5.6) do not sufficiently support this model.
Normally, carbonates and sulfates aecumulate along
the basin margin and on topographie highs within the
basin, before halite is precipitated in the more eentral
parts of the basin. It was also pointed out (Kendall
(1988) that the brine concentration of a deep, silled
basin must be more or less homogeneous laterally,
beeause differences in water density can hardly be
maintained in such a basin. Therefore, the deep-water
basin appears to be incapable of simultaneously pre-
cipitating different mineral facies in deep water.
A modification of this model is a mixed-source
deep salt basin (Anderson and Dean 1995). This basin
may be reeharged by both sea-water seepage and mete-
oric water (mostly groundwater, Fig. 6.6a). A marine
reflux system is not necessary because both brine con-
centration and a certain hydrologic balance between
inflow and water loss is accomplished by evaporation.
A small volume of marine inflow relative to meteorie
water recharge is sufficient to aeeount for the overall
distribution ofhalite and sulfate in the basin. However,
the water level of the basin fluctuates in a similar way
as that of closed lake basin. During high water level,
carbonate (± bituminous) and gypsum (anhydrite) are
precipitated; during low level, the seepage of sea water
264
MIXED-SOURCE DEEP SALT BASIN
GROUNDWATER
HIGHSTAND
(AFTER METEORIC RECHARGE)
a . '.
\ .. -,;",/: :..---
...~ .
(SEA WATER OR HIGH ER
CONCENTRATED BRINE)
BASIN FILLED WITH
EVAPORITES
or groundwater derived from previously deposited salt
deposits increases (due to a higher gradient) and halite
and gypsum/anhydrite form altematively (Fig. 6.6b).
This model therefore resembles the drawdown deep-
basin model mentioned earlier.
Both types of bedding couplets can be traced over
long distances within the basin and thus indicate the
deep-water nature of the basin. This type of evaporite
deposition is very sensitive to climate change and re-
cords seasonal effects by varves and longer-term
changes by cyclic salt sequences (see below).
The Upper Pennian evaporites of the Delaware Basin in
North America have been regarded as a classical example of
a deep-water salt deposit. Now, these evaporites have been
interpreted in the way mentioned above (Anderson and Dean
1995). The overall evaporitic sequence of -500 min thick-
ness fonned in a time period of about 0.25 Ma and consists
of several altemating packages dominated either byanhydrite
or halite. The depocenters ofhalite migrated with time from
the landward toward the seaward side of the basin (Fig.
6.6b). The presence ofrecycled salt in this basin is indicated
by a very low bromide concentration ofthe halite beds. Be-
sides annual varves, climatic cycles of around 2700 years, 20
ka and 100 ka are recorded by the evaporite sequence.
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
Fig. 6.6. a Mixed-source' deep salt basin, fed
by both meteoric water and sea-water seepage
(or brine originating from dissolution of older
evaporites). Fluctuation evaporative draw-
down controlled by climate change. b Eva-
poritic basin fill with rnigrating depocen-ter
for halite. In contrast to Fig. 6.5c, the
evaporite facies does not significantly change
laterally. (Based on Anderson and Oean
1995).
Minor Evaporite Cycles Controlled by
Sea-Level Changes
Many evaporite sequences show a number of minor
cycles, which may originate from relative sea-level
changes with periods within the Milankovitch fre-
quency band (e.g., 40 ka and 100 ka; cf. Sect. 7.9).
One of several possible scenarios is shown in Fig-
ure 6.9. In this model, the relatively shallow basin still
receives some sea-water inflow during lowstand, but
reflux of brine is terrninated. Ouring slow sea-level
rise, as long as the brine does not flow back into the
open sea, the brine reaches its highest concentration.
Thus, in contrast to the general opinion, weIl soluble
salts may be precipitated preferentially during this
phase, whereas less soluble evaporites, followed 10-
cally by terrestrial deposits, tend to accumulate in
times of sea level fall (Kendall 1988).
A prominent example of such evaporite cycles is the Penn-
sylvanian of the Paradox Basin in the Uni ted States, where
thick salt deposits, consisting of29 to 40 cycles, are flank- ed
laterally by thinner carbonates (Kendall 1988). During low
sea level carbonates on a shelf barrier probably formed co-
evally with the precipitation of evaporites in a restricted
deeper basin (Fig. 6.7a). Conversely, high sea level led to
brine reflux and decrease in the salinity of the basin. When
the bottom water became stagnant during high sea level,
black shales were deposited (Fig. 6.7b, cf. Fig. 6.5b).
6.4 Marine Evaporites
SEA LEVEL-CONTROLLED MINOR EVAPORITE CYCLES
a LOW SEA LEVEL
OPEN SEA SHELF
b
- -
HIGH SEA LEVEL
---- ----- -- - ----- --- ---
4- +_
Fig. 6.7. Model for the ongm of minor cyclic
evaporite sequences caused by sea level changes in a
shelf/restricted basin setting. (After Rite 1970, in
Kendall 1988, modified). a No brine reflux during
low and intermediate sea level; algal reef growth on
Relative sea-level changes, regardless of whether
they are caused by eustacy or by tectonic movements,
also generate characteristic transitions from
siliciclastic deposits to evaporites and carbonates. The
carbonates normally represent the high sea-level stand.
Transitions between two or three of these sediment
types occur frequently in the geologic record.
They have been described, for example, from the Persian
Gulf (cf. Sect. 14.3), the northern end of the Red Sea, and
Tunisia (Purser et al. 1987; Ben Ismail and M'Rabet 1990).
Coastal Sabkhas
Evaporite precipitation in coastal sabkhas takes an
intermediate position between primary and secondary
salt formation. The evaporites mainly form below the
land surface, but the driving force is still solar radia-
tion.
265
CLASTICS
BASIN
BLACK SHALE
-
-
-
------------------------
J
BLACK SHALE
the shelf barrier occurs coevally with the deposition
of halite and other salts in the basin. b Brine reflux
during high sea level leads to decreasing salinity in
the basin and to a circulation favorable for the accu-
mulation of black shales
Coastal sabkhas represent supratidal flats which are
rarely flooded during spring tides (Sect. 3.2). They
usually develop behind barrier island chains and
hypersaline lagoons (Fig. 6.8a). Their sediments
mainly consist of siliciclastic and biogenic material
transported from tidal and subtidal zones onshore.
Eolian and fluvial material may contribute to the
buildup of the supratidal zone. The surface of such
sabkhas is often controlled by the groundwater table,
which normally gently rises from the beach in a land-
ward direction. Where unconsolidated sandy and silty
sediment above the capillary fringe ofthe groundwater
becomes dry, it may be removed by wind as long as the
sabkha is not overridden by large volumes of dune
sand or fluvial deposits.
The "salt factory" of a coastal sabkha is a mixture
between the scenarios of an inland sabkha (cf. Sect.
2.5) and a marine saIt lagoon. Continental groundwater
from the land may flow seaward and mix with sea-
derived groundwater. SaIt precipitation is accom-
plished by evaporitive pumping ofgroundwater up to
266 Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments

a COASTAL SABKHA
EVAPORATIVE CONTINENTAL
PUMPING GROUND WATER

SALT PAN GROUND WATER

WITH HAllTE TABLE

--------\----:>
:!: OTHER SALTS

SUPRATIDAL ZONE ___ UPPER

/ ~ /
/ LOWER MIDDLE
/
~ DESICCATIDN
CRACKS
----........----..-,
LAGOON
(:!:HYPER·
SALINE)

VALLE FILL
(POSSIBLE BRINE
REFLUX)

NORMAL TIDAL RANGE

d
(INTERTIDAL ZONE) EOLIAN SAND (+STORM SAND)

LOCALLY SOME HAllTE

DOLOMITIC MUD.
USUALLY RED

c ENTEROLITHIC ANHYDRITE
ALGAL MAT WITH (CONTORTED EARUER·FORMED
DESICCATION FEATURES GYPSUM)

CRYSTAL MUSH OF. • CHICKEN·WIRE • ANHYDRITE

1 GYPSUM AND CARBONATE (AFTER GYPSUM)

(PARTIALLY DOLOMITE)
ALGAL MAT. DOLOMlTIC,
Some LARGE GYPSUM WITH GYPSUM CRYSTALS
dm CRYSTALS

1 LAGOONAL MUD,
:!:BIOTURBATED
LAGOONAL MUD (CARBONATE
AND SlliCICLASTICS)

INTERTIDAL
FACIES WITH CONTINENTAL FACIES
CHANNELS

SUBTIDAL F. SUPRATIDAL
FACIES WITH
(LAGOONAL,
OOUTIC BARS) :::;-I~~~B~~~~J~~ EVAPORITES

Fig. 6.8. Model of coastal sabkha based on studies of
the Trucial Coast (Abu Dhabi) of the Ara-
bianlPersian Gulf and other areas (e.g. Purser 1985).
a General setting; the lagoonal water is already
hypersaline. With a narrower opening to the sea, salts
may be precipitated in the lagoon and underly the
sabkha evaporites. b Coastal sabkha with evaporative
pumping of sea water (inflow underground or
epidodic by floods) and continental groundwater;
lateral change in evaporite precipitation above and
partially be10w the groundwater table. c,d Vertical
sections of lower and higher supratidal zones, loca-
tions shown in b. e Scheme oflandward and seaward
migrating facies belt inc1uding sabkha evaporites.
The different vertical successions are indicated by
arrows. (After Shearman 1978; Shinn 1983, and oth-
ers).
6.4 Marine Evaporites
the sabkha surface. Where the concentration of the
brine exceeds saturation for calcium sulfate and possi-
bly also for halite, gypsum and halite form displacive
nodules, lenses, or crusts. The minerals precipitated in
the different zones of the intertidal and supratidal area
are shown in Fig. 6.8b.
The precipitation of gypsum begins in the lower sabkha
within the algal mats. Primary anhydrite can fonn in the
higher landward part ofthe sabkha, where the brine concen-
tration approaches saturation for halite. Ralite is often re-
dissolved during floods which also deliver new salts into the
subsurface brine system. LocaUy, more halite and even pot-
ash salts may accumulate in smaU ponds eroded by earlier
floods.
It is assumed that a kind ofbrine reflux takes place under-
ground, possibly along older buried valley or channel fiUs.
Provided the concentration ofthe brine becomes sufficiently
high in the pore system, gypsum or anhydrite are also gener-
ated below the groundwater table in the phreatic zone, partic-
ularly in the upper supratidal flats (Fig. 6.8b-d).
Primary gypsum may be overgrown later by anhydrite
or transformed into anhydrite, which often shows char-
acteristic contorted beds, small diapiric structures, or a
"chicken-wire" pattem(Fig. 6.8d). Underthe influence
of increasing Mg/Ca ratios, primary aragonite and
calcite are partially or entirely converted to dolomite.
Because the host sediment of the supratidal zone is
often poor in organic matter (due to oxidation), the
sabkha beds tend to be primarily brown. Later, after
diagenesis, they usually become red in color.
The upper limit of one cycle of sabkha evaporites is
controlled by the capillary fring(! of the groundwater
table. When this fringe can no longer reach the surface
and is overlain by dry sandy material, the evaporation
of groundwater practicallY ceases. Consequently, the
sabkha evaporites are usually overlain either by
windblown sand or fluvial deposits (Fig. 6.8d). The
lower boundary of the sabkha evaporites depends on
the concentration of brine reached below the water
table. Thus, assuming constant sea level and neglecting
subsidence, the thickness of such a cycle is approxi-
mately one to a few meters, and its areal extent is lim-
ited.
However, under conditions of changing sea level
and subsidence, sabkha evaporites can reach greater
thicknesses and form cyclic sequences (Fig. 6.8e).
Channels, storm erosion, and redeposition of sabkha
sediments in the intertidal or subtidal zone can compli-
cate such a simple cyclicity model. In addition, relative
sea-Ievel changes can lead to wider extended sabkha
evaporites than those observed in present-day exam-
pIes (see, e.g., Purser 1985). Due to frequent sea level-
changes in the past (cf. Chap. 7), this type of
evaporites is very common in the ancient record.
The conceptual model ofFigure 6.8 can be modified in rela-
tion to the local paleogeographic situation. The most impor-
tant alternative, not shown in the figure, is the transition from
267
a salt lagoon to a sabkha. In this case, lagoonal evaporites
formed adjacent to coastal sabkhas rnay alternate with sabkha
evaporites. This development is frequently observed in an-
cient sediments.
The Combined Deep and ShaUow/Sabkha
Salt Basin
General Aspects
The basic salt basin models in their pure form cannot
explain all the phenomena observed in ancient regions
of salt deposition. Especially the origin ofthe "saline
giants" has been and still is the object of lively de-
bates.
See, e.g., Rsü (1972), Jauzein (1984), Sonnenfeld and
Perthuisot (1989), Bussot (1990).
One of the reasons for this uncertainty is the lack of
present-day examp1es for such enonnous1y thick (up to sev-
era1 thousunds of meters) and widely extended evaporites
(several thousands ofkilometers long and hundreds ofkilo-
meters wide) as known from Precambrian to Miocene times.
No reallarge or deep salt basin exists in the modern world,
probably because we are living in an interglacial period. The
modern temperature gradients between the equator and the
poles are unusually high, and the continents are widely dis-
tributed over the surface of the globe. This situation is not
favorable for the generation oflarge evaporite deposits.
To explain some ofthe 'ancient giant salt deposits,
two or three of the simple salt basin models have to be
cornbined. Furthermore, substantial relative sea-Ievel
changes have to be taken into account.
Evolution ofa Complex Salt Basin
The evolution of carbonate-evaporite systems in the
context of sequence stratigraphy is described in Sect.
7.5.6 and Fig. 7.25. Here, a brief summary is given, in
which the evolution begins with an inland basin. The
succeeding large and complex salt basin may show the
following stages of development (Fig. 6.9):
(1) Desert drainage basin. A continuously subsiding
large inland basin on continental or transitional crust is
separated from the open sea by aland baITier. It re-
ceives, due to arid climate and low relief in its drain-
age area, little sediment. After some time, the basin
floor drops below mean sea level.
(2) Flooding ofthe basin by the sea. During a phase of
particularly high sea level, the entire basin is flooded
(Fig. 6.9a). As long as the water exchange with the
open ocean is sufficiently great, normal-marine
hemipelagic sediments are deposited in wide areas of
the basin. Along the basin margin, shelf carbonates,
lagoonal and sabkha evaporites can accumulate. Shelf
edges, submarine ridges and highs are preferential sites
of algal reef growth in warm waters.
268
(3) Onset ofsea level fall. The salt concentration of the
inland sea begins to increase and first leads to stag-
nant, slightly hypersaline bottom waters in parts ofthe
basin (Fig. 6.9b). During such aperiod, black, bitumi-
nous shales or marls may be deposited. The accumula-
tion of carbonate and gypsum in shallow waters con-
tinues. Due to continued falling sea level, the connec-
tion ofthe salt basin to the open seais interrupted (Fig.
6.9b).
(4) The water level in the closed basin is drawn down
by evaporation. Entering rivers start to incise valleys
into the emerging shelf and slope areas. Earlier formed
marginal carbonates and lagoonal and sabkha
evaporites are partially leached and their salts trans-
ported into the shrinking inland sea. During this phase,
i.e. still in rather deep water, the major part ofhalite is
rapidly precipitated from highly concentrated brine. It
may alternate with thin layers of anhydrite indicating
minor climatic variations including annual varves. In
marginal areas of the inland sea deposition of carbon-
ates, lagoonal and sabkha evaporites continues at a
lower level or is replaced by continental beds (Fig.
6.9c). The main basin may become subdivided into
several subbasins (Fig. 6.9b) with differing salt con-
centrations and salt deposition.
(5) Finally, the basin may fall dry except for some
playa lakes containing highly concentrated brine in-
cluding potash salts. Then the dry, huge salt flats are
more or less covered by thin continental beds and
some playas. Increased subsidence, driven by the addi-
tional salt load, tends to restore the situation to the one
at the beginning of this development. Dessication and
subsidence will persist until a further pronounced sea-
level high again causes flooding of the inland depres-
sion and initiates a new cycle of evaporite deposition.
6.4.3 Examples of Giant Salt Deposits
The European Zechstein Basin. This basin experi-
enced up to eight large depositional cycles including
some smaller ones at the end of its existence. Their
total thickness varies considerably from some tens of
meters in the marginal zones to more than 2000 m
(maximum thickness 3500 m, including Rotliegend
Fig. 6.9. Model of complex large evaporite basin on
continental or transitional crnst (Zechstein-type ba-
sin), demonstrating one major depositional cycle in
two stages of development. a Stage I (low to inter-
mediate sea level). Inland drainage basin has sub-
sided up to several hundred meters below mean sea
level. Stage 2. Particularly high sea level causes ba-
sin flooding and accumulation of sediments with nor-
mal marine fauna, basin-wide correlatable. Then sa-
linity increases and evaporite deposition can begin.
b Stage 3. Lowering sea level restores land barrier
toward the open sea and creates large hypersaline
inland sea; evaporative drawdown of water level
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
evaporites) in special troughs. The thicknesses of the
salt deposits of a single large cycle often reach several
hundred meters, but they also vary considerably from
marginal to central parts of the basin (Fig. 6.10). The
marginal facies zones include coastal sabkhas, tidal
flats with microbial mats, lagoons, progradational car-
bonate buildups (including ooid shoals, dolomite) with
their slope sediments. The wide carbonate slopes
formed mainly during lowstand and transgressive sys-
tems tracts, followed by sulfate deposition on the
slopes and platforms during the highstand systems
tract. Halite was precipitated in the central parts ofthe
basin when the margins were exposed and karstified.
Stromatolitic reefs grew on topographic highs. The
central basin may have been 100-300 m deep during
transgressions.
In the classical concept for the German Zechstein Basin, only
four large evaporite cycles were distinguished (e.g. Richter-
Bernburg 1985). The famous "Kupferschiefer", a laminated
marI rich in trace metals, particularly copper, lead and zinc,
formed at the beginning of the first Zechstein evaporite cy-
cle. It accumulated very slowly (5 mmlka) and is interpreted
as a condensed section (cf. Sect. 7.2).
The differences in the evaporite thicknesses result from
synsedimentary subsidence (horst and graben structures in
combination with some strike-slip) as weIl as variations in
the sedimentation rates. The large depositional cycles are
superimposed by minor, sea-Ievel or tectonically controlled
cycles. Emerging platforms experienced karstification and
rapid meteoric diagenesis: Displaced shaIlow-water sedi-
ments (e.g. coated grains and packstones) formed locally
slope fans. In detail, the facies architecture of this basin is
very complicate and changes from location to location (see,
e.g., Füchtbauer and Peryt 1980; Smith 1980; Langbein
1987; Paul 1982, 1987; Peryt 1987a; Ziegler 1989;
Kiersnowski et al. 1995; Strohmenger et al. 1996a and b).
The Messinian evaporites below the Mediterra-
nean. These late Miocene salt deposits were detected
and explored by deep-sea drilling and compared with
uplifted Messinian sections on land. The salts below
the Mediterranean represent two evaporite cycles and
generally reach thicknesses of several hundred meters,
in places 1000 to 2000 m. They cover an area of about
2.5 x 106 km2 and lie on top of hemipelagic deep-
water sediments which in turn accumulated, at least
(Stage 4) leads to rapid "deep-water" salt precipita-
tion (mainly halite). Finally, large areas fall dry and
potash salts may accumulate in residual playa lakes
(Stage 5), before continental deposits take over. Note
that during all stages of development shelf carbon-
ates and marginallagoonal and sabkha evaporites can
form. For further explanations see text. c Schematic
cross section of western Mediterranean Sea and
southern Spain displaying heterochronous evaporite
deposition in shallow coastal basins as compared to
the mid-Messinian deep-basin evaporites. 1,2,3
Stages of evolution. See text for further explanation.
(After Riding et al. 1998, modified)
6.4 Marine Evaporites 269

a FLOODING OF SAGGED FIRST DEEP-WATER

EVAPORITES
FORMER INLAND (MAINLY Ca-SULFATES)
DRAINAGE BASIN

SLOW INCREASE OF
SALT CONCENTRATION

HIGH SEA
LEVEL (2)

FLOOR OF SAGGED
DESERT DRAINAGE
BASIN (1)

BASIN·WIDE NORMAL MARINE SEDIMENTS

AND FAUNA, PARTIALLY EUXINIC FACIES

SHELF CARBONATES POSSIBLY

FRESH WATER
LAKE

b DESICCATING
INLAND BASIN

LOW SEA
LEVEL (3)

CONTINENTAL
SEDIMENTS
(RED BEDS)

DOLOMITIZATION
\ OF Ca-CARBONATE

SALINE
LAND BARRIER GROUNDWATER

INLAND SALT SEA

c
LATE MESSINIAN EVAPORITES
~:::::z:=-=-,.f:::;:::r~o::\..:--=--::-~-_ __-i- -,~' EROSION - - - - - - - - - - ~ 3 - MEDITERRANEAN

MID MESSINIAN
-------;;~ .
YOUNGING EVAPORITES
/. I,~.' \
-"';::::::::::=-'....L
EVAPORATIVE ..,
DRAWDOWN

1\
LI

1\
r

2
1\
SALINITY CRISIS
(SCHEMATIC
CROSS SECTIONI

EARLY MESSINIAN EVAPORITES HIGH SEA LEVEL

~~cn~~~~~~~~~~---------------l-

REEFS
UPUFT CARBONATES

COAST AL BASINS
270 Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments

a
,300km
BARRIER

,- ~
SOUTHERN ZECHSTEINI\
\
\
BASIN '. "
.:: .............. :.\ ... ..... ~
.;; _--' 1
'.- TEMPORARY

--
CONNECTION
", TO S. OCEAN ?

", ,

o
ANHYDRITE
PLATFORM
(
ANHYDRITE"

LITORAL
.,.:.....j,~- CARBONATE ,100 km,

Fig. 6.10. a Configuration of Zechstein Basin in cen- Basin demonstrating the irregular topography and
tral and northern Europe with main barrier to the evaporite distribution in marginal parts of the basin,
north. (After Peryt 1987a, slightly modified after including thick halite deposition, during the first
Ziegler 1988). b Southern central part of Zechstein evaporite cycle, Z 1. (After Richter-Bernburg 1985)
6.4 Marine Evaporites
partially, on oceanic crnst. The salts are again covered
by hemipelagic deep-water sediments.
For these and other reasons, most workers believe
that the evaporites below the Mediterranean Sea origi-
nate from a closure of the basin in the region of the
present-day Straits of Gibraltar, leading to the desicca-
tion of a formerly water-filled basin of about 1500 m
depth. The connection of the Mediterranean to the
Indian Ocean had been closed during the early Mio-
cene. The "salinity crisis" lasted only for a very short
time interval of 0.2-0.4 Ma; then the basin was again
filled with normal sea water.
Early and late Messinian evaporites observed on
land partially pre-date or post-date the mid-Messinian
desiccation of the deep Mediterranean. These
evaporites accumulated during high sea-Ievel stands in
small shallow basins and coastal sabkhas (Fig. 6.9c).
During the deep desiccation period, rivers entering the
Mediterranean incised deep valleys and canyons to
adjust to the drop of water level, and wider regions
were subjected to increased erosion.
The salts below the Mediterranean were precipitated in shal-
low water after large drawdown of the sea level. Actually,
even lagoonal and sabkha evaporites have been found in
marginal zones of the evaporites below the sea (cf. Fig.
6.9b), whereas potash salts were discovered in the basin
centers. A drastic change of climate was not necessary for
this development. The huge volunie of salt present below the
sea requires either a high brine concentration prior to the
closure of the Mediterranean via an effective reflux system,
or intensive underground seepage of ocean water into the
shrinking Mediterranean.
High bromium contents in the lower salt unit indicate
evaporation of sea water (see below). According to isotope
studies, the environment at the tope of the upper salt unit
seems to have become brackish due to the influx of river
water.
For further details see, e.g., Hsü et al. (1977), Dronkert
(1985), Busson (1990), McKenzie et al. (1990), Clauson et
al. (1996), Riding et al. (1998).
The Miocene Red Sea evaporites. The generation of
these thick salt deposits is related to those ofthe Medi-
terranean. They also represent a prominent example of
salt deposition in a deep basin. The salts rest on
thinned continental and, probably due to postdeposi-
tional salt flow, locally on young oceanic crnst (cf.
Sect. 4.3 and Fig. 4.7). Whether the salt was deposited
in a deep, brine-filled basin is not clear. Some workers
argue that at least in the upper evaporite section and in
marginal regions of the basin, shallow-water and
sabkha conditions were prevailing.
The Red Sea evaporites were explored by seismic investiga-
tions and scientific and commercial deep-sea drilling. Ne-
glecting salt diapirs, they reach a thickness of 1.5-2 km and
a width of 100 km.
During the time of salt deposition, the Red Sea was
open in the north and closed to the Indian Ocean. However,
the connection to the Mediterranean must have been much
271
narrower than the present-day Straits of Bab e\ Mandeb in
the southeast. The present inlet perrnits the exchange ofvery
large water volumes and allows slightly hypersaline condi-
tions only in the northernmost part of the Read Sea.
For further details see, e.g., Stoffers and Kühn (1974),
Kinsman (1975b), Heaton et al. (1995). An exarnple ofsalt
tectonics in the Red Sea is mentioned below (cf. Fig. 6.17d-
f).
Other Ancient Salt Deposits. Large marine salt de-
posits are known from the late Precambrian throughout
the Phanerozoic, but the maximum of evaporite depo-
sition was obviously reached in the Permian and Trias-
sic, when the supercontinent ofPangea was assembled
and started to break up (cf. Sect. 7.8). The rifting and
early drifting stage of proto-oceans provided, in con-
junction with widely extended arid climate, a number
of restrict~d, rapidly subsiding basins favorable for the
deposition of thick evaporite sequences. Further peaks
in salt deposition are known from the early Cambrian
(e.g. on the Siberian Platform), the Devonian, the late
Jurassic to early Cretaceous (e.g. below the Gulf of
Mexico), and the Miocene (Messinian) ofthe Mediter-
ranean. Large salt deposits have been found below the
present passive continental margins and slopes (e.g.,
around the Atlantic Ocean). Other important evaporites
accumulated in marginal and epicontinental basins on
continental or transitional crnst. Examples are listed
and described in the literature mentioned earlier.
6.4.4 Varves and Sedimentation Rates
of Evaporites
One of the most striking phenomena in evaporites is
primary parallellamination (Fig. 6.11a) which occurs
in all types of salt rocks (gypsum and anhydrite, halite,
potash salts) as well as in carbonates associated with
them. The laminae consist of thin couplets of two dif-
ferent sediment types. Well soluble salt layers are sep-
arated by much thinner layers of a less soluble salt, for
example halite by anhydrite, or anhydrite by an ex-
tremely thin carbonate film. These observations indi-
cate that the laminae are annual varves and originate
from the seasonal climatic change.
The thin carbonate film may be precipitated during the hot
season when the brine is oversaturated with respect to cal-
cium carbonate rather than during the cooler period.
One of the first systematic descriptions of varves in
evaporites has been given by Richter-Bernburg (1960). The
laminated evaporitic facies is most regular and best preserved
in relatively deep parts ofthe basin, but it is also observed in
marginal shallow-water areas. Here the laminae of the same
evaporite facies tend to become thicker than in· the basin
center. This is explained by higher brine concentration, faster
salt precipitation, and intensive early cementation in warmer,
shallower parts of the basin.
The thickness of the laminae (varves) generally de-
pends on the type of evaporite. In the Zechstein salts,
but also in other marine evaporites, the following char-
272
acteristic (rounded) values and variations in thickness
are frequently observed:
- Carbonates (Stinkkalke) 0.05 mm (0.04-0.1 mm).
- Gypsum and anhydrite 0.5 mm (0.2-30 mm).
- Halite 50 mm (20-150 mm).
The mean ratio of these varve thicknesses is approximately
1: 10:1000 and reflects the solubility ofthese components as
weH as their rate of precipitation when a certain height of
water evaporates. If, for example, the brine has just reached
saturation for CaS0 4, the evaporation of I m of water can
precipitate about 1 mm anhydrite. This corresponds to the
annual water loss of NaCI-saturated brines in wann arid
regions (Sonnenfeld and Perthuisot 1989). In the case of a
NaCI-saturated brine, the same rate of evaporation generates
a halite layer about 15 cm thick. If the brine is somewhat
undersaturated with respect to these salts, the same annual
evaporation renders thinner salt laminae.
Furthermore, it was pointed out that evaporite varves may
show the 11 year solar cycle (Richter-Bernburg 1960). In the
Zechstein basin, anhydrite varves have been correlated over
distances ofup to 300 km, but in vertical sections, the varved
units are frequently interrupted by diageneticalIy overprinted
units (Fig. 6.11 b) or by erosional surfaces. In many cases it
therefore remains problematic to determine the time span for
the deposition of a thick evaporite sequence with the aid of
varve counts.
The sedimentation rates for the different evaporites
can be detennined in undisturbed, varved evaporite
sections. Using the above data, one obtains the follow-
ing orders of magnitude:
- Carbonates 5 cm/ka
- Gypsum and anhydrite 50 cm/ka
- Halite 5000 cm/ka
The sedimentation rate for evaporitic carbonates is in
the same order as nonnal marine shelf carbonates (cf.
Sect. 3.4). However; the deposition of marine salts,
especially that of halite and the potash salts, can be
extremely fast in comparison to other marine sedi-
ments. Sabkha evaporites, mainly consisting of
anhydrite and carbonate, show vertical growth rates of
the order of I m/ka and horizontal pro gradation of I
km/ka (Schreiber and Hsü 1980).
Of course, alI these values vary considerably within a certain
evaporite sequence or from one salt deposit to another. The
high rates for the evaporitic salts are only valid for basins
where the whole water column has reached saturation for the
Fig. 6.11. a Thickness of annual varves in halite,
anhydrite, and carbonate. b Anhydrite section of
Zechstein Basin (cf. Fig. 6.10; cycle Zl, Goslar)
showing repeated facies change due to variations in
brine concentration and diagenesis, see c. (The terms
for the description of sedimentary structures are not
generally used). c Vertical facies change in sulfates
with increasing brine concentration and enhanced
ear1y cementation. d Early cementation of marginal
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
corresponding salt to be precipitated. Prior to this situation
or as a result of episodic brine dilution, the sedimentation
rates can be considerably lower.
Nevertheless, the assumption that a rather deep basin can
be rapidly filled up with a few halite cycles appears to be
welI justified by t!1e observations on varves. If, for example,
a 1000 m deep basin, already saturated with respect to halite,
is cut off from sea water influx, desiccation ofthis basin can
produce a halite layer of about 150 m in thickness through-
out the entire basin in a time period of some thousands of
years. If halite precipitation occurs only in parts of the
shrinking basin, the halite deposit can become much thicker.
Such a rapid deposition of halite is possible only in a pre-
existing deep basin, because subsidence cannot proceed with
the same high rate.
The rapid evaporite deposition from concentrated
brines supports the deep basin model discussed above
for "saline giants". However, the deposition of thick
units of gypsum and anhydrite requires an open brine
reflux system, because the solubility of CaS04 is too
low to allow an adequate storage of this component in
the brine of a closed basin. In the case of cyclic
evaporite sequences, most of the geologie time com-
prises the intervals of non-evaporite deposition.
6.4.5 Sequences and Sedimentary Structures
of Evaporites
Progressing or decreasing brine concentrations cause
characteristic vcrtical successions of salt deposits in-
cluding their accompanying sediments such as marine
bituminous shales, carbonates, and terrestrial beds.
Some examples are demonstrated in Figs. 6.4e,f, 6.5c,
6.7, and 6.8c-e. These simplified salt successions ne-
glect the possibility of microbial sulfate reduction
which can remove at least limited quantities of gypsum
settling together with organic matter.
This process can playa role in an early, more or less euxinic
stage of a salt basin development (Sect. 6.4.2) when the
precipitation of carbonate is replaced by gypsum. Then the
beginning ofthe sulfate precipitation may be obliterated or,
as observed in some cases, halite directly overlies bituminous
marls or carbonates.
Correlation of vertical salt sequences is possible to
some extent only in the central parts of relatively deep
basins. Coeval sediments along the basin margins nor
gypsum (later converted to anhydrite) causes differ-
ential compaction and some change in basin topogra-
phy. e Collapse breccia caused by early cementation
of top layers and subsequent differential compaction.
f Cross section of Zechstein Basin showing lateral
facies change during two epaporite cycles. Facies
boundaries do not necessarily indicate time lines (cf.
Fig. 7.25). (a,b,f based on Richter-Bemburg 1985;
c-e after Langbein 1987)
6.4 Marine Evaporites 273

a ANNUAL VARVES

11cm
1cmI~
~
10VA~I ANHYDRITE
20VARVES
OF BITUMINOUS
MARL OR CARBONATE

..,.. ""
"
~J
2 VARVES
OF HAllTE
~

C COMPACTION AND CEMENTATION

SATURATION FOR
- ---- -- -- ----~ - - - -- w
. ' _____ HAllTE z z
__ ___ irO
SEL
ANHYDRITE
INTERLAYER
(GY ~~~:ti~~:~~~~~~~..·:":_:.__;.- ____ ANIi.Y.Q~Tg , ~ ~
za:
1 GYPSUM v; ~
<l:w
wu
a:z
Uo
b ~u

ANHYDRITE SECTION
(Z ECHSTEIN 1) STRONGLY COMPACTED GYPSUM

ANHYDRITE
VARVES d
r
-------------------------

10 m

1 CARBONATE
UNCEMENTED GYPSUM MUD
AFTER COMPACTION

FLASER
~~I--- ANHYORITE

e COLLAPSE BRECCIA
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ PRIOR TO
_______ __ _____ ___________; . COMPACTION
~ _._---

·PERL"
ANHYDRITE ~ ~;~ yN~T.:AT~I~O~N~g~ ~ ~;U~ M~T~ 'u~oi:·I·I~i·i.·~i·I· I·iI·~i:-i~ ~-,'~ ~~~~~~~M
..

GYPSUM NODULES
IN DOLOMITE

CARBONATE
f BASIN CROSS SECTION
(ZECHSTEIN, TWO EVAPORrTE CYClESI
----....;)~ PROGRADING SHELF FACIES POTASH SALTS K 2

HAllTE Na 2
A A T
E
o
MARGINAL o
10
CARBONATE
OF 1st EVAP. 1
CYCLE ANHYDRITE MARGINAL
Ca 1 A 1 HAllTE Na 1 DOLOMITE Ca 2 A 1 A2 Ca 1
274
mally show sequences different from the basin centers
(e.g. the anhydrite section ofFig. 6.11b; cf. Sect. 7.5.6
and Fig. 7.25).
Sedimentary structures of evaporites, inc1uding spe-
citic crystal shapes, are either of primary origin (such
as the varves) or predominantly generated by
diagenetic processes. In brine pools and along their
margins, the salt minerals basically form in three dif-
ferent ways:
- Crystal growth at the water surface or at the
pycnoc1ine (haloc1ine) between lower mineralized
surface water and the deeper brine. When they have
reached some size, the crystals settle without signifi-
cant further change.
- Crystal growth predominantly at the sediment-water
interface (bottom-nuc1eated crystals). The size ofthese
crystals tends to be large and the porosity of the fresh
salt deposit is limited.
- Crystal growth within the sediment (displacive crys-
tals). These may be synsedimentary (sabkha eva-
porites) or of diagenetic origin.
Primary salts are often affected by brine dilution creat-
ing microkarst phenomena or a kind of ablation surface
at the top of the salt deposit. Repeated near-surface
dissolution and reprecipitation of salts can disturb
primary beds or lamination (haloturbation) and create
"chaotic halite" (Fig. 6.l2b). In addition, primary salt
crystals can be transformed to other types of salt min-
erals by so-called back-reactions with the parent brine
which has changed its composition since the formation
of the primary minerals. Back-reactions can occur at
the sediment surface and in the subsurface. The result-
ing pseudomorphs. e.g. anhydrite after gypsum or glau-
berite and polyhalite after anhydrite, often display the
crystal form of the preceeding mineral phase. Under
favorable conditions, the special features of the pri-
mary crystals are preserved as pseudomorphs (Fig.
6.l2b).
Furthermore, bottom-nucleated gypsum and halite
can be reworked in the shaIlow-water zone and display
cross-bedding and ripple marks. Primary crystals may
be overgrown and partially form pisolitic grains.
Evaporites of comparatively deep basins often contain
redeposited carbonates and salts from shallow water in
the form of mass flows and turbidites (Fig. 6.l2b; cf.
Sect. 5.4). These features are, however, frequently
difficult to identify and to distinguish from diagenetic
structures (see below).
6.4.6 Diagenesis of Evaporites
(Secondary and Tertiary Evaporites)
After burial, the primary salt deposits, particularly
those precipitated under a standing water body, are
strongly affected by mechanical and physicochemical-
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
mineralogical diagenesis. One can distinguish the fol-
lowing principal regimes of fluid flow which in turn
are associated with a number of additional processes
(Fig. 6.12a):
- Active phreatic flow of meteroic water or brine
within and below the salt deposit.
- Compaction flow driven by the expulsion of pore-
water from the sediment.
- Thermobaric flow fed by dehydration of evaporite
minerals and c1ay minerals and driven by differ-
ences in pressure head.
- Pore fluids in the zone of metamorphism
(T>200°C).
The associated processes generating new and destroy-
ing or replacing primary salt and other minerals in-
clude:
- Early and late cementation.
- Replacement of pre-existing minerals.
- Subsurface dissolution.
Change of mineral phases and release of water.
Some of these processes are briefly discussed here.
The Active Phreatic Zone
Influx of meteoric water, sea water, or brine into the
edges of an evaporite basin and sinking of brine from
the salt pool (brine reflux) can create fluids ofvarious
chemical composition circulating within and below the
salt deposits (Fig. 6.12a). The interplay ofthese fluids
can be complex in relation to the changing rock perme-
ability in the subsurface. The buried salts become in-
creasingly impt:rmeable (e.g. halite at one to a few
hundred meters ofburial depth) and thus tend to sepa-
rate shallow and deeper flow paths. In this flow re-
gime, both dissolution of primary minerals and re-
placement of pre-existing minerals as weIl as the for-
mation of new minerals take place. Below the central
parts of the basin where highly concentrated brines
sink into the subsurface, for example halite pseudo-
morphs may replace primary bottom-nucleated gypsum
(Fig. 6.12b), or pre-evaporitic limestone can be re-
placed by secondary dolomite. At outlet seeps ofbrine,
spring mounds can form.
Mechanical Compaction and Compaction Flow
Mechanical compaction of evaporites is substantial
and can therefore bring about great differences in the
thicknesses between the primary and secondary salt
deposits, as weIl as between different types of
evaporites. Particularly in areas where fine-grained
crystals have settled through the water column, the
6.4 Marine Evaporites 275

a EVAPORITE BASIN AND SUBSURFACE FLOW REGIMES

!- .
. '. SPRING MOUND OUTLET SEEPAGE SEA
~~_ SABKHA BRINEPOOL ~~ '.::. t.~!:. ~--\--
I '~ - - - - T - - \ - - -_ ~
METEORIC " ""''' I ......... :...
INFLUX "''\.~ ~ ;' .1/ MARINE INFLUX
"%.~ - / }{
ACTIVE PHREATIC BEDDED SALTS ~?
FLOW REGIME .~"",",-~ 'f/

=-_\- ~-IM~~~~:Ll~~ ~LEA~~E~

....,.~-=
_ _ _ _ _ _ ~S~O~U.2"I_LJN__

-D---
- - - -
COMPACTION ;a:-~ MIXING OF FORMATION
FLOW INCREASED THICKNESS WATERS AND BRINE.
OF EVAPORITES CEMENTATION

T~~R~OBA~IC - ~:~~~~NB~~~ - -
wtöESPREAD-DiÄGENETIC - - - -
FLOW ;~! CEMENTATION ALTERATION
, , BRINE DEHYDRATION OF EPAPORITE
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ANDCLAYMMINERALS

ZONE OF T>200·C NON-EVAPORITIC

METAMORPHISM SEDIMENTS
± RELEASE OF BASE METALS AND HYOROCARBONS

b PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EVAPORITES

BonOM-NUCLEA TED AND
REWORKED GYPSUM DISPLACIVE HAllTE,
MICROKARST, CEMENT
SABKHA (MUDFLAT)

/ ~ 8-' ~, eil~
.
DEEP-WATER _~~h~ ,:A."
::iJ::U:~ 'V
- JU
MICROKARST , @
"
't:tt:ttö HAllTE
-----
~~~~~
- ........
• ,," AA~
""''''''''''''
~

GYPSU~ AND '111111"1'1 ~ -,-:.\:s?>~::: §g ~•• ~

'_
=- ..:.,. ... ,. §
.•
'f
ANHYDRITE -_
... :::--,
tttttttJ
-=-
~..
•
~
CHAOTIC

fu / ••••~RIMARY EVAPORITES ..... HAllTE

Q • • • • • • • • • • ~...... ••• BonOM-NUCLEATED
SECONDARY EVAPORITES AND REWORKED HAllTE
GYPSUM~ANHYDRITE :&.;t

I \
t HALITE .... ";:JJ.;. " \
PSEUDOMORPHS .Q.: )j.-{- ~ :
'\~ ro~~~r~A' ~ITE ~
gmra ?--9~
tttttttJ " ~~~)--.J.l.-" ,,)J~
~~~~~ ff--\
GY~GHOS~!!'®~ ~ --n~ ~~:~::~EH:i~~E ANO
REPLACIVE / SADDLE DOLOMITE AT
SPARRY ANHYDRITE HALITE-SHALE CONTACT ± SALT FLOW

Fig. 6.12. a Subsurface flow regimes below b Primary and secondary evaporites of gypsum-
evaporite basin. Right-hand side: increasing thick- anhydrite-dorninated system (left) and halite-dorni-
ness of evaporites (e.g. due to subsurface salt disso- nated system (right). (Modified and simplified from
lution) and downward shift of ± impermeable layer. Warren 1997). See text for further explanation
276
porosity of the primary sediment is high. Differential
compaction between early cemented marginal and later
cemented central evaporites may somewhat accentuate
differences in bathymetry ofthe depositional basin and
therefore mislead reconstructions of the original basin
topography (cf. Fig. 6.11d). The differential eompac-
tion of early, but only partially eemented calcium sul-
fate deposits may be one of the processes eausing col-
lapse breccias (Fig. 6.11e). More commonare breecias
resulting from mass flows from topographie highs into
deeper parts of the evaporite basin. Sedimentary brec-
cias also originate from the reworking of salt crusts on
tidal flats.
Sediment compaction expulses pore water out of
both the evaporites and other sediments. As long as the
overlying material is sufficiently permeable, the com-
paction flow is directed upward. However, salts such
as halite lose their porosity already at shallow burial
depth. Halite crystals generate a kind of mosaic texture
in which the grain boundaries are eurved and display
sutures (dissolution seams). When the overlying salts
act as aseal, the fluids flow laterally updip (Fig.
6.12a).
Along their paths the fluids ean dissolve pre-exist-
ing salt minerals, alter older sediments, and preeipitate
new minerals as eement. Dissolution leaves behind
various residues such as evaporite dissolution breccias,
rauhwacken, silicified and calcitized evaporite nod-
ules. Reaction of the fluids with roeks ean cause, for
example, dolomitization of calcarous material or, in
some eases, calcitization of already dolomitized strata.
Cementation by salt minerals leads to the plugging of
porous rocks and thus to the downward migration of
the salt seal. As the aseending and laterally migrating
brines generally gain in salt concentration and density,
they finally tend to sink below the basin margins into
the deeper underground (Fig. 6.12a).
Early Cementation
A charaeteristic feature observed in many evaporites is
the oecurrenee of early cementation by gypsum,
anhydrite, halite, and other salt minerals (ef. Fig.
6.11c-e). Primary sedimentary features are best pre-
served under conditions of early eomplete cementation
(found, e.g., in banded and massive anhydrite beds). If
early cementation is incomplete, nodular and flaser
anhydrite result (Fig. 6.11 b,e). Intensively deformed
anhydrite or gypsum layers exhibiting micro-folds are
usually not caused by sliding, but reflect displacive
growth of the sulfate layer in the subsurface. Some of
these struetures may be related to the transition from
anhydrite to gypsum which needs more volume than its
precursor (tertiary evaporites, see below).
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
Large-Scale Subsurface Dissolution
Stratigraphie correlations and hence also paleogeo-
graphie interpretations of aneient salt deposits are
sometimes complieated by substantial subsurfaee dis-
solution in the zones of active phreatie groundwater
circulation and eompaetion flow.1t may eliminate eas-
ily soluble evaporite intervals, preferentially in mar-
ginal zones of the basin (Fig. 6.13). Thus, an originally
onlapping sequenee ean be transformed into an appar-
ently offlapping stratigraphie pattern with an erosional
uneonformity. Such a sequenee may be ineorreetly
interpreted as an evaporite system aeeording to the
bull's eye model (Sect. 6.4.2). Salts leaehed from mar-
ginal zones of the basin (salted-out halite and potash
salts) are frequently repreeipitated in more eentral
parts of the basin. Highly concentrated NaCI brines
can eause substantial ehanges of the primary mineral
composition of the potash salts.
Tbermobaric Flow Regime and Phase Changes of
Salt Minerals
Already a moderate inerease in temperature (and pres-
sure) induees phase ehanges of several minerals. Hy-
drated salt minerals and c1ay minerals lose their water
and thus feed a slowly cireulating, initially upward
directed flow system, the so-ealled thermobarie flow
regime (Fig. 6.12a). Primary gypsum is eonverted to
anhydrite at temperatures between 35-45°C if the pore
fluid approaches halite saturation; with lower brine
concentrations this conversion requires higher temper-
atures (50-60°C) and burial depths of a few hundred
meters. Carnallite releases Mg and water during its
transformation to sylvite (KCI) at 40-50°C. Polyhalite
and kieserite are converted into other minerals at
higher temperatures. In all eases, water is released and
may, if it cannot readily escape, build up excess pore
pressure and promote rock deformation (e.g. small
diapiric structures in sulfate deposits). If volume loss
in the subsurface by subsolution andlor phase changes
occurs concurrently with precipitation of overlying
salts, the basin floor becomes depressed. As a result,
thickened salt deposits are formed locally or in limited
parts ofthe basin (cf. Figs. 6.12.a and 6. 13b).
The impact of the zone of metamorphism on deeply buried
evaporites is not discussed here. The brief remarks to the
processes at shallower burial depth can only indicate and
underline the particularly great importance of diagenetic
processes on the sedimentary structures and secondary min-
eral composition of evaporites. In order to interpret the ori-
gin ofancient evaporites, this substantial diagenetic overprint
has to be taken into account.
Detailed descriptions ofthese phenomena including illus-
trations and a special nomenclature for the manifold struc-
tures, particularly those in calcium sulfate rocks, are given in
the references mr;:ntioned above (e.g., Richter-Bernburg
1985; Langbein 1987; Schreiber 1988a; Warren 1996, 1997).
6.4 Marine Evaporites 277

EFFECTS OF SUBSURFACE SALT SOLUTION

b
INCREASE IN THICKNESS DUE TO
"SUBSOLUTION" AND DIAGENESIS

----
---- -----
--------._-
-----=-..------
--- ---------~--..._--
---I I I -----'
I I

APPARENT OFFLAP 1\ 1\ /\ /\ /\
1\/'\/'\/\-"/'\
DUE TO DISSOLUTION

SYLVITE ETC.

a
CARBONATE
-", FUTURE DISSOLUTION FRONT

I \, \'
CARNALLITE

\
1
1
1"\I I I
I
I
I
1/ 1 1
1
1 1 .\1 I
Fig. 6.13a,b. Effects of large-
I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I
scale subsurface solution of halite
IL U I> ~
and conversion of water-bearing
O~ salt minerals (e.g., camallite) into

-r-------- /E--'
water-free salts (e.g., sylvite) on
~ /'\ /'\/1\ /'\
/\
/'\ /\
/'\
/\
/\.
/\
A
A
stratigraphie relationship aJ?d
HAllTE thickness of subsequent evaponte
deposits. (After Kendall1988)
GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE SHALE

It has to be borne in mind that many ofthe diageneticalIy 6.4.7 Trace Elements, Stable Isotopes,
generated or overprinted structures can ?e further modified and Accessories in Marine Evaporites
by salt diapirism (see below) and subroslOn.
Much work has been done on the geochemistry of
evaporites, but only a few points can be mentioned in
Exhumation of Buried Evaporites this text. Of particular interest are the elements stron-
(Tertiary Evaporites) tium, barium, bromine, fluorine, and boron. The stron-
tium isotopes can be used to determine the age and the
Uplift and erosion (exhumation) of deeply. buried origin of sulfate beds which are not contarninated by
evaporites leads to further changes m the older or younger evaporites (e.g. Denison et al: 1998).
diagenetically altered salt deposits. As soon as some Strontium, being a minor constituent of aragomte, gyp-
water is available, e.g. in the deep phreatic zone, the sum and anhydrite, is released in conjunction with
well soluble salts start to dissolve, which often occurs recrystallization of these minerals and can form an
at subsurface depths of a few hundred meters. own mineral, i.e. ce1estite SrS04 • This is less soluble
Anhydrite takes up water and is a~ain slowly tr~ns­ than gypsum and therefore can be precipitated in small
formed into coarse porphyroblastlc or fine-gramed quantities before saturation for the calcium sulfate
alabastrine gypsum. This process may cause rock minerals is reached. Celestite is therefore found along
swelling and rock fracturing; the veins and fractures the rnargins or on subaqueous highs of some evapori~e
are filled with fibrous gypsum or halite precipitated basins (Müller 1988). It also occurs when gypsum 1S
from saturated brine. Closer to the groundwater table, leached by subrosion. Similarly, barium may be pre-
where more meteoric water passes the rocks, dissolu- cipitated as barite, BaS04 , prior to gypsum and
tion of evaporites predominates, e.g. karstification of anhydrite. Both celestite and barite hence tend to occur
sulfates. From then on, the volume of sulfate carried in clays, marls and carbonates in the lower part of an
away in solution is greater than the volume needed for evaporite sequence. Fluorine can be precipitated as
the anhydrite-gypsum transformation. fluorite, CaF 2 , and is sometimes found in dolomites.
278
SALT PILLOW
INTRUSIVE, ~
HIGH AMPLITUDE
Fig. 6.14. Main types of salt structures and their structural evolution, from left to right. (After Jackson and
Talbot 1986)
Bromine and boron are enriched in highly concen-
trated brines. Since bromine substitutes to some extent
for chlorine, the bromine content ofhalite, sylvite and
other salt minerals increases with the brine concentra-
tion. Therefore, the bromine content is used to deter-
mine the stage of evaporation as well as to correlate
salts deposited in the same basin. Boron is predomi-
nantly found in residual brines.
Many evaporites contain or are interbedded with
siliciclastic material, mostly silt and clay, which are
swept by either currents or wind into the basin. Alka-
line brines often dissolve substantial amounts of siliea
which is later reprecipitated in form of euhedral quartz
crystals or, in the neighborhood of the evaporites, as
ehert.
Stable isotopes provide specific information on the
changing conditions of deposition and diagenesis of
evaporites. They indicate the origin of brines precipi-
tating salt minerals, and the concentration, residence
time, and recycling of brines in the depositional sys-
tem. Br and Sr may serve to separate marine from
nonmarine evaporites (e.g. Faulds et al. 1997). Simi-
lady, heavier oxygen isotopes in fluid inclusions
within the salt point to a marine environment. The
proportion of the sulfur isotope 34S in sulfate minerals
has changed through the Earth' s history. With the aid
ofthis isotope it is therefore possible to approximately
determine the age of evaporites. This method is partic-
ularly useful ifsalts of different ages are involved in
diapirism (see below).
The occurrence of base metals, such as Pb, Zn, Cu
may be associated with evaporites. Low-pH, high-Eh
groundwater derived, for example, from red beds with
abundant heavy minerals, may carry relatively high
amounts of metals and mix with ascending alkaline
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
low-Eh brines from. the compaction or thermobaric
flow regime. Tnen the metals can be precipitated as
sulfides or become adsorbed to iron hydroxides form-
ing in the mixing zone.
These and other economic aspects of ancient evaporites are
described in many special articles (e.g., Sonnenfeld 1984;
Müller 1988; Pierre 1988; Warren 1996, 1997).
6.4.8 Salt Tectonics
Introduction
Many ancient thick and widely extended salt deposits,
buried under siliciclastic and carbonate sediments,
show very irregular geometries (Fig. 6.14), e.g. salt
diapirs, salt walls, etc., including isolated salt bodies.
These large-scale, post-depositional features are re-
ferred to as "salt structures", and the mechanism caus-
ing these structures is called salt tectonics or
halokinesis. It is generally assumed that the original
salt deposits were more or less uniform in thickness
and largely horizontally bedded.
Salt tectonics is ofwide general and economical interest and
has therefore been addressed by many workers (e.g.
Trusheim 1960; Ramberg 1981; Jenyon 1986; Jackson and
Talbot 1986; Kehle 1988). Several special volumes deal with
the various types of salt structures and their regional varia-
tions (e.g. Jackson et al. 1995).
Salt structures result from both nontectonic and tec-
tonic processes. Nontectonic processes include the
behavior of salts below sediment loads of different
thickness and density. Tectonic processes, such as
6.4 Marine Evaporites
faulting of underlying rocks, extension or convergence
of the sedimentary pile containing salts, or overthrust-
ing of salt-bearing strata by the fronts of orogenic
belts, largely modify the nontectonic processes. Here,
some general rules controlling nontectonic salt flow
and a few examples of tectonic overprint are briefly
discussed.
Salt domes and other salt structures are commonly
explained as the result ofbuoyancy Where lower-den-
sity salt is buried under strata ofhigher density, the salt
tends to flow upward through the overlying sediment
(buoyancy halokinesis). In this case, the burial depth of
the salt should be at least 900 to 1200 m; otherwise the
overlying rocks do not reach the high density required
for this process (see below). However, apart from
buoyancy, overburden anomalies (difJerentialloading
halokinesis) may cause salt sinks and salt dome
growth. This mechanism does not direcdy depend on
the density of the overlying sedimentary rocks and
therefore ac counts for the initiation of salt structures at
shallow burial depth (as litde as 100 m) as observed in
several salt provinces. The combined effect of both
mechanisms, buoyancyand overburden anomalies, can
be summarized for the most important type of salt de-
posits, i.e. rock salt, as follows.
Mechanics of Salt Flow
Rock salt behaves like a Newtonian or viscoelastic
fluid. To understand this bevavior an approach similar
to that applied to groundwater systems is used. The
fluid starts to flow if a certain hydraulic (pressure )
gradient within the fluid exists. Because of its
viscoelastic nature, salt flow takes place only if the
differential pressure or stress exceeds the yield point
of the salt body. Salt flow always occurs in the direc-
tion of the maximum hydraulic gradient, i.e., from the
area ofthe highest hydraulic head to that ofthe lower-
most head (Fig. 6.15a).
A hydraulic gradient is defined by a difference in hydraulic
head between two points within the salt layer. The hydraulic
head of a certain point within the fluid is the sum of its grav-
ity potential, G, at its elevation, z, above an arbitrary datum
line, and the fluid pressure head, p, at this point, i.e., the
height of fluid column in a manometer adjusted at this point.
A tilted salt layer can flow upward, ifthe decrease in pres-
sure, ~p (e.g., PS-PA in Fig. 6.l5a), is greater than the in-
crease in gravitational potential, ~G, defined by the differ-
ence in elevation between two points and the density ofthe
fluid (e.g., ~G = zsDs - ZADS). This occurs when the average
rock density, DR, is greater than that ofthe salt, Ds; otherwise
the salt flows downhilI (tTom C to B in Fig. 6.l5a). Hence,
the total overburden load does not playa direct role in this
model; solely the pressure gradients and gravitational poten-
tial are important. In addition, the yield point of the
viscoelastic salt body must be overcome in order to initiate
flow.
279
If a horizontal salt layer is buried under horizontal and
laterally uniform younger sediments, the hydraulic
gradient within the salt equals the gradient ofthe grav-
ity potential, because the overburden weight is the
same everywhere. In this case no salt flow occurs.
Howeve:-, ifthe salt surface is locally elevated (eleva-
tion z in Fig. 6.15c), a gradient in the hydraulic head of
the salt layer is built up. Salt flows toward the irregu-
larity, ifthe density ofthe overlying rocks in the range
of z exceeds that of salt, and it flows away from the
irregularity for cap rocks oflower densities. Sirnilarly,
a local increase in overburden pressure (differential
loading), for example by a prograding delta lobe, can
cause a significant hydraulic gradient in the salt layer
and thus force the salt to flow away from the delta lobe
Fig. 6.15b). Other sedimentary load anomalies include
reefs, sandy shoals, desert dunes, etc .. All of these can
trigger salt flow in the subsurface.
Evolution of Salt Structures
Salt structures are highly variable dependent on their
position within a basin, the original thickness of salt
deposits, and the history of subsidence and sediment
accumulation. Here, solely the evolution and shape of
some idealized salt structures can be demonstrated.
The very common salt domes are typically one to
several km in diameter and have steeply dipping or
even overhanging sides that may extend several km
downward. They usually exhibit the following stages
in their dcvelopment (Fig. 6.15c-e):
(1) Initiation and salt pillow formation (cf. Fig.
6.16a,b).
(2) Erosional truncation of overlying rocks.
(3) Extrusion of salt domes or pillars through ero-
sional holes in the sedimentary cover (piercement
salt domes, diapirs).
(4) Collapse and burial.
Much salt is lost during the stage of extrusion through
erosion and dissolution on land or below the sea (cf.
Sect. 9.2). Once the original salt layer next to the dome
is completely evacuated, the upward movement of salt
ceases. Then the salt structure can reach a compara-
tively stable configuration, regardless of whether or
not the dome is buried under an increasing sediment
cover. However, lateral spreading or subsolution of
salt may continue. The internal structure of many salt
domes is characterized by tight folds and highly de-
formed salt bodies of different nature (Fig. 6.15e).
The relation of salt dome creation to the thickness of
the prirnary salt deposit is indicated in Fig. 6.16a,b
displaying the post-depositional processes above a salt
wedge. '!'hin salts can only lead to low-relief salt pil-
lows. On the tops of both salt pillows and larger salt
domes or high-relief salt anticlines, extensional fault
280
a HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
WITHIN SALT LAYER
I
Af Pr PB > DS(ZB - ZA)
ZA ZB
, I
--..l.--- - - - - - - - - - Z = 0 - __ ..L _
b DELTA LOBE
c
Fig. 6.15. Flow of salt in the subsurface in relation to
the hydraulic gradient within the salt layer. a Down-
hili and uphill salt flow due to the lower or higher
density D R of sedimentary rocks overlying the tilted
salt layer with density Ds. At point B the eonverging
salt flow tends to ereate a salt strueture. PA' PB' Pres-
sure heads at points A, B, etc. b Differentialloading
of horizontal salt layer, e.g., by prograding delta
lobe, eauses salt to flow away from the area of maxi-
mum loading. c Positive irregularity on surfaee of
patterns and graben structures tend to form. In the
zones of salt withdrawal between the salt structures,
new depocenters (sync\ines) evolve for sub se quent
sediment accumulation (Fig. 6.l6b-d). The strata along
the Danks of the salt domes or salt massifs are fre-
quently upturned.
The two examples of Figure 6.17 show, in addition
to the struetures described above, some more eomplex
salt strueturcs, ine luding salt wedgcs thrust over youn-
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
TENOENCY TO FORM
SALT STRUCTURE
SALT FLOW
(DR<DSI
I
PB -Pc < Os ( Zc .- ZR )
I
I I
I SALT , DENSITY Os = 2.2 g/ cm 3
I
I
I
I Zc
I
I
I
_________ _____ L _ _
PRINCIPLES OF SAL T FLOW
d
10 km
salt layer initiates salt flow into the irregularity, if
rock density D R within depth zone z exceeds D s of
salt; with D R D s salt flows away from the irregular-
ity. d,e Two stages of the growth history of salt
domes: d Salt pillow formation and beginning of ero-
sional truncation, e piercement of overlying rocks,
and extrusion. Note intense folding of primary salt
beds. Final collapse and burial is not shown. (After
Kehle 1988)
ger sediments and allochthonous, isolated salt sheets
(salt canopies). These features result from downdip
gravitational spreading, e.g. on continental slopes (Fig.
5.17a-e). This process is assumed to take place at shal-
low depth in the subsurface where the difference in the
densities between salt and sediment is low.
Because dewatering evaporites have a very low
shear strength, they often act as slip faces over which
the younger strata move downdip at very low angles.
6.4 Marine Evaporites 281

c MIDDLE SLOPE SALT

MOVEMENT d SHELF PROGRADING
SHALLOW· WATER SANDS

BASE OF SALT SEDIMENT MOVEMENT

DEPOCENTER

b FINAL STAGE SECONDARY GRABEN

ON HIGH·RELIEF ANTICLlNE
LOW·RELIEF
SALT PILLOW
EXTENSIONAL
FAULT PATTERN

SLOW SALT MOVEMENT

AT PERIPHERAL
SALT RIDGE

a EARLY STAGE PRIM ARY EARLY MOVEMENT

<
GRABEN ~ OF SALT SEA LEVEL

n
~~,
8111111111 Iml iiii 11111 i! 11111 i! 11,,"" i 1100 1lifuF, ~ ~~:~~,jNG OF OVERLV ING sm

Fig. 6.16. Different types of salt structures. a,b Evo-
lution of salt pillows and salt anticlines from origi-
nally basinward thickening wedge of evaporites. (Af-
ter Kehle 1988). c,d Development of depotroughs
between salt diapirs originating from thick salt de-
posits on a continental slope/shelf setting. Differen-
tial movement of salt and younger sediment is initi-
ated on lower slope and accentuated by increasing
sediment accumulation due to prograding shelf edge.
Sands may form reservoirs for hydrocarbons. (After
J ackson and Galloway 1984, in Kehle 1988).

Such a case is indicated in Fig. 6.l7d-f, where
extensional features occur along one basin margin
(with so-called salt rollers) and compressional struc-
tures (salt anticlines) along the opposite margin ofthe
former salt basin, acting as a kind of backs top. The
zone of primary thick salt deposition in the basin cen-
ter is affected by diapirism and partially by contrac-
tion. Salt diapirs extruded to the surface, underwent
leaching, and were finally separated from their source
beds and buried under younger sediments. The
allochthonous salt sheets (canopies) now occur at shal-
low depth below the sea floor.
For more details about these and other examples ofsalt struc-
tures see, e.g., Jackson et al. (1995), Diegel et al. (1995),
Heaton et al. (1995), Montgomery and Dwight (1997). Sev-
eral workers have performed experiments to simulate and
better understand these phenomena (e.g. Letouzey et al.
1995).
Strongly curved and circular fault complexes in the Juras-
sic and Cretaceous strata below the central North Sea have
been interpreted as caused by "dissolution tectonics" (Clark
et al. 1999). The underlying Zechstein salt was first subjected
to karstification and then to halokinesis creating salt walls
amd salt chimneys. These were leached during the Jurassic
and Cretaceous and left behind collapse structures.
282 Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments

SALT STRUCTURES, SOUTHERN RED SEA

CANOPY ZONE ROLLER ZONE
ANTICUNAL ZONE
HALF GRABEN SALT CANOPY , ISOLATEO

CONTRACTION
I
EXTENSION
e OVER THIN SALT OVER THIN SAL T

STEP? EXTRUSION OF DIAPIRS

(OVER CONTRTACTING AREASI
d SW
INITIAL SALT DEPOSIT
NE

SALT STRUCTURES, GULF OF MEXICO

DOWNDIP SPREADING

WITHDRAWAL SYNCLlNE

Fig. 6.17. a-c Formation of allochthonous salt sheets
(canopies) via diapirs and salt wedges thrust over
younger strata. Salt sheets may become isolated by
downdip gravitational spreading and overly younger
reservoir sands. Withdrawal of salt in the under-
ground creates thin-skinned fault systems, synclines
and graben structures (see also 1). (Based on observa-
tions in the Gulf of Mexico, after Montgomery and
Moore 1997). d-f Various salt structures in the
southem Red Sea, controlled by the thin-skinned tec-
tonic regime over the primary salt deposit, i.e., exten-
sion over thin or thick salt, and contraction. Canopy
zone evolves over thick primary salt. (After Heaton
et al. 1995, modified)
6.5 Nonactualistic (Precambrian) Depositional Environments
Economic Aspects of Evaporites
and Salt Structures
Mining of rock salt from young and ancient evaporites
is almost as old as mankind. Potash salts have become
increasingly important with the development of the
chemical industry and the use of fertilizers in agricul-
ture. Because potash salts formed in limited areas
inrelatively small quantities, their exploration and min-
ing is more difficult than that of rock salto Gypsum and
anhydrite are commonly gained in open quarries and
widely used in construction work and for other pur-
poses.
6.4.9 Summary (Marine Evaporites)
- Thick and widespread marine evaporites are
known from the Neo-Proterozoic throughout the
Phanerozoic.
- The contribution of the different salts to marine
evaporite sequences varies greatly. This results
from the different modes of salt precipitation in
shallow and deep basins, with and without brine
reflux, often modified by see-water seepage and
loss of highly concentrated brine by leakage. In
addition, mixed-source brines receiving meteoric
water playa role.
- The facies of marine evaporites often changes
from marginal carbonates and sulfates to halite
in the central parts of the basin. Relative sea-
level changes create high- and low-frequency
evaporite cycles.
- The thicknesses of varves indicate the high sedi-
mentation rates of evaporites and mimic to some
6.5 Nonactualistic (Precambrian)
Depositional Environments
6.5.1 Introduction
This brief chapter is added to remind the reader that
most of our knowledge on depositional systems sum-
marized in this book is deduced from observations in
modern environments. It is based on the frequently
quoted principle: "The Present is the key to the Past".
Furthermore, it is widely accepted that the depositional
environments did not change fundamentally during the
Phanerozoic. This view is derived from the fossil re-
cord and from the results of various geochemical in-
vestigations. Even long-term, profound climatic varia-
tions from an icehouse to a greenhouse state of the
Earth (cf. Sect. 7.8) can be explained by minor
changes in the composition of the atmosphere and the
configuration and salinity ofthe oceans. A major step
283
Diapirism creates stratigraphic traps for hydrocar-
bons. Subsiding depotroughs (Fig. 6.l6c,d) are favor-
able for the migration and storage of hydrocarbons in
sandy reservoirs (cf. Chap. 14). Due to their plastic
behavior at shallow burial depths, evaporites act as
seal rocks for upward migrating oil and gas. Since
some years, reservoirs even below allochthonous salt
sheets are being explored.
The possibility of disposing radioactive waste and
other problematic chemicals in salt diapirs has been
controversially discussed in several countries.
extent the solubility of carbonates, gypsum, and
halite.
- Synsedimentary and subsurface evaporite disso-
lution leaves behind distinct surfaces, micro-
karst phenomena, and may bring about modifi-
cations of the basin topography.
- Shallow groundwaterlbrine circulation and
deeper, more closed flow systems largely trans-
form the primary evaporites into secondary
evaporites (e.g. by early cementation, dehydra-
tion, mineral phase change).
- Further modifications (tertiary evaporites) are
caused by uplift and erosion of buried salt
rocks.
- Large-scale salt structures in viscoelastic evapo-
rites. are generated by sediment loading (buoy-
ancy) , withdrawal of salt from the subsurface,
and downdip gravitational spreading.
in the evolution of sedimentary environments occurred
in the late Paleozoic when the continents were colo-
nized by plants.
Prior to this stage of plant evolution, all continents
were more or less barren ofhigher life and represented
huge deserts. In contrast to the present-day situation, a
major part of these deserts must have received consid-
erable amounts of rain and should therefore have un-
dergone rapid mechanical and chemical erosion. N ev-
ertheless, we can understand these processes from
observations in modern, mountainous regions with
sufficient precipitation, but sparse vegetation.
Serious problems arise for the interpretation of the
Precambrian, that is the Archean and Proterozoic
spanning the times from ab out 4600 to 2500 Ma and
2500 to ~600 Ma before present, respectively. Since
weathering of rocks and sedimentary processes were
always closely related to the properties and circulation
of the atmosphere and the oceans, as well as to the
284
evolution of life, we have to consider the question
whether and in which way these factors deviated in
pre-Phanerozoic times from the younger Earth's his-
tory.
6.5.2 Evolution of the Atmosphere
The Early Atmosphere
Although the atmosphere represents a very small mass
in relation to the total mass of the Earth, it exerts a
dominant influence on the shaping of the landscape,
the existence and evolution of life, weathering of
rocks, transport and deposition of sediments. For this
reason, an atmosphere differing from the present-day
situation must have had a profound impact an all these
aspects.
Ihe evolution ofthe atmosphere was closely related
to the formation of the Earth's crust and hydrosphere.
Most experts hold the opinion that the primordial at-
mosphere ofthe Earth resembled that of Jupiter. Ihis
planet has sufficient mass to retain light moleeules and
noble gases. In the case of the Earth, however, the
light, volatile components, such as hydrogen and he-
lium, were early lost to space and replaced by an atmo-
sphere mainly caused by outgassing of the Earth's
mantle.
Ihe accretion of planetesimal material, meteoric
impacts, and enhanced radioactive decay raised the
temperature on Earth to such a degree that the primar-
ily more or less homogeneous mass melted. Ihis led to
a differentiation of the accreted mass into core, mantle,
early crust, and a secondary atmosphere derived from
the volatiles of the magma andlor late phases of accre-
tion.
Ihis atmosphere attained a very high density compa-
rable to that of Venus. Its main components were wa-
ter vapor, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. Minor constit-
uents included hydrogen, methane, and ammonia.
Light volatiles were continuously lost to space; acids
(HCl, HF) and H 2S exhaled from volcanoes were
washed out by precipitation. Subsequent rapid heat
loss to space led to cooling of the crust and condensa-
tion of water. Evidence for a first hydrosphere on
Earth comes from water-laid sediments ranging back
as far as about 4000 Ma.
The early evolution ofthe Earth, its atmosphere and hydro-
sphere have been discussed by many workers (e.g.
Schidlowski et al. 1975; Clemmey and Badham 1982; Salop
1983; Holland 1984; Windley 1984; Kempe and Degens
1985; Budyko et al. 1987; Walker andDrever 1988; Wether-
ill 1990; Condie 1993; Kasting 1993). Further references are
mentioned below.
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
Oxygen in the Early Atmosphere
Whether or not oxygen was present in small quantities
in the early atmosphere is controversial. A limited
amount of oxygen produced by photolysis, i.e., by
dissociation of water vapor as a result of ultra-violet
radiation in the upper atmosphere, was rapidly used up
by oxidation of volcanic gases, ferrous iron dissolved
in sea water (see below), and weathering ofrock-form-
ing minerals. It was not before the plants had started
photosynthesis by using solar energy, water and carbon
dioxide to generate organic compounds and release
molecular oxygen that oxygen could be produced in
larger volumes than were permanently consumed.
However, an excess in free oxygen was only achieved
by the storage of organic marter in sediments. From
then on, the oxygen content of the atmosphere slowly
increased (Fig. 6.18).
Evidence for free oxygen in the atmosphere comes from
paleosols. As long as no oxygen was available, rock surfaces
exposed to the atmosphere lost ferrous iron by leaching.
Later, when the oxygen content ofthe atmosphere had risen,
iron loss became negligible because feme iron cannot be
exported in solution. Of 50 paleosols reported in the litera-
ture, 15 could be definitely identified as true palesols (Rhy
and Holland 1998). Paleosols older than 2.2 Ga showed
substantial iron loss, those younger than 2.0 Ga had practi-
cally lost no iron.
It seems that du;:ing this transitional period an abnormally
high amount of organie carbon was buried (Karhu and Hol-
land 1996). This is inferred from a large positive ö13 C excur-
sion in carbonates deposited during this time interval. If
carbon, accumulated by autotrophie organisms, undergoes
biologically mediated fractionation, carbonates are depleted
of light carbon as common in younger carbonates. Other
results from stable carbon isotopes studies on limestones and
dolomites indicate that substantial amounts of organic carbon
have been buried since ab out 3500 Ma (Schidlowski et al.
1975; Schidlowski 1987). The oxygenreleased bythismech-
anism was rapidly used up by the processes mentioned
above.
Using the criteria of iron loss from paleosols, the at-
mospheric oxygen content reached a value of
p02~0.03 atm since sometime between 2.2 and 2.0 Ga
(2200 and 2000 Ma). After this turning point in the
atmospheric oxygen content, the first red beds were
deposited (see below).
Another indicator of an oxygen-poor early atrno-
sphere are the placer deposits of uraninite (UPs) in
fluvial sandstonesand conglomerates. Such deposits
are older than about 2200 Ma and occur, for example,
in the Witwatersrand in South Africa and in the Elliot
Lake region in Canada (e.g., Pretorius 1981; Holland
1984). In oxidizing conditions, this mineral is unstable
and cannot survlve exposition to weathering and flu-
vial transport for long.
6.5 Nonactualistic (Precambriam) Depositional Environments 285

TIME EVOLUTION OF COMPosmON OF PROPERTlES RESPONSEOF

BEFORE UFE AND OTHER ATMOSPHERE OFOCEAN SEDIMENTS
PRESENT IMPORTANT pH
TRACE MAJOR
Ma PROCESSES

------o~----------------~~~~

BIOCLASTIC
CARBONATES AND
SIUCEOUS SEDIMENTS
BIOMINERAUSATION
MElAZOA
(MULTICELLED)
FIRST MASSIVE
SULFATE DEPOSITS (?)
1000

II
ü FIRST EUKARYOTIC
oN CELLS, ONSEl OF ABUNDANT

oa: DEVELOPMENT
OFAEROBIC
RED BEDS

w RESPIRATION
I-
aa: BANDED IRON FORMATIONS

n.. (+FeC0:3, Fe-SIUCATES,

2000 ANDCHERl)
WIDESPREAD
STROMATOUTES
URANIUMAND
PYRITE AS PLACER
MINERALS

±PRIMARY DOLOMITES
Cl AND UMESTONES
Z
3000 FIRST Ü
:::>
STROMATOUTES I 0
\ W
ONSEl OF PHOTO- \ CI:
z
<{
SYNTHESIS
\
I
I PRECIPITATION OF
W \
I I
\
SODIUM CARBONATES (?)
Ü PROKARYOTIC i"l-l. \ (LATER DISSOLVED AND
a: BACTERIA i ''2 \ REMOVED BY SUBDUCTION)
<{ \

4000 OUTGASSING OF
EARLY ATMOSPH. (CHEMICALLY
ANDOCEANS PRECIPITATED CHERTS AND
CARBONATES
ACCRETION OF EARTH, 1--__________
LOSS OF H 2 AND
QUAUTATIVE 0.1 0.5 1.0
HeTOSPACE
SCALE HAUTE/SODA

(1) MINOR O 2 FROM PHOTOLYSIS OF H 20

(2) +MINOR CH4 AND NH 3

Fig. 6.18. Some characteristics of the (hypothetical) 1984; Windley 1984; Kempe and Degens 1985;
Precambrian atmosphere, ocean, and sediments. Veizer 1988). See text for further explanation
(Overview, based on several sourees, e.g., Holland
286
Pyrite in such placer deposits has been quoted as evidence
for a reducing atmosphere, but since this mineral can easily
form during diagenesis, it appears less useful.
Rock weathering and the formation of carbonates were
very efficient in binding carbon dioxide during this
early stage of atrnospheric evolution and thus did not
allow the maintenance of a high atrnospheric carbon
dioxide pressure for long. Temporal variations in the
contents of oxygen and carbon dioxide cannot be ex-
cluded during this stage.
6.5.3 Evolution of the Hydrosphere and Climate
The water of the hydrosphere is derived from the dif-
ferentiation and outgassing of magma and late phases
of meteorite accretion (e.g., chondrites and comets
containing ice). It was estimated that the Earth's mantle
contains approximately three times the water mass
present in the modem oceans. The initial high partial
pressure of CO 2 in the atmosphere must have raised
significantly the CO 2 content of sea water. The salt
content and the nature of the early ocean are less clear.
It was probably hot and rich in both carbonic acid and
stronger acids and therefore capable of rapidly extract-
ing alkali and earth alkali ions, iron, and silica from
volcanic rocks. For this reason, the various acids be-
came neutralized, and the pH of ocean water was pre-
sumably higher than assumed by some authors. The
total salt concentration of the early ocean may have
been higher than that of the modem ocean. Sodium
delivered by rocks and chlorine provided as hydrogen
chloride by volcanic exhalations were important con-
stituents. Most ofthe other major ions, such as calcium
and magnesium, tended to form less soluble mineral
phases which precipitated. Potassium released from
primary rock minerals was largely used to form clay
minerals.
Some workers pointed out that the early ocean might
have been a "soda ocean" in analogy to modem soda
lakes, which occur in volcanic regions. Since volca-
noes commonly deliver more CO 2 than HC1, not only
contained the early atrnosphere more CO 2 , but also the
initial ocean may have had higher concentrations in
HC0 3- and cot than in chloride. This, in turn, may
have caused a situation similar to that in modem soda
lakes, which are highly alkaline and contain little cal-
cium and magnesium due to the precipitation of these
ions as carbonates. If this is correct, the early ocean
water must have been rich in sodium carbonate and
have had a high pH, ranging between 9 and 11 (Fig.
6.18). Such a sea water, particularly if it was hotter
than the present ocean, could dissolve large amounts of
silica.
As long as only little free oxygen was available, the
conditions in sea water were reducing and allowed, in
addition, the solution of considerable amounts of fer-
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
rous iron (approximately 1000 times the mass offerric
iron dissolved in the modem ocean). Thus, the early
"soda ocean" may have been rich in silica andferrous
iron, but relatively poor in calcium and magnesium,
and devoid of sulfate. There was not sufficient oxygen
for the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur.
Later, as a result of the growing continents, the time
span necessary for the recycling of marine sediments,
including carbonates and organic carbon, increased. At
the same time, sodium-rich pore waters were incorpo-
rated into subduction complexes where sodium was
used to form sodium feldspars (albite and plagioclas)
in the growing granodioritic continental crust. Thus,
the soda-dominated ocean was gradually transformed
into a halite-dominated ocean (Fig. 6.18).
With the establishment of a hydrosphere, the climate
on Earth probably became rather stable. On the one
hand, the young Sun had a lower luminosity than to-
day, but on the other hand, the early oceans probably
covered a much higher proportion of the Earth's sur-
face, generating a thalassocratic epoch. As a result, the
Earth sent back a smaller fraction ofthe received solar
energy to space than at present. The effect of the fol-
lowing slow increase in solar luminosity on the surface
temperature of the Earth was probably counteracted by
a decrease in atrnospheric carbon dioxide (and possibly
other gases) diminishing the "supergreenhouse" effect
(cf. Sects. 5.6 and 7.8). Thus, a reasonable temperate
climate and the persistence of the oceans were main-
tained for at least the last 3500 Ma. Glacial periods in
the early and late Proterozoic testify that the Earth
cannot have been significantly hotter than today.
The above mentioned views on the early evolution of the
atmosphere and hydrosphere are derived from the sparse
Precambrian fossil record and rocks, which are commonly
strongly affected by repeated periods of metamorphism and
tectonism. In spite of these difficulties, Precambrian rocks
including sedimentary sequences have been studied inten-
sively in various aspects and have provided significant re-
sults. Chemical sediments in particular have shed some light
on the nature of the early atmosphere and hydrosphere.
The "soda ocean" theory was proposed by Kempe and
Degens (1985); Degens 1989; Kempe et al. 1989.; see ~Iso
Warren 1997). For kinetic and mass balance conslderatlOns
related to this problem see Kempe and Degens (1985). The
pH of the early ocean is discussed, e.g., by Walker and
Drever (1988); climate aspects have been addressed .by
Henderson-Sellers and Henderson-Sellers (1989), Kastmg
(1989).
6.5.4 Early Life
The earliest life forms are microfossils representing
possibly cell walls and having shapes and sizes like
bacteria. They occur in dark cherts and shales as old as
about 3500 Ma. They were capable of either utilizing
inorganic compounds for synthesis of organic mole-
6.5 Nonactualistic (Precambriam) Depositional Environments
cules (autotroph bacteria, e.g., methane bacteria), or of
living on organic molecules generated by abiotic chem-
ical synthesis (fermentation bacteria). Stromatolites,
i.e., microbially precipitated layered structures, have
been preserved in several metamorphic series
(greenstone belts) as old as 2600 to 3500 Ma (Fig.
6.18). Their structure was most probably generated by
mats of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria). These
cyanobacteria may therefore have started to produce
oxygen as early as about 3500 Ma ago. Stromatolite
growth was restricted, however, to shallow subaqueous
environments.
With the beginning ofthe Proterozoic, micro-organ-
isms inc1uding bacteria, a1gae, fungi, and possibly
1ichen-like plants became more abundant and diversi-
fied, but the more complex, multicellular metazoa ob-
viously did not yet exist. In the period between 2300
and 600 Ma, the stromatolites were the most common,
widespread fossil structures, which built thick se-
quences of limestones, dolomites, and cherts in the
tidal and subtidal zone. The amplitude of single struc-
tures reached many meters (cf. Sect. 3.2.1). It appears
that since that time the importance of cyanobacteria
mats gradually dec1ined.
The evolution of multicellular metazoa did not start
until after about 1800 Ma. It is assumed that they re-
quired an atmosphere containing oxygen and an ozone
screen in the upper atmosphere to protect them from
ultra-violet radiation. The first organic-walled fossils,
inc1uding "possible dinoflagellates" appeared in the
early Proterozoic (900-800 Ma; Butterfieid and
Rainbird 1998). Early types of metazoa were not capa-
ble ofbuilding shells or skeletons. They inc1ude jelly
fish, worms, sponges, and soft corals and are summa-
rized under the term "Ediacaran fauna", which was
first found in the Flinders Ranges in southern Australia
(e.g., Conway Morris 1990). The main evolution ofthe
metazoa occurred in the Phanerozoic; the formation of
hard skeletal parts by "biomineralization" started at the
PrecambrianiCambrian boundary.
Much has been written and speculated about the early forms
oflife (e.g. Schopf1983; Schopf and Packer 1987; Awrarnik
1989; Knoll 1992; Bengtson 1994; Grotzinger et al. 1995).
However, this text is not the place for a detailed discussion
of this important topic. In addition, one should bear in mind,
that not all of the older age determinations are accurate and
reliable. This uncertainty caused some discrepancies between
several data sets, e g. those for the stable carbon isotopes
(Karhu and Holland 1996). New findings ofmicrofossils and
improved techniques will refine and modify further our pres-
ent knowledge.
6.5.5 Precambrian Sediments
Archean and Proterozoic rocks are known from all
continents and represent a major part ofthe so-called
shields or cratons. The most common rock associa-
287
tions are old, high-grade gneiss and low-grade
greenstone belt complexes. They inc1ude banded iron-
stone formations and various silicic1astic rocks, for
example turbidite sequences.
Relatively widespread sedimentary sequences accu-
mulated on the platforms of Archean cratons, repre-
senting the nuc1ei of continents (Goodwin 1991), since
the Proterozoic (about 2500-650 Ma; Plumb 1991).
The depositional environment of these sediments was
mostly shallow-marine, tidal, or continental. In several
regions, these sediments are relatively little affected by
subsequent tectonism and metamorphism. Here, some
special sedimentary rocks are briefly discussed.
Carbonates
Precambrium carbonates result form chemical and
biochemical processes in contrast to Phanerozoic car-
bonates which originated predominantly from biogenic
skeletal partic1es. Calcareous skeletal material was not
available prior to the Phanerozoic (Fig. 6.18). In
Archean and early Proterozoic sequences, dolomites
prevail over limestones; later, limestones become more
important.
Chemical precipitation of carbonate as whitings was
favored by oversaturation of the ocean with respect to
calcite and aragonite (high HC0 3-/Ca++ ratio).
Upwelling of waters rich in carbonate alkalinity may
have caused rapid precipitation of aragonite and calcite
in shallow water. Furthermore, uptake of CO 2 by
cyanobacteria triggered carbonate precipitation (see
below). The dominance of dolomites in earlier times
may have been caused by a high Mg/Ca ratio of the
early (soda-rich?) ocean. Under the specific conditions
of this ocean, either primary or early diagenetic dolo-
mite could form (cf. Sect. 13.3); even iron-carbonate
(siderite) has been quoted as a possible primary min-
eral. The preservation of lamination and other sedi-
mentary structures in dolomites indicates very early
dolomitization. Late Proterozoic dolomites preferen-
tially formed in tidal and lagoonal environments sirni-
1ar to their Phanerozoic counterparts.
All Precambrian carbonates are comparatively rich
in iron, manganese, and silica, and they may alternate
with chert layers (see below). Furthermore, some au-
thors assurne that strontium-rich aragonite precipitated
from Proterozoic ocean water in both peritidal and
open marine subtidal environments.
Some Proterzoic carbonates show sedimentary
structures (e.g. ripple marks, cross-bedding) typical of
calcarenites and dolarenites. The sand-sized particles
were probably produced by mechanical fragmentation
of fine-grained carbonate larninae, originally precipi-
tated between microbial mats or in shallow lagoons. In
addition, peloids, ooids and oncoids occur in these
environments. Many Proterozoic carbonate sequences
also contain relatively fine-grained carbonate breccias,
288
deposited as tempestites, or larger intraclasts derived
from microbial mats and bounded by organic matter
(e.g. flat pebble conglomerates).
A specific, but rather enigmatic phenomenon ofProterozoic
carbonates are the so-called "molar tooth" structures, i.e. ±
vertical cracks filled with calcite spar during early diagenesis
and later deformed by compaction (e.g. Fairchild et al. 1997;
James et al. 1998).
For further details about Precambrian carbonates see, e.g.,
Tucker (1982), Knoll and Swett (1990), Peryt et al. (1990),
Fairchild (1991, 1993), Kah and Knoll (1996), Grotzinger
and Knoll (1995), Pflüger and Gresse (1996), Song and
Einseie (1996), Sugitani et al. (1998).
Stromatolites, Phosphorites
Stromatolites. As already mentioned above, calcareous
and dolomitic stromatolites playa great part in Pre-
cambrian carbonate deposition. Thick and widespread
stromatolite-bearing carbonate sequences are very
common in Proterozoic sedimentary rocks. Theyacted
as very effective carbonate factories.
Stromatolites are built up by the filaments of
cyanobacteria and form a variety of structures ranging
from flat horizontal mats to cone-shaped and columnar
reef-like bodies. The microbial mats operated in two
ways: (1) they trapped chemically precipated carbonate
particles and (2) caused biochemical precipitation of
carbonate (mainly aragonite) by the uptake of CO 2
from sea water supersaturated with respect to calcium
carbonate. Microbial mats and stromatolites consist to
a great part of synsedimentary, in-situ formed micritic
carbonate cement and therefore became rapidly
lithified.
Examples ofthis mechanism have been described from mod-
em alkaline lakes, which have low contents of calcium
(Kempe and Kazmierczak 1990).
An example ofProterozoic rocks rich in stromatolites is
the 4500 m thick sequence in the Peking area, China (Song
and Gao 1985; Song and Einseie 1996). These deposits con-
sist predominantly of carbonates which accumulated in a
long-persisting subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal environ-
ment and thus reflect very stable tectonic and environmental
conditions. More information about stromatolites and further
examples offield exposures are described by Walter (1976),
Horodyski (1976), Grotzinger and Knoll (1995), and in the
references listed earlier.
Phosphorites. Due to its low calcium content, a soda-
rich (?) ocean may have contained relatively high con-
centrations of phosphate, as observed in present soda
lakes. Phosphorites in economic concentrations appear,
however, not before the late Proterozoic (Veizer
1988). In contrast to younger occurrences, these and
most Cambrian phosphorites are commonly
nonpelletal, i.e., a direct relationship to biogenic activ-
ity cannot be established. Thus, chemical precipitation
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
of phosphorite at the sediment-water interface cannot
be excluded. A rise in the calcium content and minor
changes in the physico-chemical properties of sea wa-
ter may have led to supersaturation with respect to
calcium phosphate. Diagenetically formed phos-
phorites caused by the release of phosphorus from
decomposition of stromatolitic algal tissue (cf. Sect.
5.3.6) may have acted as nuclei for precipitation of
phosphorite from sea water or interstitial water.
On emerging phosphate-bearing stromatolites
phosphorite mayaiso have formed crusts ("phoscrete")
similar to calcrete as observed in Cambrian carbonates
in Australia (Southgate 1986).
Phosphorites were described from Precambrian sequences in
several regions (e.g., Salop 1983, and references listed
above). In China, widespread, partially thick phosphorite
beds in association with cherts, dolomites, limestones, carbo-
naceous shales, and stromatolites are known from the early
and late Proterozoic (e.g., Sang and You 1988). They were
deposited on stable platforms which received little
terrigenous input.
Bedded Quartzites aud Cherts
Some of the oldest sedimentary sequences in the
Archean (<:3500 Ma) are characterized by metamor-
phic quartzite-amphibolite associations. The bedded
quartzites can reach 1000 m in thickness, and most of
them are recrystallized and do not show any internal
structures or clastic textures, such as the contours of
detrital grains (Salop 1983). These rocks can be inter-
preted as mineralogically and texturally mature sand-
stones, as known from younger, repeatedly recycled
quartz deposits. Some ofthem contain clastic interbeds
with zircon and sillimanite grains and high Ti contents.
Another group of quartzitic rocks are "banded
chert", chert nodules, and various phenomena of silici-
fication. These features are often observed in Protero-
zoic carbonate sequences. As carbonate, the silica is
not of skeletal origin because opal-secreting organ-
isrns, such as radiolaria, diatorns and sponges, did not
yet exist. The banded cherts appear to have been chem-
ically precipitated as amorphous, water-rich silica lay-
ers in a similar way as observed in present-day highly
alkaline soda lakes of the Magadi type (Sect. 2.5).
Such an explanation supports the above mentioned
"soda ocean" theory, allowing the dissolution of high
amounts of silica. This could be precipitated in areas
of high evaporation, for example in marginal shallow
seas, or by lowering of the pR by fresh-water inflow
and/or decreasing water temperature.
Prirnary silica precipitation is assumed, e.g., for part of an
Archean chert sequence in Westem Australia (Sugitani et al.
1998). It is indicated by abundant mosaic and spherulitic
microstructures in contrast to detrital quartzitic beds present
in the same sequence.
6.5 Nonactualistic (Precambriam) Depositional Environments
Without advocating the soda ocean theory, Drever et al.
(1988) have pointe out that the silica concentration of the
early ocean was about 20 times greater than that ofthe mod-
em ocean (6 ppm) which is depleted in silica by the abundant
growth of diatoms and radiolaria.
Regular, wide-extended chert layers probably resulted
from episodic silica precipitation as mentioned above.
However, it cannot be excluded that microbial mats
absorbed !imited amounts of silica from sea water
which later formed banded chert. It is also possible
that si!ica migrated from sea water into the sediment
by downward diffusion. This process may have fed the
growth of chert nodules c10se to the sediment-water
interface.
The depositional environment of these types of
chert was very shallow or tidal. The chert layers are
!ittle compacted and often associated with dolomite.
For further details see, e.g. Maliva et al. (1989) and
Siever (1992).
Banded Ironstone Formations
A third, frequently discussed phenomenon of the Pre-
cambrian is the occurrence of thick and widespread,
economically important banded irons tone formations
(itabirites). They occur on all contir..ents and represent
the most important iron ores exploited in the modem
world.
Most of these deposits have an age between 2600
and 1800 Ma with a maximum in iron deposition
around 2400 to 2300 Ma, but some are older or youn-
ger. One can mainly distinguish two types of iron-
stones:
(1) Banded ironstones.
(2) Granular ironstones.
In their typical facies, the banded irons tones consist of
alternating thin layers of chert and red, iron-rich beds
composed of hematite, magnetite, siderite and iron
silicates. The lateral persistence of the banding is not
very well known.
The granular ironstones are composed of sand- to
gravel-size detrital partic1es, mostly peloids and
intrac1asts of hematite and chert. Both types can occur
in the same sequence and often alternate with well-
sorted quartz sand and oolithic grains. Sedimentary
structures in these beds indicate wave- and current
action typical of shallow seas.
In addition to the primary signature of the
depositional environment, the mineralogical composi-
tion ofthese rocks is affected by subsequent metamor-
phism and finally by weathering processes at the land
surface. Tropical to subtropical weathering enhances
the iron content of these deposits, but it destroys other
characteristics of these rocks.
289
The coexistence of chert, iron carbonate, iron sili-
cates, and iron oxyhydrates (as precursors of hematite
and magnetite) reflect precipitation from an alkaline,
alternatively reducing and oxidizing solution rich in
dissolved silica and ferrous iron. The thin-bedded
strata of Proterozoic ironstones probably formed in
widely extended shallow seas, some possibly in the
tidal zone. Most workers agree in the assumption that
the early ocean must have been stratified with a
chemocline between somewhat oxygenated surface
waters and anoxie deeper water rich in ferrous iron.
Iron oxyhydrate was precipitated along the chemocline
or in regions of upwelling. Repeated rise and fall of
the chemoc1ine around the level of the shallow sea
floor or fluctuations in the location and intensity of
coastal upwelling caused iron precipitation to turn on
or shut off in these regions. In addition, algal blooms
may have periodically produced oxygen which was
immediately used up by the oxidation and precipitation
of iron. Long-term second-order sea-Ievel highstands
(cf. Sect. 7.8) may have generated major peaks in iron
deposition with periodicities of 20 to 125 Ma.
Some occurrences of iron-rich beds are associated
with deposits of deeper water, mafic tuffs and sub-
aqueous volcanic exhalations which may have deliv-
ered dissolved iron and silica. The source of iron for
the huge ironstone deposits accumulated in a relatively
short time period, is not c1ear. Some workers argue
that terrestrial sources may have not been sufficient
and therefore assume increased hydrothermal activity
and leaching of basaltic rocks along mid-oceanic
ridges. Accompanying c1astic beds can contain pyrite.
The oldest Archean representatives ofbanded iron-
formations are more difficult to explain because all
types of microfossils were probably scarce. Some of
these ironstones are thought to be of volcanic origin.
Ofthe many publications on the banded ironstone formations
a few only can be mentioned (e.g. Cloud 1973; Breitkopf
1988; Holland 1984; Zhu et al. 1988; Drever et al. 1988;
Veizer 1988; Grotzinger and Knoll 1994). The overprint by
metamorphism and subsequent weathering processes is de-
scribed, e.g., by Trendall and Morris (1983), Weggen and
Valeton (1990); the possiblc impact of sea-Ievel changes and
hydrothermal activity by Isley (1995) and Simonson and
Hassler (1996).
Red Beds
Red beds (cf. Sect. 6.3) only became abundant after
the period of banded iron formation. This may be re-
lated to the fact that the early Earth was dominated by
oceans and the area of emerged continents was limited.
In addition, a great part of the red beds formed on the
continents may have been eroded later. Nevertheless,
many workers have assumed that the appearance of
extensive red beds coincided with a substantial in-
crease in the oxygen content of the atmosphere (Fig.
290
6.18). The oldest laterites (2.2-2.0 Ga) have been
found in South Africa (Gutzmer and Beukes 1998)
which is in accordance with the age of paleosols indi-
cating an increase in the atmospheric p02 (cf. Sect.
6.5.2).
Evaporites
The question whether or not significant evaporite de-
posits accumulated in the Archean is difficult to an-
swer, because subsurface dissolution, diagenesis, and
metamorphism may have obscured and obliterated
most of them. Nevertheless, scarce halite or pseudo-
morphs of halite have been detected even in Archean
rocks. Relics of gypsum crystals and sulfate nodules
have been found in a chert-barite unit as old as 3500
Ma in Western Australia (Buick and Dunlop 1990).
However, thicker sulfate layers in combination with
halite could only precipitate after sufficient oxygen
was available for the oxidation ofhydrogen sulfide and
sulfur. Such sulfate deposits appear at the Paleo-
IMeso-Proterozoic boundary (~1.8 Ga) and gain in
importance in younger rock sequences (e.g. in the N eo-
Proterozoic).
6.5.6 Summary (Preeambrian Sediments)
- Various Precambrian sediment types reflect a non-
actualistic depositional environment of the early
Earth: an atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide and
poor in oxygen, a high-alkaline, possibly soda-rich
stratified ocean with deep water rich in ferrous
iron.
- Red beds and the termination of iron loss in
paleosols indicate a significant rise in the
atmospheric p02 by about 2.2-2.0 Ga, caused by
increased production and burial of organic matter
(e.g. cyanobacteria).
- Supersaturation of the ocean with respect to
calcium and magnesium favored chemical and
biochemical carbonate precipitation mediated by
Chapter 6 Special Depositional Environments
See, e.g., Grotzinger and Kasting (1993), Warren (1997). If
the soda ocean concept is applied, the late appearance of
thick, massive gypsum in the upper Proterozoic may result
from the depletion of the earlier ocean in calcium (Kempe
and Degens 1985).
In the following period of the late Proterozoic and
early Cambrian, thick evaporites with high proportions
of halite, potassium and magnesium salts, and
dolomites accumulated. In addition, the Ca/Mg ratio in
carbonates tended to increase and their contents in
manganese and silica to decrease. Organic matter and
pyrite are present in Precambrian sedimentary rocks,
but their contribution to the composition of sediments
preserved in the geologic record becomes significantly
greater in the Phanerozoic.
Clastie Deposits
Apart from the special sediment types and environ-
ments mentioned in the previous sections, many Pre-
cambrian siliciclastic and volcaniclastic deposits
closely resemble their Phanerozoic counterparts.
Hence, facies models derived from modern environ-
ments are more and more used for the interpretation of
Precambrian depositional systems.
microbial mats (stromatolites). Primary or early
diagenetic dolomite, predominating in the Archean
and early Proterozoic, was later largely replaced
by limestones.
- Banded chert in carbonates may result from direct
or microbial mediated opal precipitation from sea
water rich in dissolved silica.
- The common banded ironstone formations appear
to result from fluctuations of the oceanic
chemocline, variations in the organic productivity,
and sea-Ievel changes.
- Significant amounts of evaporites (sulfates and
halite) are known since the N eoproterozoic. Some
older evaporites may have been removed by
dissolution and metamorphism.
7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
7.1 General Characteristics of Cyclic Sediments
7.1.1 Individual Beds, Rhythmic Bedding, and
Sedimentary Cycles
7.1.2 Autogenetic and Allogenetic Processes
7.1.3 Scales ofRhythmic and Cyclic Phenomena
7.1.4 Periodic, Quasi-Periodic, and
Discyclic Sequences
7.1.5 Symmetry and Asymmetry of Sedimentary
Cycles
7.1.6 Cycle Hierarchy
7.1.7 Biological Response to Sedimentological
Events and Cycles
7.1.8 Diagenetic Overprint
7.1.9 Summary (General Characteristics of
Cyclic Sediments)
7.2 Sequence Stratigraphy: Basic Concepts
7.2.1 Introduction
7.2.2 Specific Definitions and Terms
7.2.3 One-Dimensional Models (l-D)
The Accommodation-Space Concept
Sediment Buildup vs. Time:
Three Principal Variables
Sediment Buildup vs. Time: Variation in
Sea Level and Sediment Supply
Asymmetrie Sea- or Base-Level Change
Superposition of 4th and 3rd Order Sea-
Level Changes (Parasequences)
7.2.4 Sediment Buildup-Time Models (2-D),
Differential Subsidence
7.2.5 Summary (Sequence Stratigraphy, General
Concepts)
7.3 Sequence Stratigraphy of Coastal and Shallow-
Marine Siliciclastic Systems
7.3.1 Coastline Migration
7.3.2 Ramp Margins and Epicontinental Seas
Effects of Variable Sediment Influx and
Subsidence
Ramp Margin, High Sand Supply
Non-Uniform SL-Changes, Low Sediment
Supply
7.3.3 Shelf-Break-Slope Margins, Moderate
Sediment Supply
7.3.4 Summary (Coastal and Shallow-Marine
Siliciclastic Systems)
7.4 Marine Deltas, Deep-Sea Fans, and
Oceanic Sediments
7.4.1 Response ofDeltas to Sea-Level Changes
7.4.2 Deep-Sea Fans
292 7.4.3 Other Deep-Sea Sediments
7.4.4 Summary (Deltas, Deep-Sea Fans, etc.)
7.5 Sequence Stratigraphy ofMarine Carbonate
Systems 328
7.5.1 General Aspects
7.5.2 Third-Order Sequences ofRimmed
Carbonate Platforms
7.5.3 Third-Order Sequences of Carbonate Ramps
7.5.4 Drowning and Discontinuities of
Carbonate Buildups
Drowning Unconformities
Discontinuities in Carbonate Buildups
7.5.5 Carbonate Slopes and Mixed Carbonate-
Siliciclastic Systems
7.5.6 Carbonate-Evaporite Systems
297 7.5.7 Summary (Carbonate Systems, Evaporites)
7.6 Sequence Stratigraphy ofTransitional Systems 337
7.6.1 Incised Valleys on Continental Shelves
andon Land
7.6.2 Coal in IncisedValleys and Flooded
Coastal Plains
Coal in Incised Valleys
Flooding of Coastal Plains
7.6.3 Coastal Lagoons and Lowland Lakes/Playas
7.6.4 Economic Aspects ofIncised Valleys and
Flooded Coastal Plains
7.6.5 Summary (Incised Valleys, Coastal Plains,
Coal)
7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy 345
7.7.1 Lacustrine Sequences and Cycles
General Aspects
Examples of Lake level Fluctuations (Late
313 Pleistocene and Holocene)
Climate-Controlled Lacustrine
Sedimentary Cycles
7.7.2 Sequences in Fluvial Systems
Subsidence and Autocyclic Processes
Allogenetic Controls
7.7.3 Eolian Sequences
7.7.4 Summary (Sequences ofLakes, Fluvial
and Eolian Systems)
7.8 Hierarchy of Sedimentary Cycles,
Their Superposition and Causes 354
7.8.1 General Aspects
7.8.2 Continental Encroachment (Flooding)
325 Cycles (Plate Tectonic Megacycles)
The Last Two Megacycles: Overview
The Greenhouse State of the Earth
292
7.8.3 Transgression-Regression Cycles (2nd Order)
7.8.4 Sequence Cycles (3rd Order)
7.8.5 Parasequence Cycles and Milankovitch Cycles
7.8.6 Summary (Hierarchy and Causes ofCycles)
7.9 Cyclo- andEvent Stratigraphy
7.9.1 Introduction
7.9.2 The Astronomical Time Scale
(Milankovitch Cycles)
7.9.3 Rhythmic (Cyclic) Bedding
Cyclic vs. Discyclic Bedding
Limestone-Marl Altemations
Black Shale-Carbonate Rhythms (Redox
Cycles)
Rhythmic Bedding in Siliceous Sediments
Periodicities and Causes ofCyclic Bedding
7.9.4 Peritidal-Lagoonal and Subtidal Carbonate
Cycles
7.9.5 Platform-Basin Correlation ofHigh-
Frequency Carbonate Cycles
Basin-To-Basin Correlation of Cyclic Bedding
Shoreface-To-Basin Correlation in
Epicontinental Sea
Cycle Correlation on Carbonate Platforms
Platform-To-Basin Correlation
Long-Distance Oceanic Seamount-To-
Shelf Correlation
7.9.6 Discyclic Bedding and Other Depositional
Events
Examples of Discyclic Bedding
Other Depositional Events
Recurrence Intervals ofEvent Beds
7.9.7 Non-Depositional and Erosional Events
(Skeletal Horizons, Lags etc.)
General Aspects . ding couplets, separated by thicker interbeds (Fig.
Continental Non-Depositional Events
Marine Lag Sediments and Shell
Concentrations
Biological and Ecological Events
7.9.8 Minor Cycles, Event Beds and Lags in 3rd
Order Sequence Cycles
7.9.9 Summary (Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy)
7.10 General Discussion (Sequence and Event
Stratigraphy)
7.l0.l Principal Achievements in Sequence,
Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy
7.l0.2 Uncertainties, Problems, and Open
Questions
7.1 General Characteristics of
Cyclic Sediments
7.1.1 Individual Beds, Rhythmic Bedding, and
Sedimentary Cycles
Many sedimentary sections exhibit a kind of
rhythmicity due to regularly altemating beds trace-
able over long distances, or arepetition of larger
Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
units which are referred to as sedimentary sequences
or cycles. Rhythmic and cyclic sequences occur
worldwide on various scales in presumably every
environmental and stratigraphie system.
359
They have attracted the interest of earth scientists for a long
time (e.g., Duff et al. 1967; Einseie et al. 1991;
Schwarzacher 1993), but the origin of some of them is still
poorly known. Cyclic phenomena in particular are becom-
ing increasingly important in dating and correlation ofsedi-
mentary successions. Further references are listed in Sect.
7.9.
In a first overview we proceed from small units, ob-
served in field exposures, to large sequences which
are studied in basin cross sections and compiled from
the seetions of several basin fills. Later, the modem
concepts and different orders of sequence stratigra-
phy are discussed.
The basic sedimentological unit described in se-
quence analysis is the laterally ·traceable, relatively
uniform bed Bed thicknesses vary from a few centi-
meters to several meters, but are commonly in the
order of some 5 to 40 cm. The lateral extent of indi-
vidual beds ranges from a few meters to > 1000 km.
Beds are separated from each other by thinner or
thicker, usually weaker intercalations, the so-called
interbeds, of differing composition or structure (see
e.g. Collinson and Thompson 1982). The bed and
overlying interbed form·a bedding couplet. When the
interbed becomes very thin, as found in bed-domi-
nated alternations, it may essentially represent a bed-
ding plane. Bedsets or bundles represent several bed-
7.1g). Bedsets without interbeds are formed by amal-
gamation of event layers (see below). Depositional
rhythms and cycles are defined as follows (Fig. 7.1):
- Rhythmic bedding or rhythmic sequences con-
sist oftwo altemating bed types (succession AB, AB,
etc), i.e., beds and interbeds, or a succession of bed-
ding couplets. This group is subdivided into two dif-
381 ferent categories (cf. Sect. 7.9.3):
(1) Bedding variations result from abrupt changes
in sedimentation due to depositional events or epi-
sodes at random to quasi-periodic time intervals
(forming stochastic, episodic, or discyc/ic bedding;
Fig. 7.1a and b). The most prominent examples of
this group are tempestites and turbidites, flood de-
posits on alluvial plains, and layers of repeated vol-
canic ashfalls intercalated into a differing back-
ground sedimentation.
(2) Bedding variations are caused by repeated
slow, gradual changes in deposition. This type may
also be called cyc/ic bedding, or when strictly peri-
odic, periodic bedding (Fig. 7.1c and d). Typical ex-
amples are little lithified chalk-marl sequences and
stronger lithified pelagic limestone-marl alternations.
7.1 General Characteristics of Cyclic Sediments 293

RHYTHMtC BEDDING ~
a b/ ~ c ~ d
STOCHASTIC EVENT STRATI· INCREASING THiCKNESS INCREASING
"BEOOING" FICATION, OF BEDOING COUPLETS SEO. RATE,
TIME TIME (LINEAR) TIME (LINEAR) TIME (NON-
- OUE TO EXPANOEO
TIME PERIOO LINEAR)
3 3 3
(3 INSTEAO OF1),OR
_ PERMANENTLY ~ B
HIGHER SE OlMEN· _..1

TATION RATE (1 ),(2l!,. =A-

2 2
TIME (LINEAR)
3 2

o -- 0 0 0 0
"DEPO· OISCYClIC. ~r- ______ ...../
:!: ENHANCED BY ' - - - - - _
SITIONAL EPISOOIC DIAGCNETIC OVER- v
NOISE" (NON·PERIODlCl PRINT ANO/OR STRICTLY CYCLIC (PERIOOIC)
*
AB 1 .; AB 2 AB3 WEATHERING TIME PFRIOD FOR AB = const.

NORMAL FIELD-SCALE CYCLES

e f 9
SYMMETRIC BUNOLES

GRAIN SIZE
A

A
B

C
B

A
CLAY, COARSEN- FINING-UP INCOMPLETE
CARBONATE ING-l:lP CYCLES DUE TO
CONTENT, ETC. lIMITEO TRUNCATION OEEP TRUNCATION

Fig. 7.1. Different types of rhythmic (a-d) and cyclic
(e-g) sedimentary successions and definitions of some
terms. Altemations between beds and interbeds and the
time periods of cyclic sequences may be either strict1y
cyclic (periodic), quasi-cyclic (c,d), or discyclic
(nonperiodic; a,b). The thicknesses of corresponding
bed types can change from cycle to cycle, due to
variations either in the time period (c) of succeeding
cycles or in the sedimentation rates of (d). See text for
explanation. (From Einseie et al. 1991)
294 Chapter 7
- Individual sedimentary cyc1es typically show a
coarsening (shallowing) or fining (deepening)-u~­
ward trend both in siliciclastic and carbonate sedI-
ments. They mayaiso be defined as packages of sedi-
ment which are composed of at least three different,
but genetically related types of beds or interbeds
which form a repeated succession or cyc1ic sequence
(e.g., ABC, ABC, etc.; Fig. 7.le and f).
The tenn cyclothem (e.g., Weller 1964) is widely used in
North America and some other countries in a purely de-
scriptive way, especially for Pennsylvanian (~arbonifer­
ous) coal-bearing sequences (cf. Sect. 7.6~. Thls.tenn de-
scribes a basic cycle, i.e., a package of htholoßles repre-
senting the smallest cyclic unit of a sequence.
In seismic stratigraphy the tenns sequence cycle,
depositional sequence, parasequence and parasequence set
are common (e.g. van Wagoner et al. 1990, cf. Sects. 7.2.2
and 7.8.5).
7.1.2 Autogenetic and Allogenetic Processes
GeneticaIly, one can distinguish between two groups
of mechanisms leading to rhythmic and cyc1ic se-
quences.
- A utocyclic sequences (or autogenetic sequences,
Dott 1988) are controlled primarily by processes tak-
ing place in the sedimentary basin itself, such as mi-
gration and superposition of channel systems, delta
lobe switching, storms, mass flows. Individual beds
and bedsets of these sequences usually show only
limited stratigraphic continuity.
- Allocyclic sequences (or allogenetic sequences) are
caused mainly by variations external to the consid-
ered sedimentary basin, such as c1imatic changes,
tectonic movements in the source area, and global sea
level variations. These processes tend to generate
cyc1ic phenomena of a greater lateral continuity and
more precise time period than autocyc1ic processes.
Most characteristicaIly, aIlocyc1ic processes may
operate simultaneously in different basins and thus
allow long-distance correlations.
However, it is often not possible to distinguish
sharply between autocyc1ic and aIlocyc1ic processes.
For example, regional tectonics may affect both the
drainage area outside the depositional basin as weIl
as tectonic structures within the basin and thus initi-
ate the influx or redeposition of coarse-grained sedi-
ments. The occurrence and frequency of essentially
autocyc1ic rnass flows and turbidites is commonly
also controlled by aIlocyc1ic eustatic sea-level
changes. In fact, there are many depositional se-
quences displaying the results of both allocyclic and
autocyc1ic phenomena. Nevertheless, the terms
autogenetic and allogenetic still appear useful when
Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event StratigraphY
applied in the sense that one of these two processes
is dominating.
7.1.3 Scales of Rhythmic and Cyclic Phenomena
Rhythmic and cyc1ic sequences can be c1assified in
different ways, e.g. according to the time period nec-
essary to form one cyc1e (cf. Sect. 7.8), or by distin-
guishing different lithologies and environments (e.g.
peritidal carbonate cyc1es), etc.
As a first approach, a simple, primarily descriptive
c1assification of rhythmic and cyc1ic phenomena is
shown in Fig. 7.2. This scheme is based mainly on
the thicknesses of beds and larger sedimentary cy-
c1es. Here, rhythmic and cyc1ic sediments are subdi-
vided into four groups:
- Varve-scale laminations.
- Bed-scale rhythms and cyc1es:
- Field-scale sedimentary cyc1es (inc1uding the third
and fourth order cyc1es (parasequences) of se-
quence stratigraphy.
- Macro-scale cyc1ic sequences (supercyc1es and
megacycles).
This c1assification can, except for the macro-scale
sequences, be easily applied in the field and in weIl
logs without any information on genesis, sedimenta-
tion rates, and associated time spans.
Varve-scale laminations or bed-scale alternations
are weIl-known features, but none are the product of
only one specific process in a certain environment,
and each rnay represent quite different time periods.
This is also true of field-scale sequences which may
be regarded as the typical outcrop cyc1e, several me-
ters to tens of meters thick. If these cyc1es are fully
or partially marine, most of them are today inte:--
preted as representing relative sea level changes In
the order of 100 ka to several Ma. In settings of
higher overall sedimentation rates, e.g. in lacustrine
environments cyc1es of the same thickness are con-
trolled by pr~cesses of shorter periods, e.g. c1irnati.c
fluctuations on the order of 20 to 100 ka. These pen-
ods, on the other hand, are believed to be the cause
of rnany rhythmic, marine marl-limestone sequences.
Macro-scale cyc1es (1st and 2nd order, Sect. 7.8)
normally cannot be seen in single field exposures.
They comprise successions of considerable thickness
(100 m up to several kilometers) and represent long
time periods (usually between 10 Ma and more than
100 Ma). The different orders, hierarchy, and origins
of cyc1ic sequences are further discussed in Section
7.8.
7.1 General Characteristics of Cyclic Sediments 295

VARVE-SCALE BED-SCALE NORMAL FIELD-SCALE MACRO-SCALE

LAMINATIONS RHYTHMS AND SEDIMENTARY CYCLES CYCLIC SEQUENCES
OYCLES (4th and 3rd order sequ.) (2nd and 1 st order)
PAflASEQUENCES
MILANKOVITCH "
RHYTHMS AND BUNDLES PARALIC COAL SUPERCYCLE
PLEISTOCENE MARINE CYCLOTHEMS
NON·ANNUAL CYCLES
LAMINATONS
(SMALL EVENTS)
several
100 m
__ 1

T
10a
.1
several 100
ANNUAL to s~fal
1,000m

!1
VARVES
(E. G./SALTS,
CARBONATES)

SHALLOW AND
DEEP-MARINE
DEPOSITS
LAKE ~~. TRANSGRESSION· SUPER- AND MEGA-
CHEMICAL. ;...,:.".' . REGRESSION CYCLES MAY BE CAUSED
1- 50 m
1
BIOGENIC _ - CYCLES (PRE· BY REGIONAL tEGTONICS
CLASTICS "7:::' PLEISTOCENE)

IN HAND SPECIMENS BEDDING PHENOMENA IN SETS OF LARGE

AND UNDER THE <E<--- AND CYCLIC SEQUENCES IN ---)~ FIELD EXPOSURES.
MICROSCOPE NORMAL FIELD EXPOSURES LOGS OF DEEP WELLS

Fig. 7.2. Descriptive terms for rhythmic and cycJic theses after Vail et al. (1977) and Haq et al. (1987).
sedimentary sequences of various scales, time peri- The term "mega-cycJe" is used here for "supercycJe
ods, and different origins. Orders of cycJes in paren- set" in Haq et al. (1987)

7.1.4 Periodic, Quasi-Periodic, and
Discyclic Sequences
Categorizing cycJic phenomena into various orders
and using the term sedimentary cycJe may foster the
opinion that cycJes within a sequence represent
equivalent time periods. This is not necessarily true,
and in fact most workers use the term cycJe not in
this sense, but only as a convenient way to describe
repeated successions of certain lithologies and facies
types. In rhythmic sequences caused predominantly
by autogenetic processes (e.g., turbidite and tem-
pestite sequences), it is cJear that they are the result
of frequently but irregularly recurring (discycJic)
sedimentological events. Smaller irregularities in the
mode and rate of deposition are sometimes referred
to as depositional noise, resulting in purely stochastic
sequences (Fig. 7.la). By contrast, some types of
cyclic bedding and certain cycJic sequences may re-
fleet allogenetically dominated processes with a reg-
ular time period (strictly cycJic or periodic se-
quences; Fig. 7.lc and d).
296 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event StratigraphY
It is still very difficult to prove whether or not a
given cyclic sequence is really caused by a mecha-
nism with a constant time period. In general, the av-
erage cycle duration can only be detennined by dat-
ing the beginning and end of a cyclic sequence (cf.
Sect. 7.9). Even in the case of one dominating con-
stant period as in the astronomical time sc ale
(Milankovitch cycles; "periodites"), the thicknesses
and nature of individual beds, A and B, or cycles
may vary due to changing sediment composition or
fluctuating sedimentation rates (Fig. 7.1 c and d). In
addition, the superposition of cyclic phenomena of
different time periods (cf. Sects. 7.2.3, 7.8 and 7.9)
may result in complicated combined effects on cli-
mate change and sedimentary processes. The last ef-
fect may, for example, lag behind an orbital signal.
For these reasons it remains difficult to discover
whether a specific depositional system responded to
a true periodic process and actually formed
"periodites". Thus, many allocyclic phenomena in
sediments appear to be quasi-periodic rather than
strictly periodic.
7.1.5 Symmetry and Asymmetry of Sedimentary
Cycles
Sedimentary cycles, including cyclothems, may be
either symmetric or asymmetric (e.g., coarsening-
upward or fining-upward sequences), as weIl as com-
plete or incomplete (Fig. 7.1 e and f). Symmetric se-
quences seem to be relatively rare in the ancient re-
cord. One example are the "bundles" in some
limestone-marl successions which originate from the
superposition of two or several periodically recurring
processes (Fig. 7.lg; Schwarzacher 1993). Asymmet-
ric sequences occur everywhere including the deep
sea. Truncated sequences due to sub aerial and sub-
marine erosion are an important topic in sequence
stratigraphy (Sects. 7.2 through 7.9). The so-called
punctuated aggradational cycles (Goodwin and An-
derson 1985) represent truncated, shallowing-upward
sequences deposited in shallow water environments
under a fluctuating sea level.
7.1.6 Cycle Hierarchy
When cyclic phenomena of different frequencies and
natures are superposed, the resulting sedimentary
record may show a complex multi-cyclic pattern.
This reflects not only the added effects of two or
more cyclic processes, but the different processes
also exert some influence on each other. Usually, it is
the cycle of the shortest period which has the most
conspicuous effect. The term cycle hierarchy in-
cludes such an interplay between various factors con-
trolling the actual stratigraphic record. (For more
details and examples see Sect. 7.8).
Sedimentary cycles are caused not only by various
physical mechanisms but are also influenced by bio-
logical processes, such as the appearance and mass
production of new organisms in specific environ-
ments, or the mass extinction of pre-existing groups.
Such repeated biological events may leave behind a
signature in the sedimentary record.
7.1.7 Biological Response to Sedimentological
Events and Cycles
One of the best means for discriminating between
subaquatic cyclic beds and event beds is the study of
benthic organisms and their burrows preserved in
beds and interbeds. Gradual environmental changes,
e.g. within the Milankovitch cycles, are accommo-
dated by shifts in the faunal and floral spectrum and
species dominance. Short physical events, in con-
trast, are experienced by organisms as catastrophes,
wiping out the existing bottom life. Re-establishment
of the original bottom community can begin only
after the depositional event. In the case of tempestites
and turbidites, the post-event community may differ
from the background fauna, if the new substrate on
the sea floor provides different conditions for
epifauna and infauna.
Such taphonomic feedback systems also operate in
regressive and transgressive situations in shallow
seas. During regressions, the muddy fraction is win-
nowed and transported into deeper water, leaving
behind a shell layer which can be settled by a new
epifauna. Similarly, transgressive surfaces are often
marked by skeletal concentrations. In this situation,
the coarse biogenic particles are produced in place
and their preservation is enhanced by diagenesis.
Reduced siliciclastic influx during transgressions may al-
low the establishment of sessile epifaunal organisms (such
as some species of corals and oysters), who live in quiet
waters near or below the storm wave base and achieve sta-
bility through their large, massive skeletons. Rare storm
events may rework such outsized bioclasts and mix them
with diagenetically formed concretions (see below). Thus,
over significant periods of time, the production of outsized
bioclasts and concretional diaclasts may eventually gener-
ate thick shell beds or mounds. These may reflect repeated
episodes ofburial and winnowing and even form in regions
where overall fine-grained substrate conditions persist.
Epibenthic shell beds occur throughout the Phanerozoic
record. They have been frequently used as marker beds,
because they occur over considerable distances and com-
monly coincide with biozonal boundaries. For more details
see, e.g., Brett and Seilacher (1991), Seilacher (1991),
Kidwell (1991), Sepkoski et al. (1991), Brett and Baird
(1997).
7.2 Basic Concepts
7.1.8 Diagenetic Overprint
Primary bedding features, inc1uding sedimentary
structures, bedding planes, bedding rhythms and
larger sedimentary cyc1es, can be significantly modi-
fied by diagenetic overprints, particularly in carbon-
ates and siliceous sediments. Examples of these ef-
fects are described in Sects. 5.3.5 and 13.3. Even
minor variations in primary composition and pore
space are sufficient to cause significant diagenetic
modifications. As a result, primary structures and
bedding phenomena may be enhanced, modified, or
in some cases obliterated. Some important processes
are:
- Selective dissolution of unstable minerals and their
reprecipitation as stable cement minerals in
carbonate-bearing and siliceous strata. With increas-
ing burial depths (often at several hundred meters)
dissolved carbonate or opaline silica
is exported from the potential interbed and
reprecipitated as pore cement in either the overlying
or underlying bed (cf. Sect. 13.4.2 and Fig. 13.24).
As a result, the beds become lithified and resist fur-
ther mechanical compaction, while the interbeds con-
tinue to compact and lose dissolved matter by molec-
ular diffusion. Solution seams and stylolites are sites
where intensive dissolution has taken place. In skele-
tal carbonates, early diagenetic differential dissolu-
tion and cementation may lead to the selective
lithification of specific layers. Emergence of marine
carbonates accelerates both dissolution and cementa-
tion (cf. Sect. 13.3.7).
- Hardgrounds form at the sediment surface in vari-
ous calcareous environments. They are often associ-
ated with phases of non-deposition, winnowing and
moderate erosion. They preferentially occur below
warm bottom waters of enhanced salinity. Cemented
hardgrounds with erosional surfaces may occur re-
peatedly in a sequence and thus indicate a kind of
rhythmicity or cyc1icity.
- Concretions of carbonate, silica, and phosphate
generally form early in diagenesis near the sea floor,
but they also grow at greater depth below the
sediment-water interface (cf. Sect. 13.4.1). Concre-
tions are frequently concentrated in layers which de-
viated in their original composition and/or texture
from the underlying and overlying sediments. They
may have had higher contents in carbonate, biogenie
silica, or organic carbon, or relatively high porosities
and somewhat differing grain size distributions. For
this reason, most concretion horizons reflect subtle
primary depositional variations and are found parallel
to the primary bedding.
- Nodular limes tones are generated by early
concretionary cementation of bioturbated carbonate
muds and by pressure dissolution during the later
stages of diagenesis. Flint layers in chalk may de-
297
velop independently from the primary bedding
rhythm (Ricken and Eder 1991). Cementation of
graded beds can also affect a thin layer below the
event bed, thus forming an underbed, which appar-
ently enhances the thickness of the event bed.
- Weathering. Further alterations of rhythmic and
cyclic sequences are caused when seetions are ex-
posed to weathering. In the case of limestone-marl
altemations, strata with carbonate contents 65 to
85% rapidly disintegrate as a result of physical
weathering, while layers with higher carbonate con-
tents commonly resist. Hence, rhythmic bedding is
often more conspicuous in field exposures than in
drill cores.
7.1.9 Summary (General Characteristics of
Cyclic Sediments)
- Cyc1ic sediments comprise a wide range from
thin bedding couplets via meter-scale phenom-
ena to very thick (macro-scale) sedimentary
sequences.
- Some of the smaller-scale, discyc1ic or quasi-
periodic features are caused by autogenetic
processes operating in the basin itself, whereas
most of the medium- to large-scale sequences
result from regional (e.g. tectonism, c1imate) or
global processes (e.g. eustasy).
- Sedimentary cyc1es are often asymmetrie (e.g.
coarsening-up), sometimes ± symmetrie.
- The thicknesses of various cyc1es depend not
only on their time period (conventionaUy de-
creasing from the first to the sixth order), but
also on the rates of their sediment buildup.
Thin cyc1es may represent the same period as
thick cyc1es.
- Epibenthos and infauna distinctly respond to
gradual or episodic rapid change in sediment
deposition (event deposits).
- Diagenesis often modifies and enhances the
primary cyciic signal.
7.2 Sequence Stratigraphy:
Basic Concepts
7.2.1 Introduction
During the last two decades sequence stratigraphy
has become a very popular field in sedimentary geol-
ogy, both in academia and hydrocarbon exploration.
In spite of great efforts and accomplishments, there
is still an ongoing debate about some specific prob-
lems in sequence stratigraphy (see below). At present
it appears that a generally applicable and fully ac-
298
cepted unifying concept is not yet established. T~e
main reason for this deficiency is the enormous van-
ability inherent in the principal factors and their in-
terplay controlling the generation of sequences and
their smaller building stones in various depositional
environments. Sequence stratigraphy is not an easy
topic; it may become fully understood o?ly .by using
sophisticated computer models. The bnef mtroduc-
tion into sequence stratigraphy of this section ~emon­
strates the basic principles and gives some hmts for
the application of these principles to different
depositional environments. . of these sequences normally range from some tens to
Sequence stratigraphy is actually an old tOPlC. Ge-
ologists and stratigraphers studying sections in the
field always observed vertical and lateral facies
changes (cf. facies models in Chaps. 2 and 3). Un-
conformities, depositional and non-depositional
events, as weIl as repetitions in vertical successions
have been observed at many places long ago. One of
the first authors developing a more general concept
was L.L. Sloss (1963). He described thick sequences
("Sloss sequences" or supersequences, now 2nd or-
der sequences of mostly 10 to 20 Ma in duration)
from intracratonic basins of North America, bounded
by unconformities.
Modern sequence stratigraphy started with "seis-
mic stratigraphy" and weIl logs on passive continen-
tal margins. Seismic records reveal the large-scale
architecture of basin fills and the geometry of indi-
vidual sediment bodies in a two- and three-dimen-
sional way. They show unconformities and breaks in
the sediment buildup over long distances which can
hardly be observed in field exposures. It was recog-
nized, mainly by a working group of EXXON Pro-
duction Research Company under P. Vail, that rela-
tive sea-Ievel changes during the Earth's history af-
fected worldwide not only coastal areas and shallow
seas, but also had significant consequences for the
sediments of deeper basins. This method led to a
better understanding of the formation of source and
reservoir rocks and allowed the identification of
stratigraphic traps (in addition to structural traps) for
oil and gas. Predictions and planning became more
safe and reduced the costs of hydrocarbon explora-
tion.
Based on this work, the general concept of se-
quence stratigraphy was developed. This concept is
particularly suitable for continental margin settings
with a shelf break, slope and deeper basin, but it can
also be applied to basins with a ramp rnargin and to
other basin types.
"Classical" references include Vail et al. in Payton (1977),
Schlee (1984), Vail et al. (1984), Vail (1987, Pitman and
Golovchenko 1988; Posamentier and Vail (1988), Van
Wagoner et al. (1990). More recent work on sequence stra-
tigraphy dealt with examples from all sorts of paleo-envi-
ronrnents through geological time, from the Proterozoic up
to the modern icehouse state of the world. Part of these
Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor CycIes, and Event Stratigraphy
results and numerous references have been summarized in
special volurnes (e.g. Posamentier et al. 1993; Williams
and Dorb 1993; Weimer and Posamentier 1994; Steel et al.
1995; Emery and Myers 1996; Gaupp and Van de Weerd
1996; Howell and Aitken 1996). Points of criticism have
been discussed by Miall (1997).
The new approach to sequence stratigraphy was first
developed for so-called second and third order s~­
quences which can be well identified, for example, m
deeply penetrating seisrnic records of shelf-slope-ba-
sin settings on continental margins. The thicknesses
hundreds of meters and they can be traced in seisrnic
cross sections over hundreds of kilometers. Expo-
sures of this scale are rarely available on land, which
was one of the difficulties in combining and reconcil-
ing data from seisrnic records with observations on
land. Today, high-resolution seisrnic records can re-
solve thinner packages of strata and bridge this gap.
The present-day concept of sequence stratigr.aphy
also comprises sea- or base-level cycles of hlgher
orders (i.e. sequences or subunits of sequences re-
flecting shorter time periods than third order cycles)
and their superposition in all sorts of environments,
siliciclastic and carbonate depositional systems. In
addition, long-term first order cycles have been iden-
tified which had a profound influence on the evolu-
tion of the global climates and the nature and distri-
bution of sediments on the continents and in the
ocean basins.
7.2.2 Specific Definitions and Terms
For the description and understanding of strati-
graphic sequences it is necessary to define some ge.n-
eral processes and to explain a number of specml
terms (Tables 7.1 and 7.2).
Some of these terms were introduced by members of the
EXXON group (e.g. Posamentier and Vail 1988; Van
Wagoner et al. 1990); additions or modifications in these
lists came from various other sources. Several of the
keywords in Table 7.2, e.g. the different systems tracts, the
base-level concept for continental depositional systems,
and additional terms will be discussed later. Some pro-
cesses are further explained as folIows:
Base level, BL. The meaning of this term is clear for
depositional systems controlled by sea level acting as
the ultimate base level of subaerial erosion. How-
ever even in this case one has to consider that ero-
sion' and redistribution of sediment occurs below sea
level. In continental systems which are not directly
affected by sea-Ievel change, the base level must be
defined in a different way.
It may be given by the regional (inclined) water table
within a river catchment, including lake levels, or it
7.2 Basic Concepts 299

Table 7.1 Definitions and tenns related to base level or sea level (see text for more details)

Base level Either horizontal surface (sea and lake level), inclined surface (river gradient), or topo-
(Fig.7.3a) graphie barrier serving as lower limit of subaerial erosion. See text for further explana-
tion

Eustasy, eustatic Global sea-level changes caused by reduction or expansion of the volume of the ocean
sea-level change basins and/or by changes in the water volume available to fill the basins

The shape of In physical and mathematical models, eustatic sea-level changes plotted vs. time are
sea-level curves frequently idealized and displayed as sinusoidal curves (Fi~. 7.3b). These curves are
useful in demonstrating general principles of sequence stratlgraphy. Real eustatic sea-
level variations, as for example produced by the buildup and meltin~ of ice in the Qua-
ternary, are asymmetrie in shape (commonly with slow fall and rapId rise) and may be
very irregular

Rates of sea-level These rates are expressed as differences in elevation (in relation to a fixed datum) per
change, unit time (ö't). The time unit may correspond to the duration of a half or full sea-level
subsidence, and cycle (Fig. 7.3b). In the models (e.g. Figs. 7.4 to 7.10) the following abbrevations are
sediment buildup used
Rate of sea-level rise: ö'SLR or SLR
Rate of sea-level fall: ö'SLF or SLF
Rate of subsidence: ö'SUB or SUB
Rate of sediment buildup: ö'SED or SED which describes (vertical) sediment
aggradation

Relative sea- or During a certain time unit ö't = t 1-1:o, the sea level or base level may rise or fall in rela-
base level change tion to the elevation of the sea floor or base level at the begin of the time unit:
ö'RSL ö'RSL =ö'SLR+ö'SUB or ö'RSL = ö'SUB - ö'SLF (Fig.7.3c)

Sediment Space for the storage of sediment. Accommodation space is created when the relative
accommodation sea- or base-level rises (see relative sea-l~vel); it is destroyed during relative sea- or
space, ACC base-level fall. Rates per time unit are expressed as ö'ACC or ACC. At the end of the
(Fig.7.4) time unit considered ö'ACC has been reduced by sediment buildup ö'SED.

Low- and high The frequency of sea-level variations is expressed by the number of cycles per time
frequency SL- unit (Fig 7.3b).
variations

High- and low The amplitude of a sea-level curve is the difference in height between highstand and
amplitude SL- lowstand in relation to a fixed datum line.
changes

Inflection points Sea-level curves display inflection points, i.e. changes in the curvature from a convex-
(Fig.7.3b) up to a concave-up shape or vice versa. At these points the rates of both rise and fall
re ach a maximum. The inflection point of sea-level rise indicates the time of most
rapid coastal onlap associated with a minimum sediment supply to the deeper parts of
the basin

Equilibrium point Location where ö'SUB = ö'SLF. In a basin with differential subsidence, the equilib-
(Fig.7.3b) rium point migrates landward with decreasing ö'SLF and basinward with increasing
ö'SLF

follows the so-called equilibrium stream profile simple and generally applicable definition of the tenn
which in turn is controlled by tectonics and climate base level seems to be difficult.
change (Fig. 7.3a; cf. Sect. 7.7). Here, the base level
is a surface, above which erosion is dominant and
below which deposition is the dominant process. A
300 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event StratigraphY

Table 7.2. Definitions and terms describing architectural elements of sedimentary sequences
(for more details see text)

Aggradation, Terms to describe the different modes of the growth of sedimentary bodies in relation
pro gradation, to the basin geometry (stratal patterns, Fig. 7.3e)
backstepping

Sequence Study of sedimentary facies relationships within a chronostratigraphic framework of

stratigraphy repetitive, genetically related strata

Stratigraphic (or The sedimentary sequence produced by one full cycle of sea-Ievel or base-level change
genetic sequence) is the fundamental unit in sequence stratigraphy. It is bounded by one or two types of
sequence boundaries (SB)

Allostratigraphy, An allostratigraphic unit or allomember is a facies tract which is commonly not

allomember bounded by time lines (isochrones). It often comprises different types of facies and its
(Fig.7.3d) isochrones may run obliquely through individual facies zones. In sequence stratigra-
phy, an allomember may describe a parasequence or a systems tract bounded by
diachronous erosional or transgressive surfaces

Sequence A Type I sequence boundary (SB!) is an erosional unconformity. It represents a strati-

boundaries graphic gap (hiatus) of differing duration caused by subaerial and/or sub-marine ero-
(Fig.7.3f) sion. This boundary is mostly diachronous and tends to become younger basinward
where it passes into a Type 2 sequence boundary (SB2). This boundary is a "correla-
tive conformity"

System tracts or System tracts are subunits of depositional sequences: lowstand systems tract LST,
facies tract transgressive systems tract TST, highstand systems tract HST, and shelf margin sys-
(Fig. 7.3g and h) tems tract SMST

Parasequences, Systems tracts can be subdivided into smaller, commonly shallowing-upward units
parasequence, called parasequences bounded by marine flooding surfaces (see below) which are as-
sets sumed to be isochrones

Transßl:ession or Landward or basinward shifting of the coastline (and depocenter of sedimentation

regressIOn (prograding and backstepping)

Marine flooding Diachronous surface indicating minor submarine erosion (no subaerial erosion) and
surface separating strata of shallower environment (bottom) from deposits of deeper environ-
ment (top). Correlative, less distinct surfaces m3Y exist on the coastal plain and the
shelf

Transgressive This surface is the first significant marine flooding surface on top of the lowstand sys-
surface, TS tems tract

Maximum This ± isochronous surface forms at the transition from TST to HST and reaches maxi-
flooding surface, mum landward extent. The toes of prograding HST clinoforms downlap onto this sur-
MFS face (downlap surface)

Condensed Thin unit of hemipelagic to pelagic marine sediments deposited in a relatively distal
section, CS basin position during the late TST and early HST

Coastal onlap, Stratal termination patterns in seismic stratigraphy (F ig. 7.3 f)

offlap, downlap

Eustasy, EU, signifies coeval global sea-Ievel oceans (glacio-eustasy). The volume of the ocean
change which is controlled by two principal factors: basins mainly results from the age and distribution of
change in the volume of the ocean basins (tectono- continental and oceanic crust, i.e. plate tectonic pro-
eustasy) and/or change in the water volume of the ces ses. The ocean water volume changes with the
7.2 Basic Concepts
buildup or removal of eontinental iee and, to a minor
degree, by rising or falling lake levels and groundwa-
ter tables on land, and the temperature of oeean wa-
ter. Global eustatie sea-Ievel ehanges oeeur by defini-
tion simultaneously but do not have the same ampli-
tude everywhere. Some of the diffieulties result from
the fact that, for example, in a subsiding area the sed-
imentary environment may "feei" global sea-Ievel
rise later than in a teetonieally stable area. Or, loeal
rapid subsidenee of the basin floor may suggest sea-
level rise even during times of generally falling sea
level. Nevertheless, ehronostratigraphie evidenee for
the synehroneity of high-amplitude Neogene and
Quatemary sea-Ievel fluetuations is very good for
many regions but often poor for older eras.
Amplitudes of sea level, AMP. The regional ampli-
tudes (Fig. 7.3b) of the "absolute" global sea-Ievel
fluetuations are strongly affeeted by mass flow pro-
ces ses in the mantle and, to a minor degree by tempo-
ral changes in the geoid determining the shape of the
ocean surface. Some authors therefore recommend
using the term "equivalent" sea level, being every-
where the same at the same time, instead of the
eustatie sea level whieh may deviate from loeation to
loeation (e.g. Lambeck 1994). Some of these prob-
lems are avoided by using the term "relative sea-Ievel
ehanges".
Relative sea-Ievel change, RSL, is the gain or loss
of vertieal space to aeeommodate sediment, ACC
(Fig. 7.3c). It is defined as the differenee between
eustatic change, EU, and subsidence, SUB, or uplift,
UPL. It is RSL = EU + SUB or EU - UPL. This is
valid for a eertain location within the basin and for a
certain time period. In a eorrect sense one should
always define "rates .of relative sea-Ievel change ete.
In a basin with low subsidenee close to the coastline
and stronger subsidenee basinward (differential sub-
sidence), RSL-fall in shallow water ean oecur at the
same time as RSL-rise in deeper water (Fig. 7.3e).
For the diseussion in the following sections it is im-
portant to note that a relative sea-Ievel fall takes
plaee only when the rate of sea-Ievel fall is higher
than that of subsidence.
Accommodation space, ACC, is the space available
between sea level and the subsiding basin floor or, in
continental systems, between the highest base level
and the sediment surfaee on land. This spaee varies
with time and is redueed by vertical sediment aeeu-
mulation (aggradation), whieh ultimately controls the
water depth in the basin or the potential for further
sediment buildup (Seetion 7.2.3).
Transgression and regression of the sea, T -R cy-
eies. These old terms have not always been used
unanimously and may sometimes even be misleading.
301
During rising sea level the coastline does not always
retreat landward (transgressive sea), but ean also
pro grade seaward, when the influx of terrigenous
sediment is high in this area. Here, the terms trans-
gression and regression refer to the landward or
basinward shifting of the eoastline (T-R cycles).
They do not neeessarily include a rising or falling sea
level. With eonstant relative sea level the eoastline
may migrate either landward or seaward depending
on the sediment influx and hydrodynarnie energy of
the basin. High sediment influx ean eause "normal"
regression whereas relative sea-Ievel fall leads to
"foreed" regression (Posamentier 1992) regardless of
the amount of sediment supply.
Systems tracts or facies tracts, ST, are genetically
linked depositional systems showing characteristic
vertical and lateral facies sueeessions. In most cases
a systems tract eonsists of either (basinward)
prograding or retrograding (baekstepping) facies
units (Fig. 7.3g and h). These units may eomprise
sediments of eontinental, coastal, and deeper marine
environments. Vertieal seetions of systems traets dis-
play either shallowing or deepening-upward trends.
The boundaries of the systems tracts for the most part
do not eoineide with the peaks or lows of the eustatic
sea-Ievel curve (cf. Figs. 7.11a and 7.17a). After the
peak of the eustatie eurve, for example, ongoing sub-
sidence delays the onset of relative sea-level fall.
Facies tracts: instead of three systems traets ae-
cording to the EXXON model, some authors only use
two facies tracts, prograding and aggrading or
baekstepping (e.g. Cross 1998; cf. Figs. 7.3e and
7.33) which seems to be appropriate in partieular for
fluvial systems.
Unconformities are surfaees along whieh there is
evidenee of sub aerial and/or submarine erosion, indi-
cating a signifieant stratigraphie gap (hiatus).
Sequence boundaries, SB (Fig. 7.3f, g and h). Type
I sequence boundaries (SB 1) are regional surfaces
whieh are associated with a basinward shift of the
faeies and coastal onlap of overlying strata. They
develop in times and areas of relative sea-Ievel fall.
Sequences ean also be bounded by regionally ex-
tended Type 2 sequence boundaries (SB 2), whieh
lack both signifieant erosion and a basinward shift in
facies. They oceur in areas where the rate of eustatie
sea-Ievel fall is less than the rate ofbasin subsidence.
If subsidenee inereases basinward, a Type 1 boundary
may therefore pass into a Type 2. Type 2 boundaries
mark the transition from the late highstand to the early
lowstand in deep water or from the highstand to the
shelf margin systems tract (Fig. 7.3g and h). Type 2
boundaries are less distinet than Type 1 boundaries, and
are diffieult to identify in the field and in eores.
302 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

a BASE LEVEL (Bl)

C RELATIVE SEA LEVEL
AND EQUIUBRIUM POINT
\
SUB~- ---~sÜB--"f-I~~­
--r---
/-1:-::.
Bl-RISE _ _
S~B2
SEA OR lAKE l E V E l _ . L - - - - RSt ,- - --- - ---

~
f ------ ---- I LANDSURFACE 1
SEÄ FlOOR
'.
.
RSL2
---____ ~--~ (± IRREGULAR)
INTERSECTION "'-"'SB1 ~ 1----sB2--
SEA FLOOR INCREASE IN SEDIMENT STORAGE
CAPACITY (ACCOMMODATION SPACE) SLF =SEA-LEVEL FALL
SUB = SUBSIDENCE
RSL = RELATIVE SEA LEVEL

b SEA (LAKE) lEVEL CURVE d ALLOSTRATIGRAPHY

- - -- - - - - ' ---INFLECTION . - - FACIES BOUNDARIES
..",:,,_" " - _
I':I':-;-'~',;""':.-:--~
I POINT FACIE~l ' :-S' ;' !. :s.:.;:;;i:>..,.
TIME ,::..:,:.!.,-", " - .-,
-4 ! /,- - 2 ' ''''-_~',
ISOCHRONES '<;==';;J.:::-~~~
I '_._._._._._._.-._ ..L
~- - - - ALLOMEMBER - - - ~
(SYSTEMS TRACT, FACIES TRACT)
FREQUENCY = TIME UNIT
CYClE PERIOD
9 SYSTEMS TRACTS ON PASSIVE MARGINS
CROSS-SECTION SHOWING SEDIMENT THICKNESSt:S

e STRATALPATTERNS MFS

DI~
h

f SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY

DOWNlAP DOWNLAP SURFACE

TYPE 2 (S82)
7.2 Basic Concepts
Instead or in addition to the Type 1 and 2 sequence bound-
aries defined by the EXXON Group, other surfaces have been
proposed as sequence boundaries forthe delineation of cycles.
Several authors use the maximum tlooding surface, MFS, as
sequence boundary (Galloway 1989; HelIand-Hansen 1996),
because this surface is isochronous and may represent both an
easily recognizable lithology and fossil-rich horizon. It there-
fore often depends on the depositional environment which sort
of sequence boundary is best applicable. The rules for the
generation of sequence boundaries cannot be applied to deep,
slowly subsiding ocean basins where bottom currents largely
control sediment distribution (cf. Sect. 5.5). Some authors
have pointed out that sequence boundaries only develop over
limited areas within an individual basin and do not form ex-
tensive, basin-wide surfaces (e.g. Cartwright et al. 1993).
Parasequences (PS) represent smaller units than 3rd-
order sequenee eycles. Their time periods are in the
order ofthe Milankoviteh frequeney band (Seet. 7.8.5
and 7.9.2). Parasequenee sets are sueeessions of geneti-
eally related parasequenees whieh form distinetive
staeking patterns whieh either pro grade or step back.
Chronostratigraphic sections or charts (Wheeler
diagrams, Fig. 7.3h). The units of a stratigraphie cross
seetion are subdivided by isochrones and plotted with
a linear time seale. This ehart displays areas of deposi-
tion and non-deposition for individual time units and
thus also the duration of stratigraphie gaps and eon-
densed seetions. It does not show the sediment thiek-
nesses.
Thethicknesses ofsequences (eycles). Inareasoflim-
ited aeeommodation spaee (e.g. in shallow water), the
thiekness of a stratigraphie sequenee (eycle) is eom-
monly eontrolled by subsidence takingplace during one
cycle period. Ifthe aceommodation space for sediment
is always large (e.g. in deep water), the cycle thickness
depends on both eycle period and sedimentation rate.
7.2.3 One-Dimensional Models (l-D)
One-dimensional (1-D) models describe processes tak-
ing place at one location within a basin or affeeting
larger areas of a uniformly subsiding and sediment
Fig. 7.3. Definition of various terms in sequence
stratigraphy. a The coneept of base-level change for
fluvial systems (inclined surface) as compared with
lake- and sea-level change (horizontal surface).
b Terms used to describe sea-Ievel ehanges (here a
sinusoidal eurve) through time. c The equilibrium
point charaeterizes a location (and time) where the
rate of eustatic sea-level fall, SLF, is equal to the rate
of subsidence, SUB. Relative sea-level change is
RSL = eust. SLF-SUB, which may be either positive
or negative. d Allomember represented by a facies
traet, eonsisting of facies types 1, 2, 3, bounded by
diachrones. e Principal stratal patterns relevant in
303
aggrading basin. With respect to sediment aeeumula-
tion, two processes are of eminent importance: (1) gain
or loss of accommodation space to store sediment and
(2) erosion of older sediment and bypassing of new
incorning or in plaee produeed sediment from one loca-
tion to another. The second process will be further dis-
eussed in Section 7.2.4. In all models of water-filled
basins the sea-level only is shown. In reality the sea-
level should be replaced by the wave base moving up
and down approximately in the same way as the water
surfaee (cf. Fig. 7.7). It is commonly the (storm) wave
base, including coastal currents, which controls the wa-
ter depth where an equilibrium between deposition and
erosion is established. For reasons of simplicity this fact
is ornitted here.
The Accommodation Space Concept
The I-D model ofa water-filled basin (Fig. 7.4) eonsid-
ers a short increment oftime, ~t, within a half-cycle of
base- or sea-level change. The model demonstrates the
fundamental relationship between sea-level change,
subsidence, vertical sediment accumulation
(aggradation) and the resulting changes in accommoda-
tion space and water depth. Sea-level rise within a cer-
tain time interval, ~t, commonly leads to a gain in ac-
commodation space (Fig. 7.4a, equation 1), but not nec-
essarily to an increase in water depth. This is also con-
trolled by the actual sediment accumulation during ~t
on top ofthe previous basin floor (equation 3). Falling
sea level reduces the accommodation space only when
the rate of sea-level fall is greater than that of subsi-
denee (Fig. 7.4b, equation 2). If sediment supply or
potential sediment buildup is greater than the available
accommo:iation spaee, surplus sediment is bypassed to
locations of deeper water.
The relationship between eustatic sea-Ievel variation
and subsidence and thus the potential for sediment ac-
cumulation (or erosion) changes with time, i.e. during
sea-level or base-level cycles. This behavior is dis-
cussed in the following models in which time is one of
the variables controlling the depositional system.
sequence stratigraphy. f Some stratal termination
patterns used in seismic stratigraphy. g Systems
tracts and stacking of parasequences of a complete
sequence in a shelf-slope setting (cross section, after
Steekler et al. 1993, modified). The sequenee begins
with a type I sequence boundary, SB1, and overlies
older highstand deposits. It terminates with a type 2
sequence boundary, SB2, and is overlain by a shelf
margin wedge, SMW. The horizontal bars in the
Wheeler plot h indicate zones of deposition during
successive time steps (parasequences); dots show the
positions of the depositional shelf breaks. F or further
explanation see text
304 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

1-0 SEDIMENT ACCOMMODATION MODELS

a (FOR TIME INTERVAL M WITHIN ONE HALF-CYCLEl
b
SL-RISE AND FALL (llSLF< llSUB)
--7I\-;2~",,-A\--if'-- -:,\---T- J
"l.
1-
- I- .J.' I I WD 2 = 0 (EMERGENCE)

I />SLR;
SEA LEVEL 1 Lt.ACC,
I
1
WD, "SLF
2~ t-J _ _ _1_
~;LUS SED.
. ~ BYPASSING
-l~--lri-r ~D2 (RISE) - I ~ .'

wb,
I t.SU 8
1~IAr
t
~
LF i
~.3-1--l'ivVD3
0'k'luM1?,0
JLt.SLF
t.ACC~"-l-----
t.ISED

I
I
...
... f / FALL)
-~-"-
SED. SURFACE

t.ACC
.-.lt-t -.1. -
t.SUB
i'::>LF
I BASIC EQUA TIONS
t.SED
LlACC = llSLR + llSUB (1)
or llACC = llSUB - llSLR (2)
2_71-- - - - - - --llWD=WD 2 -WD 1 =llACC-llSED (3)

Fig. 7.4. Sediment accommodation model demon-
strating the interplay between relative sea-level
(base-level) rise, ÄSLR, and fall, ÄSLF, subsidence
of basin floor (pre-existing sediment surface),
ÄSUB, and sediment accumulation (vertical
aggradation), ÄSED, in time interval, Ät. ÄACC,
Gain or loss of accommodation (vertical space) to
store sediment; ÄWD = WD 1-WD 2 = increase or de-
crease in water depth in Ät. a SLR and SLF,
SUB>SLF. b SLF, SUB<SLF

Sediment Buildup vs. Time: Three Principal
Variables
The following sediment buildup-time models also con-
sider only one location within a basin, but the time span
comprises at least one full base-level cycle. Taking into
account the three parameters controlling accommoda-
tion space and water depth, it is obvious that there are
three principal modes of gaining or losing accommoda-
tion space to store water and sediment. This is shown
in Fig. 7.5 where only one parameter (sea level, subsi-
dence, or sediment supply) is varied while the other two
parameters are kept constant. Modes a and b (constant
subsidence) are those which are usually referred to in
sequence stratigraphy, particularly so for medium and
high-frequency base-level cycles. Mode c (varying re-
gional and global subsidence) is the mechanism advo-
cated to interpret long-term base-level changes (cf. Fig.
7.35). The situation becomes more complex iftwo or
even three of the controlling factors vary with time.
- Low- to medium-frequency base-level change. In the
case oflow-frequency sea-level changes (Fig. 7.6a), the
rate of subsidence, SUB, is commonly greater than the
maximum rate of relative sea-level fall, SLFmax' There-
fore, older sea floor (present prior to the beginning of
the cycle) cannot be eroded during the base-level cycle.
If sediment supply and potential sediment buildup,
SEDp, are always greater than SUB + SLR, the basin
will be filled up with sediment all the time, but the rates
of sediment buildup decrease during the phase offalling
base level (indicated by isochrones). Surplus sediment
is exported to other areas. With SED ::::; SUB, the loca-
tion in question will display relatively long phases of
deepening and shallowing, but erosion of sediment de-
posited within the cycle does not take place. These vari-
ants of the model more or less characterize the long-
term evolution of intracratonic basins where all three
parameters, i.e. subsidence, sea- or base-level change,
and sediment supply, operated at relatively low rates.
The model can also be applied to sea-level cycles of
higher frequency as long as SLFmax<SUB.

Sediment Buildup vs. Time: Variation in Sea Level
and Sediment Supply
These models can be applied to time periods of constant
subsidence. We consider three types of sea- or base-
level change:
- Medium-frequency sea-level change. Figure 7.6b il-
lustrates the interplay of medium-frequency sea-level
variation and four different rates of sediment buildup,
SED, which are assumed to remain constant for each
model variant. With SED 1 being slow, the water depth
at the location considered will become deeper with time
in a stepwise manner. When SED2, SED3, and SED4,
7.2 Basic Concepts
a SL VARIAI:lL~ (SL-CYCLES)
GAIN IN ACC I LOSS IN ACC
TIME~
CONSTANT)
b Sl!B VARIABLE (SUB-CYCLES)
(SS& SL = CONST ANT)
C SS VARIABLE
, (SS-CYCLES)
(SUB & SL = CONST ANT)
are always greater than SUB, the basin will periodically
become filled with sediment up to a kind of "equilib-
rium water depth", above which surplus sediment is
removcd by waves and currents. The time necessary to
fill the basin during the half-cyc1e of sea-Ievel rise de-
creases with incrcasing SED.
During the subsequent half-cyc1e of sea-Ievel fall, not
only is further sediment accumulation prevented, but
also some of the previously deposited material can be
eroded, because SLF>SUB (equation 2 in Fig. 7.4).
This occurs in a certain time interval around the inflec-
tion point ofthe sea-Ievel curve, and it is assumed here
that all the sediment below sea level (or wave base) is
completely eroded. With SED4 very high, the strati-
graphie gap (hiatus) begins earlier than with SED3 and
SED2, the last being only slightly greater than SUB.
This difference in the hiatuses is also evident in
chronostratigraphic sequences (containing isochrones)
plotted against a linear time scale (Fig. 7.6b). Isoch-
rones further show wh ether a certain layer is deposited
rapidly or slowly (cf. Fig. 7.7a, condensed layer). In all
cases ofSED>SUB or SED=SUB, the resultingvertical
sediment successions have the same thickness. Potential
305
Fig. 7.5. Accommodation space/water depth
vs. time diagrams showing three principal
mechanisms which produce gains or losses
of accommodation space, LlACC, and water
depth, Ll WD. Models describe one location
within a basin. In each case, it is only one
parameter which varies with time while the
other two parameters are kept constant
valley cutting as indicated in Fig. 7.6c is limited for all
scenarios in Fig. 7.6b, even for high SED.
The high-supply model (with SED4) and an average rate of
SLF similar to SUB explains the evolution of certain basins
which were always shallow and little affected by relative sea-
level fall. In these cases, rapid sediment buildup during rising
sea-Ievel prevented substantial deepening whereas sea-Ievel
fall is reflccted by a long period of limited deposition and
non-deposition, but little erosion and valley incision (see be-
low). This type of scenario mayproduce pronounced landward
and seaward shifting coastal sand barriers, as for example
observed in the Miocene sediments ofthe Sorbas Basin, SE
Spain (Roep et al. 1998). SLF ::::: SUB also occurs in scenarios
where the rates ofboth SLF and SUB are slow.
The section produced by low SED I spans the same time
period as the other ones, but is thinner and does not contain
any gaps (Fig. 7.6b). This low-supply model is not particularly
interesting in sequence stratigraphy because the basin is rap-
idly deepening. Then "normal" types of sequences cannot
form at this location, unless large amounts ofbypassed new
sediment and eroded older material ftom shallower parts of
the basin enhance the sediment accumulating rate (see below).
306 Chapter 7
In summary, the models with long-term SED>SUB or
SED=SUB (and SLFmax>SUB) generally show time
intervals (during sea-level rise) of a deepening basin
and deposition of all the incoming sediment alternating
with intervals of excess sediment supply and erosion
during sea-level fall. In settings of differential subsi-
dence, a combination ofthe models a and bin Fig. 7.6
has to be applied to interpret the phenomena of 3rd or-
der sea-level changes (Sect. 7.2.4).
- High-frequency sea-level change. Figure 7.6c deals
with high-frequency sea-level oscillations ofrelatively
high amplitude as known from the Quaternary. The rate
of (constant) potential sediment buildup, SEDp, is
higher than that of subsidence, SUB, assumed to be
relatively low. Rapid sea-level fall allows substantial
erosion of previously deposited material and creates
long stratigraphic gaps (cf. model b). Erosion may
lower the total sedimentary surface being exposed or
affected by wave action, or incise valleys. As in model
b (SED2-4), the thickness ofthe resulting sedimentary
section is solely controlled by subsidence (once the sea
floor has reached the elevation of the sea-level
lowstand). The sediments preserved at this location only
represent the lowermost part of the sea-level rise; the
eroded sediments may leave behind some lags. A situa-
tion similar to this model has been observed in late
Quaternary sediments ofthe Rhone delta (Tesson et al.
1990).
- Varying sediment supply. In the models discussed so
far, the rate of sediment influx into the basin was as-
sumed to be constant through time. Figure 7.7 demon-
strates a case in which terrigenous sediment supply var-
ies. Sediment influx is high during falling sea level, but
low during the transgressive phase. Such an assumption
agrees with many observations in nature. In the long
term, subsidence is compensated for by sediment accu-
mulation.
The model ofFig. 7.7 represents a ramp setting along the mar-
gin of an epicontinental sea. The amplitude of sea level
change is 50 m and the duration of one transgression-regres-
sion cyele is 4 Ma. These assumptions imply SLF max>SUB
(SUB=1O m/Ma). The storm-wave base in the basin is as-
Fig. 7.6. One-dimensional models demonstrating the
evolution of accommodation space/water depth at
one location within basin vs. time. The eustahc sea-
level (base-level) variation is assumed to be sinusoi-
dal, while the rates of subsidence, SUB, and sedi-
ment supply, SS, or potential sediment buildup,
SEDp, are kept constant. a Low-frequency (1st and
2nd order) sea-level change: SUB and mostly also
SEDp>SLFmax (= maximum rate of sea-level fall at
inflection point). Accommodation space, ACC, al-
ways increases but at changing rate. b Medium-fre-
quency (3rd order) sea-level variation: SLFmax>SUB
Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
sumed to be relatively shallow (20 m) because the basin area
and thus the fetch for the buildup of waves is limited. Loca-
tion P is situated slightly above the storm-wave base oflow
sea level, point Q is in deeper water (Fig. 7.7a). The sediment
thickness-time diagram (Fig. 7.7b) shows the evolution at
point P. The sections ofP and Q (Fig. 7.7c) show sediment
thicknesses (linear scale) and isochrones (non-linear).
In contrast to the "constant supply models", the "vary-
ing supply" scenario leads to a prolonged phase of
deepening and slow sediment buildup during rising and
high sea level. The sedimentation rate tends to be low-
est between the inflection point and the peak of
highstand and may therefore generate condensed sec-
tions, especially at location Q, consisting largely of
hemipelagic sediment. Depending on the depositional
environment, marls, limestones, black shales, skeletal
concentrations, or thin beds rich in authigenic minerals,
such as phosphorite or glauconite may form (Loutit et
al. 1988).
During falling sea level, sediment buildup at points
P and Q proceeds in markedly different ways (Fig.
7.7 c). At P the phase of rapid sediment buildup is trun-
cated by a long interval of erosion (SB 1).
Ifthe previously deposited sediments are cohesive (elays, silty
elays, marls) and contain layers which are already
diageneticallyindurated (e.g. hardgrounds, limestone or sider-
ite concretions, limestone layers), submarine erosion often
ends at such horizons (cf. Fig. 7.16a, band c). As a result,
lags ofthe eroded material may be left behind (e.g., reworked
fossils and concretions, iron ooids, elasts of semi-solid
mudstone ). Sessile fauna requiring hard substrate may estab-
lish new communities, ineluding rock-boring species. Storm
wave erosion may proceed stepwise from shallower to deeper
indurated layers and locally cut channels.
The sequence cycle on top ofthe unconforrnity exhibits
a thin deepening-upward unit, a more or less condensed
section, and a thicker shallowing-upward unit which is
truncated by the next unconforrnity. The "field-water
depth" curve, directly derived from the thicknesses and
paleo-water depths ofthe individual units, has an asym-
metric shape (in contrast to the symmetric model curve).
At location Q in deeper water, transgressive and
highstand sediments tend to be thinner than at P, but
sediment bypassed and eroded at P during SLF can in
and SEDp>SUB with four scenarios for different (but
constant with time) SS and SED . c High-frequency
(4th and 5th order) and high-ampfitude sea-level van-
ation: SLFmax»SUB and SEDp>SUB. Possibly, a
small portion only of the sediment buildup during
SLR is preserved while most of the previously depos-
ited and newly incoming material is eroded and by-
passed into deeper water (e.g. known from
prograding Quaternary deltas). ER, sediment section
which may be eroded by the lowering sea level, ei-
ther locally (incised valleys) or in wider areas. ON-
SET ER, onset of erosion; BYP, sediment bypassing.
7.2 Basic Concepts 307

a LOW- TO MEDIUM-FREOUENCY SEA- OR BASE-LEVEL CHANGE

( 1st to 3rd order sequences)
, Il:
0C!l
Z-
01- ~(I)
~(I)
Il:~ IW
II- I-Z
TIME U(I)
o -+4
_ _ _ _ _ _ ...1

ACC
t
W
~
i=
ISOCHRO

b MEDIUM-FREQUENCY SEA- OR BASE-LEVEL CHANGE

(3rd order sequences)
NO EROSION

ER ..r---,~
~--'oC'.:~ BYP SLF>SUB
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY THICKNESS
<2 <3 <4 SED2-4

ISOCHRONES SAME
THICKNESS

c HIGH-FREOUENCY SEA-LEVEL CHANGE

(4th and 5th order sequences)
THICKNESS

/
8
\
o B~
_ __1- __ _
1 HIATUS
ALTERNATIVE
\
EROSIONAL
UNCONFORMITY

c. 6-8
I
I I
I I
~~ INCISION
HIATUS AND fOR INCISED VALLEYS
308 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

RAMP MARGIN, EFFECTS OF STORM-WAVE BASE AND

VARIATION IN TERAIGENOUS SEDIMENT SUPPLY a
SEDIMENT INFLUX ---...,.
~~
-- ;:-~-~-=~-~-~~-~-~-:c~~
.;;;;:::-..
. .~, -
SED . BYPASSING

--
""7V'- ~_:~:ORM-WAVE
_ ~V_-:
-=:._~
,• BASE
SEA LEVEL

-.:;: _______ ,.1 __ \.L.

b SEA LEVEL
P -.:-~
Q
o
c
"
SEDIMENT
o Ma
P THICKNESS
(LINEAR SCALE)
SEDIMENT / "FIELD" WATER 5
4
THICKNESS DEPTH (m)
20 50

LST

f-
Ma

1'32 HST
DEPTH (m) I 1 TST
I 0
I
CYCLE
,i LST
SEDIMENT SUPPLY
I 'i' -1
MFS UNCONFORMITY ~L-2
TIME
------:.
I

:2 SHALLOWING 6 Ma
I
:;0:. ",

WINNOWING DEEPENING I I J
r- HST T - - - - -· LST - - - - 1- - - - TST - - - - THST l
I i

Fig. 7.7. a Cross seetion of ramp margin, eonstant
subsidenee SUB<SLF, changing sea level and storm-
wave base, loeation of points P and Q above or be-
low the lowermost wave base. b Time-subsidenee-
sediment buildup diagram for point P eontrolled by
sea-level change and variation in sediment supply.
ER, seetion whieh ean be eroded (cf. Fig. 7.6e); BYP
indicates period and amount of sediment bypassing. e
Seetions displaying sediment thieknesses versus non-
linear time scales. For abbreviations see Fig. 7.3. See
text for further explanation. (Modified from Einseie
1985)

turn cause rapid deposition at Q. Thus, the Q seetion
may eontain redistributed shallow-water material and,
as a whole, beeome thickerthan the P seetion. Sea-level
lowstand is not refleeted by erosional unconformities
but solely by horizons of winnowing and reworked ma-
terial (SB2). Here, the use ofthecondensed seetion as
sequenee boundary would be an alternative to the EX-
XON eoncept. The asymmetry of the "field-water
depth" eurve at Q (not shown in Fig. 7.7c) suggests
(erroneously) rapid sea-level rise and slow fall.
This model demonstrates that the same processes
(sea-Ievel change, subsidence, and varying sediment
supply) can lead to markedly different sedimentary re-
cords.
Asymmetrie Sea- or Base-Level Change
The models discussed so far are based on symmetrie,
sinusoidal sea-level oscillations. Sea-Ievel changes in
nature may have oeeurred in quite different ways. In the
late Pleistocene the sea-Ievel varied in a very irregular
manner due to the superposition of orbital signals of
different frequeneies (Sect. 7.92). The last 100 ka cyde,
for example, is characterized by slow (irregular) sea-
level fall and rapid rise. The impact of such asymmetrie
high-frequeney variations on the sedimentary reeord is
eommonly limited, but asymmetrie sea-Ievel eurves of
lower frequeney may exert more influenee (Fig. 7.8a).
With eonstant subsidenee and sediment supply, rapid
sea-level rise eauses substantial basin deepening,
whereas the same basin tends to remain shallow with
slow rise. However, the hiatus generated during the
interval of SLF>SUB spans in both eases about the
same length of time.
7.2 Basic Concepts
ASYMMETRIC SEA- OR LAKE-LEVEL CHANGE
Fig. 7.8. Asymmetrie SL-eurves and their potential effeets on sediment erosion and bypassing. See text for
further explanation
In partieular, lake basins ean produee asymmetrie,
irregular lake-level eurves (Fig. 7.8a, right-hand side;
see also Seet. 7.7.1). When lakes beeome closed due to
climate change, their water levels tend to drop fast until
a kind of equilibrium between water supply into the
lake and evaporation from the lake is established. Such
an equilibrium with ± eonstant lake level may be main-
tained for a relatively long time period. On the other
hand, reworking of elevated older lake sediments, valley
ineision due to the lowered base level, and evaporite
preeipitation may rapidly fill up the lake with sediment
during this phase. If the climate again beeomes more
wet, the lake level ean rapidly rise to its original posi-
tion.
Superposition of 4th and 3rd Order Sea-Ievel
Changes (Parasequences)
Low- to medium-frequeney base-level ehanges rnay be
superimposed by higher frequeney oseillations. A eom-
mon ease is 4th and 5th order sea-Ievel ehanges of dif-
ferent amplitudes interfering with 3rd order eycles
showing longer term trends of shallowing and
deepening-upward (Fig. 7.9a). Under the assumption
that the rate of subsidence, SUB, is greater than the rate
of maximum sea-level fall, SLF max' of the 3rd order
eurve, then the superposition of even a low-amplitude
4th or 5th order eurve generates short intervals in whieh
SLFmax>SUB and therefore aceommodation spaee is lost
(ACC = negative). This oeeurs in both the regressive
and transgressive phase of the 3rd order eurve (Fig.
7. 9b). If sediment buildup in shallow water (loeation P)
ean more or less fill the aeeommodation spaee through
time, the intervals of erosion are longer than those of
negative ACC (Fig. 7.ge; cf. Fig. 7. 7b). As a result, the
ehronostratigraphie sequenee at loeation P displays a
number of subunits representing different time intervals
and mainly deepening-upward trends. Some of them
exhibit both deepening and shallowing upward. Most
309
LAKE c
SLF>SUB RAPID
DEEPEN.
of the subunits are separated by stratigraphie gaps
(hiati) of different duration or, as indieated in the thiek-
ness profile, by erosional uneonforrnities of variable
intensity whieh are often overlain by layers eharaeter-
ized by winnowing and reworking. The thieknesses of
the subunits vary signifieantly from thin (falling sea
level) to thiek (rising phase, Fig. 7.9d), but the overall
thiekness of the P seetion in shallow water is eontrolled
by the subsidenee rate.
At loeation Q in deeper water (where the rate of sub-
sidenee is higher, see below) sediment eroded and by-
passed at P ean be deposited and thus prevent strati-
graphie gaps (as shown in Fig. 7.ge; cf. Fig. 7.7e). Dur-
ing the fall of the 3rd-order eurve, the large amount of
bypassed sediment may form seaward prograding sedi-
ment bodies and thiek subunits; during the rise less sed-
iment arrives at Q and only a little surplus sediment is
available to be deposited in deeper water (thin sub-
units). The total3rd order sequenee may beeome thieker
at loeation Q than at P.
The subunits diseussed here represent parasequenees
after the EXXON Group eoneept. Theyean form during
bothrelative rising and falling (3rd order) sea level. The
model ofFig. 7.9 demonstrates that the nature ofpara-
sequenees may signifieantly differ from loeation to 10-
eation within a basin as weil as from bottom to top of
a vertieal sedimentary seetion. They ean be bounded
either byuneonforrnities or eorrelative eonforrnities and
they display both deepening and shallowing-upward
trends.
7.2.4 Sediment Buildup-Time Models (2-D),
Differential Subsidence
As mentioned in the last two models, sediment eroded
andlor bypassed in shallow water ean be deposited in
deeper water. This is a eommon situation along both
ramp and shelf-break margins and is normally assoei-
ated with differential subsidenee of the basin floor. In
310 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

a PROXIMAL DISTAL
SS SEO "" ACC SEO < ACC
~ ." I. LONG-TERM
~---- 'L---ER + BYP NEW _...::JL _ ~
_________ P....... _,.gp~~T Q
:c:;r - -- - -
/ \ --------1
COMPOSITE SL-CURVE, .==---~-- ~
PARASEQU ENCES SUB, -__ ~

5U6 ' >5U6,

d e f 9
CHRONO- THICKNESS. I
STRATIGRAPHY ,
'.
I
,,
I
I
I

J
RELATIVE FALL

.~~~~~'~I~G+.
RISING
3RD ORDER SL
>-
U
w
I-
Z U;
w
::l oD... I
d I
w .:2:
CI: o I
'+ u
J: I
<.!)
J:
DING I
I
I
. -- -.. I
,I

Fig. 7.9. Model of parasequenee formation in
embayments, shallow seas, and somewhat deeper
water. a Cross seetion of basin margin. b,c Superpo-
sition of a sinusoidal high-frequeney and low-ampli-
tude eustatie sea-Ievel fluetuation onto a seeond sinu-
soidal sea-level eurve of lower frequeney but greater
amplitude. SUB, SED, SLF, ACC rates of subsi-
dence, sediment buildup, relative sea-Ievel fall, and
gain or loss of aeeommodation spaee. SS sediment
supply. Long-term it is always: max. SLF<SUB.
d Short time intervals in whieh SLF>SUB.
e Chronostratigraphie sequenee in proximal position
where SS and SED::::: ACC (low-frequeney eurve).
Stratigraphie gaps are mostly longer than shown in d
beeause of rapid SED. Phases of low SED (rework-
ing, winnowing), deepening and shallowing. f Thiek-
ness of aetual sediment buildup with erosional un-
eonformities ete. Subseetions of long-term SLF are
thinner than those of SLR. g Sediment buildup in
more distal position (temporally ACC>SED) where
eroded and bypassed material from proximal loea-
tions aeeumulates as prograding or baekstepping sed-
iment bodies
7.2 Basic Concepts
the following models it is assumed that basinward from
a hinge line (separating areas of subsidence and uplift)
subsidence increases basinward. The amount of subsi-
dence rnay increase linearly with the distance from the
hinge line (rotational subsidence, Fig. 7.1 Oa) or it may
grow in a less regular way.
The different components of total subsidence are neglected
here as is sediment compaction. Flexure of the underlying
crost, resulting from the increasing sediment load in the basin,
can also cause subsidence landward ofthe hinge line (cf. Sect.
8.4).
On ramp margins differential subsidence during relative
SLF (half-cyc1e) may lead to the following processes
(Fig.7.l0a):
- Landward from the equilibrium point (SLF=SUB),
accommodation space (ACC) is lost, which leads to
emergence and subaerial erosion, inc1uding the incision
of valleys. The emerged zone and its morphological
features will adjust to the conditions of weathering and
subaerial sediment transport. The shoreline will move
basinward, but its precise position is controlled by sedi-
ment supply and the mode of redistribution of the
eroded and incoming new sediment. The maximum
thickness of the newly accumulating sediment can be
expected seaward from the equilibrium point where
ACC is gained even during SLF.
- When SL again rises, the maximum thickness of the
new increment of sediment shifts landward. However,
this sediment mass usually does not contain eroded
olderrnaterial. Generally, the sedimentmasses available
during base-level rise or fall should be taken into ac-
count in all considerations about sequence stratigraphy.
In other words, the principle of mass conservation
should not be neglected (e.g. Cross 1997).
According to this concept, the sequence cycle consists of only
two facies tracts: the progradational base-level fall half-cycle
and the aggradational base-level rise half-cycle. The genetic
sequence (full cycle) contains the total amount of sediment
accumulated in alliinked depositional environments.
- Basinward increasing rates of subsidence also affect
the nature of the sequence boundaries as displayed in
the time-space diagram (Wheeler diagram) of Fig.
7. lOb. Type 1 boundaries (SB 1, erosional unconformi-
ties) pass into Type 2 boundaries (SB2) which do not
show any hiatus. Isochrones (time lines) in the cross
section merge landward and combine to erosional un-
conformities (cf. Fig. 7.15d; see also Ross 1989). The
basinward extent of SB 1 increases with the amplitude
of sea-level change.
- For a given amount of sediment supply, SS, or poten-
tial sediment buildup SEDp>SUB, the hiatus of SB1
starts earlier and ends later c10se to the hinge line than
farther basinward where it finally ceases and is replaced
by a correlative conformity (Fig. 7.l0b). The duration
of the hiatus for a certain location within the basin in-
311
creases with increasing sediment supply and vice versa.
- Sequence boundaries and other specific surfaces gen-
erally do not coincide with the lowest or highest points
ofthe eustatic sea-1evel curve, but may migrate up and
down in time according to their position near to or far
away from the edge of the basin.
- The maximum flooding surface (MFS) signifies a
situation in which the basin margin reaches its maxi-
mum water depth.
The position ofMFS on the time scale also depends on SS or
SEDp as weil as on the subsidence rate. With SEDp>SUB,
maximum flooding occurs prior to the peak ofthe eustatic sea-
level curve. In a strict sense, neither the maximum flooding
surface and the condensed section, nor the boundaries ofthe
systems tracts (also see below) can be assumed to be synchro-
nous (Wehr 1993). This is so even in the same basin, when
sediment supply and/or subsidence differ from one part ofthe
basin to the other.
The basin cross section of Fig. 7.l0c shows the
basinward increasing sediment thicknesses of model (a)
and allows surplus sediment to bui1d prograding sedi-
ment bodies (± sandy longshore bars or seaward dip-
ping sediment wedges). These correspond to the
lowstand systems tract (LST) of the "c1assical" shelf-
break model of the EXXON group. SB 1 ends where
SUB is always greater than SLF.
With the onset of relative sea-level rise, sediments
begin to aggrade on top of SB2, while outbuilding con-
tinues at a slowing rate. Then lack of sediment with
respect to increasing ACC causes backstepping and
coastal onlap (transgressive systems tract, TST) until
the maximum flooding surface, MFS, is established.
The following highstand deposits (HST) again
pro grade. This model also largely explains the shelf-
break model developed for passive margin settings (see
below).
The general principles discussed above can be ap-
plied to 3rd order sequences as well as to higher fre-
quency sequences (4th and 5th order). However, the
superposition oftwo or several frequencies in conjunc-
tion with differential subsidence and other factors cre-
ate a variety of phenomena which cannot be described
by one or only a few facies models (for many regional
examples see e.g. Miall1997). The few idealized mod-
els discussed below demonstrate some of these com-
p1exities. Basin modelling with the aid of computers
provides a more sophisticated approach to a better un-
derstanding of these complex scenarios (e.g. Lawrence
1993; Levell and Leu 1993; and others).
In this context the results of two computer models
are ofinterest (Fig. 7.11; Levell and Leu 1993). They
show that the overall sediment architecture of a shelf-
slope setting subjected to cyc1ic variation in sediment
supply (Fig. 7.11 b, stable sea level) is similar to that
produced by sea-level changes (Fig. 7.11a, constant
sediment supply). However, a principal difference
arises between the two models in the occurrence and
nature of sequence boundaries and coastal onlap.
312 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cydes, and Event Stratigraphy

a SUB,= O
(HINGE UNE) ,
,

COAST AL PLAIN '

( ± INCISED VALLEYS)

RAMP MARGIN,
COASTUNE MIGRATION
DIFFERENTIAL
SUBSIDENCE
I--------,,~ ---------+
(MINIMUM, DEPENDING ON SS)

SUB = 0
SUBII 11 111 b
-~_ . _ . _._._. I_. - MFS _._._ ._ ._ . -
IV
I
.- I I
r:4~SS:S2r82:~~~.:~~: DEEPENING tI I
I
I I
I I
, I
I . .J
HIATUS} SB1

FOR SED>SUB

Fig. 7.10. a Rotational differential subsidence of
ramp margin (cross section) around a hinge line and
sediment redistribution during sea- or base-level fall.
SLF, SUB, and SED indicate rates of relative sea-
level fall, subsidence, and sediment buildup in time
interval At. During subsequent sea-level rise, the area
of maximum sediment accumulation, max. SED, will
migrate landward. b Chronostratigraphic diagram of
a during one idealized sea-Ievel cyc1e. Note different
onset and duration of hiatus (sequence boundary
Type l, SB l) in relation to differential subsidence
and sediment supply, SS. SS exceeds SUB at loca-
tions where SUB<SLF. Between locations III and
IV, SBl passes into a correlative conformity (SB2).
See Fig. 7.6b for the method used to construct the
diagram. c Sediment thicknesses of b, two types of
sequence boundary and maximum flooding surface,
MFS. In addition, prograding ofthe highstand (HST)
and backstepping of the transgressive (TST) facies
tracts are indicated. Most of the lowstand sediments
(LST) are deposited outside of the figure farther
basinward. See text for further explanation
7.3 Coastal and Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems
The time steps ofthe simulation are 0.5 Ma. At the beginning
the basin is shallow and its shoreline lies at the hinge line. For
both models rotational differential subsidence around the
hinge li ne and isostatic adjustment of the underlying crnst to
the increasing sediment load is assumed. Basinward decreas-
ing sediment transport creates a depositional shelf break.
Model (a) produces prograding and backstepping sediment
bodies as weil as other characteristic features of the seismic
stratigraphic concept for passive continental margins (Sect.
7.2.5 Summary (Sequence Stratigraphy, General Concepts)
Modem seismic stratigraphy and sequence stra-
tigraphy evolved from the study of Atlantic-type
passive margins. This concept is now applied
with a number of modifications to all types of
basin setting.
- Relative sea- or base-level changes affect the
sediment-accommodation space for the buildup
of sediment in coastal and shallow-sea areas as
weIl as on land and cause the depocenter to shift
landward or seaward. This leads to prograding
or backstepping facies associations (systems
tracts or facies tracts).
- A systems tract normally consists of sediments
of different dcpositional environments (marine
and continental). Systems tracts can often be
subdivided into parasequences which show dis-
tinct stacking patterns.
7.3 Sequence Stratigraphy ofCoastal and
Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems
7.3.1 Coastline Migration
Most ofthe following model scenarios reflect field ob-
servations. Differential subsidence is taken into account
for the shelf and shelf-break-slope settings. Major ma-
rine deltas are discussed separately (Sect. 7.4).
In terms ofterrigenous sediment supply one can dis-
tinguish two end members: (1) scenarios with abundant
and (2) very limited supply. As a result, the coastline
and foreshore zone may be either accretionary or non-
accretionary (Fig. 7.12; Helland-Hansen and Martinsen
1997). Non-accretionary settings are characterized by
pronounced regressive and transgressive lags.
Accretionary settings build prograding sediment bodies
during stable and slowly rising sea levels as well as
during relative sea-Ievel fall. Backstepping sediment
bodies result from faster sea-Ievel rise. Composite pat-
terns evolve when accretionary normal or forced regres-
sion is followed by non-accretionarytransgression (Fig.
7 .12f and g). Settings controlled mainly by episodic
relative sea-level rise (or subsidence) and sufficient
sediment supply tend to generate stepwise prograding
313
7.3.3; cf. Fig. 7.3f and g). Model (b) displays a maximum
flooding surface (MFS), as (a), but does notdevelop the same
type of sequence boundaries. Prograding during phases of
high sediment supply is restricted to the outerpart ofthe cross
section, whereas the central part mainly shows vertical
aggradation. Distinct coastal onlap only occurs landward of
the hinge line.
The interplay of sea-Ievel change, supply and
aggradation of sediment, and (often differen-
tial) subsidence generates a variety of phenom-
ena which cannot always be interpreted unam-
biguously. Additional complications result from
the superposition of sea-Ievel fluctuations of
differing frequency and amplitude and varia-
tions in sediment supply.
- The SB I sequence boundary occurs in areas
where relative sea-Ievel fall is greater than sub-
sidence (+ syngenetic sediment buildup). This
unconformity is not synchronous and normally
not a basin-wide surface. The correlative SB2 is
mostly difficult to identify. Maximum flooding
surfaces and condensed sections are frequently
useful as ± synchronous marker horizons.
coastal sand bodies. Settings undergoing fast subsi-
dence and receiving limited amounts of sand are charac-
terized by backstepping cycles of coastal sands.
The landward or seaward migration of coastal zones
depends on the interplay between sea-Ievel change, sed-
iment ag gradation, and subsidence (or uplift). In the
case of slow subsidence and limited sediment supply,
for example, even a slow rate of eustatic sea-level fall
can reduce the sediment accommodation space and thus
lead to a substantial basinward shift ofthe coastal facies
association.
Assuming a ramp basin slope of 2%0 (2 m per 1 km) and ne-
glecting subsidence and sediment redistribution, a 3rd order
sea-Ievel fall (half-period 1 Ma, amplitude 100 m) can force
the shoreline to migrate basinward at an average rate ofO.05
mla. However, a 5th order sea-Ievel cyc1e similar to the late
Pleistocene sea-Ievel oscillations (half-period 10 ka, ampli-
tude 100 m) will shift the shoreline at a rate of 5 mla (e.g.
EinseIe 1996).
Likewise, rapid sea-Ievel rise can generate fast shore-
line retreat and drown older coastal barriers, whereas
slowtransgressions tend to rework pre-existing barriers
and shift them landward (Fig. 7.13a). Thus they estab-
lish a new kind of equilibrium profile on the shoreface.
 314 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

a Sea-Ievel changes _ _ _ __ -, Highstand

0+
-E ~
ltI
5 r-----+"!~""'"I
~
Q)
.c E 10
....
c. j.::
t--"-....::::-'+...-,~.,

Q)
o 15

o so 100 1SO 200 250 300 Amplitude

Horizontal distance (km)

Maximum
b Cyclic change in sediment supply
sediment supply

_o.O~~ij.Ii~~~~~====ls,
E
.::.t:
0.21 [
0+

.c
....C. 0.4
Q) Q)
o No down ward shift of onlap E l0+--~~--~~
0.8 durin g regression i=
100 200 15 -'---~--_.....J

Basin position (km)

Fig. 7.11. Sediment architecture produced by com-
puter models, assuming an initial ramp setting with
rotational tectonic subsidence around a hinge line
and isostatic adjustment to the sediment load. a Sea-
level variation and constant terrigenous sediment
supply. b Varying sediment supply, no sea-Ievel
change. Overall sediment architecture includes maxi-
mum flooding surfaces, MFS, but does not display
the same type of sequence boundaries and coastal
onlap as a. (After Levell and Leu 1993, modified).
See text for further explanation

These simplified models are significantly modified by
variations in sediment supply. High supply, for exam-
pIe, may completely prevent shoreline retreat during
sea-Ievel rise.
Along coastlines weIl supplied with sand, the coastal
and shoreface sands respond to relative sea-Ievel fall by
basinward prograding beach ridges and barrier-Iagoon
systems. Figure 7.l3e shows the scenario of a young
coastline affected by high-frequency, high-amplitude
Quaternary sea-Ievel changes. These can generate
parasequences beginning with marine mud on top of a
transgressive surface and grading into shoreface sands.
This model has been frequently applied to proximal
regions of fore land and shelf basins with moderate,
from time to time interrupted sediment supply. A some-
what modified scenario is illustrated in Figure 7.13b.
In the model ofFig. 7.13e, rivers providing sand andmud cut
valleys into the pre-existing coastal plain during SLF, thereby
adjusting their gradients to the lowering sea. Sand arriving
during this phase at the river mouth can be distributed by
longshore currents. When the sea-Ievel again rises, the incom-
ing sand is largely trapped in the drowning incised vaUey and
therefore is no longer available for longshore transport or
outbuilding of submarine sand bodies. As a result, the
transgressive sea leaves behind a thin mud blanket on top of
an erosional transgressive surface (ravinement surface) until
a new barrier-Iagoon system can be established (here at
highstand).
The model of Figure 7 .13b is based on field observations
in the proximal part of a foreland basin (Western Interior,
North America, Plint 1988). It takes into account wave ero-
sion and sedimentary structures common in foreshore sands.
The various facies zones migrate horizontally toward the basin
center (Fig. 7.13b I). Relative sea-Ievel fall acce1erates shore-
line progradation whereas subsequent rise reduces this process
(Fig. 7.l3b2 and b3).
High sediment supply, including a considerable propor-
tion of sand, leads to a prograding shoreline not only
during sea-level fall, but also during stable relative sea
level (normal regression). The zone of coastal sands
7.3 Coastal and Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems
ACCRETIONARY SYSTEMS
a
_______:"<_~_~_~_~~~~~~;,;;_-___11
, C
b FORCED REGRESSION
d TRANSGRESSION
f PROGRADING
COMPOSlTE PATTERNS
CONT. AND TRANSITIONAL SED.
Fig. 7.12. Idealized models of shoreline migration
affected by relative sea-Ievel changes and different
sediment supply. Accretionary systems generate
prograding sediment bodies (a,b,c,f,g) except during
times of transgression (d). Composite stacking pat-
terns are frequently characterized by episodic normal
thins and thickens, but forms a continuous body on top
of a truncation surface (regressive lag) produced by the
lowered storm wave base. This scenario is typical of
medium-frequency sea-Ievel oscillations.
An alternative for higher frequency oscillations is
shown in Fig. 7.13c and d where rapid sea-level fall
generates a more or less isolated lowstand sand body
(or delta) which is later drowned by rapid sea-level rise
315
NORMAL REGRESSION (NRl
(STEADY OR SLOWL Y RISING SU
NON-ACCRETIONARY SYSTEMS
~
e
BACKSTEPPING
9
MARINE EROSION
NR, NORMAL REGRESSION
NAT. NON-ACCRETIONARY TRANSGR .
regression NR (prograding) alternating with non-
accretionary transgression NA T (f,g). Long-term,
these coastlines show either overall prograding or
backstepping. (After Helland-Hansen and Martinsen
1996, modified)
and capped by a transgressive erosion surface. This in
turn is overlain by a mud blanket. Vertical sections of
the prograded sand bodies frequently show "sharp-
based" shoreface sequences (Fig. 7.l3d) because the
normal shoreface sequence is more or less truncated.
Modern (late Pleistocene to Holocene) examples of large,
isolated lowstand sand bodies on shelves have been described,
for example, from the Celtic Sea (outer shelf of the English
316 Chapter 7
Channel) and the Gulf of Lion (Mediterranean, off southem
France; Beme et al. 1998). The sand bodies are ten to several
tens ofkm wide and 20 to 50 m high. They fonned during the
last sea-levellowstand as shelf-perched lowstand wedges (cf.
Fig. 7.20) which were partlyreworked bythe following trans-
gression. Even in the high-energy tide- and wave-dominated
environment ofthe Celtic Sea the major part ofthe lowstand
sand bodies is preserved due to the rapid Holocene sea-level
nse.
Coasts along active continental margins are frequently
affected by uplift generally causing the shoreline to
migrate basinward. This long-term trend may be super-
imposed by sea-level changes. During times in which
the rates of sea-level rise and uplift are approximately
equal (Fig. 7.l3d), the shoreline tends to be stable, fa-
voring the formation of cliffs. During sea-level fall, the
shoreline pro grades rapidly, possiblyfurther accelerated
by increased sediment supply from valley incision in the
hinterland.
7.3.2 Ramp Margins and Epicontinental Seas
Effects ofVariable Sediment Influx and Subsidence
The influx ofterrigenous sediment and the rates of dif-
ferential subsidence have a profound impact on the fa-
cies and sediment buildup on a ramp-type basin margin.
This is demonstrated by three schematic time-space
diagrams (Fig. 7.14a), in wh ich both sediment supply
rich in sand and subsidence increase from the left- to
the right-hand side. The sand-poor, low-subsidence
model displays reworked horizons (regressive and
transgressive lags) between shales and limited sand ac-
cumulation during the lowstand phase. In the sand-rich,
high-subsidence model, a thick sand belt migrates
basinward or landward during relative SLF or SLR,
respectively, and largely fills the accommodation space
provided by subsidence. Erosionallags only occur on
the inner ramp. Between these two end members many
transitional depositional systems are feasible.
Ramp Margin, High Sand Supply
The models ofFigure 7.14b and c describe third order
or higher order depositional sequences developing on
Fig. 7.13. a Different modes of shoreline retreat con-
trolled by the rate of sea-level rise and sediment sup-
ply, SS. Limited SS and rapid rise cause drowning of
older barrier-lagoon systems. (After Einseie 1993,
based on Elliott 1986, modified). b Prograding and
retreating sand-rich coastlines controlled by the rate
of relative sea-level change. Note erosional surfaces,
produced during both regression and transgression,
as weil as the formation of isolated shelf sand bodies.
(Eins eie 1993, modified from Plint 1988). eNormal
Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
a ramp margin or in an epicontinental sea when sand
supply is relatively high. Consequently, the systems
tracts or parasequences deposited in shallow water are
rich in sand. If subsidence creates more space than can
be filled by the incoming sediment flux, the total se-
quence displays a backstepping trend with time (Fig.
7.14b), whereas a surplus in sediment supply will cause
subsequent parasequences to pro grade over the older
ones (Fig. 7.14c). In the latter example, swamps and
coal seams may form on the aggrading coastal plain
during the late transgressive phase, when the gradients
of incoming rivers are reduced and the rising groundwa-
ter table more or less reaches the land surface. The coal
is buried under thin transgressive muds ± shallow-ma-
rine carbonate layers.
Non-Uniform SL-Changes, Low Sediment Supply
The model of Figure 7.15 describes the response of
sediments to a number of non-uniform sea-level
changes in a cross-section through the broad marginal
zone of a slowly differentially subsiding basin, such as
an epicontinental sea. The basin receives mainly fine
grained terrigenous material which enables long-term
sediment accumulation (below the storm-wave base of
low sea level) to approximately keep pace with subsi-
dence. In the coastal and foreshore zones, maximum
SLF is greater than SUB. Due to lack of sand, seaward
prograding coastal sand bodies playa minor role. Both
the transgressive and regressive phase of sea-level
change are recorded by lag sediments (Fig. 7.16a and
b, cf. Sect. 7.9).
Their landward and seaward extent is controlled by the vary-
ing amp!itudes ofthe sea-level curve. Ifflexural subsidence
landward ofthe hinge !ine and continental deposition can be
neglected, the transgressive lag tends to rest directly on the
previous regressive lag or on older bedrock. The lag horizon
may contain a mixed fauna of differing age as weil as re!ics
of older beds or concretions. The duration ofthe stratigraphic
hiatus between the two types oflags increases landward (Fig.
7.15b; cf. Fig. 7. lOb). Here, a considerable part ofthe trans-
gressive sediments can be removed bymechanical and chemi-
cal denudation during the subsequent regressive phase which,
in the case of 3rd order cycles, may last about 1 Ma. Another
part ofthe transgressive sequence is eroded by the lowering
stonn-wave base (Fig. 7.l5a; cf. Fig. 7.7b).
and sharp-based foreshore section generated by wave
erosion during relative sea-level fall (see b2). d Step-
wise basinward shoreline migration due to relative
sea-level change in regions of coastal uplift. (From
Einseie 1996). e Parasequences, PS, produced by
regressive barrier-lagoon systems and transgressive
shelf muds during high-frequency (Pleistocene) sea-
level oscillations along a sand-rich coast (Atlantic
coast of Brazil. (After Dominguez et al. 1992, modi-
fied)
7.3 Coastal and Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems 317

5HOREFACE RETREA T a b1 COASTAL PROGRADATION HIGH 55

STA8lE SEI. LEVEL
WASHOVER SANDS

FASTAEL
± TEMPESTITES
SL·FALL
IN-PLACE DROWNING, LOW SS
SLF>SUB-·:r -

t SL-RISE
RAPID

d COA5TAL UPLIFT (UPL> SLR)

AND SHORELINE MIGRATION

SHARP BASE TEIoIPEST. ~

IEROSIONAL UNCONF.)

b4 SHORELINE PROGRADATION
REDUCED LATE SL-
lOWSTAND
~ I ± STABLE)

'lil~!~ji~L: ~.;:_;..~: :;~:t5'-:; : : !::SH:EI.:F :S:A:N:D==aOD:: :Y;~~::::::::":""--~

I'OFFS~RE BAR")

"NORMAL" SHARP-BASED
c SHOREFACE SHOREFACE
e HIGH-FREQUENCY (PLEISTOCENE) SEQUENCE SEQUENCE
COASTAL-SHELF PARASEQUENCES
LAGOONAL
LAGOON MUDST.

BEACH
BREAKER
ZONE
:;=~111
LOWER
5HOREFA~C=E-1~~~
SWALEY

HUMMOCKYli~~
SAND-AND
MUDSTONE.
WAVE·RIPPLEO .
BIOTURBA TED
318 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

a PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SILICICLASTIC RAMP MARGIN SEDIMENTS

INCREASING SS (SAND) AND SUBSIDENCE

----------------.-... BASINWARD

'··1
REDEPOSITED

RA~_
-=- - - --::.:::.~

b RAMP MARGIN SEOUENCE (3rd order)

FLUVIAI

C PROGRADING PARASEOUENCES (HST) WITH COAL

COASl'AL SANPS

"-
.... ....

ALLUVIAL PLAIN COAL

Fig. 7.14. a Idealized end members of ramp margin
sequences controlled by sediment supply, SS (in par-
ticular sand), relative sea-Ievel change, and differen-
tial subsidence. With increasing sand supply and ac-
commodation space, lag-dominated shaley systems
pass into systems with prograding coastal sands
capped by transgressive shelf muds and finally sys-
tems accumulating sand during both regression and
transgression. b Moderately sand-rich system tracts
of 3rd order sequence on ramp margin; backstepping
trend. c Parasequences consisting of prograding
coastal sands, aggrading alluvial plain deposits in-
cluding coal, anj thin transgressive muds with car-
bonate layers. The coastline jumps landward when
relative sea-Ievel rise exceeds sediment buildup.
Thereafter, coastal sands again prograde. (b,c Based
on Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Emery and Myers 1996;
and other sources )
7.3 Coastal and Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems 319

LOW IN · ~ a
HIGH SEA LEVEL TRANSGRESSION-
FLUX OF -,......;::---- - - - - - - - --.,...-...- REGRESSION
SEDIMENT LOW SEA LEVEL
..../'_S.I2~M WAVE BASE
MECHANICAL AND
CHEMICAl DENUDATION _PRESERVED
OF TRANSGRESSIVE SEDIMENT SEDIMENT
~ (1 CYCLE)
HINGE:lINE ()
SUBSIDENCE

SEA LEVEL
HIGH LOW b . EROSION AND REWORKING tSTORM-WAVE)
LONG AND DEEP AND.·S/:iALLOW

LST

HST

TST
:----~ SHALLOWING
DEEPENING

t MECHANICAL
AND CHEMICAL
DENUDATION
TRANSGR. SHALLOW-
CONDENSED
LAYER
LAG MARINE SANDS

(/)
(/)
w
CONOENSED
z LAYEAS
:.::
ü
:r
I- LST
--'::::::::::::::t:;::::f,- HST
'TST

SEA LEVEL
HIGH LOW d UNITS
OF TIME
ri---...---- 8

(/)
(J)
w
Z
~
u
r:
I-
2
PROGRADING OF 1
BYPASSED SED .
(SANDS, DOlOS)
o

Fig. 7.15. Response of shallow-marine sediments to
irregular relative sea-Ievel (storm-wave base)
changes (ramp setting, differential subsidence, little
influx of terrigenous sediment). a Cross-section of
basin margin. b Chronostratigra\,hic section of up-
permost two cyc1es; for abbrevtations see Fig. 7.3.
c Sediment thicknesses of five cyc1es shown in
b, differences in cyc1ic sequences along cross sec-
tion, and landward merging erosional unconformities
(SB 1's). d Isochrones and asymmetric "field water
depth" curves of two sedimentary cyc1es, caused by
submarine erosion and sediment byPassing. The
curves are inferred from symmetnc sinusoidal
eustatic sea-Ievel oscillations. For further explanation
see text; abbreviations see Fig. 7.3. (After Einseie
1991 and 1992, modified).
320 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
Denudation of fonner coastal-marine sediments will be-
come more pronounced on coastlines with uplift. In contrast,
flexural subsidence landward ofthe hinge line can lead to the
deposition and preservation of coastal plain sediments separat-
ing the two lag horizons (Fig. 7.15b, uppennost eycle) ..
Eroded sand-sized particles are redeposited as stonn layers
(tempestites), or as sandy-shelly bars. Calcareous or iron ooids
fonned in shallow water during high sea-Ievel stand may be
transported seaward and come to rest on submarine erosional
surfaces (Fig. 7.16c). Later, pre-existing channels are filled
with transgressive sediments, and soi! horizons andkarstified
surfaces are covered by younger deposits (Fig. 7.16d and e).
Coastal onlap during transgression (cf. Fig. 7.3f) is indistinet
because ofthe gentle gradient ofthe sea floor.
The depth range of erosion and the intensity ofrework-
ing generally decrease basinward until the erosional
surfaces (Type 1 sequence boundaries) merge into sedi-
ments which are no longer affected by storm-wave ero-
sion. The same (diachronous) erosional surface can sit
landward on a transgressive unit and basinward on the
subsequent regressive unit. The position ofthe Type 2
boundaries at the transition from HST to LST is not as
clear, due to the diachronous nature of the erosional
unconformities (Fig. 7 .15b). Vertical sections from this
cross-section may show sharp-based shoreface se-
quences with erosional gaps (Fig. 7 . 13c).
Beyond the depth range of the storm-wave base, the
chronostratigraphic sequence should be complete apart
from locations where erosive bottom currents operate.
Between the inflection point and peak of sea-Ievel rise,
the sequence may contain condensed horizons due to
reduced terrigenous sediment input. As mentioned
above, this horizon would be an appropriate alternative
as sequence boundary in central parts of the basin.
Figure 7.15c shows the same cross section as in (b)
but in the way of a sediment thickness/space diagram.
Here, the erosional unconformities ofthe successive T-
R cycles merge landward and form composite beds as
discussed above. It is important to note that the number
of cycles which can be identified in vertical sections
differs along the cross section.
In the central part ofthe basin (right-hand side ofFig. 7.15c)
it may be difficult to recognize cyclicity when sandy regres-
sive deposits or distinct condensed seetions are missing. Simi-
larly, the true number of cycles cannot be found at the very
edge ofthe basin. Even somewhat farther seaward, the number
of readi!y visible cycles varies due to the differing basinward
extension of the unconfonnities. Such local differences are
one of the major reasons why the number and correlation of
T-R cycles for a certain region and time period often remain
controversial.
Some authors have pointed out that not all reworked hori-
zons found in shallow-sea sediments are associated with rela-
tive sea-Ievel changes. Part ofthese horizons mayresult from
episodic changes in the current system of the basin leading to
long-Iasting intervals of non-deposition and erosion (e.g.
Bloos 1990). Manyregional studies in various shallow-marine
environments have contributed to our knowledge in this field
(see, e.g., Aigner and Dott 1990; Steel et al. 1995; Emery and
Myers 1996; Miall 1997).
The duration and extent of stratigraphic gaps as weIl as
regional differences in sediment aggradation are better
demonstrated by isochrones marking time lines in the
basin fill (Fig. 7.15d). This model shows a situation
similar to that ofFigure 15a-c. It is based on two sinu-
soidal sea-Ievel cycles and limited sand supply, espe-
cially during relative sea-Ievel rise. The effects of by-
passing, erosion and redistribution of sediment lead to
asymmetric "field water-depth" curves (cf. Fig. 7.7c,
Sect. 7.2.4). At locations land 11 on the inner shelfthe
field water-depth curves show an apparently long deep-
ening and rapidly shallowing-upward phase, while sedi-
ment bypassed to location 111 generates thick
shallowing-upward units. Irregular changes in sea-Ievel,
sediment supply, and local subsidence may modify the
results of these idealized models.
7.3.3 Shelf-Break-Slope Margins,
Moderate Sediment Supply
Shelves with a distinct sheltbreak and continental-slope
to deep-sea transition usually develop along passive
continental margins (Sect. 12.2). They result not only
from the transition from continental to oceanic crost,
but to some extent also from up- and outbuilding of
sediment towards deeper water. The second process
predominates in the formation of carbonate platforms
(Sect. 7.5). Modem seismic stratigraphy and sequence
stratigraphy was developed mainly in cross sections of
the continental margins of the Atlantic ocean and the
Gulf ofMexico. Many ofthe published "classic" mod-
els more or less reflect the conditions ofthis basin type:
- Differential subsidence across a passive margin of
considerable age;
- Relative sea-Ievel fall exceeds subsidence on wide
shelf areas and often leads to emergence ofthe shelf-
break and uppermost slope;
- Moderate to relatively high terrigenous sediment sup-
ply:
Surplus of sediment on the inner shelf in relation to
long-term subsidence;
Slope failure during the lowstand systems tract.
The resulting third order sequences and their boundaries
are defined in Section 7.2.2.
Idealized examples have been frequently described (e.g. Wag-
oner et al. 1990; Vail et al. 1991; Emery and Myers 1996;
Miall 1997). It should be noted, however, that the models
developed for passive margin basins cannot be applied to
deviating basin settings without significant modifications.
This has to be conddered, for example, when shallow basins
such as epieontinental seas, fore land basins, or basins sub-
jeeted to rapid subsidenee and loeal uplift are investigated. In
the following, abrief overview of the eoneeptual framework
for passive eontinental margin settings is given.
7.3 Coastal and Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems
The chronostratigraphic block diagram in Figure 7.17a
shows the development oftwo sequences. Similar to the
models in Figure 7.15, it is assumed that the subsidence
rate increases from a hinge line toward the basin center.
The influx of terrigenous material is moderate and the
sediments are predominantly siliciclastic. During the
transgressive and early highstand phase, most of the
incoming sediment is trapped in shallow water and on
the shelf, while little material is transported into deeper
water. During falling sea level and lowstand, the locus
of major sediment accumulation is the slope and conti-
nental rise, where relatively high sedimentation rates are
reached. The systems tracts of a third order sequence
can be characterized as follows:
- The lowstand systems tract (LS T) develops during the
phase of rapid eustatic sea-level fall up to the early part
ofthe rise (Fig. 7.l7a). Its specific characteristics on
passive margins are a basin floor fan and several slope
fans overlain by a lowstand wedge. The latter results
from continued prograding and some upbuilding of sed-
iment along the slope (Fig. 7 .l7b). The basin-floor fan
and slope fans are usually associated with canyon ero-
sion into the slope and fluvial valley incision on the
shelf, particularly in its inner portion where subsidence
is slow. The base ofthe submarine fan is the lower se-
quence boundary (SB2). The slope fan is characterized
by turbidite and debris flow deposition. It may be co-
eval with the basin-floor fan or the early lowstand
wedge. In front of a river mouth, a lowstand delta may
be built out into the deeper sea. Towards the end of
LST, the sediments ofthe lowstand wedge onlap onto
the underlying sequence boundary, while the shoreline
still migrates seaward or becomes more or less stable.
N ow most of the incoming sediment is deposited on the
outer shelf (in shallow water). Simultaneously, incised
valleys on the shelf begin to be filled with fluvial,
estuarine, or shallow-marine sediments. The top ofthe
lowstand wedge is a marine flooding surface called the
"transgressive surface" (TS), which marks rapid land-
ward retreat of the shoreline.
The subdivision ofLST into a basin floor fan, a slope fan, and
a lowstand wedge is a theoretical concept which is not real-
ized everywhere. In Pleistocene sediments of a foreare basin
ofthe Boso Peninsula, Japan, for example, these subunits of
LST could not be identified (Ito 1998).
If lowstand deposits mainly lie on a Type 2 sequence
boundary (RSLF<SUB) on the outer shelf, theyare
called shelfmargin systems tract (SMST) or shelfmar-
gin wedge (SMW, Fig. 7.l7a). Under these conditions,
relative sea-level fall occurs only along the coast and on
the inner shelf. Then the shoreline migrates rapidly
basinward and eroded sediment, including that of in-
cised streams, is bypassed into deeper water. When the
sea level starts to rise slowly, incised valleys are filled
and a relatively thin lowstand wedge can be built out
seaward (cf. Fig. 7.l7b).
321
- The transgressive systems tract (TST) forms during
accelerated relative sea-Ievel rise when the incoming
sediment cannot further maintain the outbuilding of a
sediment wedge. The TST begins with the transgressive
surface (TS) and its strata onlap landward onto the
lower sequence boundary (Fig. 7.l7a, SBl); seaward
they downlap onto the transgressive surface. In Figure
7.18a,b the TST is subdivided into parasequences char-
acterized by transgressive lags at their base and
prograding wedges of coastal sands generating
shallowing-upward vertical sections. The top ofTST is
marked by the surface of maximum flooding (MFS)
where the stratal pattern changes from a landward-
onlapping and upbuilding sedimentary unit to a
basinward-prograding wedge with downlap onto MFS
(downlap surface, DLS).
- At some distance basinward from the shoreline, the
time ofrnaximum flooding also signifies a time ofrnax-
imum sediment starvation. The resulting facies consist
of thin hemipelagic or pelagic beds deposited at very
low sedimentation rates. Such acondensed seetion (SC)
occurs largely within the transgressive and distal
highstand deposits (Loutit et al. 1988).
- The highstand systems tract (RS T) represents the late
part of a eustatic sea-level rise, its standstill, and the
early part of its fall. The RST sediments prograde
basinward in relation to the terrestrial sediment supply
(Fig. 7.18c). In seismic sections, highstand deposits are
characterized by a lower aggradational part succeeded
bya seaward progradational unit with downlap onto the
top of transgressive deposits (MFS). The subsequent
rapid sea-level fall generates a Type 1 or Type 2 se-
quence boundary on top ofthe highstand deposits.
Two total sequences, the upper one overlain by a shelf
margin wedge replacing the lowstand systems tract, are
presented in Fig. 7.17 a as a Wheeler diagram. This
clearly shows how the shoreline migrates back and forth
during a sea-Ievel cycle. This phenomenon is expressed
in many publications by the so-called coastal onlap
curve. This diagram also demonstrates the long time
interval represented by the slowly deposited condensed
section. This is not, as sometimes erroneously inter-
preted from other Wheeler diagrams, a stratigraphic
gap.
As mentioned above, all systems tracts may be subdi-
vided into parasequences and parasequence sets. Indi-
vidual parasequences are typically bounded by marine
flooding surfaces and their "correlative surfaces" (Van
Wagoner et al. 1990). They are progradational and their
beds shoal upward (Fig. 7.l8). A parasequence may
consist of smallerunits representing time periods on the
order ofthe Milankovitch frequency band (Sect. 7.1 and
7.9.2).
322 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

f PALEOSOLS 9 KARSTIFIED HORIZONS

···t/ ... ........

REBURIAL

• KARSTIFICATION
li~rt0CONTINENTAL
DEPOSITS

d e TEMPORARV EMERGENCE
SEA-LEVEL CONTROLLED VALLEV FILL OF CARBONATE PLA TFORM

~~~\i~,
- - - - - -TST _ _
...... / , 1'\
THICK CARBONATE
I
PALEOSOL, ROOTS BUILDUP PALEOSOL

C SUBMARINE EROSION DURING REGRESSIVE PHASE

--=:.....-===-~ TST
REoEPOSITEo COASTAL
SANDS ANo OOloS LST

R WORKED MUD LUMPS

ANo SHELLS (LAG SED.)

a EXHUMED HARoGROUNDS
AND CONCRETION LA VERS

HARDGROUND
b MULTIPLE REWORKING
WITH PHOSPHORITE, ETC.
BIOCLASTS
~ EROSION
LIMESTONE

HARDGROUND SEVERAL GROWTH

BORINGS OF PHASES OF PHOSPHO-
ORGANISMS RITE AND CALCAREOUS
SIDERITE NODULES

Fig. 7.16. Various types of submarine (a-c) and level changes. See text for explanation. (Modified
subaerial (d-g) erosional unconformities or non- from various sourees, e.g. Bayer and Seilacher 1985;
depositional horizons caused by sea-Ievel or base- Einseie 1998)
7.3 Coastal and Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems 323

a CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC DIAGRAM OF TWO PASSIVE MAAGIN SEQUENCES

SEDIMENT SUPPL Y _ -1i:!~":-_ SUBMARINE EROSION

~ ~~.-:-- . -.

--- ~
OR NON·DEPOSITION
FLUVIAL _ -- ~.::: ...... b-' __

.
0

EUSTASY
HIGH LOW
~

I ",

YOUNGER FANS.
MASS FLOWS ,
BASIN FLOOR FAN TURBIDITES

b LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT OF PASSIVE MARGIN

DELTAIC PLAIN

PRODELTA SILTS AND MUDS

....... -
.... ...
----':.:--:?i
--
~ SEA LEVEL

.......
__ --- -- __ -4
---- --~ I
-- I
CANYON FILL I
I
LOWSTAND
WEDGE
SLUMPS. DEBRIS FLOWS
SLOPE FANS.
± BACKSTEPPING
YOUNGER FANS,
OLOER SB MASS FLOWS.
TURBIDITES

Fig. 7.17. Idealized siliciclastic third order sequences
and their systems tracts deposited in a passive-margin
setting with differential subsidence. (Modified from
EXXON model; e.g. Posamantier and Vail 1988;
Van Wagoner et al. 1990). a Chronostratigraphic
(Wheeler) diagram of almost two sequence cycles
(from TST to early shelf margin wedge, SMW) dis-
playing two phases of marine transgression (coastal
onlap) and regression. In deep water, sediments ac cu-
mulate more or less continuously but often at a very
low rate (condensed section, CS). Other symbols are
explained in Figs. 7.3 and 7.4. b Rapidly prograding
lowstand system tract fed by braided river. See text
for further explanation
324 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

c PARASEOUENCES OF LATE HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT

b PARASEOUENCES OF TRANSGRESSIVE
AND EARL Y HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT

FS = FLOODING SURFACE TL = TRANSGRESSIVE LAG

TS = TRANSGRESSIVE SURFACE
(RAVINEMENT SURFACE)
a TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT (OVERVIEW)
MARSH DR LAKES
INCISED VALLEY FILL
MFS = MAXIMUM FLDDDING SURFACE
Fig. 7.18. a Trans-
gressive systems
traet, TST, (over-
view) of shelf-slope
setting with moder-
TL
ate sediment sup-
COASTAL SANDS
ply. b Two parase-
quenees ofTST and
one parasequenee
of the early HST. c
Parasequenees of
HST. (Modified
from Vail et al.
1991). See text for
further explanation

Although all sequenees, originating fromrelative sea-
level ehanges, show prineipally the same sueeession of
systems traets, their lithologie and stratigraphie expres-
sions vary enormously from the nearshore zone to deep
water. In the coastal zone, sequenee boundaries are rep-
resented by erosional uneonformities, and the sequenee
is frequently eomposed of fluvial and shallow-marine
sands. In deep water, the same transgressive-regressive
eycle may be bounded by the base of a submarine fan
and, at its top, by an ineonspieuous, eonformable sur-
faee within a hemipelagie unit. The most distinetive
horizon in sediments of deeper water is a eondensed
seetion.
The dating of sequenee boundaries, in partieular
those representir,g signifieant stratigraphie gaps, is fre-
quently not very preeise. In shallow water, reHes of
benthonie life often have to be used and transgressive
or regressive erosional lag deposits mostly eontain
mixed faunas fromreworked sediments ofvarious ages.
In deep-water sequenees, pe1agie organisms and oeea-
sional volcanie ash layers offer better possibilities, but
even here the time resolution of dating is mostly not
suffieient for long-distanee intercontinental or
interbasinal correlation of the third-order sequenee
boundaries. This problem is diseussed in detail else-
where (e.g. Miall 1997).
7.4 Marine Deltas, Deep-Sea Fans, and Oceanic Sediments
7.3.4 Summary (Coastal and Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems)
The sediments most affected by relative sea-
level changes are those of the coastal and
shallow-marine zones.
High-frequency sea-level changes can cause
rapid progradation (forced regression) or retreat
of the coastline, including the drowning of
barrier-lagoon systems.
Truncated, sharp-based shoreface sequences in-
dicate a lowered storm-wave base.
Limited sediment supply leads to non-accre-
tionary regressive and transgressive systems and
to widely extended lags in epicontinental seas or
on the inner and middle shelf. The lags merge
7.4 Marine Deltas, Deep-Sea Fans,
and Oceanic Sediments
7.4.1 Response ofDeltas to Sea-Level Changes
Cyclic phenomena in marine deltas originate from both
autogenetic and allogenetic processes. Irregular switch-
ing of delta lobes, related to the degree of sediment ac-
cumulation and the geometry ofthe delta complex, may
lead to altemations between sediments ofthe delta plain
and marine incursions (cf. Sect. 3.5). Interdistributary
areas cut off from sediment supply subside below sea
level and are flooded either by fresh water or the sea
(cf. Fig. 3.36). When deltaic progradationreturns to this
area, marsh, lagoonal, and shallow-marine layers are
again covered by sediments of the fluvial delta plain. In
this way, a purely autocyclic sequence may evolve with
altemating fluvial, lagoonal, lacustrine, and marine sed-
iments.
For example, Holoeene (?) autoeycles in the Mississippi delta
plain span a time period of approximately 1000 to 1500 years
(Tye and Kosters 1986). However, as in the ease oflow-lying
river plains, these autoeyclie proeesses ean be overprinted and
modified by global (allogenetie) sea-Ievel oseillations.
One of the means for diseriminating between allogenetie
and autogenetie proeesses is stratigraphie eorrelation. While
global and regional phenomena ean be traeed over long dis-
tanees and from basin to basin, beds and sedimentary eycles
related to autoeyclie proeesses pineh out in a relatively short
distanee.
To study the response of deltaic sediments to sea-level
changes, the general concepts developed for silici-
clastics-dominated ramp margins and shelf-slope set-
tings can be used. F urthermore, deltas prograding to the
edge of deep oceanic basins initiate a composite
depositional system consisting ofthe delta, the prodelta,
and an associated deep-sea fan. The relationship be-
tween these different depositional areas, however, is
325
landward due to decreasing subsidence.
The number of cycles and the degree of cycle
symmetry (or asymmetry) often varies from
marginal to more central locations within a ba-
sin.
High sand supply can create extensive sand
sheets and sometimes isolated sand bodies
which are later buried under mud.
Moderate sediment supply, differential subsi-
dence, and sea-level fall below the shelf edge
generate the classical model of sequence stra-
tigraphy in shelf-slope-deep basin settings.
complex because each of these systems is variable
(Sects. 3.5 and 5.4.2). The effects of relative sea-level
changes on delta plains and delta fronts are indicated in
Section 11.5.2 and illustrated in Figure 3.36. Here, only
some further general points can be mentioned.
The principal interplay between sediment supply,
frequency and amplitude of sea-level changes is demon-
strated in Figure 7.19. In all cases, the delta front
pro grades with relative sea-level fall. The rate of
prograding slows with increasing water depth and di-
minishing terrigenous sediment supply. During relative
sea-level rise, the delta front normally steps back, but
even in this phase the delta may pro grade when the am-
plitude of sea-level change is limited (slow rise) and the
sediment supply is high (Fig. 7.19; cf. Fig. 11.24d).
The 2 D-models are based on the assumption that sediment
supply from distant sourees is eonstant, but that some addi-
tional sediment is made available from loeal sourees byvalley
eutting during falling sea level. The deltas prograde into shal-
low seas; subsidenee is negleeted. The models illustrate the
inereasing rates of prograding during 10wstand whieh is
eaused by deereasing aeeommodation spaee while the mass
of sediment delivered per time unit remains eonstant or even
inereases.
As a result of the Quaternary high-amplitude, high-fre-
queney sea-Ievel ehanges, the young history ofmodern deltas
generallyreeords backstepping during the rapid Ho10cene sea-
level rise. This applies, for example, to the deltas ofthe Medi-
terranean Sea, such as the Nile delta (Coutellier and Stanley
1987), the Rhone delta (Tesson et al. 1990; Gensous et al.
1993), the deltas ofthe Po and Tiber (cf. Sect. 11.5.2 andFig.
11.25). Backstepping also occurred at most ofthe major river
deltas ofthe large oeean basins such as the lndus river (von
Rad and Tahir 1997, see also below). An exeeption to this rule
is the Fraser river delta (cf. Fig. 11.26) because here Holocene
relative sea-level rise was strong1y reduced by coastal uplift.
The Ho10cene evolution of the Ebro delta in SE Spain
exhibits an overall transgressive trend (up to about 7 ka B.P.)
followed by a regressive phase (since 7 ka B.P.). These phases
are superimposed by 6th order sequences (cycle period of
about 1.5 ka) generating prograding and backstepping faeies
326 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cydes, and Event Stratigraphy
MODelS OF DELTA EVOLUTION IN SHALLOW BASIN
(IN RELATION TO SEA-LEVEL CHANGE AND SEDIMENT SUPPLY, SS)
-1
LOW S5 HIGH FREOUENCY , HIGH SS HIGH FREOUENCY,
-. LARGE AMPLITUDE --...;~~ SMALL AMPLITUDE
-2 - 1 02
~-
SEDIMENT MA55
PER TIME UNIT
LOW FREOUENCY, LARGE AMPLITUDE
---;. MEDIUM SS
tracts (Somoza et al. 1998). Simultaneously, the area is sub-
siding (1.75 mlka) and delta-lobe switching also plays a role.
Furthermore, it makes a significant difference whether
a delta migrates into shallow water or towards the deep
sea. Rapid prograding during relative sea-level fall may
end on the shelf and thus lead to more or less isolated,
shelf-perched lowstand deltas (Fig. 7.20). By contrast,
if a delta has reached the shelf-break and upper conti-
nental slope already during the previous highstand, then
the falling sea-level and the steepening river gradient
generate the incision of a deep valley on the delta plain
and a submarine canyon on the upper slope.
Shelf-edge deltas provide the scenarios in which
large amounts of sediment are funneled by suspension
currents into the deep sea. This process is accompanied
by gravity mass flows triggered by oversteepened slopes
and draining of the upper slope as a result of sea-Ievel
fall. The model of shelf-slope settings with high sedi-
LST TST+ HST
rL ~\~I
0 ___
TIME
TST + HST
Fig. 7.19. Elementary
models (2D) of delta
prograding into shallow
seas. All deltas respond
to sea-level fall by accel-
erated prograding, but
sea-level rise does not
always lead to back-step-
ping. Se~ text for further
explanatIOn
ment supply(Fig. 7.l7b) also describes to some extent
the architecture offluvially dominated deltas associated
with deep-sea fans and slope aprons.
During highstand the stream gradient is low resulting
in a meandering system depositing large amounts of
sediment onto a coastal alluvial plain. The delta front
therefore progrades slowly. With lowering sea level the
increasing stream gradient favors the development of
a braided system, cutting a wide channel into the previ-
ously accumulated coastal plain and transporting large
quantities of terrigenous material basinward. This pro-
cess leads to rapid pro gradation of a lowstand deltaic
wedge, oversteepening of the prodelta slope and thus
to various types of gravity mass movements (Sect. 5.4).
Shelf-perched deltas have a high potential for being preserved
(posamentier and Allen 1993). They have been described from
a number ofregions, for example from the Natashquan river
entering the Gulf ofLawrence (Long et al. 1989) or from Cre-
7.4 Marine Deltas, Deep-Sea Fans, and Oceanic Sediments
SHELF DELTA AND SHELF-EDGE DELTA WITH DEEP-SEA FAN
Fig. 7.20. Differences between shelf-perched delta
and shelf-edge delta. In the latter case, river sedi-
ments are directly funneled via a slope canyon into
taeeous deltas on the North Ameriean Atlantie eontinental
margin (Poag et al. 1990).
7.4.2 Deep-Sea Fans
The model in Figure 7.17b includes sedimentary pro-
cesses taking place during LST at the foot of the
pro delta slope and on deep-sea fans, where deposits of
debris flows and slumps significantly contribute to the
sediment buildup. Farther basinward, finer grained and
more extensive mass flow deposits are common, over-
lain by channel-fan systems fed from submarine valleys
or canyons cut into the prodeltaic sedimentary body.
With rising sea level, the channelized fans shift land-
ward and submarine valleys on the slope can be filled
with sediment. The influence of changing sediment sup-
ply and fan lobe switching are illustrated in Fig. 5.19
(cf. Sect. 5.4). During TST and early HST, sediment
accumulation on deep-sea fans is often limited leaving
behind a relatively thin hemipelagic drape on top ofthe
lowstand deposits. Then the rnajority ofthe incoming
sediment is deposited on the inner shelfwhile the outer
shelf becomes sediment starved. However, deep-sea
fans fed by very effective sediment sources also grow
substantially during this phase.
The general model in Figure 7.l7b is largely eonfirmed by
studies on modem deep-sea fans (e.g. the Amazon fan, cf.
Seet. 5.4.5, Fig. 5.22). The Hueneme submarine fan system
offthe Califomian eoast, feeding the Santa MonieaBasin, was
eharaeterized by effieient turbidity eurrents transporting river
sand out onto the middle-fan area during low sea level
(Normark et al. 1998). Muddy flows formed rapidly
327
the deep sea. (After Posamentier and Allen 1993,
modified)
prograding ehannellevees. During the present-day high sea
level the fan reeeives sand only via submarine eanyons whieh
intereept sand from long-shore drift and mixed sediment from
slumps. Turbidity eurrents are eonfined to the ehannels, but
mud moves in plumes basinward, generating a relatively thiek
blanket on the basin floor.
The Indus delta prograded more than 50 km seaward dur-
ing the last glacial maximum and formed a thick LST wedge
(von Rad and Tahir 1997). The rapid Holocene transgression
foreed the delta front to step back to its present situation with
a shift of the depocenter to the inner shelf. The present-day
outer shelf is eharaeterized by thin transgressive deposits (in-
c1uding shell beds and gravel), rehet sediments and bioherms
(ooids, molluses, algal structures). The upper and middle
Indus Canyon (down to about 1300 m water depth) is still in
an erosional stage with steep side walls and a meandering
axial ehannel without levees. The lower eanyon displays a
kind of transition between an erosional stage and the
aggradational nature ofthe ehannel-Ievee system ofthe upper
deep-sea fan.
The young history of the Mississippi deep-sea fan is an
example for the lateral migration of an entire fan system (Fig.
5.21 b). Here, thiek lowstand systems tracts are mainly draped
by thin hemipelagie sediments deposited during the
transgressive andhighstand phases. However, turbidite depo-
sition may continue into the phase of rising sea level (Kolla
and Perlmutter 1993).
Finally, it should be noted that deep-sea fans and their
architecture in terms of sequenee stratigraphy are generally
not weil understood. Presently, onlya few modem examples
have been studied in some detail. Another reason for mueh
uncertainty is the large variety and different behavior of mod-
ern fans. Some of them became sediment-starved with the
Holocene transgression, such as the Amazon fan, others still
reeeive a signifieant proportion of the incoming river sedi-
ment, e.g. the Bengal fan and lndus fan.
328 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
7.4.3 Other Deep-Sea Sediments
Deep-sea sediments not affected bythe processes form-
ing deep-sea fans or slope fans "feei" relative sea-Ievel
changes only indirectly. Their generally low sedimenta-
tion rate may increase during lowering and decrease
during rising sea levels. Rising sea levels can elevate
the calcite compensation depth and thus promote car-
bonate dissolution (e.g. Haq 1993). In addition, oxygen
supply to the deep sea may deteriorate during highstand.
On the other hand, lowstand can reduce water exchange
7.4.4 Summary (Deltas, Deep-Sea Fans, ete.)
- Cyclic phenomena in marine deltas originate
from both switching of delta lobes and sea-Ievel
changes.
- Delta prograding during sea-Ievel fall slows with
increasing water depth and decreasing sediment
supply. Prograding can also occur during slow
sea-Ievel rise if river-bome sediment influx is
high.
- Lowstand deltas on shelves have a good chance
of being preserved. If they have prograded to the
shelf edge, they generate submarine canyons and
feed deep-sea fans.
7.5 Sequence Stratigraphy of Marine
Carbonate Systems
7.5.1 General Aspeets
The various aspects of shallow-marine carbonate pro-
duction and sediment buildup in warm and cool marine
environments, including their general behavior to rela-
tive rise or fall of sea level, are dealt with in Sect. 3.4.
Linear sedimentation rates of carbonates are summa-
rized in Figure 3.29 and listed in Section 10.2 (cf. Figs.
10.3 and 10.4).
The fundamental difference between allochthonous
siliciclastic sediments and autochthonous carbonates,
produced in the depositional environment itself, also
controls to a large extent the response of marine carbon-
ates and carbonate buildups to sea-Ievel changes. In
contrast to the highly variable, irregular siliciclastic
sediment influx into a basin, in-situ carbonate produc-
tion on a platform is more predictable. When platforrns
are flooded (shallow water), benthic carbonate produc-
tion, especially in the photic zone, is usually high (cf.
Figs.lO.3 and 10.4), butwhenpartof, ortheentireplat-
form emerges, the "carbonate factory" is more or less
tumed off. Relative high stands of sea-Ievel therefore
often lead to "highstand shedding" of platform carbon-
ates into deeper water, but significant carbonate produc-
through oceanic gateways and thus bring about signifi-
cant changes in thermohaline circulation and nutrient
supply. It seems that deep bottom currents are often
more effective in terms of erosion and redistribution of
sediments during lowstands than during highstands. The
release of gas hydrates (methane) from continental
slope sediments as a result of reduced pressure has been
quoted by several authors to explain the causallink be-
tween submarine mass flows and lowered sea level (cf.
Sect. 14.3.6).
- High-frequency, high-amplitude sea-Ievel
changes tend to cause deep-sea fans to aggrade
and prograde during lowstands (channel-Ievee
complexes). However, not all fans become inac-
tive and are covered by a hemipelagic drape
during highstands.
- Other deep-sea sediments may respond indi-
rectly to sea-Ievel changes, e.g. by rise of the
CCD and accelerated bottom currents during
sea-Ievel fall, or by decreasing oxygenation of
bottom water during sea-Ievel rise.
tion can continue on gentle fore-reef slopes also during
sea-Ievellowstand.
With the aid of these general mIes it is possible to
simulate to some extent the architecture of calcareous
sedimentary bodies resulting from the interplay of sedi-
ment production, subsidence and sea-Ievel change. The
evident relationship between the change in sediment
accommodation space, ACC, controlled by subsidence
and sea level, and carbonate production, GR, on plat-
form tops is shown in Figure 7.21a. With GR>ACC,
the platform rimprogrades basinward; with GR<ACC,
the platform rim steps back but may still keep up to sea
level. When carbonate production at the platform rim
is only sufficient to follow relative sea-Ievel rise, the
central part of the platform top is transformed into a
deepening lagoon, etc.
These aspects are discussed in more detail, e.g., by Schlager
(1993, 1994), Hunt and Tucker (1993) and many others (see
below). Carbonate ramp depositional systems are described
byTucker and Wright (1990), Burchette and Wright (1992).
7.5.2 Third-Order Sequenees of Rimmed
Carbonate Platforms
Low-frequency sea-Ievel changes (2nd and 3rd order)
create large-scale architectural styles of carbonate build-
7.5 Marine Carbonate Systems
ups. The mass ofbenthic carbonate produced on a plat-
form top during a sequence cyele of2 Ma, for example,
is on the order of 0.1 km3/km2, assuming a potential
vertical growth rate of 50 mrnJka = 50 m/Ma (cf. Figs.
3.29 and 10.4). Normally, this mass cannot be accom-
modated entirely by vertica1 aggradation of the plat-
form, because subsidence and ACC are 1imited. As a
result, part of the excess carbonate mass is used for
prograding of the p1atform rim or exported into adj oin-
ing deeper areas.
The large-scale deve10pment of rimined p1atforms is
indicated in Figure 7.21b. For these models it is as-
sumed thatthe rim is not very pronounced and the back-
reef zone more or less keeps up with sea level. During
TST and ear1y HST, upbuilding ofthe platform at in-
creasing (TST) and decreasing rates (HST) predorni-
nates. In particular TS Tappears to support reef growth,
because terrigenous input is subdued during this phase.
The variation in the vertical growth rates can be seen in
fie1d sections when the 3rd order cycles are superim-
posed by shorter cyeles (see below). During the late
HST the platform tends to prograde. If the sea level
drops below the platform rim the carbonate buildup is
exposed to subaerial weathering and karstification.
Rivers may cut valleys into the platform and transport
silicielastic material to the fore-reef slope. This in turn
hampers reef growth. However, carbonate production
can continue along the fore-reef slope. If this is steep,
only a narrow fringing reef can form. If the slope is flat
(muddy slopes), continued shallow-water carbonate
production may generate an autochthonous, widely
prograding lowstand wedge (e.g. Hunt and Tucker
1993; cf. Sect. 7.5.5). With sufficient subsidence atthe
platform edge, the lowstand systems tract is replaced by
a prograding shelf margin wedge.
A somewhat different and more detailed model of a
land-attached carbonate platform with some silicielastic
input is presented in Figure 7.22. When the inner plat-
form is infilled and the prograding deposits of the late
HST or early LST have reached the former shelfbreak,
reef debris and reworked shelf carbonate are trans-
ported to the foot of the slope or basin floor by mass
flows and turbidity currents (calciturbidites or allodapic
limestones, cf. Sect. 5.4). Later, the activated terri-
genous sediment source tends to generate mixed
carbonate-silicielastic or pure silicielastic slope and
basin sediments. In the absence ofterrigenous sediment
sources, relatively thick, possibly cyelic pelagic lime-
stones and marls may accumulate in deep water, as the
calcite compensation depth (CCD; cf. Sect. 5.3.2) is
depressed during low sea levels. Moderate carbonate
aggradation, the absence ofterrigenous influx, and the
presence of siliceous sponges (as in the Jurassic and
Cretaceous ofEurope) often lead to the early diagenetic
formation of chert nodules within massive or bedded
limestones.
During subsequent transgressive and early highstand
phases, the input of terrigenous material into deeper
329
water is reduced. As a result, the condensed section in
deeper water is frequently represented by marls and
pelagic oozes (limestones ), which may contain high
proportions of organic carbon. At water depths below
the CCD, thin elay beds with some authigenic minerals
or black shales may develop.
Ifterrigenous sediment input mainly consists of mud,
then a basin of medium depth adjacent to a carbonate
shelf can display the following sediment succession (as,
for example, a 800 m thick Turonian limestone-marl
succession in central Tunisia; Robaszynski et al. 1990):
- HST, hernipelagic marl (dilution of pelagic carbonate
by terrigenous mud, low input of detrital carbonate
from shelt),
- TST, pelagic carbonate (low input of both terri-
genous mud and detrital carbonate from shelt),
- LST, skeletal wackestones, packstones and grain-
stones (derived from shelt) with some hemipelagic
marI.
Steep slopes and escarpments of carbonate platforms
favor slope instability and platform collapse during
falling sea level and thus the formation of large debris
flows. If part of the carbonate was already indurated or
serni-lithified prior to failure, the mass flow deposits
have the appearance of sedimentary megabreccias con-
taining gravel-size and even boulder-size elasts with
little matrix. Due to continued aggradation, carbonate
escarpment can also gain in height when prograding of
their rims is prevented by slopes too steep for deposi-
tion ofreeftalus or coarse skeletal elasts (Fig. 7.21c).
The rate of upbuilding increases during TST and de-
creases during HST. Correspondingly, the nature of
the foot-of-slope sediments of attached platforms often
changes from material dominated either by carbonate
or silicielastics.
7.5.3 Third-Order Sequences of
Carbonate Ramps
The response of carbonate ramps to sea-level changes
is similar to that of silicielastic systems. Solid struc-
tures such as reefs are mostly absent, sand barriers are
replaced by skeletal shoals, the backbarrier zone is
filled with tidal flat and lagoonal sediments mostly rich
in carbonate, and the ramp seaward of the marginal
shoals accumulates mainly skeletal debris and calcare-
ous mud (cf. Sect. 3.4). Cool-water carbonates, in par-
ticular, frequently follow the silicielastic ramp model
because they lack distinct bioherms and are little af-
fected by early lithification. Figure 7.23 provides an
overview of the 3rd order systems tracts of carbonate
ramps:
- TST, backstepping facies tracts consisting of mar-
ginal skeletal shoals which separate backbarrier
330 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event StratigraphY

a BASIC GEOMETRIES OF
CARBONATE BUILDUPS
SEQUENCES OF RIMMED
CARBONATE PLA TFORMS b

± FRINGING

TST+HST
GRlAG < GR AIM

GR = RATE OF CARBONATE GROWTH

ACC =; RATE OF CHANGE IN ACCOMMODATION

d DROWNED CARBONATE PLA TFORM

c CARBONATE ESCARPMENT
(NO PROGRADING)

AND TIDAL

Fig. 7.21. a General principles of the interplay be-
tween sediment accommodation space, ACC, on top
of platforms and carbonate production, GR. (Modl-
fied from Schlager 1993). b Large-scale architecture
of systems tracts (3rd order sequences) of rimmed
carbonate platforms. c Evolution of carbonate escarp-
ment from TST to HST. d Platform drowning and
drowing unconformity. (b-d Based on Richards
1996). See text for further explanation

tidal and lagoonal sediments from the open ramp karstification, soil formation or fluvial deposition
facies; backbarrier strata thicken upward per time and valley cutting (humid clirnate), or (2) by eolian
unit (Fig. 7.23a). action possibly altemating with coastal sabkhas and
- HST, after maximum flooding, MFS, the facies evaporite deposition in local depressions (arid cli-
tracts prograde basinward; backbarrier strata thin mate).
upward.
- LST, emergence and meteoric cementation ofwide
parts ofthe ramp (Fig.7.23b). Here, carbonate pro-
duction ceases and is replaced either by (1)
7.5 Marine Carbonate Systems
• FLUVIAL, ± TEMPESTITES
SUPRATIDAL AND TIDAL NON-MARINE
IN PLACES
SHALLOW-
MARINE AND/OR MARLS
SHELF MARGIN
GRAINSTONES
.:!:
SILICICLASTIC AND CLAYS
SANDS TEMPESTITES
AND/OR REEFS LOCALLY CANYON CUTlING
(AND FILLING OURING TR}
• ENVIRONMENTS PROMISING
FOR CYCLOSTRATIGRAPHY
Fig. 7.22. Model of carbonate shelf with transition to
deep sea, affected by sea-level changes and differen-
tial subsidence. The different systems tracts are sepa-
rated from each other along the sequence boundaries,
Gently sloping carbonate ramps normally preclude the
generation of allochthonous lowstand wedges and fans
as mentioned for rimmed platforms. Minor, high-fre-
quency carbonate cycles are discussed in Section 7.9.
7.5.4 Drowning and Discontinuities of
Carbonate Buildups
Drowning Unconformities
Rapid sea-level rise may lead, in conjunction with a
deteriorated environment for carbonate production
(e.g. by increased influx ofterrigenous mud, change in
water temperature, oxygenation and nutrient supply),
as a first step to "drowning" ofthe carbonate buildup
along the platform margin, while closer to the coastline
the carbonate accumulation may continue (Vail et al.
1991). Later, the total platform will "drown" and be-
come buried under siliciclastic or mixed carbonate-
siliciclastic sediments (Fig. 7.23d). The boundary be-
tween the platform top and overlying sediments is
commonly referred to as the "drowning unconformity"
because seismic profiles display distinct angular un-
conforrnities in the neighborhood of platform rims.
Drowning is of course also manifested by changes
in the sedimentary facies (e.g. Zerapolich 1993). Trun-
331
• TURBIDITES,
POSSIBLY SILICICLASTIC
POSSIBLY SOME
ALLOOAPIC
LIMESTONES
• PELAGIC L1ME-
STONES OA
BITUMINOUS
MARLS
• TUABIDITES • BFF
E (PAATLY SILICICLASTIC)
SEQU
• FACIES INDICATING LOWSTANO, PAOGRADING
HIGHSTAND, AND SHELF MARGIN SYSTEMS TRACTS
SB, the transgressive surface, TS, and the maximum
flooding surface, MFS; BFF is basin floor fan. For
further explanation see text and Fig. 7.3. (After Vail
and Sangree 1988; Sarg 1988)
cation surfaces, reef tops, peritidal or lagoonal sedi-
ments are overlain, for example, by upward thinning
subtidal carbonates and mixed carbonate-siliciclastic
sediments containing remains and traces ofbiota char-
acteristic of increasing water depth. Sedimentary struc-
tures indicating strong wave and current action are re-
placed by structures reflecting more quiet conditions.
Discontinuities in Carbonate Buildups
Because both isolated and land-attached carbonate
buildups usually grow close to mean sea level, even
minor relative sea-level falls lead to mechanical abra-
sion or emergence of the carbonate platform. If the
platform surface remains uncovered by continental
deposits of some thickness, dissolution of carbonate,
beginning at the surface and penetrating into deeper
parts of the carbonate body, can bring about
karstification and soil formation (Fig. 7.16e, cf. Fig.
3.28c1). These phenomena are absent or less pro-
nounced if the carbonate surface is only briefly ex-
posed to weathering, before it is covered by poorly
permeable material or additional carbonate-bearing
layers.
Sea-Ievel rise subsequent to emergence can reacti-
vate local reef growth or extensive carbonate buildup
332 Chapter 7
CARBONATE RAMPS
b HUMID
--
-- __
SHALLOW-MARINE $ILlCICLSTICS OR MIXED SED.
on top of a karstified, irregular surface (cf. Fig.
3.28c2). Thereafter, reef growth starts again on topo-
graphic highs, and inter-reef lagoons or basins tend to
become deeper than the pre-existing ones, providing
the reefs can keep pace with the rising sea level. For
this reason, and also due to a succession of sea-level
changes with the long-term tendency to a slow net rise,
a previously flat-topped large platform may become
subdivided into aseries of isolated superimposed reef
bodies and small inter-reef basins. Later, the isolated
reef bodies mayaiso drown and be buried below
hemipelagic sediments. Such reefs clearly show up in
seismic profiles and represent interesting targets in
hydrocarbon exploration.
Subaerial exposure of carbonate buildups and
karstification are also important factors controlling
carbonate diagenesis (Sect. l3.4.2).
7.5.5 Carbonate Siopes and Mixed
Carbonate-Siliciclastic Systems
The sediments accumulating on the slopes of carbonate
platforms vary greatly. This is also true of platform
slopes which are not affected by relative sea-level
changes. The many factors controlling production and
redistribution of platform carbonates, including the
various geometries of carbonate buildups and differing
Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
DEEP RAMP
FACIES
-- -.
SEDIMENT
RATE Fig. 7.23. Systems tracts of
carbonate ramps (3rd order
sequences, overview, based
--
EXPOSED RAMP
on Richards 1996). a
Backstepping (TST) and
-......~ progradation (RST) of mar-
I ginal shoals with back-bar-
I rier lagoonal and tidal sedi-
ments. b Exposure of inner
and middle ramp during
LST. Note impact of cJi-
mate on exposed ramp sur-
face
hydrodynamic regimes of the areas studied (see, e.g.
Coniglio and Dix 1992), do not allow description of
carbonate slopes and their lateral facies changes by
one single facies model. For example, wide, flat-
topped platforms tend to produce more fine-grained
carbonate and gentIer slopes than do narrow platforms
with steep walls and slopes. Muddy sediments with a
matrix-supported grain fabric generate low-angle
slopes (often 2° to 6°) whereas coarser, cJast-supported
sediments allow slope angles of30° to 35°. Sediments
stabilized by fraine-building organisms and cementa-
tion enable even steeper slopes. The wide range of
slope angles controls to a large extent the nature and
prograding of lowstand wedges (see below). Narrow,
escarpment-type platforms develop steep upper slopes
largely consisting of coarse talus (broken reefs and
lithified skeletal sand and mud). Carbonate slopes may
also become sediment-starved when the platform is
drowned or exposed to air. In some cases, ocean cur-
rents can prevent slope deposition (cf. Fig. 12.12a).
Isolated platforms produce slope sediments entirely
consisting of carbonate (Fig. 7.24a), but even these
displayalternations between relatively fine-grained
material (sea-Ievel highstand) and coarser grained,
partly reworked material exported from the platform
during emergence. On the lower slope, gravity flow
deposits often alternate with calciturbidites.
7.5 Marine Carbonate Systems
The western flank of the Great Bahama Bank including the
foot of the slope was recently investigated by a number of
drillholes (ODP Leg 166; Eberli et al. 1997; Betzler et al.
1999). The Neogene sediments show a light-grey/dark-grey
wackestone/packstone cyclicity controlled by hlgh-frequency
sea-Ievel changes. The dark-grey layers ar.e dominate~ by
pelagic material. The interbedded calcIturbldltes and mmor
slumps fonn mounded lobes and are associated ,,:ith fee.der
channels cut into the slope. It appears that the calclturbldItes
were shed during both third-order highstands and 10'Ystand~.
In the latter case the turbidites consist of abraded blOc1astIc
detritus. At the' foot of the slope this facies association
interfingers with drift sediments ofthe Straits ofFlorida.
The slopes of land-attached structures commonly ex-
hibit both platform-derived skeletal detritus and land-
derived siliciclastic material. Figure 7.24b provides a
simplified facies model of this situation. Ac.tually, the
slope sediments of attached carbonate bUlldups are
often more complex.
Carbonates generally originate from both lateral in-
flux from the platform top and some benthic carbonate
produced on the slope, as well as. planktic carbon~te
settling from suspension (pelaglc carbonate; Flg.
7.24c). The platform-derived sed~ment component n~r­
mally dominates the upper and mlddle slope and exhIb-
its decreasing grain sizes downslope (e.g. from gra~el­
size material to fine-grained skeletal calcaremte).
Basinward, hemipelagic and pelagic marls and ooz~s,
including some fine-grained siliciclastics, bec0lll:e m-
creasingly important. In addition, storms can stlr up
platform mud and generate suspensions of s~mewhat
increased density (hyperpycnal waters) WhlCh flow
into adjacent deeper basins ("densitycasc.ading" after
Wilson and Roberts 1995). The denslty currents
hereby pass the upper slope and cause a kin? of "pe-
lagic draping" in deeper water. Larger gravlty flo:"s
and turbidity currents episodically transport matenal
from the platform edge and upper slope into deeper
water. Both debris flow deposits and turbidites can
consist of mixed carbonate-siliciclastic components
(sandy turbidites and calciturbidites). Rock falls and
platform margin collapse generate debris flows ~esult­
ing in carbonate breccias and conglomerates WhlCh are
either clast- or matrix-supported.
This generalized scenario is modified by relative
sea-Ievel changes, as shown in Figure 7.24d for a mor.e
or less vertically aggrading attached platform expen-
encing one cycle of sea-Ievel fall and rise. The differ-
ent stages of evolution are briefly described as follows:
(1) and (5) Highstand (too high for photozoan associa-
tions, cf. Sect. 3.4), limited production and export of
platform carbonate to slope; therefore accumulation of
hemipelagic marl and pelagic lime mud on the deep
slope.
(2) Lowering sea level, increasing production .and ex-
port ofplatform carbonate to slope; some debns flows
and calciturbidites.
333
(3) Sea level has dropped below p.latfo~ e.dge: ~alley
incision and bypassing ofland-denved stllclclastlc ma-
terial. Rock falls and slope failures at platform edge
and uppermost slope generate calcareous megabreccias
(olistostromes, i.e., a kind of basin-floor fan) at the
lower slope. Simultaneously or shortly later,. ?y'pass~d
siliciclastics may form silty clays and slhclclastlc
turbidites. The potential growth of a narrow lowstand
fringing reef is omitted in this model. .
(4) Rising sea level, renewed productlon of platform
carbonate and its export to the slope.
In all stages of this development the slope facies
changes laterally as indicated above. P.latform c?llapse
seerns to be not always associated wlth lowenng sea
level (Bosellini et al. 1993) and oversteep~ned sl~pes
are not generally necessary for the formatiOn of hme-
stone megabreccias (Spence and Tucker 1997).
Many carbonate platforms pro grade basinward, be-
cause their carbonate production, GR, is higher than
the sediment accommodation space, ACC, provided by
subsidence (e.g. that of rift and continental margin bas-
ins during their intermediate and lat~ p~ases o.f evo.lu-
tion; cf. Chap. 8). Platform progradmg m conJunctlon
with early cementation tends to produce steep forereef
slopes and thus coarse reef talus and larg~ se~iment
gravity flows. This state is more or less mamtamed .as
long as the carbonate buildup can keep up well wl!h
relative SL rise. This also applies to the shelf margm
systems tract, SMW, as long as rel~tiv~ SL ~s st.ill
slowly rising on the outer platform as mdlcated m Flg.
7.24d. Then specific LS-sediments cannot form on the
slope. By contrast, relatively fast SL-rise, for example
during the late TST, will cause backstepping of the
platform edge and thus significantl~ reduce talus pro-
duction and the occurrence of gravlty flows.
When RSL falls deeper than the platform top and
carbonate production can be maintained on ~ gentle
slope, the SL change is testified by downstep~mg nar-
row terraces (forced regression). Mass wastmg may
produce a lowstand (LS) basin-floor fan compo~ed of
allochthonous material, as described above. Contmued
reworking of platform carbonate and/or influx oflan.d-
derived siliciclastics can generate aLS slope fan. If ItS
slope angle is low (mud-rich mater~al) an~ the late
lowstand lasts a sufficiently long penod of tlme, ben-
thic carbonate production on the slope can be substan-
tial and create an autochthonous, prograding wide LS
wedge (Fig. 7.24d). An alternative to this model is the
prograding of a siliciclastic or mixed LS wedge.
Lowstand prograding mayaiso occur in distinct steps,
when a long-term trend of SL fall is superimposed by
higher frequency SL fluctuations (Fig. 7.24e).
These few scenarios cannot describe all types of slope facies
occurring in nature with or without the influence of sea-Ievel
changes (see, e.g., Hunt and Tucker 1993; Southgate et al.
1993; Mazullo 1995; Mutti et al. 1996; James et al. 1997;
Osleger 1998), but they may be useful for a better under-
334 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

a BAHAMA PLATFORM, FORESLOPE b STANDARD MODEL OF PROGRADING

A TTACHED CARBONATE PLA TFORM

~·':Qr\~lt~N,~1 ESCARPMENT

FINE-GRAINED SKELETAL
AND NON·SKELETAL SAND
AND CARBONATE MUD
(FROM PLATFORM)
eOARSE
SKELETAL SAND,
GRAVEL AND BOULD SILICICLASTIC OR MIXED
(FROM ESCARPMENTI LOWST AND WEDGE

C PRINCIPAL TYPES OF PLATFORM SLOPE SEDIMENTS

SILICICLASTICS

-------------------lJl----S --i---;--i--
HS· SHEDDING
SLOPE FAllURE V 'q 2VI 4
, , ,

SEDIMENT PELAGIC "RAIN"

~"GR~VITY FLOWS 3
iNCISED
BYPASSING ;:>'LI' .... ",LM';:>
SKELETAL SANDS AND OOIOS
~ ~ DEBRIS FLOW DEP.
PERIPLATFORM
{COARSE SKELETAL
GRAVEL AND BOULDERSI

CALCARENITES
(SKELETAL AND NON-SKELETALI
<V HEMIPLEAGIC MARL AND
WITH CALCITURBIDITES

d PLATFORM SLOPE SEDIMENTS CONTROLLED BY SL-CHANGES

HSl'
LOWSTAND COMPLEX
---------~;;:...,;~~~~I~I

---

e DOWNSTEPPING LOWST AND WEDGES

-
SKELETAL MUDSTONE AND WACKESTONE EUSTASY
~~~~~~~~~==~~~~::~S8 TIME

--,
SKELETAL AND INTRACLASTIC RUDSTONE
-----S8 ....
RSI:\

AND GRAINSTONE (UPPER SHOREFACEI \ J

-----........_-----
REFERENCE LEVEL
7.5 Marine Carbonate Systems
standing of the general processes controlling this complex
depositional environment.
Slope sediments can also record high-frequency sea-level
changes if their HS and LS sediments distantly differ in pri-
mary composition (calcitic versus aragonitic skeletal mate-
rial) and diagenesis, as, e.g., in the Pliocene of the western
slope ofthe Bahama Platform (Westphal 1998) and in Aptian
carbonates of a ramp margin in NE Spain (Bachmann and
Willems 1996).
7.5.6 Carbonate-Evaporite Systems
In classical models of carbonate-evaporite sequences
of large intracratonic basins, evaporite successions
were mainly studied and interpreted in the basin cen-
ters. The water level in the basin could either remain ±
constant, or it was lowered by evaporative drawdown
(cf. Sects. 2.5 and 11.4). Correlation of marginal with
basinal sediments mostly remained unclear. The tradi-
tional view did not sufficiently take into account that
along basin margins sediment successions may form
which are different from coevel sediments in the basin
center. This problem can be overcome by a sequence
stratigraphic approach to carbonate-evaporite basins.
The modified model (Tucker 1991) is particularly useful for
large and rapidly subsiding basins (giant salt deposits) such
as the Upper Permian Zechstein basin of northwestem Eu-
rope and the North Sea (cf. Sect. 6.4.2 and Figs. 6.9 and
6.10), several salt-bearing intracratonic basins in North
America, and the basins of Moscow and Siberia. A more
detailed and somewhat deviating view for the Gerrnan part of
the Zechstein Basin was proposed by Strohmenger et al.
(1996a).
The first stage of the improved facies model depicts a
semi-closed basin during sea-Ievel highstand with little
siliciclastic input (Fig. 7.25a). Due to water exchange
with the open sea the salinity of the basin is normal or
slightly hypersaline, still allowing the growth of reefs
and mud mounds and relatively rapid biogenic carbon-
ate deposition along the basin margin. In the basin cen-
ter, pelagic to hemipelagic lime mud (± bituminous and
laminated) accumulates. The following basin closure
and evaporative drawdown of the water level causes
Fig. 7.24. Reef foreslope deposits in carbonate and
mixed carbonate-siliciclastic systems. a Slope depos-
its of late Pleistocene SL-Iowstand and Holocene SL-
highstand at isolated platform (Bahamas/Tongue of
the Ocean; after Grammer and Ginsburg 1992).
b Third order sequences of prograding carbonate
shelf with siliciclastic lowstand wedges (after Sarg
1988). c General processes of slope sedimentation
along land-attached carbonate platform with high-
angle slope and subdued LS-deposits. Hypothetical
facies change during one SL-cycle from highstand to
highstand. d Slope sediments of sea-Ievel controlled
prograding and backstepping rimmed carbonate shelf
335
increased salinity and deposition of inorganic carbon-
ate (later transformed to dolomite) and sabkha gypsum
on the emerging shelf. As the water level continues to
fall, gypsum accumulates on the slope (partially as
selenitic gypsum) where it can form a thick
downstepping wedge (Fig. 7.25b). Some of the gyp-
sum is redeposited by debris flows and turbidity cur-
rents to form breccias and graded beds in the deeper
basin. Simultaneously, laminated gypsum and carbon-
ate muds, often rich in organic matter, accumulate in
the basin center.
The further development is mainly controlled by the
degree of drawdown, i.e. by the amount of renewed
influx of sea water over the sill, seepage of sea water
through permeable rocks, or change to a more humid
or arid climate. When drawdown is incomplete, highly
soluble salts such as halite cannot be precipitated, but
gypsum continues to form thick and extensive deposits
at the basin margin. A subsequently rising water level
(TS T) allows the precipitation of sabkha evaporites on
the platform before carbonate deposition due to low-
ered salinity takes over in the entire basin (HST, Fig.
7.25c and d). Under these conditions, the resulting ide-
alized sequence on the shelf begins on top of a
subaerial hiatus (representing LST) and consists of
sabkha evaporites grading upward into shallow-water
carbonates which are overlain again by sabkha
evaporites (TST and HST).
Complete drawdown ofthe water level (LST) brings
about supersaturation with respect to halite and thus
halite precipitation from ponds and shallow salt lakes
(Fig. 7.25e). Halite can form in large quantities and
locally also some potash salts when the salt concentra-
tion in the water body was sufficiently high prior to
drawdown (cf. Sect. 6.4) and/or salt influx is main-
tained by seepage of sea water. Then the basin can be
largely and rapidly filled up with rock salto
Renewed opening of the basin to the world ocean in
conjunction with a general sea-Ievelrise or local tec-
tonics, affecting the sill area, again leads to a water-
level rise in the basin. During early TST, carbonate
deposition may begin in the basin center while
evaporites are still being precipitated along the shal-
lower basin margin. A further decrease in salinity dur-
with low-angle slope. During the formation of a shelf
margin wedge, SMW, prograding continues more or
less as during HST. When SL falls below platform
rim, an autochthonous LS-wedge can prograde on top
of a basin-floor fan and slope fan. Depending on the
sediment source and climate, the LS-deposits can be
either siliciclastic, mixed carbonate/siliciclastics, or
predominantly redeposited and autochthonous car-
bonates. (Based on Hunt and Tucker 1993; Southgate
et al. 1993). e Downstepping lowstand wedges re-
flecting high-frequency SL-changes during long-term
trend of falling relative SL. (After Mutti et al. 1996,
SL-curve supplemented)
336 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

CARBONA TE-EVAPORITE BASINS

INCOMPLETE DRAWDOWN COMPLETE DRAWDOWN

d LATE HST,
9 HST,
RENEWED PLATFORM/BASIN MORPHOLOGY
SABKHAS AND EVAPORITIC LAGOONS, BY SUBSIDENCE
FOLLOWED BY DRAWDOWN (LSTl

~~-~--f2--~-------~=[=:

OIFFERENTIAL SUBSIDENCE

f TS-EVAPORITES AND HS-AGGRADED

PLA TFORM CARBONATES
C TST, BACKSTEPPING FACIES HST------- ------------------------~ -
SL

------- ------ ----- - ~ ----

TST I
;::i~~ .....CqNIDEINSI:D SECTION LS-HALITE BASIN FILL

BACKSTEPPING
CARBONATES AND COASTAL SABKHAS

e LS-HALITE PANS AND LAKES

b LS-MARGINAL GYPSUM WEDGE

~~~iii~--- LAMINITES (CARBONATES, G

SABKHA SULFATE i:ij ± RICH IN ORG . CARBON)
SHELF SELEN
OISPLACEO

a HST,
OPEN MARINE, CARBONATE RIM
PINNACLE REEFS OR MUD MOUNDS
(FORMED DURING TST1\. S)LL OR BARRIER

SEA LEVEL-- - - - - - - - - - PELAGICCARBONÄTES ANO- HEMIPELAGiC - ~ OPEN OCEAN

MUDSTONES (± LAMINATEDl

Fig. 7.25. Models of carbonate-evaporite systems as
known from large intracontinental basins (based on
Tucker 1991, modified). Basin evolution is shown
either for incomplete drawdown of water level (a-d)
or complete drawdown (e-g). Both alternatives begin
in the same way: during highstand (a) the basin is
connected with the open sea. Then basin c10sure and
a first stage of evaporative drawdown follow (b).
Sequences at the basin margin (carbonate platform)
are characterized by subaerial exposure (SB 1) on top
of HST shallow-water carbonates. c,d TST on the
margin begins with sabkha evaporites grading up-
ward into carbonates or lime mud (HST) possibly
capped by sabkha evaporites (late HST). When
drawdown is incomplete, pelagic and hemipelagic
carbonates (HST) accumulate in the basin center,
alternating with laminated gypsum and lime mud
(LST and TST); SBI is missing. e,f Complete
drawdown leads to evaporite-carbonate cycles with
thiek halite deposition during LST. g Differential
subsidence can re-establish a deep-basin morphology
and initiate the begin of a new evaporite eyc1e
7.6 Transitional Systems
ing late TST and HST causes carbonate accumulation
on both the shelf and basin center (Fig. 7.25f). This
could be more or less the end of the basin filling leav-
ing behind one evaporite-carbonate sequence, but on-
going differential subsidence can more or less restore
the initial basin morphology and thus produce subse-
quent sequences similar to the first one (Fig. 7.25g).
In this concept, the sequences begin on the shelf
with an unconformity (SB I) on top of carbonates (or
sabkha evaporites ) and in the basin center with a corre-
lative conformity (SB2) on top of hemipelagic thin
marls (± biturninous and larninated). The basinal
evaporites are precipitated in the LST and early TST.
They form thick basinal salt deposits (rnainly halite
and gypsum), a gypsum wedge along the shelf
foreslope, and some sabkha evaporites on the shelf.
7.5.7 Summary (Carbonate Systems, Evaporites)
- Shallow-marine carbonate systems fundamen-
tally deviate from siliciclastic systems due to
their autochthonous, rnainly benthic carbonate
production.
- Vertical growth of carbonate buildups can nor-
mally keep up with sea-Ievel rise. Drowning of
carbonate platforrns is mostly associated with
deteriorated environmental conditions for car-
bonate production or extremely rapid sea-Ievel
nse.
- A surplus in carbonate production, in relation to
sediment accommodation space, leads to
"highstand shedding", the prograding of rimmed
carbonate platforms, and to extensive carbonate
slopes and carbonate "breccias".
- Carbonate ramps respond to sea-Ievel changes in
a similar way as siliciclastic ramp settings, but
7.6 Sequence Stratigraphy of
Transitional Systems
The transitional zone between shallow seas and coastal
lowlands plays a major role in sequence stratigraphy.
It is this zone where relative sea level changes, both
rise and fall, exert the most pronounced influence on
the facies and architecture of sediments. Many of these
transitional environments have already been mentioned
in the facies models of Sects. 7.3 to 7.5 and in Sects.
3.1,3.2 and 3.5. The following seetions focus on (1)
valleys incised during sea-Ievel fall and subsequently
filled with sediment as well as (2) on the repeated
flooding or emergence of coastal alluvial plains, la-
goons and lakes.
337
Substantial amounts of shelf carbonates accumulate
during the late TST and early HST when the basin is
flooded. When the water level starts to fall again (late
HST), shallow lagoons and sabkhas can be re-estab-
lished in the landward portion of the carbonate plat-
form, but part oftheir sediments rnay be reworked dur-
ing a following drawdown. It is important to note that
shallow-water carbonate sedimentation ceases before
basinal evaporite precipitation begins. In the basinal
succession, mudrocks and deep-water carbonates often
pass gradually up into evaporites, and vice versa.
In conclusion, these types of carbonate-evaporite
successions at the basin margin and basin center
should be better referred to as "evaporite-carbonate"
sequences because they begin with evaporites.
they develop more stable shoals and lagoonal
systems.
- Falling sea-Ievel often promotes the influx of
terrigenous material into the basin, particularly
so if the sea-Ievel drops below the edge of a
carbonate platform (mixed carbonate-
siliciclastic systems).
- Relatively deep salt basins are characterized by
thick marginal carbonates including some
sabkha and lagoonal evaporites and thick
basinal halite sequences altemating with thin,
partly laminated hernipelagic deep-water sedi-
ments and sulfates. These differences have to be
taken into account for the correlation of mar-
ginal and basinal evaporite-carbonate se-
quences.
7.6.1 Incised Valleys on Continental Shelves
and on Land
Relative sea-Ievel fall forces the sea to regress and
rivers to adjust their gradient to the lowered base level.
Because the slope of continental shelves is normally
greater than the gradient of entering rivers of some
size, the rivers cut valleys into pre-existing sediments,
in particular on coastal alluvial plains and inner
shelves (Fig. 7.26a). If relative sea-Ievel fall reaches
about 100 m or more, the entire shelf as well as the
continental slope rnay be affected by valley incision,
delta prograding and slope failures. Additional valleys
beginning at the shelf break and upper slope can de-
velop during the lowstand systems tract, independently
from prolongated land-derived river courses. On land,
valley incision induced by sea-Ievel fall operates
338 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
headward. It can affect the river courses far away from
the highstand coastline (in the last glacial period up to
some 100 km in young alluvium), depending on ~he
stream power, the time available for erosion and the
erodibility of the underlying alluvium or bedrock. Al-
luvial fans reaching the coastline during HST can be
dissected during LST ("fan valley interval" of Muto
1993). Due to lateral erosion, the fan valley widens
and may later accommodate younger fan sediments.
Incised valleys on land and on continental shelves
are again filled with sediment during the subsequent
sea-level rise. The facies architecture of these valley
fills varies significantly in relation to sediment supply,
the hydrodynamic regime ofthe water-filled basin, the
rate of relative sea-level rise (frequency of sea-level
changes), and other factors. This is demonstrated by
some modem and ancient examples which also inelude
the occurrence of coal seams associated with incised
valleys.
Submarine and subaerial valleys incised during the last gla-
cial period and filled with sediment during the Holocene
have been described from many regions. To the east ofHud-
son Bay, for example, the wide Atlantic shelf ofNorth Amer-
ica was cut by a valley about 200 km in length. In the Gulf of
Mexico and the coastal region ofTexas several ofthese val-
leys were investigated in more detail using, among others,
high-resolution seismic methods (Thomas and Anderson
1994; Nichol et al. 1994; Anderson et al. 1996). This region
can serve as an example of a passive continental margin set-
ting with relatively high sediment supply.
The principal results of these studies are discussed
here in a largely generalized way (Fig. 7.26b and c).
Due to the high-frequency Pleistocene sea-level
changes, both the erosional and depositional features
of the emerged and subsequently flooded shelf are
widely preserved (cf. Sect. 7.3.1). Basinward, valley
incision reached the shelfbreak where lowstand deltas
formed and slope failures were triggered. During the
Holocene transgression, shelf deltas and coastal sand
ridges migrated landward. Behind barriers located
within the valleys, tidal and lagoonal sediments accu-
mulated. This facies association stepped backward ei-
ther continuously or in certain steps (Fig. 7 .26c) until
the sea level had reached its highest position (MFS).
From then on, deltas growing within the valleys or en-
tering a wider embayment ( or lake) started to pro grade
seaward. The same occurred to coastal sands fed by
longshore transport. On land, the rivers were affected
by the late PleistocenelHolocene sea-level history only
in their lowermost reaches.
Along the Colorado River entering the Gulf of Mexico, for
example, valley incision reached the apex of the present-day
subsiding alluvial deltaic plain, approximately 100 km up-
stream ofthe coastline (Fig. 7.26b and d; Blum 1993). How-
ever, this part ofthe Holocene valley fill is purely fluvial and
does not show any direct marine influence. Instead, it reflects
alternating periods of filling and erosion controlled byelirna-
tic changes in the hinterland. This is also true of the young
history of the river further upstream where short periods of
downcutting alternated with phases of alluvial deposition.
Another detailed study of the Holocene fill of an incised
valley has been carried out for the Gironde estuary down-
stream Bordeaux, Southwest France (Allen and Posamentier
1993). The valley was cut into the underlying Tertiary car-
bonate rocks during the last (Würmian) eustatic sea-level
fall; it reached about 50 m in depth at the present coastline
and affected a length ofabout 120 km upstream. Its sedimen-
tary fill consists of a relatively thin fluvial LST (coarse sand
and gravel), a thick wedge oftidal-estuarine sands and muds
(TST) reaching 80 km inland, and a prograding bayhead
delta (HST).
Many examples of incised valleys have been reported
from foreland basins where they mainly occur in a
proximal position, i.e. elose to the front of the
overthrust belt. These valleys run more or less perpen-
dicular away from the mountain front basinward. Un-
der favorable conditions, these valleys contain coal
searns (see below). Some paleo-valleys also formed
parallel to the strike ofthe foreland basin. One ofthese
examples is located in the Oligo-Miocene fill of the
northem Alpine foreland basin (Fig. 7.28e; cf. Sect.
12.6.2).
The paleo-valley is about 300 km in length, 10 to 15 km
wide and runs along the distal basin margin more or less par-
allel to the strike ofthe basin, opposite to the direction ofthe
present-day Danube river (Fig. 7.28e; based on Buchner et
al. 1996). It was incised more than 50 m deep into freshwater
and marine molasse deposits (FM and MM in Fig. 7.28e,
cross-section elose to the city of Ulm). The position of the
valley seerns to have been controlled by the northward gradi-
ent ofthe emerging Upper Marine Molasse as weil as a per-
sisting marine basin in the southwestern part of the foreland
basin.
The valley fill mainly consists of coarse-grained (pebble-
size) fluvial deposits ("Graupensand-Rinne", LST) and sedi-
ments of a ± brackish water, estuarine environment (repre-
senting TST and HST). These are overlain by the Upper
Freshwater Molasse ofthe Middle Miocene. Calcretes on the
flanks and shoulders of the valley indicate an earlier phase of
non-deposition. The age of valley incision and filling was a
matter of lively debate (Reichenbacher et al. 1998). It now
seems to be weil established that the valley is older (Lower
Miocene, about 18 Ma) than the meteorite impact creating
the Ries crater (15 Ma). Later, the depositional environment
of the foreland blisin remained continental and sea-level
changes no longer directly affected the over-filled basin.
How far inland from the lowstand or highstand coast-
line incised valleys are filled with estuarine and tidal
sediments depends on the sediment supply ofthe enter-
ing rivers and the rate ofrelative sea-level rise creating
space for sediment accumulation.
The transition from purely continental processes,
including tectonic structures controlling the river
courses and the initiation of continental basins, to val-
leys affected by sea-level change is shown in a general
way in Fig. 7.27. Datable terraces and paleosols of
7.6 Transitional Systems
different maturity may be used as means to reconstruct
the history of landscape evolution. In unlithified allu-
vial deposits, the lowered sea level may lead to a wide
incised valley where the river system is transformed
from a meandering to a braided style.
Valley incision on land and on continental shelves
can be significantly modified by glaciers creating wide
and often also deep U-shaped valleys and fjords. The
Pleistocene glacial periods have left behind manyex-
amples of this type of valley along and off the coasts
of formerly glaciated regions (cf. Sect. 2.1). Finally, it
should be mentioned that many incised valleys fi1led
by marine, coastal and fluvial sediments solely origi-
nate from tectonic uplift or from both uplift and
eustatic sea-level changes (e.g. on active continental
margins; cf. Sect. 5.4).
Examples of these valley types have been described from
many regions, e.g. northem Spain (Marzo et al. 1998). The
spectacular Eocene fanglomerates ofthe Montserrat in north-
eastem Spain seem to have been controlled bytectonics (and
possibly c1imate change) in their source area (an overthrust
belt) as well as by sea-level fluctuations in distal reaches
(Bums et al. 1997).
A complex example of a tectonically controlled half-
graben fill affected by several phases of sea leve1-induced
valley incision has been reported from the Eocene of Sey-
mour Island, Antarctic Peninsula (Porebski 1995). The fill of
this basin is 6 km wide and 0.4 km thick and can be subdi-
vided into several discrete sequences separated by erosional
unconformities. The facies tracts inc1ude deltaic, tidal and
estuarine sediments and show distinct maximum flooding
surfaces.
7.6.2 Coal in Incised Valleys and Flooded Coastal
Plains
Coal in Incised Valleys
As mentioned above, manyancient incised valleys pro-
vided habitats for the formation of coal (cf. Sect. 14.4).
A general model of the filling of such valleys is shown
in Fig. 7.28a (see e.g. Martinsen 1994; Richards 1996).
This facies model is mainly based on examples from
foreland basins with high to moderate sediment supply.
Valley cutting during relative sea-level fall may trigger
some sediment gravity movements and leave behind
relics of terrace deposits; on the shoulders and, to a
minor degree, on the valley flanks soils can form.
During the late lowstand the lowermost portion of
the valley is commonly fi1led with deposits of braided
rivers. With the onset of transgression (initial
transgressive surface), the accommodation space for
sediment aggradation increases and the gradient ofthe
river decreases. As a result, the bed-Ioad channels of
the formerly braided rivers (Fig. 7 .28al) tend to evolve
into less amalgamated and more sinuous systems. The
medium-gradient mixed-load channel become more
isolated within fine-grained floodplain deposits. Fur-
339
ther upsection, such systems may be replaced by mud-
dominated anastomosing channel-floodplain condi-
tions. Coal searns developed during this phase of val-
ley filling are normally thin and not very extensive.
At the transition from TST to HST, wide areas out-
side of the valleys are flooded. This is the time period
in which thick and extensive coal deposits can form,
either somewhat below or above the maximum flood-
ing surface (MFS). In relation to the position of the
coastline and sediment sourees, the sedimentary facies
of this time interval vary from interdistributary lakes
and swamps to deltaic, estuarine, tidal (ineluding tidal-
influenced channels) to shallow-marine conditions.
When the relative sea level starts to fall again during
the late highstand phase, the sediment accommodation
space is reduced and amalgamation of fluvial channels
and their connectivity increase. In this way, channel
units become more and more truncated and form sheet
sandstone bodies. Coal searns again become thin and
limited in their lateral extent. Continued relative sea-
level fall in the subsequent lowstand phase will cut
new valleys into the emerging former wide depo-
sitional area (Fig. 7.28b).
In the idealized cross-section ofFig. 7.28b, the valley was
cut down to the top of the previous marine limestones. All
the coal 8eams formed during transgression (TST), but the
most wideiy extended seam evolved in the uppermost part of
TST and is partially overlain by a marine limestone. The
transition from TST to HST is marked by shelly limestones
and a horizon with phosphorite nodules (condensed section).
Incised valley-fill sequences have been described from
many regions and time periods. Examples are the Carbonifer-
ous cyc10thems of Kansas and the Appalachians, United
States (Archer et al. 1994; Chesnut 1994) which differ in
their nature. The principal relationship between the accom-
modation rate and the rate at which peat can grow is ad-
dressed by Bohacs and Suter (1997).
The major coal seam ofFigure 7.28b is affected by a
second period of valley incision. This phenomenon is
common when coal searns occur elose to the maximum
flooding surface. In these cases, the frequency and am-
plitude of the eustatic sea-level change was high in
comparison to a moderate rate of subsidence (cf. Fig.
7.6c, where only the lowermost part of TST is pre-
served). However, cyelothems of the Appalchians,
consisting of silicielastics and coal, deviate from the
previous models (Fig. 7 .28c). Here, valley incision
normally does not reach the underlying coal deposited
at the transition from TST to HST. The mean duration
of one Appalachian cyele is about 0.4 Ma (the longest
time interval ofthe Milankovitch band). As in the pre-
vious models, the section above the coal seam is
coarsening-upward (HST), whereas the valley fill is
fining-upward (TST).
In summary, coal searns in incised valleys rnainly
form in the late TST and at the transition from TST to
HST. Their full or partial preservation depends on the
accommodation space which is left after the subse-
340 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

a SUBAERIAL SHELF
VALLEY INCISION VALLEY INCISION DELTA SHELF EDGE
AND REDEPOSITION SEA LEVEL
OF SEDIMENT

=-=--~1~
HEADWARD
VALLEY INCISION
2
SUBMARINE STORM AND
CURRENT EROSION
(SHOWN FOR TRANSITION
.~
---~-
REDEPO -
3
FROM STAGE 1 TO 2) ... ~, SITION

,,~

b MODEL OF INCISED VALLEYS ON SHELF AND COASTAL PLAIN

PLAN VIEW SLOPE

NOT AFFECTED LOWSTAND

BY Sl-CHANGE DELTA

,- -;-:, ;,-::-~~'~~~~~:\
.. ..i , ~. _ .. \ ... ) , J .... I ... r'" f
... a ............. ~. " . . . . . ..... . . _ •

/ GRAVITY FlOW
~ DEPOSIT

~
~ SLOPE BASIN
\I 'l DEPOSIT

--
BEDRO CK LTAS OF TST \\ /

./

:/ \\ 50 km
~

C LONGITUDINAL, SECTION OF INCISED VALLEY

(TRANSGRESSIVE PARASEQUENCES)
PROGRADING __ __ - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
SANDS TRANSGRESSIVE
I
I
RAVINE- COASTAL SANDS I
WATER DEPTH
",50 m
I
I

d CROSS-SECTION OF AlLUVIAL-DELT AIC PLAIN

PRESENT-DAY
PlEISTOCENE ( > 20 kaI RIVER COURSE

2 km
7.6 Transitional Systems 341

C EPISODIC DEPOSITION N
:;;;??:
~ HALFGRABEN

~C'
~
~; ' :' :~ ."' :'.' :.::
,..
..
. _ 6 .
'

....
..
. .
~I~~"
SOllS
BURIED SURFACES
WEAKl Y DEVElDPED SOllS

o 0'

NOT FLOODED
DURING HST

BRAIDED R.. POORlY

SINUOUS R.
SB1 DEVELOPED SOlLS
i i , I I 111111111111
---)~ INCREASING SOll MA TURITY

Fig. 7.27. Transition from purely continental settings turity indicate times and duration of non-deposition.
(cross-sections A through E, including climate Seaward from E, the incised river system becomes
change, depositional episodes, etc., to sea-level in- braided. (Partially based on Wright 1992)
duced valley incision (E-El Paleosols and their ma-

quent sea-level fall again causing erosion and valley
incision.
Flooding of Coastal Plains
As mentioned above, the coastal plain between incised
valleys (inter-channel plain, cf. Sect. 2.2.3) can alter-
natively emerge or become flooded during relative sea-
level changes. If emerged lowlands are little affected
by mechanical erosion, their surface undergoes
pedogenesis which reflects the climatic conditions and
the time interval of emergence (Fig. 7.27). With rela-
tive sea-level rise, lowlands are either concurrently
filled up with alluvial or coastal sediment (behind bar-
rier systems) or transformed to shallow seas. For a
given frequency and amplitude of sea-level change, the
time intervals of emergence and flooding vary along a
land-sea cross section as shown in Figure 7.29a. At
relatively highly elevated locations far away from the
sea (proximal), the time of emergence is longer than
dose to the coastline and, vice versa, flooding is
shorter. In addition, proximal sites tend to receive
more terrigenous input than distal sites and thus dis-
play clastics-dorninated sequences with a short or
missing flooding event. At distal sites the cycles are
often dorninated by shallow-marine sediments depos-
ited during a relatively long flooding phase. These few
remarks may indicate the potential for a great variabil-
ity of cyclic sequences in coastallowlands. This even
holds true of sequences formed simultaneously by the
same eustatic sea-level change in neighboring areas.

Fig. 7.26. Relative sea-level fall, valley incision on incised during the late Pleistocene sea-levellowstand
continental shelf and on land, and redistribution of and filled during the Holocene sea-level rise.
eroded sediment. (After Einseie 1996, modified). d Cross-section of present-day alluvial-deltaic plain.
b Plan view, and c longitudinal section of valleys (Modified from Anderson et al. 1996; Blum 1993)
342 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
An example for the response of widely extended
lowlands to glacio-eustatic sea-level changes of high
frequency and amplitude are Carboniferous cyclo-
theros ofthe shale-paleosol type. They occur in central
North America and are known from an area of about
500000 km2 (Fig. 7.28d).
These cyelothems are characterized by limited terrigenous
sediment supply, a marine black shale horizon, limestones,
and paleosols. This type of cyelothem was described by sev-
eral authors (summary in Riegel 1991) who pointed out that
they originate either from glacio-eustasy, or from tectonics
and autocyelic processes (e.g. delta switching). Figure 7.28d
exhibits a typical representative ofthese cyelothems in a sim-
plified way, according to the revised interpretation by Heckel
(1994). This interpretation is mainly based on faunistic and
sedimentological evidence which was used to evaluate the
paleo-water depth ofthe black shale (around 100m) and two
marine limestone horizons below and on top of the black
shale. The grey to green, locally red paleosols are taken as
lower and upper sequence boundaries ofthe cycle; paleosols
may be replaced locally by coal searns.
The repeated change from a terrestrial to a marine
depositional environment of about 100 m in water depth at a
frequency in therange ofthe Milankovitch band (ca. 20 ka to
400 ka) canhardlybe explained bytectonism. Rather, steady
basin subsidence and limited terrestrial sediment input have
maintained an environment fluctuating between an extensive
coastallowland and shallow-sea area for a considerable time
period. The high-frequency variation in water depth must
have been caused by glacio-eustasy. Farther landward, i.e. in
a proximal position, the coal-bearing cyelothems become
more irregular due to incised valleys, erosional discon-
formities, and widespread paleosols (Heckel et al. 1998).
The approximately time-equivalent, but lithologically dif-
fering coal cyelothems in Texas, Illinois and the Appalchians
are rich in terrestrial detritus but poor in carbonates (cf. Fig.
7.28c). The possibility of correlating Permo-Carboniferous
cyelothems between non-foreland settings (Nevada, Utah)
and those of a foreland basin (southem Cordilleran region,
USA) exeludes a pure tectonic origin of the cyeles
(Dickinson et al. 1994). In the case of fore land basins, coeval
overthrusting (causing basin subsidence) and uplift in the
forebulge region can produce out-of-phase cycles between
the basin interior and outer basin margin. In addition, these
cyeles hardly record Milankovitch frequencies.
Permo-Carboniferous paralic coal cyelothems are also
known from other regions, e.g. North China (Liu and Ricken
1997). Here, in an epicontinental setting up to 22 cyeles of
the 3rd or 4th order have been recognized. The cyeles consist
of sandstones, shales, coal searns and marine limestones. The
coal searnsformed during TST and are directly overlain by
the limestones representing the late TST and early HST. Dur-
ing transgressions the coastline commonly migrated 200 to
600 km landward.
Fig. 7.28. al,a2 General models for the filling of
incised valleys (after Richards 1996, modified).
b Coal-bearing Carboniferous valley fills in Kansas
(after Archer et al. 1994, modified). c Idealized Ap-
palachian coal cyclothems (after Chestnut 1994).
d Typical black shale-paleosol cyclothem of the Car-
The Carboniferous coal cyelothems of the Ruhr Basin in
northwestem Germany are an exarnple for the interplay of
sea-level changes and the irregular growth of coastal plains
elose to marine deltas. In previous studies, these cyelothems
were thought to cover wide areas without significant lateral
change and to result solely from sea-level changes. However,
more detailed information on the facies architecture of these
proximal foreland basin strata has revealed their complex
nature (Süss 1996). Prograding and laterally switching
subdeltas in combination with subsidence and sediment com-
paction created interdistributary swamps and shallow
embayments favorable for the generation of various sorts of
peat. This autocyclic mechanism is responsible for the split-
ting and pinching out of coal seams and other facies types.
Overprint of the deltaic environment by high-frequency (100
to 400 ka) sea-level changes of large amplitude created
shallowing-upward parasequences, ranging from 60 to 100 m
in thickness. The lower part ofthese parasequences is charac-
terized by marine flooding surfaces, the upper part by
paleosols indicating continued regression of the sea.
7.6.3 Coastal Lagoons and Lowland LakeslPlayas
Specific marine flooding events mayaiso affect large
lagoons or lake basins normally separated from the sea
(Fig. 7 .29b). Then either freshwater and brackish water
or high-salinity brines are intermittently replaced by
environments approaching or reaching normal marine
conditions and their corresponding biota. Individual
layers or thicker strata reflecting these conditions indi-
cate the "maximum flooding surface" of such events.
Relatively short marine ingress ions into long-per-
sisting continental basins, in particular intracratonic
basins, are known from many countries and epochs.
The ingressions may leave behind marine shales and
carbonate horizons or, in some cases, thick gypsum
layers which can hardly be explained by the dissolved
load of entering rivers poor in sulfate. Flooding of coal
swamps and the deposition of marine shales have been
mentioned above. The influence of the sea-Ievel
highstand may be overprinted by climate change lead-
ing to greatly variable depositional systems.
The Germanic facies province of the Triassic in Europe
mainly consists of continental red beds altemating with some
marine beds caused by a few prominent and several minor
marine flooding periods (Sect. 12.3.2).
These sequences have been recently interpreted in terms
ofsequence stratigraphy (e.g. Aigner and Bachmann 1992).
At the transition from the Middle Triassic (Muschelkalk) to
the Upper Triassic (Keuper) minor marine flooding events
have affected not only coastal plain deposits (dolomite over-
lain by shale with coal) but also generated coastal sabkhas
precipitating subtidal to supratidal gypsum (Aigner 1998) .
boniferous in North America (after Heckel 1994,
•
simplified). e Lower Miocene paleo-valley incised
along distal margin of northem Alpine fore land basin
into marine and freshwater molasse deposits, south-
em Germany (after Buchner et al. 1996, modified).
For further explanation see text
7.6 Transitional Systems 343

a MODES OF INCISED VALLEY FILLS ISHELF GRADIENT> RIVER GRADIENT}

a 1 HIGH GRADIENT, HIGH SEDIMENT SUPPLY a2 LOWER GRADIENT, MEDIUM SEDIMENT SUPPLY

SB

~
-~-
~~ ~~
T
DECREASINGj :

~~~~~~A1l0N I~-= ~~~I~:~~~:~Fl iJ

_._. __.t.-. _.-._._._.-._.- MFS~~=-iJ?Y"r-'-'~ -'-'
. ~~~~---=-
LS TERR C :.",: ~ : ....:....:::::::07. ~ - INCR. ACC.
- A E ~ ~ SPACE
± PALEOSOL TST
I
.:::-::-;:~:;-:--;:-s:"'"
·-.,.
..... :· - ··-:-:f:-
.;-·~·-·-:
:--:·.-:->-:_·~-:_
·-:-·.,...·"'7 ~ SB
ANASTOMOSING,
FLOOD PLAIN, LAKE, ::-!-~" "i; ':" '':'~ MUD·DOMINATED
DEL TAIC, TIDAL. OR [ST ± MEANDERING. MIXED LOAD
SHALLOW·MARINE SED. :~~~~~~D IFLUVIAL)

C APPALACHIAN COAL CYCLOTHEMS

b CAA80NIFEAOUS INCISED VALLEY FILLS WITH COAL

SHAlLOW·MARINE
lIMESTONE \

MARINE
SHAlE

MARINE
lIMEST.
& SHALE

e INCISED VALLEY, ALPINE MOLASSE

d 8LACK SHALE-PALEOSOL CYCLOTHEMS
(PENNSYLVANIAN, MID-CONTINENT, N. AMERICAI

MAIN
lITHOLOGY

m PALEOSOL,
SHAlE, SllTST.
5
lIMEST.,

HST
IREGR.)

o
344 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

a MARINE FLOODING OF ALLUVIAL PLAINS

(UMITED TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENT SUPPL V)

_ ---
SEA lEVEL HIGH SS

_~rGH_-_-~~-;::;~::;;~~!~;,~j:' ~_ -SED ,

- LOW - - .. :.:.:,..~"w~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - • ~ <)U ,-

9.:::;: ::;:::!.;;;t~Mr-/;;;·'" SLOW SUB r-- A ~ )0

A B
± REGR. LAG AND/OR SOlL r;:,;~~~a--- FLUVIAL
. MATERIAL ~§.... ± REGR. LAG AND/OR SOlL

f- LONG PHASE OF
I MARINE DEPOSITION
\1
6
SHORT OR MISSING PHASE
F MARINE DEPOSITION
Fig. 7.29. a Marine
flooding of coastal
TS ± SOlL plains with limited
sediment supply: re-
SS = SEDIMENT SUPPL Y duced or missing
barrier-lagoon sys-
tem. Note difference
in time available for
b MARINE INGRESSION INTO LOWLAND LAKE, LAGOON marine sediment
UMITED SS - - buildup, SED, be-
tween locations A and
B (at B no subsi-
dence). b Marine
flooding of lowland
lake or lagoon. The
effects of irregular
lake-level fluctua-
BRACKISH TO MARINE SED MP..RINE EVAPORITES tions may become
(INCL. CARBONATES) AND DOLOMITES overprinted by those
SHALES ± CONT.
of sea-level high-
FRESHWATER LAKE stands
SEDIMENTS ( ± COAL) EVAPORITES

7.6.4 Economic Aspects of Incised Valleys and
Flooded coastal Plains
The marine and coastal fills of major incised valleys
often have lengths in the order of 100 km, widths of 20
km, and thiclmesses of some 20 m. This means that the
volume of one valley fill may reach about 40 km3• Un-
der specific conditions, co al seams fonned within
these sedimentary bodies. The facies associations of
such valley fills include coastal and deltaic sand bodies
(reservoir rocks) and lagoonal and shelfal muds (seal
rocks). They therefore favor the accumulation of hy-
drocarbons and groundwater. If 1% of the total sedi-
ment volume of 40 km3 is filled by extractable oil, this
amounts to about 0.4 km3 or approximately 400 million
tons of oil. For this and other reasons discussed in
Chapter 14, incised valley fills are an important target
in hydrocarbon exploration. In North America, for ex-
ample, a significant part ofthe hydrocarbon production
comes from Cretaceous incised valleys ofthe Western
Interior foreland basin (e.g. Dolson et al. 1991).
In the case of groundwater, the storage capacity of
young valley fills is much higher than that for hydro-
carbons and may be in the order of 5%. Assuming the
same total volume of one individual valley fill as
above, ab out 2000 million m3 of water can be stored.
When part of the initial marine or brackish porewater
has been replaced by fresh water, this water body con-
stitutes an important reservoir for groundwater extrac-
tion.
Many widely extended coal beds are associated with
the marine flooding of coastal plains and marine del-
tas. Examples are the extensive Perrnian coal seams of
northeastern China and the Carboniferous coal
cyclothems of North America and the Ruhr Basin in
northwestern Gerrnany (see above).
7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy
7.6.5 Summary (Incised VaUeys, Coastal Plains, Coal)
- Valley incision during sea-level fall commonly
affects coastal plains and their hinterland, the
inner and middle shelf zones, and sometimes
also the shelfbreak and slope.
- Fluvial deposits at the base of the wide incised
channels are normally followed by marine and
lagoonal deposits of the transgressive systems
tract. These are often capped by coal seams and
marine carbonates representing the late TST and
early HST.
Interchannel areas experience erosion andJor
pedogenesis. Whether or not they become later
7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy
Since some years, the general principles of marine se-
quence stratigraphy are also being applied to pure con-
tinental depositional systems which are not affected by
sea-level change. One group ofthese systems is associ-
ated with lakes, the water levels of which are mainly
controlled by tectonics and the climatic conditions in
their drainage areas. The other group comprises vari-
ous fluvial systems largely controlled by the relief (tec-
tonics) and climate in their upper reaches. In the case
of lakes, the lake level is commonly regarded as the
ultimate base level of the entering rivers (cf. Sect.
7.2.2). Fluvial systems filling a subsiding fluvial basin
with an inclined surface normally do not have a base
level which can be regarded as being fixed at a certain
location. Instead they are characterized by a river gra-
dient representing the base level ofthe system (cf. Fig.
7.3a and Sect. 7.7.2).
Continental sequences which have formed inde-
pendently from the sea do not show the same orders as
sea level-controlled sequences. The time periods of
these sequences also greatly vary, but they are often sI
Ma, i.e., in the range of the Milankovitch frequency
band. A clear distinction between the classical2nd and
3rd order sequences ofthe marine regime and the con-
tinental sequences, partially representing shorter cycles
(cf. Sect. 7.9, Cyclostratigraphy) is hardly possible.
7.7.1 Lacustrine Sequences and Cycles
General Aspects
Lacustrine sediments generally respond to lake-level
changes in a similar way as do marine depositional
systems to sea-level changes described above. Lake-
level fall leads to a downward shift of facies tracts,
whereas lake-level rise often causes alandward jump
345
flooded depends on the amplitude of the subse-
quent sea-Ievel rise and the rate of subsidence.
- When coastallowlands and lagoons are periodi-
cally flooded, they undergo drastic environmen-
tal changes. These are preserved in cyclothems
containing paleosols, coal, fluvial and marine
deposits.
- Paralic coal formation in swamps requires a
certain rate in the gain of accommodation space
as weIl as cutoff from terrestrial sediment sup-
ply.
of the deltaic and marginal lake facies. In addition,
lake sediments respond rapidly and markedly to vari-
ous other environmental changes both in the lake areas
themselves (e.g. oxygen supply), as weIl as in their
drainage areas (Sect. 2.5). When lake sediments accu-
mulate under stratified water conditions, their bedding
and varves often allow a very accurate lithostra-
tigraphy and, in favorable cases, chronostratigraphy.
One can distinguish two types of lake systems:
(1) Lakes far away from the sea andJor located suffi-
ciently high above sea level. Their rising and falling
lake levels are controlled by local factors and therefore
vary strongly from lake to lake. It has to be generally
assumed that these lake-level curves are both asymmet-
ric (cf. Fig. 7.8) and very irregular. Hydrologically
open and closed lake basins behave in a different way.
- The water level of hydrologically open lakes is a
function of the elevation of their outflow (groundwater
leakage is not considered here). This can be lowered
with time due to erosional downcutting andJor tectonic
subsidence or it may rise as a result of uplift (Fig.
7.30a). Tectonism seems to be the main factor control-
ling lacustrine depositional sequences in regions of
humid climate (e.g. Scholz et al. 1998). If tectonism is
involved the lake level changes relatively slowly, i.e.
some tens of meters within a time period of 0.1 to 1
Ma. Erosional downcutting may proceed faster. As a
result, entering rivers either cut deeper valleys and
their deltas are forced to prograde basinward or, with
rising level, the deltas tend to step back and cause in-
creased aggradation upstream on their alluvial plains
(Fig. 7.30b). Independently from these long-term
trends, the lake sediments, particularly so in the lake
center, may displayakind of minor cyclicity resulting
from climatic changes (cf. Sect. 2.5).
- In contrast, the water levels of closed lake basins
often show high-frequency, but very irregular fluctua-
tions (Fig. 7.30a). The water levels of modem lakes,
346 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
for example, moved up and down by tens of meters
during the Holocene, i.e. within time periods as short
as some tens to hundreds or thousand years. Most pro-
nounced are fluctuations during glacial-interglacial
cycles controlled by orbital parameters (Milankovitch
frequency band ranging from 20 ka to 400 ka; Sect.
7.9.2). They caused drastic changes in both the levels
(up to some 100 m) and depositional environments of
many lakes.
(2) Large lakes in lowlands with lirnited terrigenous
sediment supply which may occasionally be influ-
enced, directly or indirectly by sea-Ievel changes. De-
pendent on the clirnate, the hydrological regime of
these lakes tends to vary between open and closed, and
lake-level fluctuations have a low amplitude. Hence
they develop relatively thin sequences representing
time spans ranging from those of 3rd order sequences
ofthe marine realm to high-frequency cyclic phenom-
ena. From the ancient record, a considerable number of
large, sediment-starved, long-persisting lake systems
are known. Their average sedimentation rates are much
slower than those found in most of the Quatemary
lakes. It may be possible to correlate some of these
ancient lake sequences with coeval marine sequences.
Examples of Lake level Fluctuations
(Late Pleistocene and Holocene)
Holocene lake levels in the Dead Sea fluctuated by some tens
of meters, Pleistocene levels by 200-300 m (Niemi et al.
1997). Observed historic lake level variations in the Great
Sa1t Lake and some 1akes in Asia amounted to > 10m (sum-
mary in Yan 1999). Modem hypersaline 1akes ("salt 1akes")
and playas in regions of arid to semiarid c1imates experi-
enced cooler, wetter conditions during glacia1 periods or
during the transitions from glacia1s to interg1acia1s. Many
c10sed lake systems were transformed into open systems and
vice versa (Sect. 2.5). In the 1atter case, deposition of carbon-
ates and evaporites was 1argely replaced by that of
si1icic1astic material. The thicknesses of such Pleistocene
clastic-evaporite cycles depend on the sedimentation rate in
the lake. One sequence or cyc1e may reach tens to hundreds
of meters in thickness. A prominent example is Death Valley
in Califomia where, in a permanently c10sed basin, two
dry/wet cyc1es accumulated during the past 200 ka, each
about 90 m in thickness (Lowenstein et al. 1999).
Lakes in regions of present-day subtropical climate may
have reacted in a different way. The late Pleistocene levels of
some of the East African lakes stood 200 m lower than the
present-day levels (summary in Shan1ey and McCabe 1994).
They brought about deep1y incised valleys, lowstand deltas
or fan deltas (on steep slopes), and evaporite deposition in
the basin center (Fig. 7.30b). Highstand deposits of deep
lakes, such as those of some young rift basins, may be char-
acterized by slope failures, subaqueous talus on steep slopes,
deep channelized fans and turbidites in the basin center,
apart from hemipelagic muds.
In regions of temperate humid c1imates, the post-g1acia1
sediment successions known from many glacier-shaped lakes
along the margins of mountain ranges frequently display a
half-cycle sequence consisting of c1astic sediments followed
by carbonates (seekreide) and organic-rich muds.
Climate-Controlled Lacustrine Sedimentary Cycles
Cyclic sediments have been found in many ancient
lake basins. Whether or not they were controlled by
lake level fluctuations is often not clear because their
marginal sediments have been eroded. In the following
examples, lake-level fluctuations are only partially
documented. Principally, cyclic sequences of lakes
could originate solely from variations in clirnate. How-
ever, it is likely, at least for closed lake basins, that cli-
mate change not only affected sediment influx and
depositional environment, but also the lake levels.
Large lake basins display moderate sedimentation rates
and sequences or cycles of relatively long duration.
Ancient salt lakes of lirnited size, which had large
drainage areas, tended to become rapidly filled. Sev-
eral of them show an excellent cyclicity at different
scales.
Some of the Triassic rift basins associated with the breakup
of Pangea (Sect. 12.3), for example the Newark rift in the
eastem United States, existed over aperiod of 30 to 40 Ma
(Smoot 1991). Their sediment fills inc1ude various lake de-
posits ofboth perennial and ephemera11ake systems (cf. Sect.
2.5). Dry phases were characterized by playa mud flats (des-
iccation.cracks), whereas wet phases led to larninated calcar-
eous black shales (cf. Fig. 7AOa; van Houten 1964; Olsen
1990; Fischer 1991). In the so-called Newark Supergroup,
the mean thickness ofthe basic -20 ka-cyc1e is 5 to 6 m (sed-
imentation rate about 0.3 mlka); in the basin center, the cy-
c1es may contain some evaporites.
Recently, the total Newark basin fill of 1ate Triassic to
ear1y Jurassic age was again investigated by aseries of seven
overlapping drill holes. These revea1ed a continuous core
section of 4660 m in thickness (Olsen et al. 1998). Ofthese,
3700 m consist ofuninterrupted grey, black and reddish lake
sediments representing a time span of 24 Ma. This sequence
cou1d be subdivided into 53 large cyc1es (members of so-
called McLaughlin cyc1es) of an average thickness of 70 m
and aperiod of 413 ka. Each of these members contains the
shorter 100 ka and 23 ka cyc1es. The lake level varied by up
to 200 m. The lacustrine cyc1es and their hierarchy could be
traced over the entire rift basin (>100 km). The cyc1icity is
also present in the upper reddish part of the 1acustrine basin
fill.
Another one of these rift basins (Richmond basin) was
controlled by more humid c1imate. Hs sedimentary succes-
sion contains coals and displays little evidence offalling dry.
Instead, the large downward shift of prograding deltas and
deep channels indicate that the basin must have been deep
during considerable time intervals.
A well-exposed example ofupper Triassic to early Juras-
sic (Rhaethian-Sinemurian) lake sediments (400 m to more
than 1000 m in thickness) has been described from East
Greenland (Dam and Surlyk 1993; Dam et al. 1995). The
fault-bounded lake basin is associated with rifting prior to
the opening of the North Atlantic. During the Triassic, the
environmental conditions changed from semi-arid to humid,
7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy 347

Ci MAIN FACTORS CONTROLLING LAKE LEVELS

OPEN LAKES CLOSED LAKES, CLiMATE CONTROL

ELEVATION OF
OUTFLOW c--:::

~,* \;\='<::?;~::~:J~:P>"""
EROSIONAL DOWNCUTTING
AND/OR TECTONISM
SPILL LEVEL OF BASIN (OPEN LAKE)
LAKE LEVEL
f
I
>100 m
I

TIME (10-'00 kaI .;

TIME (0. 1 - 1 Ma) - _ .... _.. , '--r---
MORE HUMID ARID

b RESPONSE OF LAKE SEDIMENTS TO Bl-CHANGE

TS
HIATUS
DELTA FRONT AND
± EVAPORITES DISTRIBUTARY CHANNEL
SHALE PRODELTA
(OPEN LACUSTRINE) AND SHOREFACE

Fig. 7.30. a Principal types of lake-level changes of cycles, whereas the level of the closed basin varies
open and closed lake basins. The upperrnost lake frequently. (Partly based on Rogers and Astin 1991).
level of closed basins is fixed by spill over which is b Response of lake sediments and associated valleys
reached during relatively long periods of climatic to lake-level changes. See text for further explanation

caused by northward drift of the Laurasian continent. This
change is reflected by the transition from red beds and
evaporites to playa mudstones and lacustrine carbonates. Fi-
nally, black shales were deposited in the basin center (Fig.
7.31). Along the basin margins deltaic and sandy foreshore
sediments dominated. Lake-level fluctuations, creating se-
quence boundaries and stratigraphie gaps, are well docu-
mented within this facies zone. During the late Triassie and
early Jurassie the c10sed basin experienced numerous high-
frequency, fairly high-amplitude lake-level fluctuations with
time periods in the range ofthe Milankovitch band. The lake
was ultimately flooded by the Jurassie (Pliensbachian) ma-
rine transgression.
An outstanding example of a continuous, annual c\imatic
record has been reported from varved Permian evaporites of
the Delaware Basin in New Mexico (Anderson 1982). The
measured sequence consists of calcite-laminated anhydrite
and anhydrite-laminated halite caused by seasonal changes in
temperature and evaporation (cf. Sect. 6.4.2). It represents a
time span of 260 ka, but can be subdivided into cyc\es of
348 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

HIGH-FREQUENCY LAKE (PLAYA) SEQUENCES

(TRIASSIC/JURASSIC, EAST GREENLAND)

ANOXIC LAKE SHALLOW MARINE

LAKE LEVEL
DEPTH - 100 m ) LAKE
HIGH LOW LEVEL

~8.:r:.6h!~,;w~~fiDELTA PLAIN
--- --- OPEN
LAKE
H L

AND DELTA ~~!::i5q __ - - TSE

FRONT, WAVE·
DISTR.
AND STORM-
DOMINATED CHANNEL

USF
f-..,-=,..-~- - - - - - SB

FAN

YA
MUDFLATS
\
\
PLAYA-LAKE
W ITH
TO-

TSE = TRANSGRESSIVE
SURFACE OF EROSION
I - - - 50 km '-----1 CARBONATE LAKE
",n'''LLUVY LSF = LOWER SHORE-FACE
ORLAGOON USF = LOWER SHORE-FACE
Fig. 7.31. High-freguency lake (playa) sequences in low-frequency trends overprinted by high-frequency
the Triassic/Jurasslc, East Greenland. (Modified lake-level fluctuations and example of two minor
from Dam and Surlyk 1993; Dam et aL 1995). Note sedimentary cycles

various lengths(about 100 ka, 20 ka, 2.7 ka, and 200 years;
cf. Sect. 7.2.9). The 2.7 ka period may indicate episodes of
basin freshening similar to the climatic changes known from
the Holocene.
Lacustrine cycles of ephemerallakes have been described
from the Devonian ofScotland (Rogers and Astin 1991). The
lakes were dried-up most oftheir lifetime and their sediments
show abrupt changes from ephemerallake surfaces (desicca-
tion cracks, gypsum pseudomorphs) to wind-blown silt and
mud-pellet dunes as weil as mud deposited from suspension
in the water-filled lake.
7.7.2 Sequences in Fluvial Systems
Subsidence and Autocyclic Processes
Fluvial deposits of some thickness, displaying repeated
sequences, can be only expected in areas of substantial
subsidence which is, more or less, continuously com-
pensated for by sediment aggradation. U nder such con-
ditions, even alluvial fans can show sequences of flu-
vial material altemating with deposits of sheet floods
and debris flows (Sect. 2.2.2). These successions are
discyclic and contain irregularly spaced thin and thick
event beds. Similarly, fan deltas into lakes and shallow
seas can exhibit special flood events triggering
subaquatic gravity mass flows.

Fig. 7.32. a Main types of fluvial systems and their
control by processes both in the upstream and down-
stream regions. b Base-level change and sediment
buildup of fluvial systems, mainly controlled in their
lower reaches. c River gradients (1,2,3) and corre-
sponding vertical sediment sections (below) in a
blockfaulted region affected by either decreas-
ing/increasing subsidence in lower reaches andlor
decreasing/increasing uplift in source area. d Princi-
pal types and causes of fluvial base-level change
7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy 349

a MAIN FACTORS CONTROLLING b DOWNSTREAM BASE-LEVEL CONTROL

FLUVIAL SYSTEMS
ALLUVIAL 0: OF FLUVIAL SYSTEMS _""'.'
----~ .. .. : ... .
i
HIGH.GRADIENT FAN ovo" FALL AN OR PL 2 _----- . :,-: :'
LOW-SINUOSITY RIVER .., ... .,.00"·
\ -~----- ... :.

~ ........
JE:- _ -- -:;.-:::: ....:....
~.b..·.'.·,..···· .. :·· ..:I. .
UPL· ER
UPLIFT
t~ 1 SEOU: BOUNOARY

BASE - - - MUD-DOMINATED, . - - - - - - - - - - -
MOST I - BEo'~LOAD CHANNELS - ± CLIMATE
OF ~ CHANGE LEVEL ± MEANDERING
FINES SUB-SED
RISE

--
MEDIUM TO LOW-GRADIENT ~

<r
HIGH·SINUOSITY RIVERS
Jl:---
~ ... r.·":o
.. .., t
,~:,
.......,......... ·DECR. UPLIFT BRAID~D OR MEAND., .....
_-:-:.~-r:..::::.

*-::-:-::--,-----
2----- .... . . . .
HORIZ. STACKING _---~ .... ~
PART MEANDERING- - - - - _ . 80. LOWERING ~ ~
OF ~ MIXED. LOAD CHANNELS RELIEF
FINES
__ _ -\000 - ___ __ -- - - BRAIDED, - - - - - - -
VERY LOW-GRADIENT AN OR PL VERTICAL ST ACKING
ANASTOMOSING RIVERS ~
:-::......., ::.....'0'·'·,.+

t
~
<f . -==::l:--=:-::;-
;'-~_-::-::-::_:-::-~LOW RELIEF
~:~~E ~ MUD.DOMINATED AND/OR DISTANT INCISED VALLEYS
CHANNELS SOURCE AREA
SOllS
MEANDERING

PLA Y A , lAKE TRANSPORT

1\
\.. I ....,. -"•
~'
-'

" RATE ~~ROGR. BRAIDED SYSTEM

...... _-" ......
--~-~~~-~~~==~-----~-~-~ ~ '2~
--- --- -- -~- ------------- - - - - -
t ... SUB-SED = + OR-

C SOURCE AREA AND /OR DOWNSTREAM CONTROL d TYPES OF FLUVIAL

OF FLUVIAL BASE LEVEL (BLI BASE-LEVEL CHANGE

COARSE FACIES ,---

I
----- STEADY-
STATE
PROGRADING BACKSTEPPING

STEADY-STATE
... \. ·.:.:'Z--~11111111111:
-2------ ~11~@:
./
//

_---2'-~
1: SED=SUB

r
2: SED>SUB
OR DECR. SUB
CU :;,::.- ----, UPLIFT IN
3: INCR. UPLIFT SOURCE AREA
IN SOURCE

.--_
I
....
I
--.., I __ - 2 ' - - -- -
--~ 1
2 3 ,
I
2
I
3 FU
~
==DOWNSTREAM
~ ----- UPLIFT
BL = CONST. Bl-RISE Bl· FAll I I OR DECREASING SUB

'~";".
".<>' AF
11
...
!;.: :
.'• . BD

AN = ANASTOMOSING RIVER BD = BRAIDED RIVER CU = COARSENING UP

AF = ALLUVIAL FAN ME = MEANDERING R. FU = FINING UP
PL = PLAYA, LAKE UPL = UPLIFT ER = EROSION
350 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
Repeated sequences of larger areal extent form on
alluvial plains fed by braided and meandering river
systems (Sect. 2.2.3). As a result of lateral channel
migration, relatively coarse-grained channel fills can
become amalgamated to wide, elongated sand sheets.
Particularly in braided systems, older channel fills may
be partially reworked and their material incorporated
into subsequent channel fills. Idealized channel sec-
tions show a fining-upward trend which is commonly
terminated by the erosional face of the subsequent
channel. Meandering systems show channel fills with
well developed fining-upward character and less ero-
sional truncation when aggradation of flood deposits
predominates over channel sediments. Abandoned
channels (ox bow lakes) may be filled with mud or
organic detritus (cf. Fig. 2.16). Pedogenesis character-
izes areas of slow or absent sediment aggradation dur-
ing time intervals of at least some thousand years.
If a kind of equilibrium between subsidence and
sediment aggradation can be maintained (steady-state
conditions), the fluvial systems thus generate
autocyclic or autogenetic sedimentary cycles or se-
quences with fining-upward channel fills. The thick-
ness of these sequences reflects the depth of the chan-
nels, and their architectural style remains more or less
constant with time.
Allogenetic Controls
Autogenetic fluvial cycles related solely to the dynam-
ics of the depositional system itself may be superposed
by processes of a more regional or global nature. To
better understand these allogenetic processes, some
principal features of the complex fluvial systems are
summarized in Figure 7.32a (cf. Fig. 2.20). The overall
gradient of river systems is controlled by processes in
both the upper reaches (sediment source) and lower
reaches where sediment aggradation takes place. As a
result, the base-level (stream-gradient) profiles ofriver
systems can vary significantly (Fig. 7.32d). Some au-
thors have defined an "stream equilibrium profile"
which acts as a "pseudo-base level" controlling erosion
or deposition of the fluvial system. If the landscape
and the actual stream bed lie above this level, erosional
processes dominate. Where (theoretical) stream-profile
Fig. 7.33. a Example of a fluvial half-graben fill,
Tnassic, central Spain. Note upsection changes in
channel connectedness, grain sizes, and variations in
paleo-current directions. (After Sanchez-Moya et al.
1996, simplified). b Idealized cross-section of conti-
nental interior basin, Upper Triassic (Keuper), south-
em Germany, demonstrating prograding and
backstepping fluvial facies belts as controlled by
base-level change (noted in two different ways).
Isochrones do not follow facies boundaries. (After
Konstanty and Ricken 1997, modified). c Delayed
changes occur for some time above the land surface,
fluvial sediment may accumulate at increasing and de-
creasing rates generating cyclic sequences in conform-
able strata. The channel pattern, length and specific
gradient of individual channels, and their bedload try
to adjust to changing environmental conditions
(stream-profile, climate, amount of runoff, sediment
supply, etc.). However, there may be a considerable
lag time between an actual change in one or several of
the controlling variables and the reaction ofthe fluvial
system and its attempt to reestablish equilibrium condi-
tions. A pseudo base-level fluctuation of a fluvial sys-
tem far away from the sea may be completely out of
phase with relative sea-Ievel changes feit along the
coastline. Furthermore, a stream equilibrium profile is
not an ultimate base level. Rivers often change their
character and thus also their stream gradient with time.
These problems have been recently discussed by several au-
thors (e.g. Cross and Homewood 1997; Dalrymple et al.
1998; Ethridge et al. 1998). A generally accepted concept
seems to be still missing. The number of publications about
continental sequence stratigraphy is steadily increasing (e.g.
Ramon and Cross 1997; Shanley and McCabe 1998).
In spite of these complications, the generalized rules
outlined in Figure 7.32a,d may help in gaining a better
understanding of fluvial sequence stratigraphy. The
response of fluvial systems to base-level change in the
downstream region is demonstrated in Figure 7.32b,c.
As long as the river can maintain a kind of equilibrium
profile (steady-state), fluvial sequences do not display
any significant vertical trend. However, a rise in base
level resulting either from decreased subsidence or
increased sediment accumulation, diminishes the river
gradient and forces backstepping (upstream retreat) of
the fluvial facies belts. For example, the braided chan-
nel system with relatively coarse-grained material
shifts headward. If this trend continues, the slope of
the fluvial basin considered may become very flat and,
depending on the weathering processes in the source
area, only allow anastomosing rivers to deposit fine-
grained sediments. Ifthe basin becomes hydrologically
closed, it is finally transformed into a lake or playa the
sediments ofwhich mark the top offining-upward sec-
tions.
response of fluvial system to constant subsidence of
continental interior basin (as b) may cause alternat-
ing prograding and backstepping of fluvial facies
belts (self-regulating system). d Types of continental
sequences bounded either by erosional unconformi-
ties, soils and duricrusts (SB 1) or by strata deposited
at the transition from base-level rise to fall (corre-
sponding to maximum flooding surface). (Based on
several sources, e.g. Olsen 1995; Tandon and Gibling
1997)
7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy 351

a CROSS-SECTION OF FLUVIAL PLAIN CHANNEL

CONNECTED
RATE OF
RELATIVE
NESS SUBSIDENCE
LOW HIGH

'l.:,n::,:o

-:'7':' ~~ :-.:.~.~?::: ::~. ::::..~-:::.:.

.. ....... '.':.'

INCR. DECR.
MEAND.SYSTEM BRAIDED SYSTEM PALEO-
CURRENTS

b CONTINENT AL INTERIOR BASIN

BASE LEVEL
RISE FALL

.d IDEALIZED CONTINENTAL
SEQUENCES
C SELF~REGULA TING SYSTEM
TIME

I
I
I I
~- BL-FALL-~'BL-RISE
RIVER GRADIENT
INCREASING DECREASING

~ COARSE FACIES - • ", .• - SB1

± PLAYA ....::-_l ___
PROGR -

AMALGAMATED
""'-"'----
SOlL,
BACKST. ------~ FLUVIAL SANDST. DURICRUST
352 Chapter 7
In contrast, falling base level, caused by increased
subsidence and/or reduced sediment accumulation in
the lower fluvial reaches, leads to basinward
prograding of the relatively coarse-grained facies and
thus to coarsening-upward sequences. Falling base
level downstream of the location considered can also
cause valley incision into fluvial sediments deposited
earlier, i.e. during rising base level (Fig. 7.32b). After
turnover from falling to rising base level, fluvial basins
are commonly filled by a fining-upward sequence, of-
ten beginning with braided river sediments. The oppo-
site trend, i.e. turnover from rising to falling base level,
produces a coarsening-upward sequence.
The cross section of a Triassic fluvial basin fill (Fig. 7.33a;
Bunter Sandstone, Spain; Sanchez-Moya et al. 1996) exem-
pli fies an example oftwo tumovers in base level. The fluvial
architecture is characterized by the transition from a mean-
dering to a braided system and back again to a meandering
system. At the same time, the mean grain sizes ofthe channel
fills, the inter-connectedness of the channeIs as weil as the
paleo-current patterns change.
Figure 7.33b shows an idealized example from southern
Germany (Keuper Formation, Triassie), where the basin cen-
ter was repeatedly occupied by a large playa lake recorded by
thin dolomitic limestone beds and some evaporites. Red
beds, some strata with calcrete, braided and meandering
rivers repeatedly prograded to and retreated from the basin
center. These features can be explained by base-level change,
but clirnatic change rnay also have played an important part
(see also Bourquin et al. 1998).
Prograding and backstepping of fluvial facies belts, as
demonstrated in the previous example, is not necessar-
ily associated with periods of increased or decreased
subsidence. Even under conditions of constant subsi-
dence, variations in fluvial sediment transport to the
basin center may produce fining and coarsening-up-
ward sequences. During times of reduced sediment
supply and deposition, the basin center is lowering and
thus creating a steeper river gradient (Fig. 7 .33c). After
some lag time, the steepened gradient will in turn en-
hance the transport capacity of the river system and
thus cause prograding of the coarse fluvial facies. As
a result, the accumulation rate in the basin center will
again increase and fill the basin up to the initial level.
This process reduces further sediment supply, and the
same playas before can begin. Such aseries of pro-
cesses may be referred to as a kind of "self-regulating"
mechanism which, of course, can be overprinted or
replaced by other processes. Climate change and/or
Fig. 7.34. a Eolian deposits with unconforrnities
("super surfaces") caused by episodes of deflation
and sabkha formation close to the groundwater table.
A relative water-table rise takes place in conjunction
with ongoing subsidence of the basin floor. Note that
the super surfaces represent more time than sediment
accumulation. (After Havholm and Kocurek 1994,
modified). b Deflation horizons (Stokes surfaces) in
Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
tectonic movements in the source area can produce a
sirnilar pattern.
Sequence boundaries in continental systems can be
defined in different ways (Fig. 7.33d), as those in ma-
rine deposits. One possibility is to use unconforrnities
(SB 1) represented, e.g., by paleosols and/or the floor
of individual valleys or the erosional base of wide flu-
vial channel belts incised during falling base level. An
alternative is the tumover between rising and falling
base level, corresponding to the maximum flooding
surface of marine systems. This conforrnable and more
or less isochronous boundary is commonly weIl devel-
oped in the central parts of continental basins. Here,
the clay-rich facies of fluvial systems accumulates or,
as an alternative, lakes, playas, or coal swamps are es-
tablished.
7.7.3 Eolian Sequences
The basis for recent attempts to apply modern concepts
of sequence stratigraphy to eolian sediments is the ob-
servation that these are often not solely of eolian ori-
gin. Eolian sands frequently alternate with fluvial and
playa deposits which can be defined as subunits of
sequences or may be used as sequence boundaries. In
addition, eolian sands often display specific erosional
unconforrnities (deflation surfaces, sometimes referred
to as super-surfaces) which can be traced over long
distances (Fig. 7.34). These "Stokes surfaces" (cf.
Sect. 2.3 and Fig. 2.21 d) are related to the groundwater
table within dune fields. Dry, non-cohesive sand above
the capillary fringe of thewater table can be blown
away, whereas moist sand resists wind erosion. This
phenomenon commonly leads to a discontinuous
buildup of eolian dune fields (Fig. 7.34a). Relatively
short periods of rapid sand accumulation are followed
by intervals of erosion (deflation), creating hiatuses in
the vertical sediment buildup. The groundwater table
serves as a sort of base level down to which deflation
can proceed.
In a subsiding basin the groundwater table generally
rises with time in relation to the initial basin floor. As
a result of climate change and other factors, the water
table may rise stepwise and sometimes also drop below
a previous level. In coastal sand dunes or in the vicin-
ity of lakes, the groundwater table more or less follows
the sea or lake level change (Fig. 7.34b). Then the sec-
tion bounded by two deflation surfaces reflects the
coastal sand dunes. c Stokes surfaces (continental
sequence boundaries) associated with inland sabkhas
and interdune fluvial deposits. (After Fryberger et al.
1988). d Large-scale facies models of the lower
Perrnian (Rotliegend, southem North Sea) displaying
the effects climate-induced base-level change from
arid to semi-arid. (After Yang and Nio 1993; Gaupp
et al. 1993, modified)
7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy 353

a DEFLATION SURFACES
IN EOLIAN DEPOSITS

I WATER TABLE

I I

.......
_ . -- ~;

I
SABKHA DUNES
: DUNE BUILDUP SABKHA : HIATUS
SEDIMENT
[t:r~~
. ~~äj
':1~~(§~~:::;:;;
·. ;::;J·
::I~~
· ~iiii!I' TIME~

C
b EOLIAN COASTAL SANDS
'NLAND EOLIAN SEDIMENTS

DUNE FIELDS

COAST AL DUNES
LAKE OR
SEA LEVEL

WATER TABLI:~ ('" BASE LEVEL). INTERDUNE OLD WATER TABLES SABKHA
TIED TO SEA OR LAKE LEVEL FLUVIAL SED. (STOKES SURFACES) DEPOSITS

d LARGE; SCALE FACIES MODEL (ROTLlEGEND, NORTH SEAl

BASE-LEVEL
CHANGE
354 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
transgressive and highstand systems tracts of marine
systems. Relative sea or lake-level fall is commonly
poorly recorded because the previous groundwater
highstand tends to be preserved by the onset of cemen-
tation preventing the sand grains from being eroded.
Inland dune fields (Fig. 7.34c) and their groundwater
table develop independently from the sea. Here, the
deflation surfaces mainly record tectonic movements
and/or elimate change.
Apart from deflation (Stokes) surfaces, eolian sands
often contain thin intercalations of fluvial and sabkha
sediments. Sabkha deposits (either sandy or
evaporitic), in particular, signal the former presence of
groundwater elose to the paleo-surface because they
get most of their salts from evaporating groundwater.
In a sediment buildup/time plot (Fig. 7.34a), these thin
strata normally represent more time than the episodes
of rapid sand buildup and deflation.
The Pennian of central and northwestern Europe is repre-
sented by continental sediments, including eolian dunes,
deposited in a more or less arid time. The relief of the
7.7.4 Summary (Sequences ofLakes, Fluvial and Eolian systems)
Base-level changes of lakes, fluvial and eolian
systems follow other rules than those of the
ocean.
Closed lakes show irregular high-frequency and
often also very high-amplitude lake level
fluctions which are mainly controlled by elimate
change. Their silicielastic sediments respond to
these changes partly in a similar way as marine
sediments.
- The base-level of fluvial systems is given by the
regional water table (e.g. lake levels) or defined
by their stream equilibrium profile. Deviations
from this profile, caused by tectonic. movements
or varying sediment supply, lead to ehanges in
the staeking patterns of fluvial channels. A
7.8 Hierarchy of Sedimentary Cycles,
Their Superposition and Causes
7.8.1 General Aspects
The principal types of stratigraphie cyeles are summa-
rized in Figure 7.35. The eyeles are listed in the order
of decreasing time period, lateral extent and (indi-
rect1y) thiekness. Beeause eyeles of higher frequency
are superimposed on those oflower frequeney, a kind
of cycle hierarchy has been established.
The long-term cyeles of the Ist and 2nd order are
eaused either by global plate teetonics or more regional
depositional area was probably low and comprised some
large and a number of smaller depressions occupied by
sabkhas or saline lakes. Depositional sequences are largely
controlled by climate change and cannot be explained by the
"classical" concept ofsequence stratigraphy (R. Gaupp, pers.
comrnunication; and Gaupp et al. 1993; Turner and Smith
1997). Lake level tluctuations may have been too rapid to
generate significant shifts of the facies belts. It appears that
lower frequency change from more humid to arid conditions
caused the abrupt replacement oftluvial and lake/sabkha sed-
iments byeolian dunes and vice versa (cf. Sect. 7.7.1, Rogers
and Astin 1991). During times of increasing aridity, the river
beds and the lakes largely fell dry. As a result, the groundwa-
ter table was lowered and sand was blown out from tluvial
deposits generatingsanddunes (Fig. 7.34d). Some ephemeral
rivers may have cut deeper wadis. Later, increasing humidity
caused the lake level and groundwater table to rise up to a
"maximum tlooding surface", fixing the base of the sand
dunes and allowing the establishment of inland sabkhas at
higher elevations than the lake.
The sequence stratigraphie model of Fig. 7.34d, as pro-
posed by Yang and Nio (1993) for the Upper Rotliegend (un-
derlying the Zechstein evaporites in the Netherlands off-
shore), has been modified according to this interpretation.
steepening river gradient causes prograding of
coarse-grained fluvial faeies and partly valley
cutting. Either erosional surfaces and paleosols
or the turnover from increasing to decreasing
accommodation space ("maximum flooding
surface", e.g. represented by lakes or playas in
the basin center) can be used as sequence
boundaries. Decreasing accommodation space
favors lateral stacking of channel fills.
Sequences in eolian systems are bounded by
irregular non-depositional surfaces, deflation
surfaces, or wet-damp eolian intercalations (e.g.
playas). These reflect the groundwater table
which is mainly controlled by elirnate change
and subsidence.
teetonic motions (rifting, subduetion, magrnatism,
mountain building, etc.) affecting the volume of the
oeean basins. The 4th and higher order cyeles are as-
eribed to the buildup and melting of eontinental iee,
i.e. the change in oeeanie water volume. The meeha-
nism responsible for the common 3rd order eyeles is
not so elear; in this case several meehanisms may be
involved (see Seet. 7.8.4).
Long-term cyelie phenomena had a profound impaet
on the evolution of the oeean basins, elirnate, nature
and distribution of sediments, as well as the evolution
of life. They can be reeonstrueted only by the study of
the geological history of large areas (eontinents) and
long-distanee eorrelation. What we norrnally observe
7.8 Sedimentary Cycles
in field exposures of limited extent are 4th and higher
order cycles. Third order cycles take an intermediate
position; they are weIl represented in seismic records,
but in exposures on land they can usually be seen only
in large exposures. Otherwise, these sequences have to
be identified by combining information from neighbor-
ing outcrops and drilling holes of some depth.
7.8.2 Continental Encroacbment (Flooding)
Cycles (Plate Tectonic Megacycles)
Long-term trends and, to some extent, cyclic develop-
ments in the Earth's history have been of primary inter-
est in geology and stratigraphy since their beginning.
This topic concems various specialized fields, such as
tectonic evolution and orogenesis, volcanism and
magmatism, climatic trends including greenhouse and
icehouse effects, the development of the atrnosphere
and the oceans, black shale events, rock cycling as a
result of subduction and mantle convection, geochemi-
cal cycles, etc., and last but not least the history oflife.
Plate tectonic megacycles resulted from the assem-
blage ofindividual continents and subsequent break-up
of super-continents. The last two megacycles ofEarth's
history are weIl established (see below), but probably
there were also earlier megacycles of this type (e.g.
Salop 1983; HoffmannPF 1989). Duringtimesofslow
ocean spreading and continental assemblage, associ-
ated with subduction, collision, andmountain building,
mid-oceanic ridges became smaller and lower and the
average depth of the ocean basins deeper (Pitrnan
1978; Heller and Angevine 1985). Hence, the global
sea level fell if it is assumed that the volume of ocean
water remained constant. In contrast, rapid spreading
rates generated high, broad oceanic ridges and thus
reduced the ocean basin volume. Consequently, the sea
level rose and flooded neighboring continental low-
lands and partially flooded uplands of limited eleva-
tion. In addition, other factors such as submarine
magmatism and changing sediment influx from the
continents may have modified these general trends.
Tbe Last Two Megacycles (Overview)
Continental assemblages to super-continents occurred
in the late Proterozoic and Permian, and breakups in
the early Cambrian and early Jurassic. The time period
of a plate tectonic megacycle from one break-up to the
next one was 250-350 Ma. The most important effects
of the two youngest megacycles are summarized in
Figure 7.36.
The rifting and breakup ofthe Pan-African supercontinent in
the latest Proterozoic and early Cambrian (e.g., Porada 1989)
and subsequent rapid ocean spreading led to a major era of
flooding, with sea level highstand and widely extended ma-
rine sediments on continental crost in the eariy Ordovician.
355
The peak in sea level may have been 100 to 150 m above the
present level (Bond et al. 1988). It was followed by a long-
term, slow sea-level fall which reached its deepest level with
the completion ofPangea at the end ofthe Permian.
The late Permian and Triassic represent an epoch of
radical change from falling to rising sea level. With the
break-up ofPangea, the overall climate changed from
an icehouse state with polar ice caps and large latitudi-
nal temperature gradients to a greenhouse state (e.g.
Veevers 1990). In the Triassic, large volumes ofsedi-
ment did not reach the oceans, but were deposited as
nonmarine strata in incipient rift zones (Sects. 12.1
through 12.3) and in lowlands adjacent to the sea. The
base level was low and sediment supply exceeded the
space being created by slow relative rise in sea level,
resulting in major regression (Vail et al. 1991). The
tendency for arid climates favored the deposition of
evaporites, red beds, and eolian sediments.
In the oceans, relatively narrow, low-latitude zones were
characterized by a high supersaturation with respect to cal-
cium carbonate and a high Mg/Ca ratio (Mackenzie 1990).
As a result, carbonate platforms were dolomitized to a great
extent (e.g., in the Triassie of the Alps), and aragonite was
the dominant mineral forming pore-lining cements and ooids
in the so-called aragonite ocean (Sandberg 1985; Opdyke
and Wilkinson 1990). Several major groups of organisms
be~ame extinct, but others persisted with modifications; reef-
bUilders developed new types of frarnework.
Since the Upper Jurassie, nannofossil carbonates accumu-
lated in widely extended areas on shelves and in epiconti-
nental seas. The Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios in sea water were
relatively low. The dominant abiotic carbonate mineral in
enlarged, low-Iatitude ocean regions (so-called calcite
oceans) becarne calcite; reef growth was achieved by a few
species of reef builders; evaporites were rare, and glaciers
were, if at all present, restricted to high mountain ranges on
the continents.
Tbe Greenbouse State of tbe Eartb
During the Jurassic and Cretaceous, accelerated ocean
spreading led to sea-level rise. The global sea level
reached an absolute high represented by several peaks
in the period from the Turonian up to the Campanian.
The amount of elevation of the sea level above its present
level, however, is still controversial. It was probably less
than 200 to 250 m as assumed in earlier papers (e.g.
Kauffinan 1983; Hag et al. 1987) as pointed out, arnong oth-
ers, by Sahagian et al. (1996; cf. Fig. 7.48). In any case, large
areas of the drifting continents were flooded and covered by
shallow-marine sediments.
In the early Cretaceous, the sea-level rise was accom-
panied in the Pacific by the extrusion oflarge volumes
of basaltic magma (Schlanger et al. 1981; Arthur et al.
1985). Both the high sea level and the release of large
amounts of CO 2 into the atrnosphere were probably
356 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
major factors in the establishment of a greenhouse
state of the Earth. The en1arged ocean surface with its
10w albedo was ab1e to absorb more solar energy than
the reduced water surface during times of sea-1eve1
10wstand. The c1irnate became warmer and wetter with
reduced temperature gradients between the poles and
the equator. Further consequences of this deve10pment
are discussed in Sect. 5.6.
Simultaneous1y, the overall terrigenous sediment sup-
p1y into the oceans was reduced (Mackenzie 1990).
After the last 1st order sea-1eve1 highstand, decreas-
ing ocean spreading 1ed to a 10ng-term, slow sea-1eve1
fall which has lasted into the present time. As a conse-
quence, uppermost Cretaceous and Cenozoic marine
sedimentation became restricted to the continenta1 rnar-
gins and deep ocean basins.
Whether or not and in which way long-tenn continental
enchroachment (Ist order) and transgression-regression cy-
eies (2nd order) have influenced the evolution and distribu-
tion of Iife in the sea and on the continents is an open ques-
tion. Many authors postulate special "bio-events", ineluding
the punctuated evolution of species, dispersal events, and
mass extinctions to have controlled the distribution, survival,
and recovery of life (e.g. Fischer 1982; Sepkoski 1989;
Kauffinan and Walliser 1990: Walliser 1995). Ifthere was
some environmental control, changes in temperature and
chemistry ofthe atmosphere and ocean basins probably had
more influence than merely the physical processes of trans-
gression and regression. Some of the bio-events have been
ascribed to rapid changes in the depositional environment,
such as black shale events.
The famous "Kellwasser crisis" in the upper Devonian
(Frasnian-Famennian, for example, is characterized by a
widespread black shale horizon and mass extinction of pe-
lagic marine organisms in tropical regions (e.g. Buggisch
1991). The sudden deterioration in Iiving conditions oc-
curred during a 10ng-tenn trend towards a cooler climate.
Furthennore, the bio-event was associated with the narrow-
ing of the Paleotethys Ocean.
G1acial intervals during the Pleistocene period caused not
only the migration of plants and animals from high into
lower latitude regions, but also led to the extinction ofvari-
ous families and species. It appears, however, that most of
the bio-events in the Phanerozoic cannot be explained by one
single mechanism.
7.8.3 Transgression-Regression Cycles
(2nd Order)
The time period of continenta1 encroachment cyc1es
approximate1y corresponds to the 1ife times of major
sedimentary basins, such as passive continenta1 margin
basins or passive margins evo1ving into foreland basins
(cf. Sects. 8.5 and 12.6.3). The basin-forming pro-
Fig. 7.35. Hierarchy of stratigraphie cyc1es re1ated to
sea-1eve1change. (overview). The figure shows the
principa1 features, superposition and periods of cy-
cesses are re1ated to mantle processes which operate
irregu1ar1y with changing ve10cities. The evolution of
such basins may be comprised of severa1 tectonically
controlled phases, for examp1e two or three phases of
extension (passive margin settings) or the transition
from an extensiona1 to a compressiona1 regime (fore-
land basin). As a result, the subsidence rates gradually
change with time, and the subsidence-time curves
show transitions from concave to convex-upward
forms (Fig. 7.35; Vai1 et al. 1991) generating eustatic
rises and falls in sea level. Although these tectonic
processes operate on a regional sca1e, they can produce
major global transgressive-regressive facies cyc1es.
Second-order cyc1es ("Sloss" sequences) typically last
ten to severa1 tens ofMa and are superposed on the 1st
order continenta1 encroachment cyc1es. They rnay be
superimposed in turn by cyc1es of higher orders.
Second order cyc1es affect wide are'lS ~f continenta1
she1ves, epicontinenta1 seas and other basins as well as
continenta110w1ands by flooding (coasta1 on1ap) and
emergence (regression). The shore1ines rnigrate 1and-
ward and seaward over 10ng distances (on the order of
50 to 200 km; see also, e.g., Sheridan 1987).
7.8.4 Sequence Cycles (3rd Order)
The common, often described sequence cyc1es of inter-
mediate frequency (0.5 or 1 to 5 Ma; Fig. 7.35) are
regarded by rnany authors as the basic stratigraphie
cyc1e in earth history. This type of sequence has been
observed worldwide from the Proterozoic to the Pres-
ent. Its time period can be approximate1y reso1ved by
biostratigraphy. Still unso1ved problems with these
cyc1es inc1ude their origin and corre1ation from conti-
nent to continent. To create the 1arge amp1itudes of
sea-1eve1 change responsib1e for part of these cyc1es,
either fast operating. geodynarnic processes, such as
magrnatism and diapirism, rnass transfer from the con-
tinents to the oceans, significant isostatic response of
the ernst to 10ading, or very slow bui1dup and melting
of continenta1 ice are required. Bui1dup and release of
stress between rapid1y moving continental and oceanic
p1ates has been brought forward as a possib1e tectonic
mechanism (C10ething 1986; Dickinson et al. 1994) to
exp1ain 3rd-order tectono-eustasy.
The signature of third-order cyc1es and their sys-
tems tracts have been discussed in some detail in the
previous sections.
c1es, and indicates the main causes of cyc1icity. (Af-
ter P. Vai1, in Emery and Myers 1996, modified and
supp1emented)
7.8 Sedimentary Cycles 357

HIERARCHY OF STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLES

CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT CYCLE (1 st order, > 50 Mal

SEA-LEVEL
(SL) CHANGE REGRESSIVE PHASE

BREAK-UP OF ~~~~~~~-----
SUPERCONTINENT
TIME ----
1---+-
/
CONTINENT TRANSGRESSIVE PH
/ SH RELINE
..,.- - - - - 100 - > 1000 km/-----'> MIGRATION

TRANSGRESSION-REGRESSION CYCLE

-
PEAK TRANSGR .
--.....t.......
SHORELINE .....
MIGRATION
~~ MAX. REGR.

<- - - 50-200 km J --- -'>~

CAUSE(S)?
SEOUENCE CYCLE (3rd order, 0 .5-3 Mal

GLACIO -EUSTASY

~ • " ASYMMETRIC?
IRREGULAR?
<- - 10-100 7------- l§FANS

- "- .
PARASEOUENCE CYCLE
PERITIDAL CYCLIC (4th and higher, 0.01-0.5 Mal
SILICICLASTICS
CYCLE BEDDING
--I
::
~ .
~(: LlME-
PARASEOU.1

PARASEOU.2
t:::::::::::9--SUPRA- STONE

SUB- MARL TST

'TIDAL RIMMED
CARBONATE
PLATFORM
ONL Y CLiMATE-
CONTROLLED?
358 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

SEA LEVEL WELL OXYGENATED

OCEAN
LOW HIGH
0
TERT.
///
~~
>si-~
~~:f~
~
P
-u
>
MOST RAPID
SEA··FLOOR
SPREADING
100 CRETAC. ·. ··········l
LONG-
~ a
z
z
JUR. TERM
BREAKUPOF
200 TRANS- MAJOR -
P~G~l . . . . . . ·. . · ·. . . . ·. . . . . l . . . . . . t
GLACIATION ~~-.~l
TRIAS . GRESSION (ICE H OUSEt) ~m~1
PANGEA ~
PERM.
300
I I
~ TENDENCY FOR

---
CONTINENTAL
CARB. BLACK SHA LE
AGGRADAllON FLOODING- FORMl\iION
OF REGRESSION '-.....
CONTINENTS DEVON. CYCLE I
400
SILUR.
1
REGRESSION
I
//
~ -
ORDOV. V
.. ·.. ·····.... ·.............. ·..·· .... ·....1j ...... ••• .... ·A

~
500 1 LONG-TERM
-
1
BREAKUPOF GLOBAL
CAMBR. 1
I TRANS-
PAN-AFRICA WARM, MORE
1 GRESSION EQUABLE
............. ·.............. ···•.. ·· .... ··1.. •.. ···· .... ··1

~
600 PROTERO· 1 1 CU MATE
Mo zOle
1
Y y (GREF.NHOUSE )

Fig. 7.36. Long-tenn, first order cycles in Earth's
history associated with aggradation and dispersion of
continents. Note coincidence of low sea level with
major glaciations (icehouse state) and weH oxygen-
0
ated ocean waters, or high sea level with warmer,
more equable climate (greenhouse state) and ten-
dency for black shale deposition. (After Fischer
1982; Vail et al. 1991

7.8.5 Parasequence Cycles and
Milankovitch Cycles
The systems tracts of third order sequences can often
be subdivided into parasequences or parasequence
cycles. This tenn is mainly used for the description of
siliciclastic systems. The time periods of para-se-
quences range from about 0.01 to 0.5 Ma and thus are
10 to 100 times shorter than those of third-order cy-
cles. These short periods lie within the range of the
Milankovitch frequency band and glacio-eustasy
caused by drastic climatic change (see Sect. 7.9.2).
Fourth order cycles represent eustatic variations
around the long eccentricity cycle (E2) with aperiod
of about 0.4 Ma. Cycles of shorter periods (0.02 to 0.1
Ma) are ascribed to the 5th or 6th order. A clear
boundary between these higher orders is difficult to
set.
During times of wanner and more equal global cli-
mates, when only little ice could fonn on the conti-
nents, probably significant amounts of water were al-
tematively stored in and released from large lake bas-
ins and groundwater.
There are also cIimatic eycIes of higher orders, i.e. shorter
time periods, than the Milankoviteh periodieities. Some de-
tailed studies on iee cores of Greenland and Antaretiea,
varved lake sediments (e.g. Dean 1997), specifie anoxie
oeean basins, and delta evolution (see e.g. Ebro delta, Seet.
7.4) have shown that a periodieity of I ka to 1.5 ka existed
during the Holoeene (e.g. Heuser and Siroeko 1997; Camp-
bell et al. 1998). Century-seale variations in the monsoonal
cIimate of India during the transition from last glaeial to
post-glaeial time have been inferred from sediment eores in
the Arabian Sea (Siroeko et al. 1993). Even shorter cIimatie
oseillations (periods ofsome tens to some hundreds ofyears)
were found in varved marine sediments of the Santa Barbara
7.9 CycIo- and Event Stratigraphy
Basin, offCalifomia (Schaafand Thurow 1997; Cannariato
et al. 1999). The 11 year sun spot cyc1es found in varved ma-
rine salt deposits and lake sediments (Richter-Bemburg
1960; Glenn and Kelts 1991) represent a strict periodicity.
To find these short-period signals in sediments, an unusually
high sedimentation rate and very good stratigraphic resolu-
tion are necessary. In the context ofthis volume this topic is
not discussed further.
Parasequences of the Milankovitch type occur periodi-
cally, but the duration of these periods may change
with time (e.g. from approximately 100 to 40 ka or
from 40 to 20 ka). The sedimentological expression of
these cycles can be significantly modified when the
orbital signals are superimposed on third order cycles
(Fig. 7.35, also cf. Fig. 7.44). In this connection it is
important to note that the maximum rate of sea-Ievel
fall is much greater for higher frequency oscillations
than for lower ones (cf. Fig. 7.6c). High-frequency
eustatic variations therefore have a greater potential for
causing erosion and distinct sequence boundaries. This
holds true even for times of long-term sea-Ievel rise,
which normally cannot produce submarine uncon-
formities. If the basin tends to be filled up with sedi-
ment all the time, superimposed short sea-Ievel oscilla-
tions frequently lead to subaerial erosion (cf. Fig.
7.6b). Shallow-marine carbonates, in particular, which
undergo early cementation and lithification, have been
found to record and preserve high-frequency eustatic
variations (Sect. 7.9.4). The erosion potential ofminor
oscillations is restricted, however, to shallow-water
environments.
7.8.6 Summary (Hierarchy and Causes of
Cycles)
- First order continental encroachment or flood-
ing cycles (megacycles) resulted from plate
tectonic motions. They led, in combination
with enhanced or subdued volcanic activity, to
a greenhouse or icehouse state of the earth.
- Second order transgressive-regressive cycles
(periods of 3-50 Ma) originated mainly from
regional tectonism and also caused the emer-
gence and flooding of wide regions along con-
tinental margins.
- The origin of the common sequence cycles
(third order, 0.5-3 Ma) is not clear.
- Higher order (high-frequency) cycles are
mainly controlled by astronomie al forcing
(Milankovitch frequency band) which can be
magnified by feedback mechanisrns of the
Earth leading to climate change and, in certain
times, to pronounced glacio-eustasy.
- High-order cycles are commonly superimposed
onto cycles of lower order and thus create com-
plex variations in sea level and climate.
359
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy
7.9.1 Introduction
Cyclostratigraphy deals with minor, relatively short-
period (high-frequency) sedimentary cycles (mainly
Milankovitch cycles) and has recently become a field
of great interest because of its linkage with climate
change and its potential to complement and refine
chronostratigraphy and stratigraphie correlation. In
particular in the Quatemary and Neogene, cyclostra-
tigraphy based on the astronomie al time scale and
tested by the oxygen isotope record of pelagic to
hemipelagic marine sediments is being widely used by
marine sedimentologists and oceanographers.
Their aim is to investigate the evolution ofthe ice age and its
impact on the circulation systems of the oceans, the produc-
tion ofbiogenic sediment, and the distribution ofterrigenous
material in the oceans (e.g. Shackleton et al. 1990;
Tiedemann et al. 1994; Berger 1997; Berger et al. 1996).
Cyc10stratigraphy is also a tool in the study of older sedi-
ments (e.g. House and Gale 1995), but in these cases it is
often difficult to use its potential for refining biostratigraphic
or chronostratigraphic dating (see Sect. 7.9.5). Examples of
cyc10stratigraphy in lake sediments have been mentioned in
Section 7.7.1.
Event stratigraphy refers to the study of sedimen-
tological events which are either depositional or non-
depositional (e.g. Einseie 1998). Depositiona1 events,
such as mass flows and turbidity currents, are gener-
ally more or 1ess instantaneous, whereas non-
depositional events (erosion, omission) may span sig-
nificant time intervals. Both cyclostratigraphy and
event stratigraphy are useful in the study of larger se-
quences (see Sect. 7.9.8).
7.9.2 The Astronomical Time Scale
(Milankovitch Cycles)
Climatic change is induced by variations in the orbital
parameters ofthe Earth (Milankovitch theory). These
are the eccentricity, E, of the Earth's orbit around the
Sun, the deviation, tilt or obliquity, 0, of the Earth's
axis of rotation from a vertical axis on the orbital
plane, and the precession, P, expressing a certain rela-
tionship between obliquity and eccentricity. These pa-
rameters have the following periods (Fig. 7.37a):
E-lOO ka and -400 (more accurately E1=106, and
E2=410 ka); 0=41 ka, and P-21 (19-23) ka. The or-
bital signals are superimposed on each other (Fig.
7.37b) with the result that the intensities ofthe individ-
ual signals change with time and latitude of the region
studied.
The orbital signals produce small variations in inso-
lation (usually recorded at 65° N latitude) and thus
changes in seasonality. The incoming signals are en-
360 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycies, and Event Stratigraphy

E ... 100 a
TILT or ORBITAL
0""41 PARAMETERS

1
P 23

P 18 NSOLATION
W/m 2 )
-2

o SUM OF
E, 0, AND P
OXYGEN
2 ~----T , , , • i
o 200 400 600 800 ka B.P. ISOTOPES
3.5-.----------,..------------.-------r---.
47 19 3~
37

3.0

~ 2.5
co
o
"0

1.5

1.0 )
BRUNHES/MATUY AMA BOUNDARY
I
MILANKOVITCH CROLL LAPLACE
0.5 -+----.------r---,.L------r--~r_--_,_.!.---I--_r---..-----;
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 ka B. P.

Fig. 7.37. a Orbital parameters ofthe sun-moon-earth
system and their temporal variation during the past
800 ka. E excentricity; 0 obliquity or tilt, P preces-
sion; periods in ka. b Sum of the signals shown in a
in terms of energy received by the outer atmosphere.
(Modified from Gale 19(8). c Oxygen isotopes of
planktonic foraminifers in ODP cores (Site 806B),
Ontong-Java Plateau, western equatorial Pacific.
d,e Obliquity and excentricity components of c. Note
change in amplitudes, in particular those of d around
700 ka. The past 700 ka only are characterized by
strong 100 ka cycles; earlier, the 40 ka cycle dorni-
nated. (Modified from Berger et a1. 1996)

hanced by a kind of atmospheric-oceanic feedback benthonic foraminifera. During glacials the "heavier"
system and transformed into climatic variations. How- 180 enriched in ocean water and thus also in the shells,

ever, substantial glacio-eustatic effects were only pos-
sible when the Earth was in astate favorable for the
buildup or melting oflarge continental ice sheets (as in
the Quaternary).
In the Quaternary, Neogene, and to some extentalso
in the late Paleogene, the buildup and melting of ice is
recorded by the oxygen isotope ratios preserved in the
shells of marine organisms, such as planktonic and
because the ice is depleted of 18 0.
Using this method in combination with i4C dating,
magnetostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and other observations,
it was possible to identify the Milankovitch cyc1es in young
pelagic to hemipelagic, continuously deposited marine sedi-
ments (Fig. 7.37c; see also, e.g., Shackleton et al. 1990;
Shackleton et al. 1995; Berger et al. 1996; and many others).
At some favorable sites, the oxygen isotope record could be
7.9 CycIo- and Event Stratigraphy
traced back from the Present into the past 5 to 6 Ma (Lourens
et al. 1996).
During the past 600 to 800 ka, the 100 ka period was
dominant (Milankovitch chron) generating high-amplitude
sea-Ievel changes and rapid ice melting events ("termina-
tions ", Berger 1997), but in the earlier Quatemary and Plio-
cene the 41 ka period (Laplace chron) mainly controlled the
climatic variation with high-frequency sea-Ievel changes of
lower amplitude (Fig. 7.37e; Tiedemann et al. 1994).
Changes in aridity of North Africa (Sahel zone), however,
record precession cycles (19-23 ka) in the early to middle
Pliocene.
In an excellent record of emerged late Pliocene shallow-
marine cyclic sediments of New Zealand, the 41 ka period
also predominates over the 100 ka (Naish 1997). The cycles
or cyclothems consist of clastic material, are about 50 m in
thickness, and formed in a subduction-related, rapidly sub-
siding basin. They could be correlated with the benthic oxy-
gen isotope curve and magnetic reversals. Shorter climatic
cycles are briefly mentioned in Sect. 7.8.5.
During the long history of the Earth, the periods of the
orbital parameters changed, particularly that ofthe obliquity,
which was shorter in the remote past than at present. For fur-
ther details see, e. g., Berger et al. (1984), Berger and Loutre
(1991), Fischer (1991), Schwarzacher (1993), de Boer and
Smith (1994), Rouse (1995), Gale (1998).
When the Earth was in a greenhouse state, only lirnited
amounts of water could be stored as ice in polar and
high mountain regions or as continental water in lakes
and as groundwater. However, the presence of cyclic
sediments in the Mesozoic, for example, indicates that
the astronornical parameters also operated some hun-
dred million ofyears ago and induced rninor sea-level
and/or climatic changes.
Numerous examples of this cyclicity have been described
(e.g. Fischer 1991; Einseie and Ricken 1991; Rouse and
Gale 1995; and many others). The amplitude ofthese high-
frequency sea-Ievel changes was small (some meters up to
maybe 20 m). The astronomical time scales ofthe Mesozoic
and older eras are "floating", i.e. the beginning and end of
these scales is not exactly known (Sect. 7.9.8).
In any case, the very precise astronomical time scales will
allow, in favorable cases, determination ofthe precise peri-
ods oflonger cycles. Numerical techniques, such as time se-
ries analyses, power spectra, and other experiments can help
to identify cycle periods and to better understand the pro-
cesses involved (e.g. Schwarzacher 1993; Berger 1997).
7.9.3 Rhythmic (Cyclic) Bedding
Cyclic vs. Discyclic Bedding
Rhythmic bedding can be produced by two entirely
different processes:
(1) Cyclic bedding is caused by slow, gradual varia-
tions in primary sediment composition and sedimenta-
tion rates (Fig. 7.38a). These lead to a vertical sedi-
ment buildup that changes smoothly with time and is
361
characteristic for various sediment types, particularly
for calcareous and siliceous deposits. However, a
small variation in the prirnary composition, texture, or
fabric rnay be sufficient to promote a secondary differ-
entiation into beds and interbeds accentuated by
diagenetic overprint (cf. Sect. 7.1.8). The intensity of
burrow mottling is continuous in succeeding beds.
(2) Discyclic bedding results from repeated episodic
phenomena (e.g. storrns, turbidity currents, river
floods, volcanic eruptions) and shows a very irregular
sediment buildup-time curve (Fig. 7.38b). Slow, but
more or less continuous vertical accumulation of fine-
grained background sediment is interrupted irregularly
by depositional (and partly erosional) events (cf. Sects.
2.2,3.1 and 5.4; Einsele et al. 1991; Einseie 1998).
Large events can wipe out the record of earlier, smaller
ones including part oftheir host sediment. As a result,
one event bed may directly follow an earlier event bed,
the top ofwhich is truncated (amalgamation). The sed-
imentation rates change abruptly and bioturbated sur-
face layers of the background sediment are episodi-
cally truncated. The event bed is recolonized by spe-
cially adapted fauna burrowing from the new surface
downward. Lithographie limestones represent a spe-
cific type of discyclic bedding (Sect. 7.9.6).
The most prominent examples of cyclic bedding in the
marine environment are (cf. Sect. 5.3.7):
- Hernipelagic to pelagic limestone (or chalk)-rnarl
alternations.
- Black shale-carbonate rhythms (redox cycles).
- Pelagic banded cherts.
Anoxie intervals may modify the successions of alter-
nating beds and their biological record. Sometimes
combinations ofboth cyclic and discyclic bedding can
be observed. Some limestone-marl sequences (see be-
low) and strata bearing black shales, phosphorites, or
varved siliceous oozes, show both gradual cyclic varia-
tions and episodic bedding types.
Limestone-Marl Alternations
Typical deep-sea pelagic limestone-marl alternations
appeared in the geological re cord from the Upper Ju-
rassie with the onset of substantial planktonic carbon-
ate production. In the Paleozoic, fine-grained well-bed-
ded or nodular limestones mainly accumulated on
shelves, upper slopes, and in shallow epicontinental
seas. Paleozoic limestones of deeper basins often con-
sist of pellets.
To generate limestone-rnarl couplets, the rate of
(mainly planktonic) carbonate production must have
been three to four times higher than terrigenous silt
and clay input (Einsele and Ricken 1991; for more de-
tails see Ricken 1994). In shallow basins, rhythrnic
362 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor CycIes, and Event Stratigraphy

a CYCLIC BEDOING b TURBIDITES

COMPONENT A

CHANGE IN
(CaC0 31 MEAN COMPOSITION

PRIMARY
COMPOS. BACKGROUND MEAN COMPOSITION
GOMPONENT B SEDIMENT
r CLAY")
ACCUrLATION
RATE OF
SEDIM.
l
!---III
,
EROSION

l310TUR-
BATION bzm~&zzmm ~~: I"- - ~
p"'I)IPXIC ANOXIC
,",- - -~
EXPOSURE
I I

·SEDIMENT
I
I
I
I
I --/<'/-"--. ~
I
BUILDUP I
I

Fig. 7.38. Vertical sediment buildup time curves (BT
curves) to characterize different types of rhythmic
bedding. a Cyclic or periodic bedding due to slow
gradual changes in accumulation and composition of
sediments. b Event bedding caused by repeated short
erosional and depositional episodes of different mag-
nitudes at random time intervals. Both a and b may
also show anoxic intervals. Bupw zone of bioturbation
migrating slowly upward; Bdw new community ofbot-
tom dwelling organisrns burrowing downward. (After
Einseie 1982c)

limestone-marl sequences of some thickness could
only form when subsidence and carbonate accumula-
ti on reached a kind of balance, or when sea-Ievel rise
(e.g. during a 3rd order cycle) provided acconunoda-
tion space for some time. Then limestone-marl deposi-
tion may have persisted for time spans of I Ma to a
fewMa.
Generally viewed, three basic processes can produce
limestone-marl alternations (e.g. Einseie and Ricken
1991; Arthur and Dean 1991):
( 1) Variations in carbonate production;
(2) Periodic carbonate dissolution;
(3) Periodic terrigenous dilution.
Cyclic bedding generated by varying carbonate pro-
duction or dissolution shows rhythrns with thick lime-
stone beds and thin marly interbeds, whereas
terrigenous dilution is indicated by the opposite trend.
The different types of limestone-marl successions can
form in the following depositional environments (Fig.
7.39):
- In regions of limited fine-grained terrigenous sedi-
ment influx, such as on outer shelves, marginal pla-
teaus, 10wer slopes of carbonate ramps, and central
portions of epicontinental seas. In these environments
dilution cycles dominate reflecting variations in cli-
mate, vegetation, andlor sea level. With increasing
terrigenous influx, limestone-marl successions are re-
placed by claystone-marl sequences, displaying thicker
bedding couplets, but thin mari beds. Shallowing of
the sea favors reworking, omission, channeling, and
finally interfingering and replacement of the bedded
limestones by bioclastic carbonate arenites and reef
associations.
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy 363

DEEP SEA DEEP SEA RISE MARGINAL OUTER SHELF

DEEP SEA DEEP CARBONATE RAMP
WITHIN RANGE COVERED WJTH EPICONTINENTAL SEA
OF LYSOCLlNE CARBONATE
VARYING
PLANKTONIC INFLUX OF
CARBONATE PROe. HYDROGEN
EXCHANGE (SINCE JURASSIC) CARBONATE

'1' .: iL.::: :- • ';':;:i;::":~" - . ' ~' ...,.....-.""(':" "" .:. P. : ':: -'-':'"....:._.
OFC01l-;"

DEPTH RANGE OF
STORM -INDUCED
~ f'" :!: PERIODS OF BOTTOM CURRENTS
~ ~ ,( OXYGEN MINIMU~
~SBm• •~r.:!: SOME DISSOLUTION OF CARBONATE
BY DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER

DISSOLUTION
:!:
OF CARBONATE
\
\ . (
THIN
LIMESTONE
LIMESTONE

MARL
DARK, LAMINATED
" ?;..,\"" :!: (:!:
MARLY INTERVALS)
'i 'i . INTERBED
=- ;:-;)
, , . TEMPESTITE
-i-+\
MUD
TURBIDITE
j~j :!: WINNOWING,
REWORKING
PREDOMINANTLY HARDGROUND
PELAGIC BIOTURBATED
""""""'""'~LlMESTONE
LIMESTONES CLAYSTONE
e::::==:;;iI-- DA RK
·CLAYSTONE LAMINATED MARL
MARL MARLfLlME· SUCCESSION
SUCCESSION STONE (TERRIG. DILUTION,
(EXTENSIVE DISSOLUTION, THICK COUPLETS,
THIN COUPLETS) THIN MARL LAYERS
..... ..... TURBIDITES
=""'--,;. INCREASING CARBONATE CONTENT .~ ~ . s

Fig. 7.39. Overview of depositional environments hemipelagic limestone-marl, claystone-marl, or cal-

and processes generating different types of pelagic to careous redox rhythms. See text for discussion

(2) In marginal deep seas, on deep-sea plateaus and
isolated carbonate platforms. Here, variations in car-
bonate content reflect changes in productivity rather
than terrigenous dilution.
Sea level-controlled, periodically changing production of
fine-grained platform carbonate transported into adjacent
deep basins is one ofthe mechanisms generating cyc1ic bed-
ding, as known from Neogene lower slope sediments ofthe
Bahama Bank (Sect. 7.5.5). This mechanism is also assumed
for the occurrence of cyc1ic sediments in Jurassic rift basins
of the southem Alps which evolved after the breakup of the
former, widely extended Triassic carbonate platform (Hinnov
and Park 1998).
Black Shale-Carbonate Rhythms (Redox Cycles)
Bedding rhythms with black shales as interbeds are
known throughout the Phanerozoic (W etzeI1991), but
they are particularly common in the Jurassie and Creta-
ceous record. In most cases, the pelagic to hemipelagic
bedding couplets of clay-carbonate redox cycles con-
sist of light carbonate beds and dark, organic-rich
interbeds with lower carbonate contents. Periods of
oxygenated deep waters usually produced lighter co 1-
ored, bioturbated beds richer in carbonate than periods
characterized by oxygen deficiency, resulting in dark,
laminated interbeds (Fig. 7.42b and c). Frequent alter-
nations between these two bed types were favored by
bottom water in which oxygen demand for reminer-
alization of organic matter was either slightly lower or
higher than oxygen supply by oceanic circulation. Ba-
sin topography and the pattern of ocean currents also
364 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
playa significant role (e.g. Buchem et al. 1995): the
redox cycles may be restricted to the deepest sub-bas-
ins, or they can pinch out laterally in a basin of little
changing water depth. The organic matter in the dark
layers is mainly of marine origin; sometimes terrestrial
sources play an important part.
Bed-scale successions ofthis type occur, for example, in the
middle Cretaceous of the Atlantic and Tethyan Oceans
(Weissert et al. 1979; Pratt 1984; Cotillon 1985; Dean and
Arthur 1986; Herbert et al. 1986; Ogg et al. 1987; Arthur and
Dean 1991; de Boer 1991; Sageman et al. 1991; Ricken
1994; Buchem et al. 1995; also see articles in de Boer and
Smith 1994; House and Gale 1995).
Taking into account the flux rates ofthe three major sedi-
ment components (siliciclastics, carbonate, organic matter),
it turns out that relatively minor variations in planktonic car-
bonate production and organic matter preservation can gen-
erate the limestone-marl or limestone-black shale couplets
(Fig. 7 .42b). Input of organic matter produced in surface wa-
ters may be even lower during black shale intervals than dur-
ing limestone times if in the latter case an oxygen-depleted
deep-water zone is present preventing rapid degradation.
Relative sea-Ievel fall, enhanced water circulation, and in-
creased dilution of carbonate by siliciclastics will lead to dif-
ferent sediment types and more or less prevent couplets as
described above.
The black shale beds are frequently thinly laminated,
including varve-scale (bio )laminations, but their
laminae often represent small sedimentological events,
or minor, short-terrn climatic variations rather than an-
nual varves (Cotillon 1991; Gerdes et al. 1991). The
cyclic sequences commonly exhibit repeated transi-
tions from aerobic to anaerobic conditions due to water
mass mixing and tumover. They therefore contain ben-
thic and bioturbated intervals (Savrda et al. 1991;
Oschmann 1991). Similar to limestone-marl rhythrns,
black shale-carbonate rhythms are deposited in envi-
ronments above the CCD or the lysocline (Fig. 7.39).
Rhythmic Bedding in Siliceous Sediments
Alternations between biogenic siliceous and non-sili-
ceous marine beds and their origin were already men-
tioned in Sect. 5.3.5 (Fig. 5.6). Their rhythmic bedding
is generated by both cyclic and discyclic (event-re-
lated) depositional processes. In addition, calcareous
beds may contain layers of chert nodules which indi-
cate primary alternations between beds poor and rich
in opaline silica.
In this section, cyclic phenomena in the range of the
Milankovitch frequency band are of primary interest.
Similar to limestone-marl alternations, cyclic se-
quences in siliceous sediments result from (1) varia-
tions in siliceous plankton productivity, (2) periodic
dilution of siliceous sediments by terrigenous material,
and (3) variations in dissolution of opaline silica in the
water colurnn and at the sea floor. However, cyclic
productivity appears to be more effective than cyclic
dilution in generating rhythmically interbedded chert
layers. Thus, climate-induced global changes in oce-
anic circulation and the recycling of nutrients through
upwelling maypredominantly control the generation of
beds rich inopaline silica. At the same time, carbonate
production should be low, or the position of the car-
bonate lysocline or CCD should be weIl above the sea
floor in order to prevent strong dilution of opaline sil-
ica by carbonate.
The occurrence of banded chert is not restricted to
deep water; rather, it indicates an environment ofhigh
siliceous plankton production and very limited
terrigenous influx.
Rhythmic bedding in siliceous sediments has been described
from manyregions, particularly in Mesozoic sediments ofthe
Tethys Ocean (Hein and Obradovic 1988) and in Tertiary
sequences around the Pacific (lijima et al. 1985), i.e., regions
of high fertility in siliceous plankton. Rhythmicity may be
expressed in annual varves or in banded ribbon radiolarites
(e.g., Jenkyns and Winterer 1982; Jenkyns 1986), which are
modified and enhanced by silica diagenesis (Sect. 5.3.5). The
most important facts about such alternations were sumrna-
rized, e.g., by Decker (1991).
Overall deposition of black shales and/or siliceous sedi-
ments may become overprinted by "oxygenation events"
caused by accentuated deep water circulation. Part of these
events is mediated by Milankovitch cyclicity, e.g. in the Mio-
cene Monterey Formation along the Pacific coast of North
America (Ozalas et al. 1994).
Periodicities and Causes of Cyclic Bedding
Limestone-marl and limestone-black shale successions
commonly display cyclicities at different time scales.
Total successions (several tens to a hundred meters in
thickness) often represent time spans of one to several
millions of years. The periodicities of individual bed-
ding cycles, including part of the siliceous bedding
couplets, are in the Milankovitch frequency band
(Sect. 7.9.2). This is true ofvarious types of carbonate
rhythms in the Quatemary as weIl as for pre-Quater-
nary examples which developed during times of little
to no continental ice. In some cases, sea level-induced
shaIlow-water carbonate cycles could be correlated
with cyclic bedding forrned in deeper waters (Sect.
7.9.5).
These findings support the assumption that subdued
glacio-eustasy also controlled cyclic carbonate bed-
ding. On the other hand, at least part of the different
modes of cyclic bedding can be solely interpreted by
climatic change. Relatively weak orbital forcing can
bring about significantshifts of climatic belts, changes
in oceanic therrnohaline circulation, and modifications
within the global carbon cycle, including atmospheric
CO 2 and carbonate deposition. Thus, both planktonic
carbonate productivity and carbonate dissolution
(namely by rising or falling CCD) can vary with time.
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy
For example, a 13% increase in atmospheric CO 2 has been
postulated to cause a CCD rise ofabout I km (Bender 1984).
In addition, an increase in carbonate production on the
shelves can raise the CCD and Iysocline in the deep sea and
vice versa. Above the Iysocline, carbonate is dissolved only
in the presence of substantial amounts of organic matter (e.g.
Diester-Raass 1991). Furthermore, the extraction of CO 2
from the atmosphere byphytoplankton and expanded vegeta-
tion on land ("biological pump") as well as silicate weather-
ing can initiate a cooling trend if carbon is stored in sedi-
ments and soils (cf. Sect. 5.6.2). The opposite trend is initi-
ated by release of CO 2 into the atmosphere (also see e.g.
Weissert and Mohr 1996).
Lowering of the CCD and improved carbonate preserva-
tion in the deep sea can also be promoted by a high river in-
put of dissolved calcium carbonate due to a dense, widely
extended vegetation cover. At the same time, dense vegeta-
tion tends to reduce mechanical erosion !lnd the supply of
terrestrial silt and clay to the oceans, thus preventing strong
dilution of carbonate deposition. With the aid of clay miner-
als, Turonian limestone-rnarl alternations in the Western In-
terior basin of North America, for example, have been as-
cribed to wet and dry phases of climate (Sethi and Leithold
1994).
In deep-sea environments variations in carbonate dis-
solution, due to vertical oscillations of the lysocline,
appear to be the main control on the development of
limestone-marl rhythms. Below upwelling zones,
carbonate-bearing sequences may also show rhythmic
chert accumulations. Black shale deposition and the
generation of redox cycles were favored by a warmer
and more uniform global climate than existing at pres-
ent (Sect. 7.8).
During times of small temperature differences between the
poles and the equator, such as in the Cretaceous (e.g. Sioan
and Barron 1990), thermohaline oceanic circulation tended
to slow. Instead of cold polar deep-water masses, warm
dense saline water, originating from flooded low-Iatitude
shelves and adjacent seas, may have become the major bot-
tom water source (Arthur et al. 1987; Ray 1996). Since the
solubility of oxygen decreases with increasing temperature
and salinity, the sinking, more saline, warm surface waters
soon became oxygen-depleted. This, in turn, hampered the
mineralization of organic matter in intermediateand deep
waters, as well as the release and recycling of nutrients con-
trolling surface productivity. These processes may have
caused short-term, expanded, intensified oxygen-minimum
zones at intermediate water depths and thus the widespread
deposition of black shale layers, even in epicontinental sea
settings. Subtle changes in climate and oceanic circulation
were sufficient to periodically restore more oxygenated con-
ditions with higher planktonic carbonate production.
A special problem is the identification ofthe various peri-
odicities ofthe Milankovitch frequency band (E, 0, P; Sect.
7.9.2) if, as usual, precise dating ofindividual cycles or thick
packages of a certain kind of cycle is not possible. Then it is
difficult to decide which ofthe different astronomical signals
is recorded by the sedimentary cycles. The situation is better
when P, EI and possibly E2, or 0, EI, and E2 (=410 ka) oc-
cur in the same sequence and form 5: I (P:E) or 4: I (E I :E2)
bundles (cf. Fig. 7.1 g). With the aid of such bundles and in
combination with other dating methods, a very high strati-
365
graphie resolution can be achieved (e.g. Rerbert and D'Rondt
1990; Kauffman et al. 1991; Schwarzacher 1993; Gale
1998).
In conclusion, it appears that the complex feedback
system of the Earth is very sensitive to minor changes
in single processes. The sensitivity of the oceanic cir-
culation system was probably even greater during peri-
ods of more uniform global climate than it is today un-
der the conditions of a significant temperature gradient
between the poles and the equator (cf. Sects. 5.2 and
5.6).
7.9.4 Peritidal-Lagoonal and
Subtidal Carbonate Cycles
High-frequency sedimentary cycles, including the
Milankovitch frequency band, have been identified in
siliciclastic, calcareous, and mixed depositional envi-
ronments. Some examples from lakes have been briefly
discussed in Section 7.7.1, siliciclastics-dominated
parasequences in Sections 7.2.3, 7.3.3, and 7.9.2.
Common and frequently described representatives
of the Milankovitch-type cyclicity are the so-called
peritidal-Iagoonal carbonate cycles which are known
from the Proterozoic up to the Present. These cyclic
sequences usually formed on carbonate platforms in-
cluding peritidal environments. Their facies frequently
varies between shallow subtidal, intertidal, supratidal,
and subtidal-lagoonal zones which are very sensitive to
even srnall and short changes in sea level or, as an al-
ternative, to laterally migrating sediment bodies.
Biogenie, mostly benthic carbonate production is rela-
tively high in these environments (around 5 to 20
crn/ka, Sect. 10.2) and therefore able to produce
thicker Milankovitch-type depositional cycles (typi-
cally one to several meters thick) than planktonic car-
bonate production generating cyclic bedding in deeper
water. Although peritidal carbonates vary consider-
ably, both laterally and vertically, individual cycles can
be correlated over distances of several km to more than
10 kilometers (Haas 1991), and groups of cycles over
100 km (Elrick 1996; Sect. 7.9.5). Successions of
peritidal-lagoonal cycles commonly reach thicknesses
of several hundreds of meters.
Since the pioneering study by Fischer (1964) in the Triassie
Dachstein limestone ofthe northern Calcareous Alps (known
as "Loferites"), peritidal carbonate cycles have been de-
scribed from regions all over the world (see, e.g.,
Goldharnmer et al. 1990; Osleger and Read 1991; some arti-
cles in Einseie et al. 1991; Pratt et al. 1992; Cowan and
James 1994; Strasser 1994; Elrick 1995; Pasquier and
Strasser 1997; and rnany others). The variation ofperitidal
cycles as a result ofthe interplay between subsidence, sedi-
ment aggradation, and composite sea-level changes has been
discussed by several authors (e.g. Koerschner and Read
1989; Goldhammer et al. 1993; Goldhammer and Oswald
1994; Balog et al. 1997).
366 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
One can distinguish several end member types:
(1) Regressive, shallowing-upward cycles (Fig. 7.40c;
e.g. Strasser 1991). These common cyc1es begin with
subtidal carbonate muds and bioclastic sands, possibly
some reefs and stromatolites, followed by intertidal
and supratidal deposits (algal mats, relics of
hypersaline or freshwater ponds. These are truncated
by an erosional unconformity, accompanied in places
by paleosols (e.g. calcrete), beach ridges, and relics of
eolian deposits.
(2) Transgressive Lofer cycles or Loferites (Fig.
7 .40b) mainly representing deepening-upward se-
quences. Here, sediment accumulation on top of a sur-
face of emergence (± karstified, paleosols) starts with
supratidal and intertidal algal mats (± dolornitic) fol-
lowed by subtidal bioc1astic carbonates (calcarenites).
These are overlain by a thin tidal section indicating
again upward shallowing or truncation by the next un-
conforrnity. Loferites appear to be less cornmon than
the dorninantly shallowing-upward type. Types 1 and
2 are sometimes mixed and form symmetrical
transgressive-regressive cyc1es (Balog et al. 1997).
(3) Subtidal carbonate cycles associated with or with-
out emergence (Os leger and Read 1991; Elrick 1995).
The tops of these cycles exhibit incomplete
shallowing-upward and no surface of emergence. Ex-
posed subtidal cyc1es show a distinct surface of ero-
sion followed by a transgressive trend. On bioc1astic
open-shelf (rarnp) margins, the nature of the cyc1es
tends to change in a systematic way from the shoreface
to deeper water (Fig. 7.41; Boreen and James 1995).
This is demonstrated for Tertiary cool-water carbonates of
southeastern Australia. Close to the shoreline, minor sea-
level oscillations cause subaerial exposure surfaces and
hardgrounds on top of cross-bedded grainstones. Farther
basinward, bioturbated grainstones and packstones are
capped by hardgrounds cemented below the seafloor during
lowstand. In the zone of storm action, shallowing-upward
cyc1es ofbioc1astic tempestites follow (also see Jennette and
Prior 1993). Finally, in deeper water the sediments respond
to sea-Ievel changes by rhythmically bedded marls and cal-
careous c1ays, both ofthem containing cool-water organisms
such as bryozoans or bryozoan bioherms.
The different end member types and the fact that rnany
cyc1es observed in the field show transitions between
the idealized models are not surprising in view of the
depositional environment in which the cyc1ic sedi-
ments accurnulated. These inc1ude rnigrating channels,
skeletal shoals and barrier systems, strong wave and
current action of changing directions, affecting the
subtidal, intertidal and supratidal zones. The cycle
thicknesses as well as the thicknesses of individual
layers within a cyc1e rnay change from locality to local-
ity. Unconforrnities representing eyc1e boundaries are
present only in part of the cyc1es.
Both fie1d observations and modelling results have shown
that the nature and thicknesses of minor cyc1es are also af-
fected by their position within 3rd order sequences. In a
greenhouse world with low-amplitude sea-1eve1 oscillations,
the generation of minor cyc1es on a subsiding carbonate plat-
form may more or 1ess persist throughout a complete 3rd or-
der sequence. However, the cyc1es thin during lowering sea
level and thicken and display higher proportions of subtidal
sediments during rising sea level (Koerschner and Read
1989; Pittet 1994). If the rate oflong-term sea-Ievel fall is
equal to subsidence, only intertidal and supratidal sediments
can accumulate, interrupted by unconformities or paleosols.
In an icehouse state of the globe, drastic sea-Ievel falls
during the glacials always cause emergence of shallow plat-
forms, and fluctuating highstands often lead to "missed
beats" of the platform carbonates if the platform remains
emerged or is not fully flooded. Complete sequences for
these periods can be expected only at the middle and lower
slopes of carbonate platforms ifthese are not affected by cur-
rent action. This is one of the reasons why the carbonate
slopes of the Bahama Platform were investigated by the
Ocean Drilling Project (e.g. Eberli et al. 1997; Betzler et al.
1999).
Principally, peritidal carbonate cyc1es can result either
from autocyclic (intra-basinal) or allocyc1ic processes
(sea-Ievel changes). Shallowing-upward sequences dis-
playing little submarine erosion and no emergence can
form in slowly subsiding areas without sea-Ieve1
changes (Fig. 7.40d). Carbonate sediment produced in
shallow-marine environments is transported toward the
tidal flats and builds sediment up to sea level (Phase
1). With decreasing sediment supply, the sediment sur-
face maintains its position near sea level for some time
(Phase 2), but then drops due to continued subsidence
(Phase 3). After a certain lag time, sediment buildup
starts again and forms the base of the next cyc1e.
In contrast, the combination of emergence, karsti-
fication, or pedugenesis with a following deepening-
upward trend, as observed in many cases, is good evi-
dence for relative sea-Ieve1 change (Fig. 7 .40e).
An example of the autogenie type of meter-scale carbonate
cyc1es has been described from the Upper Cambrian ofNew-
foundland (Cowan and James 1996). The muddy to oolitic
shallowing-upward cycles are capped by hardgrounds and
small microbial bioherms which grew more or less simulta-
neously on a large platform and protected the underlying
ooids and muds from erosion.
The Mesozoic allogenetic examples of carbonate cycles
were generated by low-amplitude sea-Ievel oscillations (a
few up to 10 m) compared with high-amplitude Pleistocene
sea-Ievel changes. The transgressive, deepening-upward
Lofer cycles require relatively deep-reaching erosion to re-
move the regressive part ofthe cycles. A simple facies model
for symmetrie and asymmetrie peritidal-Iagoonal cycles is
shown in Fig. 7.40f. On the landward side ofthe lagoon, cy-
c1ic sediments are truncated by erosion and tend to be inten-
sively dolomitized as a result of evaporative pumping (Sect.
6.4.2).
Many shallow-water carbonate cycles seem to be delicately
balanced between high-frequency eustatic variations and
autocyclic processes related to laterally migrating tidal flats.
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy 367

a LACUSTRINE CYCLE
(NEWARK GROUP) b
BACKREEF DACHSTEIN-TYPE
("LOFER CYCLE")
-1'- CALCAREOUS CLAYSTONE t-
AND SILTSTONE,
I ABUNDANT DESICCATION I DEEPENING
I CRACKS AND ROOT I UPWARD
I :::rv:r-_ HORIZONS
I
I SUBTIDAL
I ---cryy (MUDFLAT !PLAYA FACIES) I BIOCLASTIC LlME-
I ---v-::rv= STONE, DIVERSE
I
I BLACK SHALE.
CALCAREOUS.
CYCLE
"-'3.5m
MARINE FAUNA
MEGALODONTS f
CYCLE MICROLAMINATED, I
"'Sm I SUPRATIDAL -INTERTIDAL
+FISH F:OSSILS. ETC.
(LACUSTRINE FACIES) I ALGAL MATS ~OFERITES).
I
I CALCAREOUS CLAYSTONE
l_ ±DOLOMITIC. UD CRACKS
EMERGENCE:
I
I
OR SILTSTONE WITH
LENTICULAR LAMINATION, .. MICROKARST, SOlL
FORMATION
I BURROWS. MUDCRACKS
I ± OOLITES, STROMATO-
LlTES
I
I
C UNCONFORMITY

~ (TRANSGRESSIVE
LAKE SHORE FACIES)
~-
I
ROOTS, SOlL , SHALLOWING

r
CALCRETE. UPWARD
CYCLE SABKHA
TlDAL CARBONATE,
LAGOONAL MUD
TRANSGRESSIVE
LAß

SEDIMENT
d AUTOCYCLIC
e ALLOCYCLIC
BUILDUP DEEP KARSTI-
WATER DEPTH FICATION

EMERGENCE
AND LlMITED
EROSION ISOCHRONES
FACIES TIDAL (KARSTlFICATIONI
SUBSIDENCE

f MEAN SUPRATIDAL
SEA LEVEL LlMESTON1 LOFER CYCLES ~DOLOMITE
~I~~~E \ ~ TlDAL I ~-- (END MEMBERS) --~ ~/
:-~ SUBTIDAL ...:....

::~~~~~~~~~~:rw~:!::~!1!~~
Fig. 7.40. a Idealized sedimentary cyc1e in the lacus-
trine Triassic Newark Group, North America. b,c
Peritidal-lagoonal carbonate cycles from the Triassic
in the Alps (b) and southem Europe (c). The Lofer
cycles in Dachstein limestone display transgressive,
deepening-upward sequences tnmcated by emer-
gence. cUpward shallowing Purbeckian cyc1es in the
Swiss-French Jura Mountains. (a,b Modified from
Fischer 1991; c after Haas 1991; Strasser 1991). d,e
Models to explain peritidal cyc1es by subsidence
alone (d autocyclic) or by sea level oscillations (e
allocyc1ic). (Based on Strasser 1991; Koerschner and
Read 1989). f Facies model for the generation of
symmetric and asymmetric peritidal carbonate cycles,
with or without dolomite. (After Haas 1991)
368 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor CycIes, and Event Stratigraphy

HIGH-FREQUENCY CARBONATE CYCLES (SUBTIDAL)

ON BIOCLASTIC RAMP
, I I I
CONTINUOUS I SEDIMENT I SEA-FLOOR I CEMENTATION I
DEPOSITION : BYPASSING, : CEMENTATION,I AND EROSION I __ _
I REWORKING I REWORKING I :
I I WAVE ACTION I

ZONE OF ABRASION

~MULTIGENERATION
HARDGROUNDS

GR, GR, GRAINSTONE ML, MARL

WK PK, PACKSTONE HG , HARDGROUND OR
(TEMPESTITES WK , WACKESTONE FIRMGROUND
AND HCS ) BF, BAFFLESTONE BIOT, BIOTURBATED

Fig. 7.41. Subtidal high-frequency carbonate cycles Australia. (After Boreen and James 1995, modified)
of bioclastic ramp setting, Tertiary of southeastern

After a study of Carboniferous-Permian eyc1es in North 7.9.5 Platform-Basin Correlation of

Arnerica, Yang et al. (1998) have pointed out that all eyc1es
display both an allogenetic regional influenee and an
autogenetie loeal imprint. Late Quatemary high-frequency
sequences on the Atlantie shelf of North Arneriea are thin
and fragmented, because they are reworked and widely re-
moved by subsequent subaerial and marine erosion during
lowstands (Carey et al. 1998).
Some authors assume that many of the meter-scale
peritidal cyc1es represent little more than the random migra-
tion of various subenvironments over a carbonate platform
(Wilkinson et al. 1996). Lateral facies migration and irregu-
lar, incomplete seetions have also been described from Lofer
cycles (Satterley and Brandner 1995). Others argue that
climate-induced cyclicity in storm intensity may produee mi-
nor eycles of great variability (Holland et al. 1997).
The periods of individual peritidal carbonate cycles are
usually determined by dating the onset and termination
of thick cycle successions. They range from 20 to 100
ka (sometimes up to 400 ka) and thus fall within the
Milankovitch frequency band. Because of "rnissed
beats", this type of cyclicity is less useful in cyclostra-
tigraphy than cyclic bedding formed in deeper depo-
sitional environments.
High-Frequency Carbonate Cycles
Basin-To-Basin Correlation of Cyclic Bedding
The prospects for long-distance correlation of cyclic
bedding appear to be especially prornising for lime-
stone-marl or limestone-black shale couplets, depos-
ited at water depths below the storm wave base and not
affected by submarine reworking or erosion. Several
authors have therefore tried to correlate limestone-marl
couplets bed-by-bed within individual basins or from
basin to basin.
One ofthe major contributions to this topic was the
attempt to establish a long-distance correlation of the
Cenomanian pelagic to hemipelagic chalk (limestone )-
mari couplets present in five basins ofWestern Europe
(Gale 1995). Correlation was possible over distances
of 1500 to 2000 km, although the thicknesses of the
couplets considerably varies due to changing terri-
genous input. The formation ofthe chalk-marl couplets
in relatively deep shelf environments was favored by a
high sea-level stand and possibly sluggish bottom wa-
ter in the Cenom.mian. This finding testifies that even
during a greenhouse state of the Earth, orbital forcing
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy 369

a LONG-DIST ANCE CYCLE CORRELATION

(WESTERN INTERIOR, USA, LATE CRH.1
c CYCLIC BEDDING
CARBONATE-POOR
HIGH SS SHORELINE MIGRATION LOW SS INTERVAL (RICH IN C-ORG )
PRIMARY
PRODUCTIVITY
_
m~.:&"",
,~:~:"%!"tJ
'!'!.!~:@""
tili!%'"-,!
'!'!.! .
""
;r!'·t~
!'!.! ~r.f"l.i::
"!:t:~rn
'!'!.!

PROGRAD-
ATIONAL 5·' m
SHOREFACE
PARA-
SEQUENCES SRT= TuTAL SED . RATE

NOTE : CYCLIC BEDDING IS CAUSED

BY SLiGHT VARIATIONS IN PRIMARY
PRODUCTION AND OXYGEN CON TENT
OF BOTTOM WATER
b SEA-LEVEL CONTROL OF CYCLIC BEDDING
TIME -+
CARBONATE-RICH
CLASTIC INPUT INTERVAL (POOR IN C-ORGI
~ ,.. _, _. {,..._-_. .,:,:.: :, : : : : +::~::,;}t;A;@hill0
LST TST HST
--.......
,..,.~ I
I LST

... . .. ... . . .. .... SUBOXIC TO

I····· ..........:-:::::::~~;:::.:.....:. ~ - ~·~-:.::.:t
::-:~::-:-:-··········· ·:. DYSAEROBICi ~ - - -
......... .. ....;. ...;. -- DYSAEROBIC . .:..:.: ........ ...... .
~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~-

T ANAEROBIC PLANKTONIC CARBONATE

PRODUCTION

NO BE~~'~~ ·;r·-·=~··RH~~~~I~ ~~~~I~~';\·_·~;~: ~~\~~DIDING !

SR T = 1. 13
RHYTHMS ± C-ORG-RICH RHYTHMS

CLASTIC RHYTHMS C-ORG ~ RICH SHALE SR OM = 0.02

OR C-ORG -RICH SHALE OR CLASTIC RHYTHMS

Fig. 7.42. a Long-distance correlation of coastal c Relative flux rates of carbonate, SRcA> silicates
parasequences with distal, basinal limestone-marls (clay), SRs1 , and organic matter, SRoM' producing
couplets, Greenhorn Member (Upper Cretaceous), either marl/black shale or carbonate beds. Numbers
Western Interior, USA. (After EIder et al. 1994). refer to fractions of total sedimentation rate, SRT= 1.
b Preferential generation of limestone-marl or SRT of marls or black shales is only slightly lower
limestone-black shale couplets during late TST and than that of limestones. (b,c Upper Cretaceous, West-
early HST of 3rd order eustatic sea-level change. ern Interior, after Ricken 1994, modified)

left behind a signal in depositional environments sensi-
tive to climatic change. In this case, the 20 ka preces-
sion cycle was dominant.
A total number of 212 units (21 ka, mainly decimeter-scale)
could be identified and correlated using specific groups of
beds and marker horizons. The cycles represent a time span
of 4.45 Ma and are tied to bio stratigraphie and radiometrie
dating as weil as to carbon isotope stratigraphy. Bundling of
precession cycles into eccentricity cycles (100 ka) was only
partially observed. The couplets are thought to be mainly
climate-controlled productivity cycles. In some cases, the
position of the cyclic bedding within third order sequences
has also been worked out.
Principally, long-term cyclostratigraphy ofthis type is still
a serious problem because the orbital signals are often ob-
scured during 3rd order sea-Ievel lowstands when drastic
changes in the depositional environment reduce the sensitiv-
ity ofthe sediments to record minor variations (e.g. Fischer
370 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor CycIes, and Event StratigraphY
1995). More articles dealing with this topic are found in
Einseie et al. (1991, including Cotillon), House and Gale
(1995).
Shoreface-To-Basin Correlation
in Epicontinental Sea
In some regions where good outcrops and precise stra-
tigraphy allow bed and sequence correlation over long
distances, it has been tried to correlate proximal
shoreface deposits with distal basinal limestone-marl
couplets. One of these examples is the Upper Creta-
ceous ofthe Western Interior seaway ofNorth Amer-
ica, representing an epicontinental sea transformed into
a foreland basin. Here, a refined biostratigraphyand
radiometric dated bentonite layers have enabled such a
correlation over > 1000 km (Fig. 7.42).
The shoreface deposits consist of progradational
parasequences, 10 to 20 m in thickness, capped by
transgressive lags. The limestone-marl couplets are 0.5 to 1
m in thickness and contain some bentonites. In the transi-
tional zone between these two end members, mudstones,
marls, and layers of calcareous concretions were deposited.
The periodicites ofthese cycles are within the Milankovitch
frequency band. The transgressive lags appear to be time-
equivalents ofthe basinallimestones (Eider et al. 1994).
Cycle Correlation on Carbonate Platforms
The sediments of shallow carbonate platforms, at-
tached to land or isolated, often vary considerably
from the outer rim to the inner, mostly lagoonal part
(Sect. 3.3.2). Benthic carbonate production strongly
depends on the water depth, and sediment distribution
controlled by wave action and tidal currents and is
therefore irregular. Considering these complications
and the discussion in Section 7.9.4, one can expect
widely traceable cyclic sequences on carbonate plat-
forms only if these result from high-frequency relative
sea-level changes.
One of several examples where such an attempt has
been made is the well-exposed Middle Devoniancar-
bonate platform of the Rocky Mountains (Fig. 7.43).
The platform evolved from a ramp setting to a rimmed
platform with a relatively deep lagoon and back to a
flat-topped platform (Fig. 7.43d). The relationship be-
tween subsidence, 2nd and 3rd-order sea-Ievel
changes, creating accommodation space for sediment
buildup, is shown in Fig. 7.43c. Sediment accumula-
Fig. 7.43. High-resolution sequence stratigraphy of
Middle Devonian platform carbonates of eastern
Great Basin, USA. a Location map. b Platform
cross-section and overview of four 3rd order se-
quences (1-4). c Development of accommodation
space in relation to subsidence and sea-level changes.
tion more or less kept pace with subsidence (keep-up
platform with limited prograding).
The 3rd-order sequences (in total 270-400 m in
thickness) and also part of the minor peritidal and
subtidal cycles (a total number of around 80-100,
mostly about 2.5 m thick) can be correlated over a dis-
tance of 400-500 km. Transgressive systems tracts
showa slight deepening-upward trend with thickening
peritidal cycles overlain by subtidal cycles. Highstand
systems tracts exhibit the opposite trend.
Instead of sequence boundaries (unconformities)
and other distinctive surfaces of 3rd order sequences,
here specific sequence boundary zones, SBZ, and max-
imum flooding zones, MFZ, are present (cf. Fig. 7.44b
and c). SB-zones commonly consist of several rela-
tively thin cycles with distinct surfaces of emergence;
MF -zones are characterized by thicker cycles including
subtidal cycles and non-cyclic sections. Lowstand sys-
tems tracts were not identified. The slope and deeper
basin in front of the platform are characterized by
well-bedded limestones (calciturbidites and pelagic
sediments).
The carbonates were deposited during a greenhouse state of
the Earth in a low-energy environment during a time span of
1.5-2.5 Ma which can be subdivided into four third-order
sequences (Elrick 1995 and 1996). The peritidal cycles make
up about 90% of all cycles measured and are capped by tidal
laminites. Eighty percent of the peritidal cycles show evi-
dence of subaerial exposure and subsequent upward deepen-
ing. The specific sections in Fig. 7.43e demonstrate how the
high-frequency cycles vary laterally and within 3rd order
cycles (Fig. 7.43b). The amplitudes of the high-frequency
sea-Ievel changes may have been up to 10m. The real nurn-
ber of minor cycles is uncertain, because during emergence
as well as during relatively deep submergence (deep
subtidal), some ofthe cyclic "beats" may have been missed.
Furthermore, partial dolomitization ofthe platform carbon-
ates has obscured the presence of minor cycles. Because of
these difficulties and uncertainties in the biostratigraphic
dating, the periods of the minor cycles are poorly known (50-
130 ka).
Other studies on ancient peritidal carbonate cycles gave
results similar to those presented above (e.g. Holland' and
Patzkowsky 1998). Minor cycles of partially mixed
carbonate-siliciclastic nature were studied on the outer plat-
form ofthe Permian reef complex ofTexas (Osleger 1998).
Recently drilled cores from the Little Bahama Bank (Plio-
cene to Pleistocene) confirmed and refined the results of pre-
vious studies on ancient carbonate rocks. The aggradation of
modem (icehouse state) platform carbonates is interrupted
frequently and for relatively long time periods by the super-
position ofhigh-amplitude, high-frequency sea-Ievel oscilla-
tions onto those oflower frequency (McN eill et al. 1998).
d Some stages of platform evolution. f Selected sec-
tions of peritidal and subtidal minor cycles
(parasequences) of sequences 2 and 3. (After Elrick
1996, simplified and modified, local names and other
details omitted)
7.9 CycIo- and Event Stratigraphy 371

,,,
[NEVAOA--- -
-üT~tJ~_~
~
SL-RISE

~kALTLAKE
, CITY ;

I
\ I
"" ~=-::t~. . . . . SEVIER
I
I
THRUST I
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ -.J 2ND ORDER
ACCOMMODATION

BASINAL OUTER PLATFORM INNER PLA TFORM

d
(DIP UNEI (STRIKE L1NEI
NA TM NM
r SP
f
PELOID-OOID
V
b V TST 3 INTRA-PLATFORM BASIN

"7
7""'"
DEEP SUBTIDAL
BASINAL FACIES
HST 2 FLAT-TOPPED PLATFORM

MFZ 2 DIST ALL Y STEEPENED RAMP

A l { f * }-
4~ '\ SHALLOW SUBTIDAL
STROMATOPOROID BUILDUP

} Op km ,30m
BASINAL L1MEST.
L1MEST. (V.E. ~ 600)
PR
PLATY T
STROMATO - MFZ
SP

e T
POROIDS
TST 3
TM
NM STROMATO- .-_1-
""r" POROIDS
CYCLE
NA
• BOUNDARY I
THAlASSI - / .1.-

LlMEST-MARL • NOIDES /
CORAL
RHYTHMITES BURROWS / /
(TURBIDITES) /
WAVY
/ /
• •• TST 3 TRANS- / / HST 2
I.-
. GRESSIVE
/ /
- ---- ,t:FA~~~ _ _ ._1 /

10
m
KARST .1.-
EXPOSURE
SURFACE
/
/
/
"
/ ,.,
..,
.-L /
---
SBZ /

.
/

-- -- - -·,,..,, .--I
.1.- LAMINITE MFZ
/
-- "
'It. ,.

-
THICK / C-
LAMINITE /
HST 2----....
.C-
MUD CRACKS

.-
PK/GRST, PACKSTONE/GRAINST01
WST. WACKESTONE
EXPOSURE SURFACE
MFZ, MAX. FLOODING ZONE
SBZ, SEQU . BOUNDARY ZONE
I
372 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
Under these conditions, the number ofmissed beats may be-
come very high.
Platform-To-Basin Correlation
A correlation of minor cyeles from platform to basin
appears to be even more difficult than correlation
within platfonn sediments. N evertheless, some authors
have recently tried to establish such a correlation for
peritidal, subtidal, and alternately bedded carbonate
cyeles over distances ofhundreds up to > I 000 km. The
main results of one of these examples are shown in
Figure 7.44 in a simplified way, omitting local strati-
graphic tenns and many other details.
In addition to the elementary and small composite
units, 3rd order sequences could be identified which
modify to some extent the character of the smaller cy-
eles. As a result of the superposition of various fre-
quencies, the "classical" sequence boundaries, SB, and
maximum flooding surfaces, MFS, of pure 3rd or 4th
order sea-Ievel oscillations had to be replaced by se-
quence boundary zones, SBZ, and maximum flooding
zones, MFZ, as mentioned above (Fig. 7.44b and c).
Each of these zones contains several surfaces which
could be denominated as SB or MFS. During 3rd order
lowstands, the platfonn emerged or only allowed the
fonnation of condensed sections; slopes could be sub-
jected to erosion.
One ofthe first attempts to establish such a correlation was
made in Lower Cretaceous sediments of the Vocontian
Trough and its neighboring platforrn in southeastem France
(Ferry and Monier 1987). In this work, cycle bundling was
mainly used for correlation. Later, this type of study in the
Early Cretaceous (Berriasian) was conducted in both Swit-
zerland and France (Pasquier and Strasser 1997). Another
example deals with the Jurassie (Oxfordian) in the Swiss
Jura, Spain and Norrnandy (Pittet and Strasser 1998). Such
attempts require very accurate stratigraphie resolution based
on various methods discussed in the special articles. In some
cases, the meter- to dekameter-scale peri- and subtidal (about
100 ka) cycles deposited on the platforrns seeIIi in turn to
consist of a number of thinner units representing about 20 ka
periods. The latterprobably correspond to the limestone-marl
couplets (precession cycles) observed on the slope and in the
deeper basins (Fig. 7.44).
If the platforrn emerged only episodically during low-
stands (keep-up stage, Fig. 7.44c), the continuously produced
carbonate was flushed into deeper water to form limestone
beds. During highstands, most of the carbonate production
remained on the platforrn, while in deeper water relatively
thin marly beds accumulated (Fig 7.44d). Thus, the basinal
sediments became thicker during lowstands and transgression
than during highstands.
Long-Distance Oceanic Seamount-To-Shelf
Correlation
Thanks to the Ocean Drilling Program, first extensive
sedimentary records from isolated submerged oceanic
seamounts (guyots) are now available from the western
Pacific (Winterer et al. 1995). During the Middle Cre-
taceous (Aptian-Albian), the tops of these volcanic
structures (presently at water depths between 1300 and
1500 m) accumulated shallow-water carbonates. The
carbonate caps maintained a depositional environment
elose to sea level for about 20 Ma by sediment buildup
compensating for thermal subsidence (30-50 mlMa),
before carbonate deposition was shut off. These plat-
fonn carbonates (up to 900 m in thickness) were
hardly affected by local syntectonic movements or
terrigenous sediment supply and therefore provide an
excellent re cord of major and minor sea-Ievel changes.
The most important results gained from four
seamounts are the following (Röhl and Ogg 1996):
- The Aptian and Albian cores displayed 12 third-or-
der sequences each. The average thicknesses of the
sequences range from ab out 30 to 60 m and their time
periods from 0.5-1.5 Ma (average ~0.8 Ma). About
one third of the sequence boundaries showed well-ce-
mented exposure surfaces.
- Each sequence could be subdivided into two to five
parasequence sets (mostly 9-12 m thick, time period
around 0.3 Ma) consisting in turn of two to five thin-
ner stratal elements.
- The overall carbonate production allowed an up-
building of the carbonate caps at rates of 35-65 mlMa
(equal to the subsidence rates). These rates are similar
to those found at other carbonate platforms (Sect. 3.3,
Fig. 3.27). In times of SLF>SUB, the platforms
emerged; with SLF ~ SUB, condensed sections with
algal flats evolved, and with SLF<Sub, distinct
subtidal cyeles fonned. Sections above sequence
boundaries exhibit upward deepening facies.
- The sequences identified at the seamounts could be
correlated with well-dated (thicker) Aptian-Albian se-
quences of Western Europe (England, France, and
northern Spain). With the aid of this correlation (in-
cluding parasequences) it seems to be possible to im-
prove the calibration of the European biozones, be-
cause the exponentially deelining thennal subsidence
of the seamounts renders a relatively precise time con-
tro!.
This and the previous examples demonstrate the con-
siderable progress which has been achieved in
cyclostratigraphy. This method may help to solve some
of the correlation problems associated with the so-
called global eustatic sea-level curve after Haq et a!.
(1987).
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy 373

PLA TFORM-TO-BASIN CORRELA TION

DETAITAL
OUARTZ
b
L1MEST SLOPE
SBZ----~~yy~. .~_

-- I
HST If;

TST
BASIN

I 1-Yr+.--'~c:....BIRDSEYES"
CATCH~UP '1r~~~;[ rs .......... --~010::::!0-+-'--+-----'+-- SBZ
I I' "-
OOIDS HST
I
I 10 m
HIGH-FAEO 1--=-~1yFI,!ii'l<!!""
PERITIDAL- PACKST. ,
LAGOONAL WACKEST .
CYCLES t1EI~~~'-:":
LATE
SBZ LST
(Be4) L1MEST.""1;,I,..........
l CONDENSED OR HIATUS
: (PARTL Y EMERGED) - ---
I EARLY
'f
LST

SBZ (Be41
C SUPERPOSITION OF SL-CURVES it

MFS SB d SEDIMENT DISTRIBUTION

(LOW FREOU.) (LOW FREQU.)

\ / PLATFORM
SB (EMERSION)
BASIN

SB
- --I HIGHST. DEPOSITS
" MSF
, , +2
~
MFZ (MAXIMUM
t-r-t
SBZ (SEQUENCE
~ _ _- :-SB

FLOODING ZONE)

-TIME-
BOUNDARY ZONE)
LAG 1_-.-:- 5B
LOWST. DEPOSITS MARL

Fig. 7.44. Platform-to-basin correlation of high-fre-
quency Berriasian carbonate cycles. a Paleogeo-
graphie situation in France and Switzerland. b Typi-
cal cyclic sequences within 3rd order transgresslve
(TST) and highstand systems tract (RST), subdivided
into ~ 100 ka cycles and smaller bedding rhythms.
c Superposition of high- and low-frequency sea-Ievel
fluctuatlons and positions of sequence boundary
zones, SBZ, and maximum flooding zones, MFZ.
d Interpretation and relationship of platform cycles
and basinal bedding couplets. (After Pasquier and
Strasser 1997, simplified and modified)
374 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
7.9.6 Discyclic Bedding and
Other Depositional Events
Examples of Discyclic Bedding
The most prominent examples of discyclic, event-re-
lated rhythmic bedding are:
- Flood event deposits on alluvial plains (inundites;
Sects. 2.2.1 and 2.2.3).
- Siliciclastic and calcareous tempestites and
tsunamiites (Sect. 3.1.2).
- Gravity rnass flow deposits on land and below the
sea, including exceptionally large debris and mud
flow deposits such as olistostromes (Sect. 5.4.2).
- All types of turbidites, sandy and muddy
(siliciclastic, calcareous, and siliceous; Sect. 5.4.2).
- Tephra layers, particularly widely dispersed ashfalls
(Sect. 2.4).
These types of event beds do not always form conspic-
uous rhythmic bedding. Sometimes they only form rare
intercalations within the "normal host sediments". Fre-
quently, one event bed rnay follow an earlier one with-
out an intercalated interbed, representing the more or
less autochthonous background sedimentation. Flood
deposits are often not separated by a distinct hiatus
(e.g. soil horizon), unless theyare rare (see below). A
sequence of fine-grained, thin mud turbidites, for ex-
ample, is commonly not referred to as rhythmic bed-
ding, but rather as massive siltstone or claystone (Kelts
and Arthur 1981). Similarly, lithographie limestones
consisting of very fine-grained calcite particles
(micrite) do not show distinct rhythmic bedding al-
though their slate-like appearance results from gravity
mass flows and turbidites, including slope breccias.
Lithographie limestones usually formed in specific (semi-)
enclosed andJor silled strike-slip related basins in arid re-
gions where terrigenous input was limited or absent (e.g.
Oost and de Boer 1994). Such limestones are known from
paleo-Iatitudes between 15° and 40° in both hemispheres.
Micrite produced by algae and bacteria in shallow water and
on neighboring platforms was episodically transported into
more or less stagnant, hypersaline deeper water. In these bas-
ins, the event beds including displaced biota could be well
preserved. More clayey interbeds and bioturbation are com-
monly absent.
Other Depositional Events
Some of the above mentioned event beds result from
rare or exceptional processes, such as tsunami- and
bolide-related deposits or the break of natural darns
causing catastrophic floods. Individual thin silt layers
in continental deposits may originate from extreme
dust storrns. Sandy and silty sediments on land and
below the sea can record earthquake shocks by "soft
sediment deformation" (referred to as seismites) with-
out being substantially displaced. Such event beds
sometimes provide excellent marker beds for strati-
graphie correlation in limited areas. However, most of
these rare event beds are not sufficiently extensive and
frequent to generate rhythrnic bedding. (F or more de-
tails see, e.g. Clifton 1988; Einsele 1996; Poag 1997).
Aseries of catastrophic floods, generated by repeated out-
bursts of glacier-dammed lakes in the late Wisconsin (15-12
ka B.P.), has been reported from the Columbia Plateau,
Washington, USA (Smith 1993). The floods commonly left
behind one distinct graded bed (some decimeters up to 1 m
in thickness) with a bioturbated top or soil; the flood events
are separated bynormal fluvial deposits. In certain areas one
flood event is represented by a number of thinner beds. Ac-
cording to dated ash layers from Mt. Helens, about 40 major
flood events occurred within a time span of3 to 4 ka. A cata-
strophic flood affecting the valley ofthe Snake River, Idaho,
occurred after the outflow of the Pleistocene Lake
Bonneville, Utah, about 15 ka ago (Jarrett and Malde 1987;
cf. Fig. 11.6).
Recurrence Intervals of Event Beds
Depositional events generally occur in irregular, sto-
chastic intervals, but these are controlled to some ex-
tent by processes which take a certain period of time,
such as the accumulation of sediment on a slope before
failure can occur. Similarly, depositional events in a
fluvial or shallow-marine basin cannot bring about
sediment aggradation faster than allowed by accommo-
dation space controlled by subsidence and base- or
sea-level change.
Although the recurrence times of cyc1ic and episodic phe-
nomena in sedimentary sequences span a very wide scale,
many common features in marine environments such as
tempestites, turbidites, limestone-marl rhythms and banded
chert layers occur in about the same, relatively narrow range
of frequencies, i.e., between 1000 and several 100000 years.
In fact, the thicknesses of individual bedding couplets are
often in the same range, regardless ofwhether they are gener-
ated by depositional events or gradual cyc1ic changes. When
both types of bedding rhythms occur in the same sequence,
the discrimination of cyc1ic and discyclic bedding and the
determination ofthe cyc1e number may become problematic.
However, this is only true for environments where the sedi-
mentation rates are of the same order of magnitude, as for
example in wide areas of the oceans. Most lake sediments
accumulate much faster, with the result that cyc1e periods
similar to those in the sea generate thick packages of sedi-
ment, but event deposits maintain their dimensions or even
tend to decrease in size.
The following considerations on the recurrence inter-
vals of discyclic event beds (Fig. 7.45) take into ac-
count only the common types of macro-scale rhythmic
bedding.
In continental settings the frequency of extreme
rainstorrns and floods causing event deposits varies
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy
greatly. Large debris flows on alluvial fans commonly
occur at intervals of tens to hundreds ofyears. On the
slopes of fan deltas, avalanching and gravity mass
flows of some size may take place with about the same
frequency, apart from over-supplied proglacial set-
tings. Overbank fines on flood plains may form either
seasonally or at very irregular intervals oftens to hun-
dreds ofyears.
In marine settings, as in continental ones, some pre-
event sediment storage is commonly necessary to pro-
duce event beds. The recurrence intervals of both
sandy and bioclastic tempestites as well as medium-
size gravity mass flows, turbidite sands and muds com-
monly range from several hundreds to several thou-
sands of years.
In specific cases, very short interva1s of 10 to 100 years have
been found. An examp1e are typhoon-triggered turbidites in
the Su1u Sea, Philippines, mostly 10-30 mm in thickness and
deposited during the past 20 ka (Schönfe1d and Kudrass
1991). Further data are summarized and discussed by Einse1e
(1993 and 1996).
The channel fills of deep-sea fans partly record more
depositional events than the sediments offan lobes. On
the other hand, reworking and amalgamation ofprevi-
ously deposited beds may reduce the initial number of
events (e.g. that oftempestites).
The frequencies of shallow-water tempestites and
deep-sea turbidites are commonly much higher than
the Milankovitch periodicities (Fig. 7.45). Only rela-
tively rare events, for example large mass flow depos-
its and thick turbidites on distal fan lobes and basin
plains, range within the Milankovitch frequency band.
In front ofthe Niger delta, for example, episodic sedi-
ment transport beyond the shelf edge has been con-
trolled in the Neogene by 4th and 5th-order glacio-
eustatic sea-level fluctuations (Damuth 1997). Very
large mass flows, as known from the modem oceans or
ancient megaturbidites, represent sediment masses
which have required millions ofyears to accumulate in
the area where they were remobilized.
When relative sea-level is the dominant faCtor con-
trolling the depositional system, then the early
lowstand represents the time at which event deposits
are most abundant (e.g. Posamentier and Allen 1993;
Einseie 1996). In particular, the effects of high-fre-
quency, high-amplitude sea-level oscillations cannot be
ruled out by any other process. They also control to
some extent the recurrence interval of certain "bun-
dIes" of event deposits, such as the Pliocene turbidite
sequences of 20 ka precession cycles in Greece
(Weltje and de Boer 1993). Especially large mass
flows, such as "megaturbidites" and calcareous
megabreccias, seem to be largely associated with sea-
level fall. Sea level-controlled valley incision mayaiso
provide large amounts of sediment during the late
lowstand phase and thus enable sediment gravity
flows.
375
7.9.7 Non-Depositional and Erosional Events
(Skeletal Horizons, Lags etc.)
General Aspects
Decreasing sedimentation rates cause condensation,
sediment-starvation, omission or non-deposition, and
may be finally replaced by erosion. Most of these
terms are commonly used for marine sediments, but
they can also be applied to continental deposits. Non-
depositional events are often not strictly isochronous
and should therefore be used with caution in strati-
graphie correlation.
Non-deposition and erosion do not create distinct
beds, but ratherproduce stratal discontinuities, specific
surfaces or event horizons. Such horizons can occur on
land and below the sea under a considerable number of
different circumstances. Here, we only consider sur-
faces which affect large areas within a sedimentary
basin or even several basins simultaneously. In con-
trast to depositional events, event horizons often span
a considerable period of time. F or this reason, various
organisms may be actively involved in characterizing
these horizons, apart from physical processes. Exam-
pIes of this interrelationship are soil horizons
(paleosols) on land or recolonized shell beds in the
sea. The most important representatives of non-
depositional and erosional event horizons are
- Clastic lag sediments,
- Biogenie skeletal concentrations,
- Buried soils (paleosols, cf. Sect. 9.1.2).
The first two groups consist of lithoclasts, i.e. relics of
reworked older sediment, commonly coarse sand to
gravel-size particles, andJor reworked skeletal parti-
cles, partially abraded or broken. Both lithoclasts and
skeletal particles originate either from local sources
(e.g. intrabasinallithoclasts) or more distant sourees.
They have resisted further physical, chemical and
biologically-mediated breakdown and transport pro-
ces ses and therefore have been left behind as lag sedi-
ments. Some of these lag sediments are comprised
solely of lithoclasts or skeletal particles (skeletal con-
centrations ); many are mixed.
Continental Non-Depositional Events
In the continental realm, widespread soil horizons
(paleosols) present on surfaces of sediment starvation
or non-deposition are most important. Other event ho-
rizons, such as erosionallags in fluvial channels, win-
nowed desert pavements, or truncation surfaces in
eolian sands are mostly oflimited lateral extent and are
not considered further here.
Soil horizons are common on wide fluvial plains and
their older terraces, dried lake basins, and isolated pla-
376 Chapter 7
Large floods and
debris flows on land Milankovitch cycles
Channels, Overbank deposits I I
middle fan i " Lower fan, basin plain
I~II 1:==f::J~~verage ;~;~~-~~~~-~nelss)
I I
Modern tempestites Ancient tempestites
'-~-------1 c--I------------,
Average (~rom thicknes~) C:+-.:1
Gravity mass flows
(deep seal
1 ka
Fig. 7.45. Common frequencies of various event
beds as compared to the Milankovitch Band and
teaus (cf. Figs. 7.16fand 7.27; Sect. 9.1.2). Paleosols
of the humid zone often display traces of rootlets and
increased contents of clay minerals (e.g. illite) and or-
ganic matter, whereas soils of semi-arid regions tend to
develop various types of nodules and duricrusts. Wide-
spread paleosols are particularly useful in continental
sequence stratigraphy (Sect. 7.7). They often represent,
in contrast to event deposits, longer time intervals in
the sediment buildup of continental sequences than the
"normal" sediments (e.g. Kraus and Bown 1986). In
many fluvial sequences paleosols occur repeatedly and
constitute one of the best marker horizons of such de-
posits. In transitional systems (Sect. 7.6) they indicate,
in association with incised valleys, sea-Ievel!owstands
(cf. Fig. 7.l6d).
Similar to palaeosols, coal seams produced in
swamps represent fairly long periods of non-deposi-
tion. They are also frequently used for stratigraphic
correlation (e.g. Lyons and Alpem 1989).
Further indicators of non-deposition are karstified
surfaces on top of exhumed older carbonate rocks on
land or emerged carbonate buildups in the sea (cf. Fig.
7.16e and g). These surfaces are usually irregular and
often overlain by residual soil derived from carbonate
dissolution or originating from elsewhere. In simple
cases, the time span of a "karstification event" can be
constrained by determining the ages of the karstified
rock and overlying stratum. Datable fauna from soil-
filled solution pits and shafts may bridge the strati-
graphie gap.
Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
10 Ma
10 7 a
!
3rd order cycles
I I I
I Sand turbidites
(deep seal
I
, I
Tempestites
(shallow seal
(~ ;
I cp
I h . ~ '""'-
I Thick mud flows, mega-turbidites
I
1 Ma 10 Ma
third-order sequence cycles. (Modified from EinseIe
1993)
Marine Lag Sediments and Shell Concentrations
Clastic lag sediments and bio genie skeletal concentra-
tions are frequently mixed in marine environments,
forrning composite event beds. They are discussed sep-
arately here.
Non-skeletal marine lag sediments are common in
coastal, foreshore, inner shelf zones, and isolated sub-
aqueous highs where wave action and wave-induced
currents frequently erode pre-existing sediments and
carry away the fine-grained matrix. Repeated rework-
ing leads to a relative enrichment of the most resistant
particles. In addition, specific authigenic minerals may
form under these conditions (e.g. glauconite in sandy
lags). Concretions of carbonate and phosphorite,
formed earlier within the sediment, may be exhumed
and concentrated in lags (cf. Fig. 7.16b).
Synsedimentary cementation during times of non-de-
position can form hardgrounds (e.g. Fürsich et al.
1992).
Skeletal concentrations (shell beds) originate to a
large degree from organisrns (e.g. molluscs) which
lived as "infauna" within the upper centimeters to deci-
meters of soft shallow-water sediments. The density of
infaunal communities generally decreases with water
depth (Fig. 7.46a) and other factors. One can distin-
guish between two principal processes generating skel-
eta! concentrations (e.g., KidweIl 1991):
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy
(1) Autogenie mode. The shell (or elast) eoneentra-
tions are produeed by reworking of in situ skeletal re-
mains and winnowing ofthe fine-grained matrix (Fig.
7.46b). The hard substrate ofthe shell bedallows eolo-
nization by new speeies (gravel dwellers, "live-dead
interaetion"), until a soft sea bed is re-established
through eontinued normal sediment aggradation.
(2) Allogenie mode. The event eoneentrations result
from a single brief hydraulie episode, sueh as a storm
event. The storm provides "exotie" shells and/or
lithoelasts eroded in other (mostly shallower) parts of
the basin, but mayaiso exhume loeal shells of soft-bot-
tom dwellers and mix them with the alloehthonous
shells (Fig. 7.46e). As in (1), the hard substrate ofthe
shell bed, often lithified to hardground, may subse-
quently beeome eolonized by epifauna.
One of the end members of a great variety of event
eoneentrations are shell beds, either of the auto genie or
allogenie mode, whieh have been formed by one single
storm or eurrent event. An example of this type are the
basallayers of ealcareous tempestites alternating with
"norrnally" aeeumulated host sediments. However,
many skeletal eoneentrations are modified by repeated
reworking (multi-event eoneentrations) during longer
times of limited or interrupted sediment buildup (Fig.
7.46d). The resulting eomposite, hiatal, or lag eoneen-
trations mayaiso eontain autoehthonous minerals sueh
as glaueonite and phosphorite nodules, indieating alter-
nating periods of deposition and reworking.
Hiatal and lag concentrations show indistinct discontinuities
as weil as strong bio-erosion, abrasion, and fragmentation of
bioclasts. The shell orientation (biofabric) caused by storms
and unidirectional currents is predominantly convex-up (Fig.
47a); wave action sometimes leads to edge-wise, fan-shape,
or chaotic fabrics. The faunal associations involved in the
various types of skeletal event beds vary significantly
through Phanerozoic time due to the evolution of organisrns
producing bioclasts.
More details about the various types of skeletal concentra-
tions are described in special articles (e.g. KidweIl 1991 and
1993; Fürsich and Oschmann 1993; Abbott 1997).
Biological and Ecological Events
Stratigraphers and paleontologists have frequently de-
seribed biologieal and eeologieal events (bio-events,
eeo-events) whieh may or may not be assoeiated with
physieally or ehemieally eontrolled stratigraphie
events. A typieal example is the sudden appearanee of
new taxa or faunal elements whieh were not present
earlier in the area studied. These phenomena usually
refleet drastie ehanges in the environmental eonditions,
sueh as the opening of oeeanie gateways, modified
eurrent systems, variations in nutrient supply and re-
dox eonditions (eeo-events, anoxie events, ete.). Ifthe
resulting event beds are eontroiled by both physieal
377
and biologieal proeesses they may be referred to as
"eomposite" events. Bio- and eeo-events in the sense
diseussed here are usually not global phenomena, but
they often provide good marker horizons traeeable
over hundreds to thousands of square kilometers
within a basin, or even from one basin to another.
More details and examples have been described, e.g., by
Ernst et al. (1983), Kauffinan (1988), Kauffinan etal. (1991),
Paul et al. (1994), Wilrnsen et al. 1996), Sageman et al.
(1997).
The term "epibole" describes the unusual abundance of a
single taxon or several taxa that are normally rare or absent
(Brett and Baird 1997). In the context of this chapter, two
categories of epiboles are of partieular interest: (I) ecological
epiboles reflect brief episodes of expansion in particular spe-
eies ("population bursts") resulting from short-period favor-
able environmental conditions (e.g. changing redox condi-
tions) which mayeven cross facies boundaries; (2) incursion
epiboles are characterized by the sudden, brief, and wide-
spread appearance of certain species or groups of species.
They may represent episodes in which formerly separated
biogeographie provinces or basins are connected, e.g.
through oceanic gateways. Incursion epiboles are therefore
often associated with a relatively high sea level. In general,
the improvement or deterioration of environmental condi-
tions for certain organisrns is often associated with changes
in relative sea level and/or terrestrial sediment influx.
Long persisting ecozones, such as those controlled by the
substrate and oxygen content ofbottom water, may be over-
printed by short-term bio-events. For example in the
CenomanianiTuronian ofthe Western Interior Basin, North
America, the bio-event horizons consist of either thin or
thick (meters-scale) intervals ofbenthic communities which
exhibit changes in diversity and abundance. These intervals
can be widely used as marker beds (Sageman et al. 1997).
Global biological events in the evolution oflife, including
evolutionary radiations and mass extinctions, usually span
longer time periods than the stratigraphie events discussed
here (e.g. Walliser 1995).
7.9.8 Minor Cycles, Event Beds and Lags
in 3rd Order Sequence Cycles
In this seetion we ask the question whether or not the
various types of minor eyeles or parasequenees, rhyth-
mie bedding, depositional and non-depositional event
horizons, diseussed above, take a eertain position
within the systems traets of third order sequenees. If
this question ean be answered positively, eyelo- and
event-stratigraphy ean be used for a better identifiea-
tion, sub division, and understanding of the longer-pe-
riod sequenee eyeles. Figure 7.47 presents an overview
of the preferential positions of various stratigraphie
events, minor eyeles and eyelie bedding within a third
order sequenee. The model seetions of this figure for
event stratigraphy show the most important phenomena
to be observed in shallow- and deep-marine environ-
ments as weIl as some trends in eontinental basins. F or
marine environments the following "rules" ean be ap-
plied:
378 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event StratigraphY

I -- - --- Fairweather wave base (FWB) - - -

a 11
ij Primary.7
Ki p~oduc.tlon of ru
- - - Storm wave base -
WbtOgenlc hardparts illl
' {primary concentration) M
A filli

/iti.,
life position Wave action Shell lag with
incipient
~ Tempestite

---
hardground

Encrustation, recoloni.sation

Proeess Sediment buildup Exposure

c d
Event eone.

Abundant burrows ,
shallow and deep

Shellground
Distinct
Burrows Time discontinuit ies

b reworking
Winnowing and Composite cone,
Burrows ,
shallow and deep
Fines Gravel
V / dwellers

~~~:~~:t~g; Hiatal eone.

~·~--u.;-:'9 shells Strong bio -eros ion,
Soft -boltom abrasion, and
dwellers fragmentation

l?!E~ag cone.
7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy 379

- The generation of peritidal and subtidal carbonate (MFS), and at the top of HST. Lag eoncentrations in
cycles seems to be favored during second and third the LST either display an erosional base due to emer-
order TST and early HST, whereas LST hampers or gence or subaqueous erosion, or they represent hiatal
prevents carbonate cycles on the tops of carbonate concentrations as a result of sediment bypassing (e.g.
buildups. shelly shoals). Apart from these weIl defined positions
- Periodic limestone-marl suecessions and black shale- within 3rd order sequences, shell coneentrations ofthe
limestone altemations, deposited on the outer shelf or event and eomposite types can also appear within indi-
in the deeper sea, form preferentiaBy during the transi- vidual systems tracts, or they cap parasequences
tion from TST to HST, i.e. under relatively "stable" (KidweIl 1993).
conditions within the condensed section (cf. Fig. - Toward basin margins (decreasing subsidence rates)
7.42b; e.g. Niebuhrand Prokoph 1997). the stratal discontinuities of successive transgressive-
regressive cycles tend to merge (cf. Fig. 7.15). Then
In deep-sea regions near the shelves and continents, periods they form pronounced composite lags and skeletal con-
of rising and high sea level appear to favor the accumulation centrations representing hiatuses of increasing time
of sediments rich in carbonate (productivity cycles), while span.
during falling sea level carbonate deposition tends to become
more diluted (dilution cycles) or replaced hy siliciclastic ma-
terials, including turbidites. Redox cycles are commonly as- These rules may serve as a complementary tool, be-
sociated with TST and HST of 3rd and higher order sea-Ievel sides lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, magneto-stra-
changes (Ricken 1994). tigraphy, stable isotopes and radiometry, to describe
and interpret stratigraphie sections and fades tracts of
If cyclic bedding ean be reliably dated, e.g. with the third-order sequence cycles.
aid of oxygen isotopes and magnetostratigraphy from
the present back into the past, the stratigraphie resolu-
tion of longer sequences can be significandy refined.
Further back in geological time, cyclic bedding includ-
ing bundles of beds, mosdy renders "floating time
scales" (Fig. 7.47).
- EpisodicaBy generated event beds, such as mass
flows, tempestites, and turbidites, seem to be largely
associated with the prograding phases ofLST and late
HST, particularly so for high-frequency and high-am-
plitude sea-level oscillations (cf. Seet. 7.9.6; Einseie
1996).
- Widely extended "Ineursion epiboles" (appearanee
of new speeies) indicate relative sea-level highstands;
"eeological epiboles" (population bursts) often record
enhanced water circulation during lowering sea level.
- Stratal diseontinuities on land, such as clastic lags
and soils may be subsequendy removed by subaerial
meehanical and ehemieal erosion. Karstified surfaces
and thiek duricrusts are usually better preserved and
can be weB identified.
- In shallow seas, erosionallags and various skeletal
concentrations are assoeiated with surfaces of regres-
sion and transgression and therefore diachronous.
They preferentially occur at the transition from LST to
TST (regressive and transgressive lags are often
mixed), around the transition from TST to HST (e.g.
mid-cycle condensed shell beds; Abbott 1997) along
the shallow portion of the maximum flooding surfaee

Fig. 7.46. a Marine basin margin and various pro-
ces ses generating skeletal concentrations along
onshore-offshore gradient. Note life position of or-
ganisms in soft mud, winnowing, abrasion and
redeposition. (Modified from Fürsich and Oschmann
1993). b In situ winnowing andreworking: autogenie
mode. c Most of the skeletal remains come from
other locations: allogenic mode. Both band c may be
colonized by sessile epifauna (gravel dweIlers).
d The skeletal concentrations evolve from (± single)
event concentrations via composite concentrations to
hiatal and lag concentrations with decreasin~ rates of
sediment buildup. (After Kidwe1l1993, modlfied)
380 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

"SEQUENCING TOOLS EVENT "TIME TOOLS"

(ALLOCYCLIC AND AUTOCYCLIC MECHANISMS) STRA TlG RAPHY

SEQUENCE CYCLO - CONTI- MARINE

-r--l
STRATIGRAPHY STRA TIGRAPHY NENTAL SHALLOW DEEP
Unconform . i
I Milank.
I band
I (c . 20, ~

40,100, Minor
HST 400 ka fluvia l
cycles
..: 10 I I
C'>
II $Bundle s I
'+=i -
.......
111
(J) IV mfsi- - ~100, Lake or
0 u I _ 'L.. playa
.c c: TST 20 Ka
,-::: IV
:::::I
0' I ± "Floating "
vi IV -1- time scale
...
.,.- - -," " "'" '
(J) (J)
IV
c: I
~:~~si
IV
,:,t,
U ...
"0 I
:c 0 I
LST
~
...
"0
M
)
Submarine
erosion

f-
J ~ ~ aps Beach ,
I ra- I foreshore
I sequ.
_l_ I
_'l._ _
--
_
Fluvial
Soil A+
Groups , Downhole
± Hiatus measurements, Mass f low
formations
element ratios , etc. deposit

Fig. 7.47. Principal methods to describe and re fine time scale. Depositional and non-depositional events
the stratigraphy of 3rd order sequence cycles. as weIl as bio- and chemo-events often take a certain
Cyclostratigraphy based on astronomical parameters position within the sequence. See text for further discussion
can provide a very accurate but frequently "floating"

7_9.9 Summary (Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy)

- Astronomical (Milankovitch) cycles have been
identified particularly in marine and lacustrine
sediments (e.g. cyclic limestone-marls,
marl/limestone black shales, evaporite se-
quences) ranging in age from the Proterozoic to
the Holocene.
Using oxygen isotope signals preserved in ma-
rine organisrns, a very accurate time scale could
be established from the Holocene back into the
middle Tertiary. In older strata, this time scale is
more or less "floating".
- The common variations in peritidal-Iagoonal
carbonate cycles result from the superposition of
higher onto lower frequency sea-Ievel changes
(e.g. due to missed beats), but in part also from
"normal" shifts in the depositional environment.
It appears that minor carbonate cycles can now
be correlated over wide distances and from
shoreface or platform to deeper basins.
Discyclic bedding (e.g. turbidites, tempestites),
non-depositional events (e.g. lags and skeletal
concentrations), and some bio-events (e.g. the
appearance of new species, or population
bursts) are linked to sequence cycles and may
be utilized for the subdivision and better inter-
pretation of these cycles.
7.10 General Discussion
7.10 General Discussion (Sequence and
Event Stratigraphy)
7.10.1 Principal Achievements in Sequence,
Cyclo- and Event-Stratigraphy
(1) Modem sequence stratigraphy, cyclo- and event-
stratigraphy have provided concepts which have revo-
lutionized classical stratigraphy. These concepts can be
applied to deposits of all ages, from the Precambrian to
the Quatemary, and to almost all depositional environ-
ments: marine and continental, inc1uding silicic1astic,
carbonate, siliceous, and mixed sediments. The identi-
fication, detailed mapping, and correlation of sequence
boundaries and other characteristic surfaces (formerly
largely neglected and overlooked) enables a better un-
derstanding and interpretation of large-scale vertical
and lateral facies relationships in a depositional sys-
tem. In particular, coastal and shallow-marine environ-
ments respond sensitively to relative sea-level changes
by shifts in their depocenters of sediment accumula-
tion. Basinward and landward migrating facies tracts,
inc1uding coastal sands and carbonate buildups, create
both reservoirs and seal rocks for hydrocarbons and
groundwater. Many prominent coal deposits of the
world are associated with repeated flooding events
affecting marine deltas, coastal plains, and incised val-
leys.
(2) Sequence stratigraphy is a complicate topic, how-
ever, although the basic concept (the sediment accom-
modation model) is straightforward and easy to take
up. To understand sea level-induced facies architec-
ture, the various factors controlling a depositional sys-
tem (tectonic setting, differential subsidence,
depositional environment, allochthonous and
autochthonous sediment supply, frequencyand ampli-
tude of sea-level changes, etc.) have to be evaluated.
For this reason, a considerable number of different
"dynamic" facies models has been proposed.
(3) In order to deduce sea-level changes from the re-
sulting depositional sequences, transgressive and re-
gressive sections as weIl as sequence boundaries must
be identified and dated. A combination of data from
field observations, drilling cores, welllogging and re-
flection seismic profiles, revealing, e.g., large-scale
features of low-angle coastal onlap and offlap, is the
best way to study the architecture and genesis of se-
quence cyc1es (e.g., Baum and Vail1987; Weimer and
Posamentier 1993).
(4) Carbonate systems fed by autochthonous sediment,
especially rimmed carbonate platforms following ris-
ing and falling sea levels, respond to sea-level changes
in a different way as silicic1astic systems fed by
terrigenous sediment supply. Mixed carbonate-
381
silicic1astic systems are often particularly sensitive to
sea-level changes.
(5) Subaerial and submarine erosional unconforrnities
in shallow~marine sediments (Type 1 sequence bound-
aries, SB 1) only occur when the rate of sea-level fall is
greater than the rate of sea-floor subsidence. High-fre-
quency sea-level changes therefore have a much
greater potential of generating SB I' s than low-fre-
quency oscillations (e.g. ofthe 3rd and 2nd order). The
basinward extent of SB I' s in basin cross sections de-
pends on the amplitude of sea-level changes and the
slope of the sediment surface. Flat carbonate plat-
forms, for example, document low-amplitude sea-level
oscillations over wide areas. In regions of slow subsi-
dence, global sea-level fall is normally recorded as
relative fall, but in areas of faster subsidence, it often
appears as a relative rise. Similarly, over-supplied bas-
ins are more sensitive to sea- or base-level changes
than under-supplied ones. Local subsidence or uplift
creates relative sea-level changes even during times of
a globally ± stable sea level.
(6) In somewhat deeperwater, sea-level highstands are
frequently recorded by condensed sections (e.g.
hemipelagic to pelagic sediments, black shales,
authigenic minerals, andJor composite skeletal hori-
zons). Some ofthe bio-events (incursion epiboles) and
eco-events (e.g. redox cyc1es) may occur at the same
time.
(7) Deep-sea environments often reflect sea-level
changes indirectly. They may record an increased num-
ber of gravity mass movements and turbidity currents,
or a greater activity of bottom currents triggered by
relative sea-level fall. Sea-level rise frequently favored
anoxia in deep waters and intermediate waters.
(8) When sea-level changes of different orders are su-
perimposed, it is usually the high-amplitude oscillation
(4th to 5th order) which is recorded best in field expo-
sures and drill holes of shallow-water environments.
The signature of these oscillations appears to be best
preserved in low-energy, slowly subsiding basins.
Then, weIl supplied silicic1astic systems develop sea-
ward prograding facies tracts, or. carbonate buildups
show peritidal cyc1es at their tops and characteristic
facies changes on their slopes. However, the nature of
these minor cycles (or parasequences) changes within
the systems tracts of lower order sequences. These in
turn can be weIl identified in seismic lines across basin
margins.
(9) For continental environments, the basic accommo-
dation model is also valid, but sea-level change has to
be replaced by the base-level concept. This explains,
for example, the prograding or backstepping of fluvial
facies belts and the architecture of either vertically or
382 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
laterally stacked channel systems. Lake sediments re-
spond to (mostly irregular and nonsynchronous) lake-
level changes in a similar way as marine sediments do
to sea-level changes.
(10) The concepts and methods of cyelo- and event-
stratigraphy are well established and relatively easy to
apply to field exposures and drilling cores. One has to
distinguish between cyelic (strictly periodic or quasi-
periodic) and discyclic phenomena occurring at ran-
dom time intervals.
- Peritidal minor carbonate cyeles and limestone-marl
successions, the latter deposited in "quiet" deeper wa-
ters (productivity, dilution, or dissolution cyeles),
mostly reflect orbital parameters (Milankovitch fre-
quency band; about 20, 40, 100 and 400 ka). Disconti-
nuities in shallow-water carbonate cyeles mayaiso in-
dicate "missed beats". High-frequency coal cycles
(cyelothems) represent examples from silicic1astic en-
vironments in a humid elimate.
- Most of the discyelic depositional events (tempes-
tites, turbidites, gravity mass flow deposits of limited
size) occur at time intervals shorter than the
Milankovitch frequencies. Some of them, such as ash
fall deposits, may be used as isochronous marker beds.
Large debris flows and floods on alluvial fans and
plains occur once in several hundreds to thousands of
years. Non-depositional event horizons, such as
paleosols, karstified surfaces, erosionallags, and vari-
ous types of skeletal concentrations represent time in-
tervals of different lengths and are normally
diachronous.
(11) The superposition of cyelic and discyc1ic (epi-
sodic) phenomena of various modes and scales some-
times creates complex successions of beds. However,
in many cases cyelo- and event-stratigraphy can be
used to refine stratigraphic correlations within thicker
sequences of longer duration (high resolution cyelic
and event stratigraphy, Kauffman et al. 1991). In sedi-
ments older than the Neogene, time scales based on
cyclostratigraphy are mostly "floating".
7.10.2 Uncertainties, Problems, and
Open Questions
(1) To what extent are sea-level changes throughout
the his tory of the Earth global, regional, or local phe-
nomena? This question is still not sufficiently an-
swered (e.g. Miall 1997). One of the reasons for the
ongoing debate is the problem of reliable accurate dat-
ing and long-distance correlation, in particular that of
3rd-order sequence cyeles. In this regard it is important
to note that not only glacio-eustasy, but also significant
tectonic and magmatic processes (tectono-eustasy),
affecting the volume of ocean basins, can produce co-
eval global sea-level changes. However, even for the
late Paleogene and Neogene, full agreement between
different "global" third-order sea-Ievel curves cannot
yet be established (e.g., between the Atlantic oxygen
isotope record of deep-water organisms and results of
sequence-stratigraphic studies of Australian shelf car-
bonates; McGowran et al. 1997).
(2) The number of 2nd order global sea-level changes
(period 3-50 Ma) is probably fairly well established,
but that ofthe 3rd order (0.5-3 Ma), related to certain
stratigraphic stages or epochs, seems to still be very
uncertain (cf. Fig. 7.48). The greatest frequency for a
given time span appears to occur in sedimentary sec-
tions which allow high stratigraphic resolution and
contain only short hiatuses. These correspond to spe-
cific marine depositional environments which are shal-
lower than the deepest position of the storm-wave base
but not affected by subaerial erosion.
(3) In cyelostratigraphy, controlled by orbital parame-
ters, it is often difficult to ascribe the sedimentary cy-
eles to a specific period ofthe Milankovitch frequency
band. Bundles of beds and time series analysis may
help to solve this problem. Studies in cyelostratigraphy
should be combined with those in sequence stratigra-
phy.
(4) The amplitudes ofglobal sea-leve1 changes are dif-
ficult to determine and are therefore mostly uncertain,
in particular those oflow-frequency changes which are
strongly affected by long-term regional tectonic subsi-
dence or uplift. Acomparison of Jurassic and Creta-
ceous sea-Ievel curves derived either from passive con-
tinental margim; (the Haq et al. 1988 curve) or from
the relatively stable Russian craton demonstrates this
problem (Fig. 7.48; Sahagian et al. 1996). High-fre-
quency sea-Ievel changes (4th and higher orders) offer
better possibilities of finding out the real eustatic am-
plitudes. However, one cannot expect worldwide iden-
tical amplitudes for the same oscillation. A well-
known example is the Holocene transgression, during
which the relative sea-Ievel changes varied enormously
between regions elose to or far away from the former
ice sheets (e.g. Lambeck 1993). A globally equal am-
plitude does not ex ist; it has to. be replaced by an
"equivalent" global amplitude. Further studies on ice
volume-controlled excursions of the oxygen isotope
ratios preserved in the shells of organisms may help to
solve this problem.
(5) The cause ofhigh-frequency sea-Ieve1 changes in a
non-glacial greenhouse state of the Earth is still not
clear. The buildup and melting of mountain glaciers, if
they existed, cannot explain sea-level fluctuations of
the order of 3-10 m (also see, e.g., Watts and Thorne
1984; Burton et al. 1987; Leinfelder and Seyfried
1993; Seibold and Berger 1996).
 7.10 General Discussion 383

AMPLITUDES OF MESOZOIC SEA-LEVEL CHANGES

~ SEA-LEVEL RISE (m) --E-- -~"'A-LEVEL RISE (mI

100 50 100 50

SANTON.
BERRIAS.

~ CONIAC.
VOLGIAN
ow
u
, U
~ TURON.
- - - t ..- _____________________________________________l ________--------------------
ü5
(/)
w
CI:
u
~ KIMMER.
..,=> . ::i CENOM.

::j ------<---------------------------

ALBIAN
-d~n-
---:-- .. - .. -
OXFORD. (/)
=>
o ----_.-.--------. __ .-- . - -..;;
w
u
ü5 CALLOV
(/)
<
~
I-
w
CI:
U
APTIAN
------------------------------------~~
CI: BARREM.
..,=> CI:
W
~
::?i BATHON.
9 HAUTER.
---+ ------------------------
BAJOC.
HAQ ET AL. RUSSIAN PLATFORM VALANG.

(SAHAGIAN ET AL. BERRIAS.

"GLOBAL" (HAQ ET AL. 1988) 1996) HAQ ET AL. RUSSIAN PLATFORM

Fig. 7.48. Comparison ofthe amplitudes ofMesozoic Both curves show similar general trends, but signifi-
"eustatic" sea-level curves derived a predominantly cant differences in detail. The amp1itudes of the Haq-
from passive continental margins (Haq et al. 1988), curve, in particular, are 2.4 to 2.5 times greater than
or b from Russian platform (intracratonic basin). those of the Russian p1atform. (Modified from
Note the different scales used for the amplitudes. Sahagian et al. 1996)

(6) Some ofthe terms and definitions ofsequence stra- crops on land vs. seismic profiles; Weimer and
tigraphy, introduced by the EXXON group, are not Posamentier 1993) and errors inherent in the methods
generally accepted. The modified concept ofbase-level to be used for deriving past relative and eustatic sea-
change (e.g. Cross 1998; Guillocheau 1991; Home- level changes from ancient sediment sections. Apart
wood 1996) appears to be more universally app1icable from the problems of stratigraphic dating and correla-
including continental deposits. In this case, the genetic tion, these methods include the evaluation of isostatic
sequence only consists oftwo half-cycle facies tracts: compensation in response to an increasing sediment
the prograding and the aggrading or backstepping tract. load and sediment decompaction (e.g. Steckler et al.
Then the maximum flooding surface or an equivalent 1993).
surface representing maximum sediment accommoda-
tion space or, altemative1y, surfaces of minimum ac- (8) One of the main problems in sequence stratigraphy
commodation space, non-deposition, and/or erosion is the fact that global and regional causal factors are
are used as sequence boundaries. Also, in marine sys- frequently modified and obscured by local processes in
tems the maximum flooding surface is often better the specific depositional environment, including varia-
suited as sequence boundary than the (partially tions in the supply and distribution of sediment, bio-
diachronous) base ofthe lowstand systems tract (Gal- and chemo-facies. Changes in paleo-water depth re-
loway 1989). flect only local relative sea-Ievel change, which is in-
fluenced by the balance between changes in the rates at
(7) Part of the existing uncertainties and conflicts also which accommodation space forms and sediments fills
stern from different scales of observation (small out- that space (Bond and Kominz 1991). These are the
384 Chapter 7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy

reasons we observe such a great variety of sedimentary
sequences in the geologie record. The so-called sea-
slug model (cf. Figs. 7.3g and 7.17), proposed as a
conceptual framework of passive margins, cannot be
applied to other basin types without significant modifi-
cations (Weimer and Posamentier 1993).
generated solely by clirnate change and/or tectonic mo-
tions, such as pulses of overthrusting in foreland bas-
ins (e.g. Massari et al. 1993; Millan et al. 1994; Gupta
1997; Marzo et al. 1998). If local tectonics are in-
volved, the cyclic phenomena cannot be correlated
with those of other basins.

(9) Finally, cyclic bedding and thicker sedimentary

cycles of various thicknesses and time periods are also
Part 111

Subsidence, Flux Rates,

and Sediment Budget
8 Subsidence
8.1 General Meehanisms Controlling Subsidenee
8.1.1 Isostasy
Initial Subsidenee (Without Thermal Effeets)
Water-Filled Basins
Sediment-Filled Basins
Thermal Uplift and Subsidenee
8.1.2 Flexural Response of the Crust to Loading
8.1.3 Mineral Phase Transitions
8.1.4 Summary (Meehanisms Causing Subsidenee)
8.2 Methods for Determining Subsidenee of
Sedimentary Basins
8.2.1 Introduetion
8.2.2 Sediment Deeompaetion
8.2. 3 Teetonie Subsidenee from Deeompaetion and
Isostatie Adjustment
8.2.4 Effeets ofPaleo-Bathymetry and
Sea-Level Changes
8.2.5 Summary (Subsidenee History Analysis)
8.3 Subsidenee ofModel Basins and Observed
Subsidenee History
8.3.1 Rift Basin Models and Observed Subsidenee
The MeKenzie Extension Model
Finite Rifting Time and Lateral Heat Transfer
Sediment Fill and Crustal Flexure
Modified Rift Models and Diseussion
Subsidenee from Geohistory Analysis
Young Rift Systems
Older Continental Rift Zones
8.3.2 Passive Margin Models and
Observed Subsidenee
General Coneepts
Examples of Simulated and
Observed Subsidenee
8.3.3 Summary (Simulated and Observed Subsidenee)
8.4 Subsidenee Related to Teetonie Loading, Subduetion,
and Strike-Slip Motion
8.4.1 Foreland Basins
General Aspeets and Problems
Subsidenee Curves from Geohistory Analysis
8.4.2 Subduetion-Related Are-Treneh Systems
8.4.3 Pull-Apart Basins
8.4.4 Summary (Subsidenee Caused by
Teetonie Loads, ete.)
8.1 General Mechanisms
Controlling Subsidence
8.1.1 Isostasy
Substantial sediment aeeumulation and the fonnation
of sedimentary basins result from ernstal subsidenee.
At least in the beginning of basin fonnation, teetonie
subsidenee must predate sedimentation, whereas
later, subsidenee rnay also be aetively driven by an
inereasing sediment load (total subsidenee). In this
ehapter, the different meehanisms leading to erustal
subsidenee as well as some models quantifying the
development of subsidenee versus time, i.e., subsi-
denee his tory eurves, are briefly introdueed.
In most eases, teetonie subsidenee of the land sur-
faee or sea floor is eontrolled by the prineiple of
isostasy, thennal eontraetion of the lithosphere,
and/or flexuralloading (Fig. 8.1). Aeeording to the
present view of isostasy, the elevation of the top of
the ernst is a funetion of the thieknesses and densities
of several layers. These are from top to bottom: sea
water, sediments, solid erust eonsisting of igneous
and metamorphie roeks, and solid upper mantle or
rnantle lithosphere (Fig. 8.1) resting on the viseous
asthenosphere (rnantle asthenosphere). Within the
asthenosphere, horizontal surfaees of eonstant pres-
sure ean be assumed, whieh implies that the mass per
unit area of the overlying roek eolurnn is everywhere
the same. Henee one ean write:
pA + p,h, + Pehe + Pmh.n
+ Paha = eonstant (8.1)
wh~re the layers (with thiekness h) are sea water, w,
sediment, s, ernst, e, mantle lithosphere, m, and rnan-
tle asthenosphere, a. Density values, p, of these lay-
ers are listed in Fig. 8.1. The mass of the atmosphere
per unit area is negleeted in Eq. (8.1).
The base of the lithosphere is assumed to be a tem-
perature boundary (approximately 1350°C). The hot-
ter mantle asthenosphere has a somewhat lower den-
sity than the overlying mantle lithosphere. Thieken-
ing of the ernst at the expense of the mantle litho-
sphere eauses uplift of the land surfaee or sea bot-
tom, whereas thiekening of the rnantle lithosphere at
the expense of the ernst is followed by subsidenee.
388
a b
SEDIMENT SEA WATER DENSITY (g/cnf)
SEA
LEVEL
.03 -1-"__
~;""""';:':';'~..,..j (2.4) :
(2.8) :
;:::>~·~;~;::~.A14~444l
LlTHO-
SPHERE
100
km
(3.33)
\ MODEL
PARA·
DATUM METERS
UNE
Fig. 8.1a,b. Principle of isostasy demonstrated by
two crustal columns (a high plateau; b continental
shelt) consisting of layers of different thickness and
density on top of a surface of constant pressure. Val-
For that reason, thick continental crust usually rises
above sea level, whereas the top of much thinner oce-
anic crust lies several km below.
Newly formed oceanic lithosphere is encountered
at an average depth of about 2.5 km below sea level.
This is approximately the tectonic subsidence of a
basin resulting from the partial replacement of thin-
ning continental crust by upweBing denser upper-
mantle material (Fig. 8.1b). Old oceanic crust on top
of cooling rnantle lithosphcre may subside more than
6 km below sea level.
In order to quantify the mechanism of isostasy,
two relationships have to be considered:
(I) The thicknesses of the different layers on top of a
given datum in the asthenosphere may change, but
the mass of the total rock column per unit area will
remain constant. Hence the sum of aB changes in
mass above the dat um line is zero:
(8.2)
Chapter 8 Subsidence
c
lOCAl ISOSTASY
LOAD
d
FlEXURAl RESPONSE OF
CRUST
(REDUCED LOCAL SUBSIDENCE)
BULGE
ues in parenthesis are used in the models (see text).
c Local isostatic response of lithosphere to additional
load. d Reduced but more widely extended subsi-
dence due to flexural response of rigid crust
(2) The changes in thickness of all layers above the
datum line, including the thickness change, Ähg , of
the atmosphere, is zero:
Hence, the subsidence, Si' of the land surface or sea
floor (below the base of sediments) in relation to a
fixed sea level or other datum line is
(8.3)
The law of isostasy was first proposed by Airy; it is
only valid for cases in which each crustal column
behaves completely independently from its neighbor-
ing columns and does not support any adjacent loads.
In addition, it as assumed that equilibrium conditions
are established, which is not the case shortly after a
rapid change in the load resting on the datum line
within the asthenosphere. The type of isostacy under
equilibrium conditions may be described as loeal
isostatie eompensation, in contrast to the flexural
8.1 General Mechanisms
response of an elastic crust to a surface load (Fig.
8.lc and d).
A more eomprehensive treatment of this topie is given,
e.g., by Jarvis (1984), Suppe (1985), Allen and Allen
(1990), eloos (1993), Slingerland et al. (1994), and found
in several textbooks of geophysies and general geology.
Initial Subsidence (Without Thermal Effects)
Water-Filled Basins
In simplified cases, subsidence, Si' due to local iso-
static compensation, neglecting any thermal effects,
can be calculated with the following assumptions:
- The densities of the different layers remain con-
stant and the thicknesses of the layers (except that of
sea water) are known or will be given as variables.
- Mantle lithosphere and mantle asthenosphere are
combined into the thickness ~ with the density Pma
(= 3.33 g/cm3).
- Prior to subsidence, the surface of the crust is at
sea level and covered neither by water nor sediment.
For these conditions, one can simplify Eq. (8.2) to
(8.4)
and Eq. (8.3) to
where Si = Ähw (fixed sea level) (8.5)
After equating (8.4) and (8.5), one obtains
(8.6)
Inserting the density values listed above and in Fig.
8.1 (e.g., Pw = 1.03 g/cm3 for sea water), we obtain
If under these simplified eonditions the ernstal thiekness h c
is redueed, for example, by 15 km (around half of its nor-
mal thiekness), the top of the ernst subsides from sea level
to a depth of 3.5 km and ereates spaee for a water body of
the same depth. Similarly, the water depth of a basin ean
inerease by I km, if the thiekness of the mantle is inereased
by 4.34 km at the expense ofthe ernst.
A more general expression for the initial subsidence
of a basin fi1led with water up to the (fixed) sea level,
derived from Eqs. (8.2) and (8.3), is
389
Si = (Pe -Pa)he +(Pm -Pa)h m (l_.!..)
(8.7)
P w -Pa ß
ß is the stretching factor, which describes the amount
of stretching of a certain segment of the lithosphere.
For z = original thickness and b = original width
(Fig. 8.2), the new width after extension is increased
to bß and the thickness reduced to zlß. This formula,
however, still does not take into account any sedi-
ment load or thermal effects which are usually asso-
ciated with crustal thinning and the formation of a
topographic low.
Inserting the values from the previous example (ß=2,
Pm=Pa=3.33 g/em 3, hc=30 km, and h m=100 km) into Eq. 8.7,
the resultis Si "" 3.5 km. With Pm=3.4 g/em3, Pa=3.3 g/em3
(Fig. 8.l), and the other parameters from this example re-
maining unehanged, the initial isostatie subsidenee for the
water-filled basin is Si "" 5.5 km.
These examples demonstrate that the results of such
calculations strongly depend on the density values
assumed for the mantle lithosphere and mantle
asthenosphere, as well as on the thickness of the
crust and lithosphere prior to stretching. Some au-
thors have pointed out that stretching of a crust thin-
ner than 18 km will generate uplift, whereas stretch-
ing of thicker crust causes subsidence. However, this
boundary condition varies considerably with the den-
sities and thicknesses of the crust and mantle litho-
sphere (Jarvis 1984).
Sediment-Filled Basins
The sediment load of a partially or entirely fi1led ba-
sin causes additional subsidence due to isostatic com-
pensation. This effect can be easily calculated if the
former water-filled basin (water depth, hw) is com-
pletely filled with sediments up to sea level (sedi-
ment thickness, hs) and the average density of sedi-
ments is known (e.g. Ps = 2.4 g/cm3). Then the eleva-
tion above the isostatic compensation depth remains
the same as before, and from Eq. (8.3) we can as-
sume:
(8.8)
SimilarIy, the mass above the compensation level
does not change (Eq. 8.2); hence we obtain
Pshs - P~w + Pa Äha = 0 . (8.9)
Equating (8.8) and (8.9) gives
h = (Pw - Pa) h (8.10)
s (Ps - Pa) w
where hs is the maximum sediment thickness up to
sea level.
390
With an average sediment density of Ps = 2.15 g/em3,
a sediment thiekness twice the initial water depth ean
develop (amplificationfactor 2); with Ps = 2.55 g/em3
the amplification faetor is ab out 3. The sediment den-
sity below the sediment-water interface, in partieular
that of fine-grained sediments, increases significantly
with their thickness. Thus, the amplification factor
grows during subsidence and basin filling (cf. Fig.
11.10).
In our example of a water-filled basin (based on Eq. 8.7)
we obtained h w ,., 3.5 km. Using the density values men-
tioned above and listed in Fig. 8.1, Eq. (8.10) yields
h, ,., 8.7 km. This signifies that a sediment-filled segment
of this model basin will subside 2.5 times more than a
purelywater-filled segment, due to isostatie response ofthe
crust. In comparison with an air-filled depression below
sea level, the amplification factor for a corresponding
sediment-filled basin becomes even greater (in our example
approximately 1.46x2.5 ,., 3.6.
Isostatic uplift in response to denudation is treated in
Seet. 9.6.1.
Thermal Uplift and Subsidence
If a column of the lithosphere is heated above the
temperature of the surrounding rocks, its mass re-
mains unchanged, but its volume inereases and may
eause uplift at the land surface or sea bottom.
Upwelling hot mantle material, for example at oce-
anic spreading centers, generates oceanie ridges
which later, due to cooling of the oeeanic erust and
thiekening of the underlying mantle lithosphere, sub-
side considerably with age by several km. Sirnilarly,
upwelling hot mantle material below a thinning eon-
tinental crust will first tend to raise the surface of the
thinned crust, if this thermal expansion is not ex-
ceeded by the effeets of isostasy.Later cooling will
eause subsidence which is referred to as thermal sub-
sidenee, St. Thermal subsidence and uplift are also
affected by the 3D geometry of the system and con-
trolled by the coefficient of thermal expansion (or
eontraction), a=3.4xlO-5/oC, and the thermal diffu-
sivity ofthe lithosphere, k=8xlO-7 m2/s.
If, for example, the temperature of a 50 km high rock col-
urnn is raised or lowered uniformly by 300°C, its height
will increase or decrease due to thermal expansion or con-
traction by ~0.5 km. This is, of course, an unrealistic exam-
pIe, whieh only demonstrates the order of magnitude of
such thermal effects. In nature we observe a thermal gradi-
ent from the base of the mantle lithosphere (l350°C, Fig.
8.2) to the land surface or sea water (slightly above O°C).
With changing lithosphere thickness, this gradient and thus
the temperatures at different depths vary, but the combined
effect of this process causes approximately the same
amount of expansion or contraction as that calculated for a
rock colurnn which is subjected to the same change in
mean temperature as the lithosphere.
Chapter 8 Subsidence
As a result of mantle upwelling, a steep temperature
gradient is established. Later, this gradient is slowly
reduced by heat loss to the atmosphere, until the orig-
inal gradient will be restored (Fig. 8.2b and c). This
process is described by the thermal diffusivity of the
lithosphere. Cooling of an abnormally heated litho-
sphere takes tens of million years. Thermal subsi-
dence is therefore a long-term, slowly decaying pro-
cess.
The mathematieal treatment of thermal expansion and con-
traction of the lithosphere is beyond the purpose of this text
(see, e.g., Royden et a1. 1980; Watts and Thorne 1984;
Sawyer 1988), but the following basin modeling does in-
clude thermal effects.
8.1.2 Flexural Response of the Crust to Loading
It is a well-known fact from geological observation
that the lithosphere adjacent to local or regional loads
(water, ice, sediment accumulation, isolated
seamounts on top of oceanic crust) reacts by
downwarping (Fig. 8.1 d). Similarly, unloading (lake
dessication, icemelting, rock denudation) leads to
some uplift of neighboring areas. The best studied
examples are continental ice caps, which cause not
only isostatic compensation below the ice, but also
some subsidenee in areas adjacent to the ice load.
Later, after ice melting, these regions begin to rise
again in conjunetion with the formerly ice-loaded
crust. This phenomenon rnay affect a zone 50 to 300
km wide adjacent to the loaded and unloaded crust.
Several authors have made an attempt to simulate the flex-
ural response ofthe crust to a given load (e.g., Watts et a1.
1982; Watts and Thome 1984). They treat the lithosphere
either as an elastic or visco-elastic plate underlain by the
viscous mantle. In the ease of pure elastie behavior, the
mechanics of lithospheric flexure can be compared with the
bending of sheets or beams having a certain flexural rigid-
ity. This flexural rigidity, D, in turn is a funetion of the
elastic constants of the rock material, i.e., Young's modu-
lus, E, and Poisson's ratio, a, as weH as thickness, h e, ofthe
elastic lithosphere.
(8.11)
Equation (8.11) clearly shows that the elastic thickness, h e'
is the most important faetor controlling the rigidity or flex-
ural strength of the lithosphere.
Karner et a1. (1983) have derived from observations in
nature that the rigidity, D, of the lithosphere may vary by
four orders of magnitude. It is primarily a function of the
plate age at the time of loading. Young oceanie crust at or
near a mid-oceanic ridge has the lowest rigidity, while old
continental crust, for example, below the fill of foreland
basins or Precambrian shields under an ice load, shows
very high values. The base of the elastic plates is defined
by the depth of the 450°C isotherm (cf. Fig. 8.15). Thus,
8.1 General Mechanisms 391

TEMPERATURE
~O 13500 C
~- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. - - - - r-----+----:~
I
I
z
I
I
~-

DEPTH

LATERAL LOSS OF HEAT

ß· b - - -

" """
--~:-
__ ~_L

"J.. . . .... ~
Fig. 8.2. Finite-
length extensional
rift basin model. a
Prior to rifting. b
DEPTH Initial subsidence
due to isostatic
adjustment at the
end of short rifting
event, buildup of
high geothermal
gradient. c Ther-
mal subsidence
due to slowly
cooling litho-
sphere, geother-
mal gradient ap-
proximately re-
duced to original
state. See text for
explanation. (After
McKenzie 1978)

plate thickness, h e, is relatively thin during or shortly after
a major thermal event, but increases substantially with age
after this event. The mechanical properties of both oceanic
and continentallithospheres appear to be similar.
Furthermore, the vertical displacement of the bending
crust from its original elevation is affected by the densities
of the underlying viscous mantle material and, if present,
the overlying water body or sediments (see, e.g., Bott 1982;
Watts et al. 1982). The resultant of these two effects is an
upward pressure or an additional buoyant resistance of the
asthenosphere to the bending. The mathematical treatment
ofthese combined mechanisms for locations at various hor-
izontal distances away from the load is rather complicate.
Therefore, only some results of such calculations can be
discussed here.
In the case of a relatively small load of limited areal
extent (Fig. 8.3a), an elastic lithosphere can support
this surface load by distributing it onto a larger area.
Hence, subsidence is less than that of a locally com-
pensated load, and bending of the lithosphere is not
very pronounced. For greater loads with an extent
wider than the thickness ofthe lithosphere (Fig. 8.3b)
and long loading times,at least the center of the load
tends to approximate isostatic equilibrium, and the
flexural response of the adjacent crnst can become
very important. The time necessary to reach such an
equilibrium depends on the rheological properties of
the lithosphere (see below). The initial response of
the lithosphere to an instantaneously applied load is a
rapidly downwarped flexural moat around the load.
392
ELASTIC OR
VISCO - ELASnC
L1THOSPHERE
FLEXURAL DOWNWARPING
AIRY·TYPE
ISOSTATIC COMPENSATION
Fig. S.3a,b. Flexural response of lithosphere adjaeent
to (a) small loeal load, or (b) large, wide linear load
(not to seale). a A load on top of relatively young,
thin lithosphere ereates a deeper, narrower flexural
moat than a load on thick, old lithosphere. b Under a
long-persisting load, rapid initial subsidenee (1) may
In general, the vertieal defleetion deereases in a sinu-
soidal manner away from the load. The mass of mate-
rial displaeed from beneath the downwarped basin
must approximately equal the rnass of the applied
load. Beyond the zone of deeaying subsidenee, an
upwarped peripheral bulge is usually developed (Fig.
8.3). Where oId, thiek, elastie lithosphere is being
flexed, the width of the flexure is much broader than
that of a young or recently heated thin plate, provided
the load and its geometry are about the same.
Chapter 8 Subsidence
TIME·
DEPENDENT
SUBSIDENCE
-+ MORE DOWNWARPING,
NARROWER FLEXURAL MOAT
be followed by further slow subsidenee (2) until the
load is ultimately eompensated by loeal isostasy (3).
Simultaneously, the peripheral bulge migrates to-
ward the load. (Partially based on Quinlan and Beau-
mont 1984).
Aside from sueh general rules, the results of modeling the
lithospherie flexure often remain uncertain and even prob-
lematic. The flexural rigidity of the lithosphere appears to
be dependent not only on plate age at the time of loading,
as mentioned above, but also on the duration of loading
(e.g., Bott 1982). An initially high rigidity may decrease
with time following loading. Short-period loading (on the
order of 10 000 years) generates less bending of the litho-
sphere than loading times of the order öf 100 Ma. This
phenomenon may be related to thinning of the elastie plate
with age due to a rising 450°C isotherm under the long-
persisting load, or it may be ascribed to a visco-elastic
lithosphere and a softening of the erust with time.
8.2 Methods for Determining Subsidence
If the load remains in place for a long time period,
deformation of the lithosphere changes in a manner
as shown in Fig. 8.3b. After a first stage of rapid
downwarping, lithospheric material at depth under
the load relaxes stress, thereby creating a deeper cen-
tral depression in conjunction with a narrower basin.
The peripheral bulge is progressively uplifted and
migrates toward the load. Ultimately, relaxation will
evolve toward astate of local isostatic equilibrium.
Such a time-dependent development is primarily controlled
by the mechanical state of the lithosphere. Although some
workers strongly believe that models based on elastic con-
dition plates can fairly weil predict the processes observed
in nature, others favor a uniform visco-elastic (Maxwell)
model of the lithosphere. A third possibility is the assump-
tion of a Maxwell layer with temperature-dependent vis-
cosity overlying a low-viscosity fluid (e.g., Quinlan and
Beaumont 1984). Few of the models have taken into ac-
count additional local heat sources associated with special
magrnatic or volcanic events during the history of a conti-
nental margin or other flexure-influenced basins.
8.1.3 Mineral Phase Transitions
Some authors favor the phase transition from gabbro
(average density 3.0 g/cm3) to the denser eclogite
(average density 3.5 g/cm3) in the lower lithosphere
as a principal mechanism of subsidence. Dependent
upon depth (or pressure) within the lithosphere, this
phase transition is accomplished at temperatures of
700 to 800°C and accelerated by the presence of
small quantities of water. Anomalous heat transfer
from the deeper mantle can raise this phase boundary
and thus reduce lithospheric thickness without
changing the mass of a given lithospheric column on
top of the isostatic compensation depth.
If, for example, the phase boundary migrates 10 km upward
and consequently a 10 km thick column of gabbro is trans-
formed into eclogite, then the thickness of the lithosphere
is reduced by approximately 1.5 km (without taking into
account a possible additional sediment load or the simulta-
neous thermal expansion of the lithosphere). Because this
mechanism does not require horizontal extension of the
lithosphere, it is quoted as the main factor for the formation
of intracratonic basins (cf. Sect. 12.3). For summaries on
this topic see, e.g., Wyllie (1971), Artyushkov and Sobolev
(1983), Ismail-Zadeh et al. (1997).
Phase transitions due to deep crustal metamorphism
may explain unloaded subsidence (or uplift) up to the
order of 2 km. Such transitions take place over a very
long time period (order of 100 Ma) when small quan-
tities of water are not available in the lithosphere to
speed the process. But it is doubtful whether phase
transitions alone can cause the strong and rapid sub-
sidence observed in many rift settings.
393
8.1.4 Summary (Subsidence)
Subsidence (or uplift) of a sedimentary basin is
controlled by the following principal factors:
Thinning (or thickening) of the lithosphere due
to horizontal extension (or compression,
underplating).
- Upwdling of mantle material in response to
crustal thinning.
Increase (or decrease) in lithospheric density
due to (1) cooling (or heating), (2) pervasive
dike intrusion or other injections of magma,
and (3) melting of crust or magma crystalliza-
tion, as well as mineral transitions (from low to
higher density or vi ce versa).
- Isostatic subsidence (or uplift) in response to
~ediment loading (or erosion) or flexuralload-
mg.
8.2 Methods for Determining
Subsidence of Sedimentary Basins
8.2.1 Introduction
The subsidence history of sedimentary basins may be
described in different ways. Structural geologists and
geophysicists are primarily interested in that part of
subsidence which is controlled by crustal processes
(tectonic or thermo-tectonic subsidence), whereas
sedimentologists and stratigraphers deal with the pro-
gressive burial history of sediments (total or cumula-
tive subsidence) and often want to interpret subsi-
dence curves in terms of sedimentation rates, paleo-
water depth, and sea-level changes.
In order to determine the subsidence of a chosen
location in a sedimentary basin as weH as to discrimi-
nate between the various mechanisms mentioned
above, special techniques must be used. If the tec-
tonically driven part of subsidence is the objective,
this technique is referred to as "backstripping" . The
purpose of backstripping is to calculate and remove
the effects of compaction, sediment loading, chang-
ing paleo-bathymetry, and sea-level variations. When
backstripping is combined with the search for infor-
mation on the development of the depositional sys-
tem, the term "geohistory analysis" or burial history
is commonly used.
For further discussion see, e.g., van Rinte (1978), Watts
and Steclder (1979), Gradstein et al. (1985), Guidish et al.
(1985), Regarty et al. (1988), Steckler et al. (1988).
394 Chapter 8 Subsidence

b SEDIMENT DECOMPACTION a
POROSITY (n) OF UNIT A
o
O~~~--~~~~~
0.2 0.4 0.6
5

4~
E
(/)
(/)
w
3~ Fig. 8.4. Graphical
~ method for decom-
I pacting presen t
I-
SHALE 21- sediment thick-
Z nesses of units A p,
w
::2 Bp , C p to their
1 Ci original thick-
4 w
(/) nesses (Aj , B j , C j ).
a Growth of sedi-
...........·_ ... o mentary column
5 ~
with time, t, and
progressive com-
TIME paction of buried
units. b Two ex-
POROSITY (n) OF UNIT B amples of poro-
o 0.2 0.4 sity-depth curves
o+-.........~-,-L..r...l....-...,. o for different sedi-
1-. ,,
, ments demonstrat-
ing decompaction
1
"- .... , of units A and B
........
E " UNCORRECTED
E (A p to A j or A z,
~ ~ respectively, and
.... "..( FOR DECOMPACTION 2w B p to B j ) using Eq.
~2
a.. ,, u
zw (8.12) in text. c
w SANDSTONE
o Resulting cor-
C ", Cl

~3 , 3Ui
CD
rected subsidence
a:: CORRECTED " ::J curve in compari-

"
(/)
::l
CD
son to uncorrected
4 SUBSIDENCE HISTORY 4 curve; no changes
in paleo-water
depth and eustatic
5 5 sea level

8.2.2 Sediment Decompaction (cf. Seet. 13.2). A graphical method approximating

The first step in baekstripping is to reeonstruet the
original sediment thieknesses, hs1' of the growing
sedimentary fill from the basin floor up to dated
stratigraphie boundaries in partieular exposures or
weil logs. Provided a sedimentary eolurnn with the
present thiekness, h.p, and mean porosity, 1\" had an
original mean porosity, n 1, then its original thiekness,
hs1 , was
I-n
h si -- _ _ Ph
sp
I-ni
deeompaetion in eombination with Eq. (8.12) for
seetions eonsisting of different lithologie units is
shown in Fig. 8.4. This proeedure has to be repeated
for aU time steps and units eonsidered. The resulting
eurve eorreeted for deeompaetion demonstrates that
without this eorreetion subsidenee is underestimated
for the first phase and overestimated for the last
phase of basin development.
(8.12) 8.2.3 Tectonic Subsidence from Decompaction
and Isostatic Adjustment

The initial mean porosities for partieular lithologie Having determined deeompaetion of the different
units and depths below the sedimentary surfaee ean units of a sediment seetion, the next step in
be estimated by using known porosity-depth eurves baekstripping is isostatie adjustment. This adjustrnent
8.2 Methods for Determining Subsidence 395

PRESENT -DA Y UNIT A UNITS A AND B

SEDIMENT UNITS, TIME~
ISOSTATICALLY ISOSTATICALLY
COM REMOVED REMOVED
to t1 t2 t3
t4 Zo

----Zl--

- - - - Z2.- - - - -

Fig. 8.5. Prineipal

t, AG ES OF STRATIGRAPHIC steps in baekstripping
BOUNDARIES of present-day sedi-
ment units A, B, ete.
(from left to right) to
STEP BY STEP find thermo-teetonie
UNIT A RESTORED U B RESTORED subsidenee. (Based
TO INITIAL THICK- TO INITIAL STATE,
BACKSTRIPPING
NESS AND POROSITY UNiT A PARTL Y AND TECTONIC on Steekler and Watts
(DENSITYI COMPACTED SUBSIDENCE 1978)

can be determined by using the simple Airy model
for local isostasy or another approach taking into ac-
count a flexural response of the crust to loading.
Generally, this method implies that the loads of the
various sediment units are removed in order to find
the tectonic or thermo-tectonic subsidence of the ba-
sin which would have taken place without the sedi-
ment load.
The procedure for gaining this information is
shown in Fig. 8.5 for two sediment units. For reasons
of simplicity, the top of the section investigated has
the same elevation as the sea level; changes in the
water fill of the basin and eustatic sea-level changes
are neglected in this example. Thus, the tectonic sub-
sidence curve gained by this method is that of a
water-filled basin uncorrected for emergence of sedi-
ment or sea-level changes. These complications are
discussed below.
8.2.4 Effects of Paleo-Bathymetry and
Sea-Level Changes
Further steps in backstripping are the removal of the
effects of paleo-bathymetry and sea-Ievel changes.
The simplest way to account for changes in sediment
and water loading is the assumption of local, Airy-
type isostatic adjustment. The following model ex-
amples can be easily ealculated with the assumption
that the thermo-tectonic subsidenee of a eertain loea-
tion within a eompletely sediment-filled basin pro-
eeeds in the way shown in Fig. 8.6 from (a) to (b).
This "normal" development (Curve AB in Fig. 8.6b')
may be modified by several proeesses:
(1) Reduced or ending sediment deposition and
thus deepening of the basin (inerease in paleo-water
depth, WD). Using Eqs. (8.1), and (8.3) or (8.5) from
Sect. 8.1.1, we ean write (cf. Fig. 8.6b,c)
h,' = hs - WD - U I , (8.13)
where U = uplift in relation to normally subsiding
basin floor, and
h,'ps = hsPs - U IPm - WDpw . (8.14)
Inserting ofEq. (8.13) into Eq. (8.14) yields
UI = WD. Ps -P w (8.15)
Pm -Ps
With Ps = 2.4 glem 3, Pm=3.33 glem3 (as in the example of
Seet. 8.1.1), and uo further sediment aeeumulation with
time (h' as in a) relative uplift is VI "" 1.5 WD. Henee, the
rate of total subsidence is redueed (Curve AC in Fig. 8.6e')
in comparison to a basin whieh is perrnanently kept
sediment-fi1led (Curve AB). For more accurate ealeula-
tions, it must be taken into aeeount that the average sedi-
ment density, p" grows with inereasing thiekness of the
sedimentary eolumn.
(2) Eustatic sea-Ievel fall (-EU) prevents sediment
accumulation and rnay even lead to erosion (Fig.
8.6d) in a shallow-marine environment. As in the
previous example, we compare colurnns (b) and (d)
and get
hs" = hs - U 2 - EU and (8.16)
U 2 Pm + h," Ps = hs Ps' (8.17)
396
Equation (8.16) inserted into (8.17) yields
U 2 = EU· Ps (8.18)
Pm -Ps
Using the same values as those above, the uplift in relation
to the normally subsiding basin floor is U 2 = 2.58 EU. This
signifies that a falling sea level in assoeiation with subma-
rine erosion ean produee a very signifieant negative devia-
tion from the "normal" subsidenee eurve (Fig. 8.6d' Curve
AD in eomparison with Curve AB).
(3) Eustatic sea-Ievel rise and starved sedimenta-
tion (Fig. 8.6e); the sediment thickness remains the
same as in (a). This scenario may still cause uplift,
U 3, of the basin floor in relation to the normally sub-
siding basin. If the amplification factor for the grow-
ing sediment thickness from (a) to (b) is 1:, then h s =
1: h: or h: = 111: h s • By comparing columns (b) and (e)
on top of the isostatic compensation depth and again
using Eqs. (8.1) and (8.3), we find
U3 = (I-.!..)h s Ps -pw -EU Pw (8.19)
1: Pm - Pw Pm - Pw
In our example, with 't "" 1. 7 and other values as above,
we obtain U 3 = 0.24 hs - 0.45 EU. Due to starved sedimen-
tation, we get less subsidenee in this ease (Fig. 8.6e', Curve
AE) than in the normally sediment-filled basin without sea-
level rise (Curve AB).
(4) Eustatie sea-Ievel rise and eontinued sedimen-
tation (Fig. 8.6f). Sediment buildup is the same as
from (a) to (b). Comparing columns (b) and (f) and
applying Eqs. (8.1), and (8.3) or (8.5), we obtain the
additional subsidence, SI' superposed on the general
subsidence trend:
SI = EU Pw (8.20)
Pm -P w
Fig. 8.6. Effects of changes in sediment buildup, h s,
paleo-water depth, WD, and sea level, EU, on steady
subsidence as assumed for basin permanently filled
with sediment up to constant sea level (transition
from stage a to b). Deviations from the "normal"
curve of total subsidence (AB in b') are shown in e'-
g' and designated as relative uplift, U, and relative
subsidence, S. Each stage of e-g has to be compared
with b. Crustal parameters (thickness and density) as
weIl as average sediment density are assumed to re-
main constant. Isostatic compensation is Iocal (Airy-
type). SED is sediment buildup and ER is erosion.
e,e' Suhsequent to a, sedimentation ceases and basin
deepens to WD: reduced subsidence (Curve AC).
d,d' Eustatic sea-Ievel fall prevents sediment deposi-
Chapter 8 Subsidence
For Pm = 3.33 glem 3 we obtain SI = 0.45 EU. In this exam-
pie, however, the water depth is not only inereased by the
eustatie rise, EU, but by EU + SI = 1.45 EU.
Tbe additional subsidenee SI' eaused by sea level rise, is
the so-ealled hydro-isostatie effeet or hydro-isostasy. Tbe
resulting subsidenee (Curve AF) is steeper than the "nor-
mal" eurve AB (Fig. 8.7f).
(5) Eustatic sea level rise and inereased sediment
aeeumulation (Fig. 8.6g). Sediment buildup (h:"=
hs+Sz) reaches the pre-existing sea level. By compar-
ing columns (h) and (g) we obtain
S2 = EU Pw (8.21)
Pm -Ps
By inserting the values used above, one obtains S 2 = 1.11
EU, i.e., subsidenee inereases signifieantly (eurve AG in
Fig. 8.6g').
In summary, the models ofFig. 18.6 and the data used for
the examples have yielded the following deviations from
the "normal" subsldenee eurve of a eompletely sediment-
filled basin at eonstant sea level. U values signify relative
uplift leading to a deereasing rate of subsidenee; S values
indieate relative subsidenee and thus an inereasing rate of
subsidenee:
(e) Ending sedimentation,
inereasing water depth, WD: U I = 1.50WD
(d) Ending sedimentation,
sea level fall, and erosion: U2 =2.58 EU
(e) Ending sedimentation
and sea level rise: U3 = 0.24 hs - 0.45 EU
(t) Sea level rise,
eontinuous sedimentation: SI = 0.45 EU
(g) Sea level rise,
inereasing sedimentation: S2 = 1.11 EU
These examples demonstrate the order of magnitude
by which the subsidence curve of a particular basin
may deviate from a smooth, exponentially decaying
curve, which is usually expected for purely
endogenetic processes such as thermo-tectonic subsi-
dence. Conversely, one can deduce the effects of
paleo-water depth, varying sedimentation rates in-
tion and even leads to some erosion: greatly reduced
subsidence (CurIe AD). e,e' Eustatic sea-level rise,
but starved sedimentation: reduced subsidence
(Curve AE). f,i Eustatic sea level rise and sediment
accumulation as from a to b: increased subsidence
(Curve AF), but also increase in WD (Eu+S 1).
g,g' Sediment-fill up to "normal" sea level: strongly
increased subsidence (Curve AG). h Long-term sub-
sidence curve composed of intervals with sediment-
filled basin (a,b) at normal sea level and intervals as
shown in e-g. "Normal" curve can be approximated
by interpolation. Deviations from this curve may be
used to calculate paleo-water depth and eustatic sea
level changes. All illustrations not to scale. For fur-
ther explanation see text
8.2 Methods for Determining Subsidence 397

FACTORS MODIFYING SUBSIDENCE HISTORY

a b c d e f 9
SL-RISE, NO SED SED < SUB SED = SUB
_ .._ , - L __ . __ ~ ...- - , , - t...
CONST ANT SEA LEVEL SL-FALL, ER
EU EU EU
S r~'~+f-
I

THERMO-
TECTONIC
SUBSIDENCE
+ LOAD OF ----- Sf
SEDIMENT-
FILLED BASIN LEVEL OF ISOSTATIC -f-
COMPENSATION ---;:.....;;;;"----.1.---------'
Pm
,
b' a CONSTANT SL b
C CONST ANT SL, NO SED d' CONSTANT SL, ER
d
TIME

l~
h's

, ,
e SL-RISE, NO SED f' SL-RISE, ONGOINGt SED 9
----
SL-RISE, INCR. SED
.
.--
e .k
EU a
.-.-!.
_ __ - - - :. EU .-
_2-t
: EU
------T - - --t" f""
h's h Sl

(REDUCED SUB)
(lNCREASED SUB)

h LONG -TERM SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS

TIME HIGH SEA LE VEL
>
--- L
FALLING

_{C~\~~~_
SEA LEVEL
(e) (t) (9) (b) EROSION
--
o
.... NORMAL·
I
CUAVE OF I-
SEDIMENT-FILLED 0..
W
BASIN / o
INTERPOLATED --
OBSEAVED
DEVIATION FAOM
"'NORMAL' CUAVE
398 Chapter 8 Subsidence

180 140 100 60

!
20 o
I I
SHALLOW
Ma B.P. MARINE
LONG-TERM DEEPEN- CONTI-
EUSTATIC SEA LEVEL DRILLHOLE ING NENTAL
PRESENT SEA LEVEL ._._L. _/-T·-\-.
_________L __
o
EROSION
BATHYMETRY (IN RELATION
TO PRESENT SEA LEVEL)

AIR-FILLED BASIN
---~A---L
------- -------

(0

UNCORRECTED
2
\ SUBSIDENCE CURV8

CORRECTED
FOR COMPACTION

130
3

150

:: ::: : ....
CORRECTED
4 FOR BATHYMETRY
(IN RELATION TO 180
PRESENT SEA LEVEL) ·O·G'·O·.~
Ma :'.;'~;,;-;;.-.!.
CORRECTED FOR BOTH
COMPACTION AND BATHYMETRY
3

CORRECTIONS FOR LONG-TERM CORRECTION FOR SEDIMENT

SEA LEVEL CHANGES (FALL AND RISE) LOAD ABOVE SEA LEVEL

,,~.'j
4 DEPTH (km) '- ":

Fig. 8.7. Synthetic, semi-quantitative example show-
ing drilled vertical sediment succession and derived,
uncorrected subsidence curve at a given location
within a basin. Purely thermo-tectonic subsidence in
an air-filled basin (Curve A) is magnified by a water
load (B, related to present sea level) and the load of a
permanently sediment-filled basin (C) up to the pres-
ent sea leveL Curve C is modified by sediment com-
paction, a reduced sediment load (increasing paleo-
water depth or bathymetry), and eustatic sea-Ievel
changes. In addition, erosion diminishes subsidence,
or a sediment load above sea level enhances subsi-
dence
8.2 Methods for Determining Subsidence
c1uding erosion, and eustatie sea-level ehanges from
these deviations, if the "normal" subsidenee curve
can be inferred from the uncorrected curve (Fig.
8.6h).
This method can be used when the subsidence
history comprises intervals for which the sea level
can be assumed to have been at average level or con-
stantly high or low. In addition, the basin investi-
gated must have been fi11ed up to sea level with sedi-
ment during these intervals. Then the curve for a per-
manently sediment~filled basin is found by interpola-
tion, and the amount of deviation for a particular time
span can be quantified. With the aid of sedimentation
rates derived from stratigraphie dating and
sedimentologieal-paleontological criteria for deter-
mining paleo-water depth, an attempt can be made to
discriminate between the different factors causing
such deviations. Equations (8.15), (8.18), and (8.19)
through (8.21) may enable a rough quantitative eval-
uation of these factors.
The purely thermo-tectonic part, T, of total subsi-
dence can be calculated for a certain increment of
sediment and time from the uncorrected total subsi-
dence with the equation (Steckler et al. 1988):
T = h s1 Pm - Ps + WD + Pm EU (8.22)
Pm - Pw Pm -Pw
where h s1 is the decompacted sediment thickness;
other symbols as above.
A kind of summary of a11 these methods and re-
sults is presented in Fig. 8.7 showing the subsidence
his tory at a location where a drill hole has provided
the stratigraphy, age deterrninations, and paleo-water
depth interpretation of the section. Here, the fo11ow-
ing points are of interest:
- Curve A is the exponential thermo-tectonic subsi-
dence of an air-filled basin. It indicates the minimum
amount of subsidence which is not affected by any
other mechanism.
- Curve B signifies the subsidence of a basin fi11ed
with water up to a fixed sea level, without sediment
accumulation. The water load magnifies the subsi-
dence of an air-filled basin by a factor of about 1.4.
- Curve C represents total subsidence of a tectoni-
ca11y subsiding basin (Curve A) which is perma-
nently filled with sediments up to a fixed sea level.
The subsidence in relation to a water-fi11ed basin is
magnified by a factor about 2.5 (for a relatively high
sediment density of Ps = 2.4 g/cm3, cf. Sect. 8.1.1).
- The regular subsidence curve (C) is modified dur-
ing certain times by the processes discussed above:
(1) Incomplete sediment fi11ing (Curve D): subsi-
dence decreases.
(2) Erosion of emerged sediment (Curve E): subsi-
dence decreases.
399
(3) Long-term relative sea-level changes (Curve
F): during rise subsidence inereases, during fall it
decreases. (High-frequency variations are not consid-
ered here.)
These modifying factors can partly counterbalance
each other, for example, when increasing paleo-water
depth coineides with a high sea-level stand.
Curve G derived from the present thicknesses of
the stratigraphie units does not show the true subsi-
dence history. Neglecting sediment compaction, the
older units yield subsidence rates too low and the
younger units rates too high in comparison with trne
subsidence (cf. Fig. 8.4). In addition, this irregular
curve includes the cumulative effects of the other
modifying factors.
An evaluation of the role of a11 factors controlling
subsidence is possible when the sedimentary fi11 of a
basin is largely preserved and we11 investigated. In
addition, the nature and thickness of the underlying
ernst should be known.
8.2.5 Summary (Subsidence History
Analysis)
To determine the subsidence history of sedimen-
tary basins (at a certain location), the sedimentary
section and the underlying basement (ernst)
should be we11 known (bio- or chronostrati-
graphy, paleoenvironrnent and paleo-water depth,
relative sea-level changes). The backstripping
technique inc1udes
- Decompaction of sediment units, using appro-
priate porosity-depth curves.
- Isostatic adjustment (if tectonic subsidence is
the objective).
- Corrections for the effects of changing water
depth (or elevation above sea level), varying
sedimentation rates, relative sea-Ievel changes,
or intermittent sediment erosion.
For a given thermo-tectonic subsidence curve,
purely water-fi11ed basins subside about 1.45
times and sediment-filled basins 2 to 2.5 times
faster than air-filled basins (cf. Fig. 11.10).
400 Chapter 8 Subsidence

INITIAL THERMAL SUBSIDENCE

~Si-*-- - - - - - - - - St - - - - - - - - - - -
o -S:::---t--------------------+ 0 E Fig. 8.8. Theoretical sub si-
6 dence curves (solid lines) for
E 2 z different values of stretching
6 Ci)
ß = 1.25 « factor, ß, and finite rifting
~
co
4 0 time, lRJ of 25 Ma followed by
2 w thermal subsidence (one-di-
o ...J
:l mensional model proposed by
W
...J 1.66 - 6 LL
:l t!- McKenzie 1978, after Sawyer
LL 3 z et al. 1982, modified). Dotted
I B w
CI:
w ~
0
curves are calculated for ß=4
!ci: - 2.5- w and describe: A subsidence
;:: 4 10 CI)
LL
LL curve equivalent to mid-oce-
o 0
w
anic ridge; B thermal subsi-
W 5 dence after instantaneous rift-
Ü
~ zw ing, and ethermal subsidence
~
Q
15 CI) after t R = 25 Ma. (Steckler et
6
-'" co al. 1988). Note difference in
~ I , :::J
CI) subsidence of water- and
sediment-filled basin (amplifi-
0 50 100 150 200 cation factor 2.5, see text)
TIME AFTER ONSET OF RIFTING (Mal

8.3 Subsidence of Model Basins and The models are based on data shown in Figs. 8.1 and
Observed Subsidence History 8.2 and the following additional assumptions:

8.3.1 Rift Basin Models and
Observed Subsidence
In contrast to backstripping, "forward modeling" is a
technique which first takes into account crustal pa-
rameters (extension, thermal heating and cooling,
flexural behavior) in order to predict thermo-tectonic
subsidence. Then additional loads (water depth, sedi-
ment thickness, eustatic sea-Ievel changes) are intro-
duced which amplify and modify purely tectonic sub-
sidence. Some results of this method are presented in
the following sections.
The McKenzie Extension Model
Many sedimentary basins originate from continental
rifting. If rifting generates more or less symmetrical
basins (pure shear, cf. Fig. 12.1a), these elongate
structures have a simple geometry, and the processes
controlling their subsidence are relatively weIl pre-
dictable.
Several authors have made an attempt to simulate the sub-
sidence history of such basins by means of a one- or two-
dimensional model (e.g., McKenzie 1978; Cochran 1983b;
Steckler et al. 1988). A one-dimensional (ID) model con-
siders the uplift or subsidence of crustal columns or blocks
which do not influence each other, neither mechanically
nor by heat transfer, whereas two-dimensional (2D) models
take into account such phenomena.
- A relatively short phase of horizontal stretching
(extensional model for a finite-Iength rifting event)
and crustal thinning cause subsidence due to isostatic
adjustment. On the other hand, this phase is accom-
panied by passive upwelling of upper mantIe material
(cf. Fig. 8.2b). This advection ofheat above the orig-
inal upper boundary of the asthenosphere (having a
temperature of approxirnately 1350"C) produces ther-
mal expansion and thus uplift. However, the amount
of isostatic subsidence is greater than thennal uplift.
The combined effect of both factors is therefore
rapid initial subsidence during rifting.
If the primary crustal thickness was 40 km, initial subsi-
dence in a ID model ac counts for about 40% of the total
subsidence, incIuding subsequent thermal subsidence (Fig.
8.8, solid curves and curve B).
The temperature within the uppermost mantle is as-
sumed to be kept more or less constant by convection, but
the solid lithosphere acts as a heat conductor to the atrno-
sphere. Upwelling of upper-mantle material causes an in-
crease in the geothermal gradient between the mantle top
and the crustal surface (sea bottom) and thus an increase in
the average lithospheric temperature.
- The initial phase of rifting is followed by a long
period of thermal subsidence as the lithosphere cools
and thickens to its original, pre-extension equilibrium
thickness (cf. Fig. 8.2c). The graphic expression of
this subsidence is that of a decaying exponential
curve (Figs. 8.8 and 8.10). Under the premises men-
tioned above, thennal subsidence may account for
about 60% of the total subsidence (Fig. 8.8, except
curves A and C).
8.3 Rift Basin Models and Observed Subsidence 401

o c d
I
I
\ I

2
\, I See (a)
''---0 -_- ~....J~-O---./ / Il
/~
,- - - - - - - - -9----' / Fig. 8.9. Subsidence in
_l_.......,r -
·9
36- __ ..I
I
cross section of model
3 rift basin demonstrating
effects of three different
finite rifting times, t R (b-
d), in comparison with
4~----------------t-----4-t4------+-------- instantaneous rifting (a
McKenzie model,

------"
dashed lines). In addi-
0 tion, lateral heat flow

INSTANT A-
a b into the flanks of the
basin is evaluated (non-
NEOUS horizontal solid lines in
RIFTING. b-d, cf. Fig. 8.2b). The
NO l ATERAL t R= 5 Ma development of subsi-
HEAT FlOW
2 (101M. MODEL) dence is shown 0, 9, 36,
and 100 Ma after the end
l ATERAL of rifting. The model
HEAT FlOW basin is water-filled,
!
3
~ DIMENSIONAL width 80 km; stretching
ODEl)
DEPTH (km) parameter of basin floor
4
ß=2, at the hinge zone
0 20 40 60 80 km less. (After Cochran
C B HINGE ZONE 1983b)
~_...J_ ..
ß =I 1 11 .2 ,1 .51 2 11 .5 ,1 .21 1.0
I I I

In the absence of other factors (e.g., flexural effects), the
asymptotic level to which the basin floor subsides is con-
trolled by crustal thinning, expressed by the stretching fac-
tor ß (Fig. 8.8), as weil as by the amplitude ofthe exponen-
tial curve as a function of lithospheric heating. The more
thinning and heating the crust undergoes, the greater is the
total subsidence ofthe basin floor.
Finite Rifting Time and Lateral Heat Transfer
The rather simplistic "McKenzie extension model"
can describe the first-order features of rifts and other
sedimentary basins. However, the detailed subsi-
dence history of many basins derived from field data
(see below and Sect. 12.1), possibly including peri-
ods of stillstand or even uplift, often deviates from
simulations based on this model. It clearly neglects a
number of additional factors (Sect. 8.1) which may
considerably influence or modify the subsidence
curves.
One of the assumptions in the McKenzie model is
that extension has occurred instantaneously. Later
calculations have shown that the error due to this
assumption is small as long as rifting time, tR, does
not exceed 20 Ma. However, the rifting stage of a
basin may last longer (20 to 50 Ma and more; see,
e.g., Ziegler 1988). Furthermore, lateral heat transfer
into the flanks of the basin (cf. Fig. 8.2b), caused by
the horizontal temperature gradient set up by
lithospheric thinning, should be evaluated (cf. Fig.
8.2b). The 2D model proposed by Cochran (l983b)
takes into account these two additional factors. The
his tory and mode of subsidence of this model basin
(Fig. 8.9b-d) deviate significantly from the
McKenzie model (Fig. 8.9a). The subsidence (or up-
lift) history of the basin center and graben shoulder
are shown in Fig. 8.10 for different conditions (basin
filled with water or sediment, with or without lateral
heat transfer and flexuralloading effect).
The ID McKenzie model (instantaneous rifting without
lateral heat loss) in the water-filled basin leads to equal
amounts of initial (syn-rift) and thennal (post-rift) subsi-
dence (in total 3.4 km). The basin floor (points Band C)
subsides unifonnly, and there is no change in elevation of
the shoulder ofthe basin (point A).
In contrast, finite rifting times (tR = 5, 20, 50 Ma) and
lateral heat transfer bring about an increase in syn-rift sub-
sidence (Fig. 8.9b-d). The longer the rifting time, the
greater will be the proportion of syn-rift subsidence in the
total subsidence.
During early stages of the subsidence history, lateral
heat transfer causes the margin of the graben (point B) to
subside faster than its center (point C). It further raises the
402 Chapter 8 Subsidence

a, GRABEN SHOULDER
I POINT A, BASIN WATER-FILLED,
NO FLEXURAL EFFECT
~_ ~M8;;2O)dfr
0'05L-~~======~===- _ _

km I
b, GRABEN SHOULDER
POINT A, ßASIN SEDIMENT -FILLED WITH
FLEXURAL RESPONSE OF ADJACENT CRUST Fig. 8.10a-c . Subsi-
°t---=======~~~~~~~~~~10~~2~05~0~M~a~~~~~~~~~~~
0-_____________-=======
dence eurves for 10-
cations A, B, and C
2 km of water-filled basin
(Fig.. 8 . 9) with and
C, GRABEN CENTER (POINT C) without sediment
filling or flexural
O~_.------~~_r-------------------------------------------
effeets (cf. Fig. 8.11)
", \ \ NO LATERAL for different rifting
.......... \\ \ 0 HEAT TRANSFER BASIN WATER-FILLED,
2 .......... " ~ :::. '::.:J:}. ....... / NO FLEXURAL EFFECT times t R • (After
Cochran 1983b). The
, 2flo=:"3-~~~~:..;.;;.;.;.;,;~:.:...J.;.:..:.~~:_:_:. :-=..:~_ stretching factor in
4 ---------------------------- rift graben is ß=2 for
BASIN SEDIMENT -FILLED, all curves. Note that
WITH FLEXURAL EFFECT the amount of syn-rift
6

DEPTH
B",- km ----_.!-_--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~ subsidence increases
with growing rifting
time at the expense
of post-rift subsi-
60 40 20 0 50 100 150 Ma dence
RIFTING TIME '(,.........--tl-~) POST -RIFTING TIME

graben shoulder (point A). Toward the end of thermal sub as shown in Fig. 8.9. It is assumed that the basin is
sidence, however, points Band C in the graben have sediment-filled up to sea level all the time. During
reached about the same final depth, and the graben shoul- the syn-rift phase, the sediment fill is eompensated
der, due to thermal contraction following early expansion,
by loeal isostasy due to aetive faulting. Later, the
approaches again its original elevation.
An increase in the width of the hinge zone (e.g., from 20 sediment load is compensated in a regional manner
km to 40 km, cf. Fig. 8.9) has a large effect on the subsi- through lithospherie flexure. (The flexural rigidity
dence pattern near this zone, but little influence on the ba- was defined by the depth of the 450°C isotherm, Fig.
sin center. 8.ld, and thus varies in time and spaee aeross the
The model parameters are the same as in Sect. 8.1 and basin).
Fig. 8.1; also, h c= 31,2 km, thickness oflithosphere h c + hm This model variation demonstrates that litho-
= 125 km, Pm = Pa = 3.33 glcm 3 , temperature at base of spherie flexure is most pronounced if the phase of
lithosphere T o = 1333°C, thermal conductivity 0.0075
cal/(degcms). The lithospheric thermal time constant is
rifting and local isostatie adjustment is short. In this
62.7 Ma. Using these parameters, old, 125 km thick, conti- ease, post-rift subsidenee and thus total subsidenee in
nental lithosphere at sea level is in isostatic balance with the center of the sediment-filled basin are redueed.
oceanic lithosphere containing a 5 km thick young crnst This means that the amplifieation faetor to eonvert
2. 5 km below sea level, i.e., a ridge crest, later subsiding the depth of a water-filled basin into that of a
toward a final depth of 6.4 km. sediment-filled basin beeomes srnaller than found
from Eq. (8.10). This effeet ean also be seen from
Fig. 8.l0e, where the subsidenee eurves of the water-
Sediment Fill and Crustal Flexure and sediment-filled model basin are shown for differ-
ent rifting times.
Along basin margins, in partieular, loading of the On the other hand, a short rifting phase in eon-
ernst does not lead to Airy-type isostatie compensa- junetion with a strong flexural response of adjaeent
tion . Due to the strength of the upper lithosphere, the ernstal segments eauses wide areas outside the rift
region adjaeent to the load will deform by flexural basin to subside and eolleet sediments. Henee, the
downwarping (Sect. 8.1). Henee, subsidence direedy rift shoulders also tend to subside eonsiderably in
beneath the load will deerease. post-rift times after a short syn-rift period of uplift
In the cross seetions of Figure 8. 11, the additional (Fig. 8.1 Oa,b). The size of the basin does not signifi-
effects of sediment fill and flexural response of the eandy inerease further with time.
adjacent ernst are evaluated for the same model basin
8.3 Rift Basin Models and Observed Subsidence
BASIN MARGIN
o
SLiGHT
UPLIFT
5 km POST -RIFT SEDIMENTS
(REGIONAL FlEXURAl
COMPENSATION)
km SYN-RIFT SEDIMENTS
(lOCAl ISOSTATIC
COMPENSATlON)
5
100 km
With increasing rifting time, expansion of the ba
sin out of the rifting region is de1ayed, and thus the
basin does not reach the same final width as that
characterized by a short rifting time (Fig. 8.11).
However, the progressive onlap onto the unrifted
area becomes more pronounced.
The transition from local to regional isostatic com-
pensation at the end of the rifting phase is. accompa-
nied by reduced tee tonic subsidence within the rift
basin and may even lead to a short period of slight
uplift. During that time, the rift shoulders are still
being uplifted by lateral heat flow from the rift into
the hinge zone. Hence a slight unconformity between
syn-rift and post-rift sediments may develop (not
shown in Fig. 8.11), a phenomenon which is also
known from examples in nature_
However, pronounced "breakup unconformities"
in ancient sedimentary basins are associated with the
transition from rifting to an early stage of drifting
and aceretion of new oeeanie erust· (Sect. 12.2),
whieh is not considered in this model basin.
The simulated subsidence curves in Fig. 8.10 are modified
somewhat further when the stretching factor, ß, does not
increase linearly throughout rifting, ·as previously assumed,
or when the lithosphere is thinned by an amount greater
403
Fig. 8.11. Cross seetions of
sediment-filled and flexurally influ-
eneed model basin with lateral heat
loss (same model parameters as for
Fig. 8.9b-d) after post-rifting thermal
subsidence time of 100 Ma, but vary-
ing rifting times tR • Syn-rift sedi-
ments are assumed to be eompen-
sated by loeal isostasy, but post-rift
sediments eause regional (flexural)
response of the erust. (Mter Coehran
1983b)
than that required by crustal extension. The latter situation
may lead to some uplift during the initial phase of crustal
thinning, but otherwise these variations in the model pa-
rameters affect the subsidence curves very slightly. Simi-
larly, greater compaction of deeply buried sediments in
comparison with younger deposits, a factor which is not
taken into account in the simulations, does not significantly
change the results.
Modified Rift Models and Discussion
Further modifications of the rift models include the injec-
tion of melt segregated from the rnantle into the thinning
continental crust (Keen et al. 1983). However, this mecha-
nism does not significantly affect the results gained by the
simpler models.
Another alternative supported by geophysical data from
passive continental margins (see below) is the nonuniform
or depth-dependent extension model (Royden and Keen
1980; Chenet et al. 1983). Whereas the uniform extension
model is based on the assumption that the entire litho-
sphere is subjected to the same stretching factor, ß, the
nonuniform model takes into account differences in the
amount of stretching between the upper and lower portions
of the lithosphere. Observations in nature have revealed
that the upper crust in rift zones may showaseries oftilted
blocks separated by listric faults (Fig. 8.15a and b). The
stretching factor derived from this geometry is usually
much smaller than that needed to explain the substantial
404 Chapter 8 Subsidence

a b
10 o Ma B.P. 40 30 20 10 o Ma
o
RHINE GRABEN

AFTER
ONSETOF
SEA-FLOOR
SPREADING
2 f············ RH 142

Ii GULF OF
CALIFORNIA.
: DSDPSITES
Fig. 8.12. a Total subsidence of
young passive continental margin
at southern end of Baja California
~ 475 AND 476 (Curray et al. 1982b).
3 RH 143 b Decompacted curves of maxi-
PRESENT DEPTHS RH 108 mum subsidence for Rhine graben,
\ Central Europe (Roll 1979, cf. Fig.
RH 43 12.2). In contrast to the northern
'I
\ part (Rh 28, 30, 47), subsidence
10 RH 28 ceases earlier in the middle (Rh 96
20
\ '-.. _.._.. _......l//_._.. RH 96 and 108) and southern part (Rh
4 RH 30
142 and 143) of the graben, and is
followed by slight uplift. Insert
Subsidence rates in m/Ma
km 500 100 50

thinning of the underlying, duetile lower erust. The addi-
tional attenuation of the lower erust is assumed to result
from mass loss from the lithosphere to the mantle
asthenosphere. Consequently, in this model tectonic subsi-
dence is eaused by two main meehanisms aeting simulta-
neously: (I) extension by stretching the entire lithosphere,
and (2) additional thinning of the lower erust by thermal
processes.
Finally, it should be mentioned that all the rift models
diseussed do not take into aeeount the differential subsi-
dence known from half-graben struetures associated with
"simple shear" (Seet. 12.2.1). These features appear to be
very common in nature and frequently show an asynnnetrie
basin fill as a result of stronger subsidence on the side of
the basin with the master fault. Another point normally not
considered is the fact that many rift zones are affeeted by
strike slip, and it is not clear to whieh extent this meeha-
ni sm modifies subsidence.
Subsidence from Geohistory Analysis
Young Riß Systems
From the model results discussed above one can ex-
pect that young rift zones exhibit rapid initial subsi-
dence. This is actually the case and will be demon-
strated by some examples. However, these examples
differ in some aspects from the simple extension
models described earlier because they are affected by
tilted blocks within the graben structure and partly by
strike-slip.
The results from one location within a rift zone are
therefore not representative for the total structure and
can hardly be used to predict the subsidence history
of another rift zone.
Rhine graben. One of the classic examples of a rela-
tively young tectonic graben is the Upper Rhine val-
ley in central Europe (cf. Sect. 12.1). Continental
rifting started in the Middle Eocene and has contin-
ued into Present time. However, pure extension of
the lithosphere is superimposed by a left-Iateral
strike-slip movement. Partly for this reason, sub si-
dence within the graben varies considerably by a fac-
tor of approximately 3 (Fig. 8.12b).
This figure shows eurves of maximum total subsidenee in
three parts of the graben. Typieally, the highest rates of
subsidence (approximately 100-300 mlMa) occurred dur-
ing the first 10 to 20 Ma after the onset of rifting and there-
fore primarily represent Ioeal isostatie compensation. Sub-
sidence has ended in the southern and rniddle part of the
graben, while farther north, subsidenee still proeeeds at a
siow rate. In fact, the southern graben now experienees a
8.3 Rift Basin Models and Observed Subsidence
small amount of uplift, accompanied by a relatively strong
uplift of the graben shoulders. For further information see
Plein (1993).
Jordan rift, Dead Sea. This rift system is still active
and also affected by strike-slip motion. It has experi-
enced mean subsidence rates of at least 200-500
mlMa, possibly more if the youngest evolution of
this structure is considered (cf. Sect. 12.1 and Fig.
11.18).
East African rift, Baikai rift. Other young conti-
nental rift zones, such as the western branch of the
East African rift system which started to evolve 7 to
12 Ma ago, exhibit maximum average subsidence
rates of 500 to 1000 mlMa (based on data sumrna-
rized by Ebinger 1989). These high values are valid
for the master fault in asymmetric half-graben struc-
tures, and they differ markedly from basin to basin in
the segmented rift zone.
Recent data from the large Baikai rift system in
Central Asia exhibit two distinct phases of rapid sub-
sidence with exponential decay (Moore Jr. et al.
1997). The rift developed along the transtensional
boundary between the Siberian craton and a mosaic
of microplates to the southeast since the past 30-40
Ma. A shift in the regional stress field in the Pliocene
(pure extension or transtension; Delvaux et al. 1997)
caused the second phase of rapid subsidence. Un-
loaded basement subsidence in the central basin
reached <:4 km (sediment-loaded approximately 8
km) since the onset of rifting, but much less in the
other parts of the basin. Because sediment supply
was not sufficient to fill the entire rift zone, its cen-
tral part is still a very deep lake.
Older Continental Rift Zones
Older continental rift zones have frequently evolved
into wider elongate basins and displaya large degree
of total subsidence over the long term, although the
rate of subsidence may be relatively low.
Paris basin. Three wells in the Paris basin have re-
vealed that central parts of the basin, i.e., the former
rift basin, began to subside earlier than locations out-
side of the rift in the flexurally controlled portion of
the basin (Fig. 8.13b). Areevaluation of the subsi-
dence history of this basin has revealed that the long-
term trend is interrupted several times by accelerated
and decelerated subsidence, possibly caused by
phases of compression or transpression (Loup and
Wildi 1994).
North Sea. This basin has a long and complicated
history of subsidence (Ziegler 1988), causing deposi-
tion of Permian to Mesozoic sediments up to several
kilometers in thickness (cf. Fig. 14.l1). A general-
405
ized curve of total subsidence in the sediment-filled
Viking graben, northern North Sea, shows three dis-
tinct phases of increased, fault-related subsidence
during the Triassic, late Jurassic, and early Tertiary
(Fig. 8.13b).
This general scheme was interrupted by a phase ofuplift in
the Paleocene followed by accelerated subsidence in the
Eocene (Nadin and Kuznir 1995). These exursions (not
shown in Fig. 8.13b) were probably caused by the activity
of the Ieeland rnagrnatic plume.
Most wells drilled in the central North Sea, representing
a failed rift zone, also indicate accelerated post-Middle
Cretaceous subsidence (around 20 mlMa), the general
trend of which is shown in Fig. 8.13b. Whether this subsi-
dence was entirely due to continental stretching (e.g.,
Sclater and Christie 1980; Sclater and Shorey 1989; Beach
et al. 1987) or caused mainly by mineral phase transition in
the lower ernst (Artyushkov and Baer 1989) still appears to
be an open question (cf. Sects. 8.1.3 and 12.1).
Several phases of subsidence were also found for the
Mesozoic shelves of the Alpine Tethys (e.g Wildiet al.
1989). The Swiss Plateau and Jura Mountains, for example,
experienced major subsidence phases in the Triassie, early
Jurassie, middle Jurassie, and early Cretaceous, but only
part ofthese phases were active at one location.
8.3.2 Passive Margin Models and
Observed Subsidence
General Concepts
Passive continental margins evolve from a rift basin
or aseries of rift basins (cf. Sects. 12.l and 12.2)
into a wider oceanic basin due to the accretion of
new oceanic crust. They commonly develop on both
margins of the growing ocean and therefore include
part of the former rift basin. Continuing tectonic sub-
sidence and sediment accumulation usually cause a
landward and seaward extension of the depositional
area (cf. Fig. 8.16). Under these conditions, flexural
response of the adjacent continental and oceanic
lithosphere becomes a primary factor in passive mar-
gin subsidence in addition to local, Airy-type iso-
static compensation.
As mentioned in the previous section, some recent
simulations of rift basin development use a two-layer
model of the lithosphere. In addition, many seismic
investigations have revealed that a discontinuity ex-
ists between the upper and lower continental crnst,
commonly at a depth of about 10 to 15 km (Fig.
8.15a and b). This discontinuity is explained as the
transition from the brittle to the ductile state of the
crust. Extension of the brittle material leads to the
formation of listric faults and tilted blocks, whereas
the ductile lower crust is deformed by creep (Fig.
8.15b). Although the manner of stretching is differ-
ent, it is nevertheless a uniform extension of the
crust, i.e., the thicknesses of both layers are reduced
by the same stretching factor (one-Iayer model).
406 Chapter 8 Subsidence

a 150 100 50 0 Ma
,.L---L----JL-....I---..L..----J"-r-.L---..L..::-::-'::-=-'::-::~_=_'"-....-L----L_;_;::'==:7=:_:_'_-'___1 B.P.
JURASSIC CRETACEOUS TERTIARY
~-~~~~--~----~~~~~-----L-----------------~0 . 2

~.w;9)'T.~ 0

SEDIMENT PALEO-WATER DEPTH

SURFACE

........ _ THERMO- TECTONIC 2

- -.... / SUBSIDENCE
------- --------
::c
I-
3 3
Cl.
UJ
o 4 (OPENING OF ATLANTIC) 4
VOLCANIC
EVENT
5 5

6 6 Fig. 8.13. a Total and

thermo-teetonic subsi-
denee on US Atlantie
b eontinental margin,
affeeted by long-term
sea level ehanges and
variations in bathy-
metry, induding peri-
FAR AWAY FROM ods of emergenee.
RIFT BASIN Volcanism has initi-
2 ated a seeond eooling
CENTRAL eyde. (WeIl C.O.S.T.
3 NORTH SEA B-2, after Greenlee et
::c NEAR RIFT ZONE a1. 1985). b Total sub-
I- WITHIN RIFT sidenee determined
Cl. VIKING GRABEN,
W BASIN from wells in eentral
o NORTHERN
and marginal parts of
NORTH SEA 5
(TOTAL SUBSIDENCE Paris basin (Coehran
OF SEDIMENT- 1983b) and general
FILLED BASIN) 6 trend of subsidenee in
North Sea basin (eurve
7 for Viking graben from
Beaeh et a1. 1987;
10 B
trend for eentral North
Sea from Sdater and
Christie 1980). See
100 40 20 m/ Ma 9 text for explanation
km

This amount of stretching is not sufficient, however, to
predict the actual amount and history of subsidence ob-
served on many passive continental margins. Therefore it
has been proposed that an additional thinning of the lower
part ofthe Iithosphere takes place (Fig. 8.15a,b), which is
caused by heat transfer from the mantle to the Iithosphere
but does not involve extension (Chenet et al. 1983). Hence,
the apparent stretching factor, ß, of the lower layer of the
crust becomes greater than that of the upper layer (two-
layer model). This thermal effect mayaIso lead to an up-
ward shift of the 450°C isotherm and thus to a thinning of
the effective elastic thickness of the lithosphere adjacent to
the rift basin (Fig. 8.15c). This in turn will reduce the flex-
ural rigidity of the Iithosphere and therefore promote
downward bending and the formation of a sediment wedge
adjacent to the rift basin.
The following examples of passive continental mar-
gins take into account these processes in the develop-
ment of the rift basin, as weIl as thermal thinning of
the effective elastic thickness of the adjacent litho-
sphere. First, some subsidence curves for single sites
are described, before we proceed to differential sub-
sidence along transects across continental margins.
8.3 Rift Basin Models and Observed Subsidence 407

(m)
a HI8ERNIA 0-35

15

10

150 100 50 o
AGE (Ma)

PALEO-WATER DEPlH
50 li
o o ~
18 !ß
ce
37 C3
40 Z
::::l
77 o
!Xl
100
U
120 I
a..
135 ~
Cl

4
'8ASEMENT' 145
~
CI)
LL

5 160 0w
Cl
COMPACTED <{

o
Fig. 8.14. Example of subsidenee
and burial history from Grand
Banks eontinental margin, north-
western Atlantie. a Sedimenta-
HI8ERNIA tion rates at weH Hibernia 0-35.
~2
E b Variations in water depths,
C
eompaetion and burial histories
jE
Q.
3 GABRIEL of stratigraphie units (total sub si-
W
o denee) at weH Hibernia 0 -35. c
4
~--------- lHEOREnCAL Inferr~d thermo-teetonie subsi-
denee of three Grand Banks weHs
as eompared to theoretieal eurves
5 for thinned eontinental ernst with
60% dike injeetions and pure
lHEOREnCAL
oeeanic ernst. (After Agterberg
6~-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----, and Gradstein 1988)
150 120 90 60 30 o (Ma)

Examples of Simulated and Observed Subsidence
Gulf of California, young passive margin. The
rifting phase of the very young passive eontinental
margin at the southem tip of Baja Califomia (cf.
Seets. 4.3 and 12.8, Figs. 4.5 and 11.19) was eharae-
terized by a "normal" subsidenee rate (around 200
m/Ma, Curray et a1. 1982b). With the onset of oeean
spreading (drifting phase) in the southem Gulf of
Califomia 3 to 4 Ma ago, subsidenee aeeelerated up
to at least 1000 mlMa for a very short interval, before
slowing down again (Fig. 8.l2a),
Northwestern Atlantic. Subsidenee and burial his-
tory at single sites, based on deep driHholes with wen
studied stratigraphie seetions, have been studied,
among many other examples, in the Grand Banks
area, offNewfoundland (Fig. 8.14).
Weil Hibernia 0-35 was drilled on the edge of a graben
whieh has been subsiding sinee the early Jurassie; Puffin
B-90 is near the southern trans form margin of the Grand
Banks; and Gabriel C-60 lies farther east elose to the edge
of subsided eontinental ernst. The latter two wells were
affeeted by rifting later than Hibernia (Fig. 8.14e). All
three sites are eharaeterized by a lower Cretaeeous elastie
wedge (sedimentation rate 10-25 emlka) with a major sand
408 Chapter 8 Subsidence

RIFTING

Fig. 8.15. a,b Con-

eeptual model of
passive continental
margin showing
eombined effect of a
thermal thinning and
b stretching of the
EXTENSION OF BRITTLE UPPER CRUST
b (TILTEO BLOCKS BOUNOEO BY LlSTRIC FAULTS)
crust, generating
tilted fault blocks in
the brittle upper
erust and ductile
OCEANIC ereep in the lower
crust. S discontinuity
of seismic velocity
at the transition from
brittle to ductile ma-
terial; M Mohorovic-
C ic discontinuity. (Af-
SHELF THINNEO CONTINENTAL CRUST CONTINENT ·OCEAN BOUNDARY ter Chenet et al.
0" - - -- - - ,50
' , - -- - - -1'0·-0.- - - -- -.-1- - - - ( I ) 1983). c Theoretical
150 200 km
curves of post-rift
subsidence versus
time for different 10-
cations on a transect
through sediment-
starved northern
Biscay margin simi-
lar to b. (After
Montadert et al.
1979)
OEPTH (km)

influx aro~nd 120 Ma (Fig. 8.14a). By contrast, sediment
accumulatlOn was markedly reduced from 80 to 40 Ma
B.P., as a result of high sea level and a hinterland of low
relief.
Figure 8.l4b depiets the total subsidenee and burial
history of individual stratigraphie units at the Hiber-
nia site, taking into aeeount changing paleo-water
depths and inereasing eompaetion with burial. Short
intervals in th.e eurve~ eharacterized by steep gradi-
ents refleet time penods with high sedimentation
rates. Thermo-teetonie subsidenee differs eonsider-
ably between the three sites mentioned above' the
~abriel weIl on the outer rnargin exhibits greater'sub-
sldenee than the other two sites.
All three wells, however, show less subsidence
than. would be expeeted for purely oeeanic erust or
contmental erust with 60% dike injection. The prinei-
pal reason for this difference is the fact that subsi-
dence in the theoretical eurves starts at a depth of
about 2 or 2.5 km below sea level, while the ob-
served eurves begin near sea level.
Western Atlantic, off New Jersey. An example
from the shelf off New Jersey (weIl C.O.S.T. B2,
Greenlee et al. 1988) displays the effeets of changing
bathymetry and an early Cretaeeous volcanie episode
on total and thermo-teetonie subsidenee (Fig. 8.13a).
The long-term sea-level eurve was partially inferred
from the observed total subsidenee and from the
other parameters controlling subsidence. In this ex-
ample, the eombined effeet of volcanism and rising
sea level has eaused a signifieant positive exeursion
of the aetual subsidenee eurves from "normal" be-
havior. Negleeting these processes, the redueed sedi-
ment aeeumulation during the late Cretaeeous and
Paleogene would have led to deereasing subsidenee
rates.
Eastern Atlantic (northern Biscay Goban Spur.
In this sediment-starved area on the deep outer shelf
aetive rifting took plaee during the lower Cretaeeou~
~n ~ p~e-existing shallow-rnarine basin without any
~ndl~atlOns of doming. Rifting was followed by drift-
mg m the late Aptian. The thieknesses of the upper
8.3 Rift Basin Models and Observed Subsidence
NOVERTICAL
EXAGGERATION
o 100 km
and lower erost were redueed in a way similar to that
shown in Fig. 8.15a,b. In a transeet through this pas-
sive margin, post-rift subsidenee inereased seaward
until it reaehed a similar amount (up to 4 km) as the
oeeanie crost at the continental-oceanic erost bound-
ary (cf. Fig. 8.14c and 8.15c; see also Le Pichot and
Sibuet 1982; Chenet et al. 1983). Most of the post-
rift subsidenee can be attributed to eooling of the
lithosphere, whieh was previowdy thinned during the
rifting phase.
Atlantic Passive Margin Transect, North Amer-
ica. One of the best studied examples of flexural re-
sponse of the erost to sediment loading is the Atlan-
tie passive margin of North Ameriea. In order to ap-
ply the method of "forward modeling" for determin-
ing subsidenee and sediment aeeumulation, the as-
sumptions shown in Fig. 8.16a,b were made (Steekler
et al. 1988). Seaward of the hinge zone, the erost and
lithosphere are thinned by similar amounts, but land-
ward solely the lower part of the lithosphere is af-
fected by thermal eontraetion.
Continental breakup and rifting started during the Triassic
and ended during the middle Jurassic. The resulting subsi-
denee and thiekness of syn-rift sediments (Fig. 8.17a) are
primarily controlled by loeal isostasy as described above.
Direetly seaward of a 30 to 50 km wide hinge zone, whieh
marks the transition from relatively undeformed thiek con-
tinental ernst to highly thinned and heated crnst of the rift
basin, the syn-rift sediments apparently reaeh their greatest
thickness.
409
OCEANIC
CRUST
Fig. 8.16. Conceptual models
(cross sections) of US Atlantic
passive continental margin
showing extension and thinning
of continental crnst and litho-
sphere as a result of rifting and
drifting with accretion of new
oceanic crnst. a Additional thin-
ning of the lithosphere land-
ward of the hinge zone (besides
uniform thinning seaward and
within the hinge zone, ß stretch-
ing factor). b Thickness of ef-
fective elastic plate defined by
450°C isotherm. See text for
explanation. (After Steckler et
al. 1988)
With the onset of drifting, local subsidenee in the
former rift basin slowed and was followed by a broad
downsagging of the evolving eontinental shelf and
slope inc1uding the neighboring continent. As a result
of flexural downwarping, alandward thinning wedge
of coastal plain sediments was developed, which be-
gan in the late Jurassie and extended during the
lower Cretaeeous more than 300 km inland. The fact
that Jurassie sediments are nearly absent at the base
of this sediment wedge (observed data shown in Fig.
8 .17b) strongly indicates additional heating of the
lithosphere adjaeent to the rift basin. During the late
Cretaeeoes, most of the flexure-indueed part of the
shelf basin was filled up. Near the hinge zone the
thickness of this sediment wedge is ab out 4 km.
Passive Margin Transect, southern Australia. A
"forward model" for the passive margin of southem
Australia displays similar results as those found for
the New Jersey margin (Fig. 8.17e).
The syn-rift phase is eharaeterized by rapid tectonic subsi-
dence of about 50 rnIMa and ~ 100 mlMa total subsi-
dence. The maximum thickness of syn-rift sediments
(more than 5 km), comprising 25-30 Ma during the
early Cretaeeous, is again found directly seaward of
the hinge zone, although here the thinning of the
lithosphere (ß=3.5 to 4.2) is less than farther seaward
(ß=6.2). The high stretching factor of ß=6.2 at the
eontinent-ocean boundary signifies that the initial
410 Chapter 8 Subsidence

a o

b 4

DRILL HOLES
6

8
BASEMENT

10

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 50
km
STRETCHED CRUST
i
o 100 2DO km
JURASSIC

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 25

C
0

BASEMENT
2

VERTICAL
6 EXAGGERATION x 25

10
0 100 km

ß= 1.0 /1.2 to

Fig. 8.17. 3 Synthetic stratigraphie cross section of
Atlantic passive continental margin, coastal plain and
shelf region off New Jersey. Two-Iayer flexuralload-
ing model, thinning of elastic lithosphere begins
landward of hinge zone (cf. Fig. 8.16; after Steckler
et al. 1988). Note pinching out of Jurassie sediments
beneath coastal plain and onlap of early Cretaceous
onto basement. b Observed New Jersey section
based on drill holes. c Southern Australian margin,
one-Iayer model, stretching factor (ß=6.2) seaward of
the hinge zone larger than in 3, where ß=4. Onlap of
post-rift sediments onto basement where no stretch-
ing occurred (ß=1); both subsidence and sedimenta-
tion rates decrease versus time. (After Hegarty et al.
1988)

thiekness of the eontinental erust (31.2 km) is
thinned to average oeeanie erust thickness (5.0 km).
The syn-rift sediments also reaeh great thicknesses
on the 100 km wide hinge zone (ß=1.2 to 1.6). The
thiekness and extent (200 km) of the landward sedi-
ment wedge is less than in the previous example,
probably due to the wide hinge zone.
Some simulated teetonic subsidence curves were
eompared with results of geohistory analyses
(baekstripping) using information from drill holes on
8.4 Subsidenee Related to Teetonie Loading, Subduetion, ete.
the South Australian continental margin, corrected
for sediment loading. The good fit of many synthetic
curves with the real curves is taken as evidence that
the model assumptions are adequate.
The simulated isochrones for post-rift develop-
ment (Fig. 8.17a and c) display decreasing sediment
accumulation with time. This results from the as-
sumption that the average water depths in the cross
section have remained the same all the time. In real-
ity, the sedimentation rates varied considerably and
therefore brought about changes in the water depths
as well as in the location of the shelf edge which of-
ten does not coincide with major structural bound-
aries of the continental margin.
8.3.3 Summary (Simulated and Observed Subsidence)
The various "forward models" of rift basins and
passive continental margins can adequately pre-
dict the overall thermo-tectonic and total subsi-
dence history of these basins. They therefore
lead to a better understanding of the processes
controlling basin formation.
Crustal stretching during rifting leads to rapid, ±
linear initial subsidence which is followed by
long-Iasting, exponentially decaying thermal
subsidence.
The subsidence rates on passive margins tend to
increase toward the outer margin due to crustal
thinning and adjustment to thecooling oceanic
crust.
8.4 Subsidence Related to
Tectonic Loading, Subduction, and
Strike-Slip Motion
8.4.1 Foreland Basins
General Aspects and Problems
Foreland basins develop on continental crust loaded
by the vertical weight of an approaching overthrust
belt as well as by the lateral force exerted by plate
compression (cf. Sect. 12.6). The subsidence history
of these basins is controlled mainly byflexure of the
underlying lithosphere but also strongly affected by a
stepwise overthrust process below or above sea level,
irregular unloading due to sub aerial erosion of thrust
sheets, and achanging geothermal gradient. For all
these reasons, modeling the development of foreland
basins is a difficult task and therefore not further
411
The subsidence his tory can be subdivided into two
phases, a rifting stage with rapid tectonic subsidence
lasting around 25 to 30 Ma, and a post-rift margin
development (drift phase, about 100 Ma) with dis-
tinctly slower rates of subsidence as a consequence
of cooling and contraction of the lithosphere. Minor
modifications of these models are discussed in Sect.
8.2; sea level-induced unconformities in coastal areas
are described in Sect. 7.2.
The sedimentary sequences of subsiding passive
continental margins are discussed in Sects. 12.2 and
12.3.
- Real subsidence curves largely confirm these
statements, but indicate a number of complica-
tions mentioned in Sect. 8.2.5.
- Rifting and crustal extension mayaiso occur in
several distinct phases and thus cause subsi-
dence curves with repeatedly steepening gradi-
ents.
- Sediment-filled basins, in particular, cause flex-
ural bending of the adjacent continental crust
beyond a hinge zone. Passive margin sediments
on transitional crust may be accompanied by a
thick and wide sediment wedge.
treated here. The following remarks may indicate
some of the problems encountered in this modeling
(cf. Sects. 11.3.5 and 12.6).
Although the quantification of overthrust loads and their
temporal change appear to be difficult, several authors have
made an attempt to model such a situation for different
time steps (e.g., Watts et al. 1982; Quinlan and Beaumont
1984; Flemings and Jordan 1989; Stockmal et al. 1992;
Slingerland et al. 1994). There are, however, examples
(e.g., the Apennines and Carpathians) where the overthrust
load of the mountain belt may be insufficient to create the
subsidence and basin fill of the existing foreland basins. In
these cases, a deep basin already existed on top of the fore-
land plate prior to overthrusting. Thus the approaching
load did not produce a marked topographie high and its
effect on the underlying plate was limited. In many cases
the buildup of collision-related compressional stress seems
to play a major role in crustal deformation (Ziegler et al.
1998).
Another serious problem, as already mentioned in Sect.
8.3 and summarized by Allen et al. (1986), is the rheologi-
412 Chapter 8 Subsidence

a 300 200 100 OMa

r--....J,;;.~~"";:::;:"'-::-'::-~.-. ~:.J..~...._-..._.=..._...::::_=_::::;.~:=:..;::~:_=-..:~-..'_.-._-._-.
.L..
__ -._-._-._-._-._..J.._f--E-N-VE..J.R-B-A-S-IN--+ B.P
........ _._.-._->-,. Fig. 8.18. Subsidence histo-
ries of various foreland bas-
--""::7"'::::"_ _ \
A ERTABASIN ins. All long-term curves
(GETTY UNION OYSTER WELL) show apre-molasse phase,
NORTH
2
commonly characterized by
ONSETOF HELVETIC
slow to medium subsidence
FORElAND BASIN SHELF
rates, and a molasse phase of
SUBSIOENCE (ALPS)
rapid subsidence with the
3 km
/ ....... onset of fore land basin evo-
GREEN RIVER '.
4 lution. a Examples of the

~'~
BASIN Rocky Mountains foreland
in North America and the
ROCKY MOUNTAINS "':. 5 northern Helvetic zone of
FORElAND BASIN, ..... the Alps (Funk 1985). The
100 50 20 m/Ma UTAH ...........
km subsidence curves of the
Denver and Green River
basins (Kominz and Bond
b 300 200 100 50 25 0 Ma
1986) indicate tectonic sub-
sidence, while the other
'--_ . . . ....... '~~._..... B.P. curves represent total subsi-
2-- '"........ .\ V0
2 :.....
--~~.::.~.~.~.~,~.~.~.::.- ... \ \ dence (Alberta curve cor-
rected for compaction; Utah
curve from Cross 1986).
3 \\ \ b Examples of total, uncor-
\;
I
\
.... rected subsidence curves
".\ \ I 2
···~r
from northern Alpine
molasse basin (after Lemcke
VI-;--j 1974) and Venetian basin,
--------~--\ I
I 3
southern Alps (Massari et al.
1986). Note strong rebound,
4 particularly in western por-
V, VENETIAN BASIN, S. ALPS, tion of molasse basin in
100 km
L--...J ITALY. (VI NEAR THRUST km front of Swiss Alps
BELT, VoAT OUTER MARGIN) 5

eal state of the ernst being flexed. Neither the model as- example, for the northern margin of the Indian plate which
sumption of a purely elastie nor of a viseo-elastie plate ap- was exposed to the load of the overthrusting High
pears to be adequate to suffieiently explain the observed Himalayas (Lyon-Caen and Molnar 1985).
phenomena. The elastie plate model fails to aeeount for the Finally, in some cases the behavior of the foreland plate
observed rapid relaxation of the lithosphere to a loading may be strongly affected by low-angle subduction from the
event, and the viseo-elastie model implies the. unrealistie side opposite to the approaching overthrust belt. As a con-
predietion that flexural stresses vanish to zero over geolog- sequenee of the doubled thickness of the lithosphere (sub-
ieal time. Therefore, additional assumptions are being pro- lithospheric loading), the foreland plate undergoes signifi-
posed for the modeling of foreland basins. A thermo-rheo- cant uplift and may therefore greatly influence the geome-
logieal model induding time-dependent effeets may be try and subsidence history of the foreland basin. Such a
better suited to explain both short-term relaxation and mechanism is postulated for the uplift of the Colorado Pla-
long-term finite rigidity of the lithosphere. Rapid subsi- teau in North America and the rapid subsidence of the adja-
denee and sedimentation in active foreland basins produce cent basins during the Upper Cretaceous (Cross 1986).
thermal anomalies within the sediments and the lithosphere
which later decay. Consequently, the mechanieal state of
the lithosphere changes considerably through time. Subsidence Curves from Geohistory Analysis
In this context, it is important to note that foreland bas-
ins, at least their internal parts, are often superimposed on a
passive continental rnargin, i.e., on lithosphere which was The examples in Figure 8.18 demonstrate some gen-
already mechanically extended and had therrnally subsided. eral trends found in several fore land basins of vari-
As overthrusting continues, the orogenie belt progressively ous ages. During the pre-molasse stage, total subsi-
loads more rigid lithosphere on the landward side of the dence frequently resembles that of passive continen-
former margin. In addition, variations in flexural rigidity tal margins characterized by exponential decay. The
along the strike of basin may lead to unpredietable lateral rates of subsidence depend on the stage of evolution
changes in the subsidence history. This is postulated, for of this passive margin as weIl as on the location of
8.4 Subsidence Related to Tectonic Loading, Subduction, etc.
the site investigated. Proximal sites close to the for-
mer oeean or remnant basin experienee higher subsi-
denee than distal, eratonward areas (Fig. 8.l8b,
Venetian basin). With the approaehing overthrust
belt (syn-molasse stage, cf. Fig. 1.3), subsidence ae-
eelerates and may operate at very high rates in the
proximal part of the foredeep (total subsidence ;:::300
mlMa) for a short time interval.
As soon as plate eollision is eomplete and eonver-
genee comes to an end, the downgoing plate is not
further subjeet to inereasing loads. Consequently,
subsidenee slows down quickly. In the northem fore-
land basin of the Alps, rapid subsidenee is followed,
after a very short time interval, by uplift (Fig. 8.19b).
This may be explained by crustal rebound due to
isostatie adjustment of the thiekened erust, by re-
moval of the negative thermal anomaly built up in the
lithosphere under overthrusting (Kominz and Bond
1986), as weIl as by erosional unloading of the
emerged, high-relief frontal overthrust and fold belt.
8.4.2 Subduetion-Related Are-Treneh Systems
As in foreland basins, fIexure of the lithosphere in
eonjunetion with subduetion is the main proeess in
generating deep-sea trenches (cf. Fig. 1.2). In this
ease, however, the erust is oeeanie and mueh thinner
than eontinental erust. The subdueting oeeanie plate
is underthrust beneath an aeeretionary prism and an
island are or eontinental margin (cf. Seet. 12.5). The
vertieal load of these overriding bodies varies with
the dip angle of subduetion and the land ward inereas-
ing thiekness of the aeeretionary prism and magmatie
are. In addition, lateral forees exerted by eonver-
genee and the subduetion rate play some role, at least
in parts of the are-treneh system.
The seaward and eentral portions of an aeere-
tionary prism, as weIl as the magmatic are, tend to
gain in elevation with time, while the foreare and
backare regions subside. The depth of the treneh
fIoored by the subducting oeeanie plate may be eom-
paratively stable through time due to the establish-
ment of steady-state eonditions, i.e., a kind of bal-
ance between ineoming and aeereting sediment (Seet.
12.5.2).
In the foreare region, seaward parts of the basin
fill may rest on deformed sediments of the aeere-
tionary wedge (eomposite foreare basins, cf. Seet.
12.5.3). The subsidenee of backarc regions varies in
relation to the lack or oeeurrenee of backare spread-
ing and overthrusting of the magmatie are. Conse-
quently, both the total amount and rate of subsidenee
are very variable in foreare and backare basins, but
they may reaeh high values during their evolution.
During a late stage in ocean closure, the subdueting
oeeanie erust may be replaeed by a thinned eontinen-
tal (intermediate ) erust supporting the tendeney to
uplift.
413
It is evident from these points that the subsidenee
histories of these settings are variable and problem-
atie to simulate.
8.4.3 Pull-Apart Basins
Strike-slip movements eommonly operate at high
rates, but pers ist only for limited time periods. Partie-
ularly in transtensional systems, they eause signifi-
cant crustal extension or the opening of erustal
"gaps" whieh ean be filied by upwelling magma. The
subsidenee history of these basins therefore resem-
bles to some extent that of rift basins. The early stage
of basin formation is aeeompanied by rapid subsi-
denee whieh, due to lateral heat loss, may be even
higher than that of rift basins. In this case, subsi-
denee ean be modeled in a way similar to that de-
seribed in Seet. 8.3 .1 (cf. Sect. 12.8).
However, many puIl-apart basins show a eomplex
subsidenee history with more than one pulse of rapid
subsidence. In addition, subsidenee may be followed
by aperiod of uplift.
These complications have been described from the onshore
Tertiary pull-apart basins in California, such as the Los
Angeles, Sacramento, Salton Trough, Ventura, and other
basins (Dickinson et al. 1987; Mayer 1987). Changes in
subsidence trends are probably caused by the transition
from transtensional to transpressional defonnation (cf.
Sect. 12.8), but other processes such as volcanism associ-
ated with wrench faulting rnay also playapart.
8.4.4 Summary (Subsidenee Caused by
Teetonie Loads, ete.)
Orogenie basins subjeeted to tectonic loading
(renmant and foreland basins, many backare
basins) are eharaeterized by eonvex-up see-
tions in their subsidenee eurves. This is in eon-
trast to rift basins, puIl-apart basins, passive
eontinental margin and oeeanie basins whieh
show a eoncave-up shape of their subsidenee
eurves indieating exponential deeay.
- In the later stages of their evolution, however,
the subsidence of orogenie basins slows and is
frequently followed by uplift.
- Episodie thrusting andlor strike-slip, voleanie
events, and variations in the fIexural behavior
of the erust involved ean lead to irregular,
poorly predietable subsidenee eurves.
9 Denudation: Solute Transport and
Flux Rates of Terrigenous Sediment
9.1 Weathering, Soils, and F onnation of
Terrigenous Sediments
9.1.1 General Aspects
9.1.2 Modern Soils and Paleosols (Overview)
Introduction
Principal Soil Types
Soils Controlled by Sediment Aggradation or
Erosion
Cumulate, Composite, and Compound Paleosols
9.1.3 Weathering and Composition of Suspended
River Loads (Overview)
General Aspects and Problems
Minerals Derived from Parent Rocks
Climate Control ofSoil-Derived Minerals
Sediment Recycling
9.1.4 Detrital Clay Minerals in Lake Basins and
in the Sea
General Aspects
Paleoceanography and Paleoclimate from
Clay Minerals
9.2 Chemical Denudation (Quantitative Aspects)
9.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2 Groundwater Chemistry and Denudation Rates
in Specific Rock Types
Rock Salt and Sulfate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Silicate Rocks
9.2.3 Solute Transport ofRiver Systems
(Mixed Rock Types)
Solute Concentrations in Rivers
Global Mean Values ofSolute Concentrations
Variations in Water Chemistry Along
River Courses
9.2.4 Chemical Denudation Rates in Different
Morpho-Climatic Zones (Overview)
Specific Transport Rates and Mean
Denudation Rates (Definitions)
Examples from River Catchments and
Various Morpho-Clirnatic Zones
9.2.5 Global Effects ofChemical Denudation
9.2.6 Geomorphological Consequences of
Differential Chemical Denudation
9.3 Mechanical Denudation
9.3.1 Introduction
9.3.2 Modern Denudation Rates
The River-Load Method and Hs Limits
Mechanical Denudation Rates in Relation to
Relief and Climate
Results from Major River Systems
Results from Selected Regions and
Artificial Reservoirs
The Global Mechanical Denudation Rate
9.3.3 General Laws for Mechanical Denudation
9.4 Modern Chemical vs. Mechanical Denudation Rates
9.4.1 Global Values
9.4.2 Regional Variations and Trends
9.5 Long-Tenn Denudation Rates from Landfonn
Reconstruction
9.5.1 Methods for Reconstructing Fonner
Land Surfaces
9.5.2 Long-Tenn Denudation Rates (Overview)
9.5.3 Regions ofVery Slow Denudation
9.5.4 Modern vs. Long-tenn Denudation Rates
9.6 Steady State and Dynamic Denudation Systems
9.6.1 Isostatic Response to Denudation
9.6.2 Uplift and Denudation
General Concepts
Rates ofUplift
9.6.3 Simple Uplift-Denudation Models
9.7 Denudation Rates, Summary
9.1 Weathering, Solls, and Formation of
Terrigenous Sediments
9.1.1 General Aspects
Most of the sediment deposited in sedimentary basins
is derived from land areas exposed to subaerial
weathering. This is, to some extent, also true for
biogenic and chemical sediments, insofar as their
production depends on the dissolved river load deliv-
ered into the sedimentary basins. The land-derived,
solid material is usually referred to as the terri-
genous, allochthonous, clastic component of a sedi-
mentary deposit.
Due to weathering and erosion, the land surface is
slowly lowered (Fig. 9.1 a and b). The average
amount of this lowering in a certain region over a
given time span is defined as the mean denudation
rate. Denudation involves the transport of disinte-
grated bedrock, soil, and vegetation components into
continental basins or into the oceans. This mass
transfer is controlled by a variety of physical, chemi-
cal, and biological processes. Rainfall, surface run-
off, and river flow are the most important transport
9.1 Weathering, Soils, Terrigenous Sediments 415

CLiMA TE: HUMID a HUMID ARID TO

TROPICAL TEMPERATE SEMI-ARID
DESTRUCTI~ .:.:.:::,:.:.~' DESTRUCTION 1 SLOW DE- ~-rnID~~tIN PLACEl:

-1..
OF OLIVINE, STRUCTION • CALCRETE
AND DIS'" : ~~.: :.~ . ~ AND / OR
AMPHIBOLES. OF ROCK
SOLUTION OF HORNBLENDE, SILCRETE
MOST ROCK: MINERALS
PLAGIOCLASE,
MINERALS I ORTHOCLASE DISSOLUTION
I OF CARBONATES
MOST
PARENT .} IN PLACES
MINERALS
BAUXITE AND ALL PARENT
PRESERVED
FERRICRUSTS MINERALS PRESERVED
(CARBONATE DISSOLVED)

b
ZONE OF STRONG CHEMICAL-MINERALOGICAL
AND MECHANICAL WEA THERING (SOlL ZONE)
TO SEDIMENTARY
BASIN

c
CONTRIBUTION TENDENCIES FOR
SOlL ZONE
TO SOLID RIVER LOAD
CLASTIC
./ "'-
DISSOLVED
SEDIMENTS RIVER LOAD
HIGH
HUMID
TROPICAL PREDOMINANCE IN TOTAL HIGH ,
CliMATE OF NEO-CLAY .::::::> RICH IN Na . (K), C;
__L~~ _ __ _ ___ _ ----7 MINERALS Mg , HCOJ • Si0 2 ,

MEDIUM aUARTZ SAND,

MICA , CLAY, IN TOTAL MEDIUM.
HUMID
MINERALS DERIVED =!> OFTEN RICH IN
FROM BOTH SOlLS Ca , Mg , HCOJ
TEMPERATE MEDIUM
AND PARENT ROCKS

- - -- -------- ---7
LOW
aUARTZ SAND, IN TOTAL LOW,
\ \/.... ..'. WITH ABUNDANT POOR IN MOST
ARID TO /,-1 ..!. FELDSPAR: ETC.,
SEM I-ARID / 'I, MAIN CONSTTTUENTS
/ 'j., 'L_H~I~G~H-------~ REDEPOSJTlON OF ~ BUT LOCALL Y HIGH
OLDER CLAY DUE TO EVAPORATIO
j/' . 1/,-' MINERALS OR DISSOLUTION
PARENT ROCK AND ITS MINERALS OF SALTS

Fig. 9.1. Qualitative relationship between climate,
weathering, and delivery of clastlc sediments as well
as dissolved materials into sedimentary basins. a In-
tensity and depth of destruction (or preservation) of
parent rock minerals and formation of clay-type neo-
minerals (including oxides and hydroxides of Al and
Fe). b Different zones of weathering, resulting denu-
dation, and river transport of particulate and dissol-
ved load. c General trends in climatically-controlled
production of clastic sediments and the input of dis-
solved constituents into sedimentary basins. Note
that the temperate and especially the arid to semi-arid
regions can deliver substantial amounts of unchanged
parent rock material and nonaltered minerals (inclu-
ding clay minerals)
416
agents, but groundwater circulation, ice and wind
transport also playa significant part in many regions.
Mass transfer to sedimentary basins may take place
discontinuously due to intermediate storage of loose
material in valleys, on flood plains, or in lakes up-
stream of the basin considered.
Disintegration of rocks due to stress release, as
weIl as thermal expansion and contraction is apparent
even at a depth of several tens of meters below the
land surface (Fig. 9.lb). Newly formed joints near
the surface and increasing pore space favor the circu-
lation of water and thus accelerate mechanical and
chemical weathering. The zone of most pronounced
weathering is near the surface in the pedosphere (Fig.
9.la), where biological activity accelerates the alter-
ation of rocks and minerals. Significant weathering
also occurs below the pedosphere, in the so-called
saprolite (cf. Fig. 9.3). Then the base ofthe saprolite
may represent the most active front of weathering.
The term regolith is mostly used in a broader sense; it
signifies the mantle of unconsolidated and fragmen-
tal rock material covering the bedrock whether
formed in place or transported.
In general, large, thermodynamically unstable
minerals are transformed into smaIler, stable compo-
nents such as clay minerals (neo-minerals, "mineral-
ogieal" weathering). At the same time, the. parent
minerals lose part of their solid matter by chemical
reactions and dissolution ("chemieal" weathering).
Thus, the entire alteration process should be referred
to as "biochemical-chemical-mineralogical" weather-
ing, but it is frequently called chemical weathering.
Several minerals are completely dissolved, such as
carbonate minerals in humid regions.
Chemical-mineralogical and biological weathering
are dominant in wet climates, whereas in arid cli-
mates rocks are disintegrated mainly by mechanical
processes. The products of chemical weathering are
best developed in lowland areas or on flat plateaus,
where the altered material of the saprolite cannot be
removed readily from its parent rock. Hence, deeply
weathered profiles of completely altered parent rock
are common in tropical lowlands or on large
nondissected plateaus (Figs. 9.la and 9.3d). Regions
of high topographie relief in conjunction with sub-
stantial rainfall are most important in delivering par-
ticulate matter into rivers.
Erosion on hillslopes is controlled by both the
weathering rate and transport processes which re-
move the disintegrated, loose material at the surface.
Erosion may be "weathering-limited', if the capacity
of the transport processes exceeds the rate at which
erodible material is generated by weathering (cf. Fig.
9.3c and d). As a result, the bedrock is exposed and
the slopes tend to steepen, thus further promoting
mechanical denudation. In contrast, erosion is
"transport-limited' if more material can be supplied
by weathering than can be removed by transport pro-
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
cesses. In this case, thick soil profiles develop, and
transport of materials in solution predominates.
The principal relationship between climate and
weathering products of the source area with, e.g.,
granitic bedrock, providing both clastic material and
dissolved river load for a sedimentary basin, is sum-
marized in Fig. 9.lc. Tropical regions tend to deliver
predominantly neo-minerals and a small portion of
the most stable minerals from pre-existing bedrocks
as terrigenous sediment components. Temperate, hu-
mid regions supply both neo-minerals and stable pre-
existing minerals, whereas arid regions deli ver com-
paratively unstable minerals. This simplified model
may be modified by grain sorting during sediment
transport. Fine-grained suspended river load moves
much faster and usually over longer distances than
the coarser, sandy and gravelly bed load (Fig. 9.1b).
It is therefore usually separated from the bed load.
The dissolved river loads in the three climatic
zones also differ markedly both in the concentrations
of various chemical species and in their freight rates
(Fig. 9.lc). Due to intense precipitation and chemical
weathering, more solid matter per unit area and time
can be dissolved in the wet tropics than in other
zones, provided the bedrock is not protected by thick,
clay-rich vegetated soil covers. In arid regions, me-
chanical processes are more important than dissolu-
tion. These and some further aspects will be further
discussed quantitatively in Sections 9.2 and 9.3.
9.1.2 Modern Soils and Paleosols (Overview)
Introduction
Soils play an important part not only in providing
various erodible materials for sediment transport and
basin filling, but also as indicators of paleoclimate
and depositional or erosional processes which have
been operating in the past. Paleosols have also be-
come a significant tool in continental sequence stra-
tigraphy (cf. Chap. 7.6). However, the genesis of
modem soils (pedogenesis) and older buried soils
(i.e. paleosols) and the degree of their preservation,
partial destruction, or diagenetic overprint are com-
plex processes. The following brief overview mainly
stresses sedimentological aspects.
Soil forming processes, soil classification, and paleosols
are treated in several special publications and books (e.g.
Wright 1986; Reinhardt and Sigleo 1988; Retallack 1990;
Martini and Chesworth 1992). Duricrusts are described e.g.
by Wopfner (1978), Twidale and Milnes (1983), Milnes
and Thiry (1992).
Soils develop at the land surface under different cli-
mates, hydrological regimes, vegetation and other
biological activities. They are further influenced by
the nature of the parent rocks or unconsolidated sedi-
9.1 Weathering, Soils, Terrigenous Sediments 417

VERTISOL
GYPCRETE PODSOL GLEYSOL
HIGH CLAY CONTENT.
WET, DRY CYCLES HISTOSOL
P«E ~

...
DESSICATION ORGANIC LA YER

2~J~'·
CRACKSr-~~~~

i ,~
-
, ~-'I'

1-"':':'::" "-~:;':::-
SWELLING

r::- .~~-
~ REDUCED;- . 'I'
EASILY V
SOLUBLE " . .'.
'·
'.
CLA YS
GREY !.1-i-' '.
Ca SO • J.'. .'. :? .. .':' . .' PSEUDO,
ANTICLINES, / • ',,J. BROWN I y I·...,. . SIDERITE

. .'". C''. .. i .' "

SliCKEN'I' c».
SIDES
<»
---------.--/
STAINING . -J-. ••. CONCRETIONS

/-- ----- - -
- - - - --
WATER "
TABLE .:1: ___ ---
CLACITE/DOLOMITE -
NODULES WATER,LOGGED CONDITIONS

CALCRETES GROUNDWATER CALCRETE

P<E AND DOLOCRETE
TIME (VERY LOW SRI PEDOGENIC
CaCO, ~ CALCRETE
FROM.

.;. .
LAMINAE PISOIDS BRECCIATED
DUST "
"'- J SOlL MOISTURE ~ gC"!--r.
~ o~; J....:..,. .~..."'-...... I ____ .~Q.f"!.E-,. li~~;!-;~
\~/:..r · I GRAVITATIONAL '.:. ~ :; >.:-,:.::
m ri1qj;~ >3m'5 < WATER " .. ' ..
...l ~~6)
: \ .. I
./, CAPILLARY ZONE
':;.-. --y.
,-
~~:,,~ ;,
__·1-_-
• : I •• 1- • • •

I
... -_f:1.--~T ·t.! i~i';'
ö.!,. ,,<!;!;, ALLUVIUM
," :,..:.'
...z: 0 · ... · ,; . . . . /1 •
MASSIVE CALCRETE
(HARDPAN) GROUNDWATER TABLE GROUNDWATER
(FLUCTUA TING) . CALCRETE

FERRALSOL. LATERITE SILCRETES CLiMATE CHANGE

OXISOL
P»E PEDOGENIC
CALCRETE
NUTRIENT SOlL ± GRAVEL MORE ARID
__~~m5:;;:~~ClING OF LATERITE
I:"":"'T=,-;t (WET-DRY)
l--I'R'>NIA-LATERITE
RAPID
DECAY I ± KAOLINITE
m
. .
I ~!;':;:' ': __ . ~EWORKED _t. '.' ..... ' . ~._ SILCRETE .
i- DISSOL .. ' > 3· 5 :. MOTTLED . .. . . ..... ~t.'
'+ OF Si0 ~~,.

I::'-\,'':·:':.';·
m ... . . . . . :.:. GROUNDWATER
1 :. .:. SILCRETE
1 SÄPROLITE ': GROUNDWATER LATERITE
I -:,:-.:..:...::... __
LATERITE.
~LATE~IT.E .. ·:·
I : Fe" ~ ..~-:,;..:--.- ~. ;1:\~~~
.·;
..
HUMID
~-
" -.l7 ::-:-+. :.:
""'ik .-.,/, '
-" ,~--,-
.~
" ' : 'S\.
BAUXITE, ,~, .IQo,~.
FERRICRETE ~,';.!':.. ;:~~;~.: ... ~ . ~ -;.:.~ .:-.;; • MAINL Y OPAL SAPROLITE
(SEASONAL P) PA RE NT ." .~. ';, . •. , AND CHALCEDONY
MATERIAL " Fe • FIXED DURING
, LOW WATER LEVEL

Fig. 9.2. Various types of soil and duricrust, depen- vertical scales for pedogenic and groundwater featu-
dent on climate (annual precipitation P and evapora- res, (Based mainly on Wright 1996, simplified). See
tion E), substrate and other factors . Note different text for further explanation

ments. If the land surface experiences neither deposi- are partially or entirely depleted of soluble and unsta-
tion nor erosion, the soils thicken to some extent with ble minerals but enriched in stable neo-minerals. AI-
time and mature, i.e. they adjust to their environmen- tered rock below the zone of roots and other biologi-
tal conditions and form specific soil profiles which cal activities is referred to as saprolite.
418
Principal Soil Types
The most important types of soils are summarized in
Fig. 9.2. If the elimate is warm and annual precipita-
tion, P, lower than potential evaporation, E, from the
soil surface, vegetation is sparse or absent and infil-
trated water can rarely percolate the underground.
Dissolved constituents from the soil zone are
reprecipitated elose to the land surface as gypcretes,
calcretes, and possibly silcretes as a result of water
loss to evaporation. Calcium sulfate for gypsum may
be provided either by ascending water from a shallow
water table or by oxidation of pyrite present in the
parent rock. Calcium carbonate for calcrete formed
elose to the surface normally comes from the soil
zone or from eolian dust. Only in alluvial plains and
playas does Ca2+ (and So/) from a shallow ground-
water table contribute to the formation of calcrete or
gypsum nodules.
Where annual precipitation is higher than evapora-
tion (P>E), the vegetation cover becomes dense and
infiltrated water and part of its solutes can reach the
groundwater table. This process also allows the
downward displacement of elay partieles (lessivage)
and some particulate organic matter and their enrich-
ment in deeper horizons of the soil profile. Under
cool and temperate conditions, organic litter decays
slowly and causes a reduced grey upper soil horizon
with acidic soil water transporting Fe2+ downward
(podsols and gleysols) or, in places, laterally. Warm
elimate favors rapid decay of the topsoil organic
layer and thus leads to soil water of higher pH values
allowing dissolution of both F2+ and Si02 from vari-
ous minerals. This process generates ferralsols,
oxisols, and laterites. As soon as oxic or partially
oxic conditions are established (especially in the dry
season), iron and some other constituents are
reprecipitated from the downward percolating soil
water. The resulting Fe3+ compounds (later trans-
formed into hematite) form small concretions
(illuvial horizon) or, in particular under peat
(histosols), pyrite and siderite concretions. In the
case of ferralsols, oxisols and laterites, dissolved sil-
ica leaves the soil zone and Fe3+ and Al compounds
are enriched and may form ferricrusts (laterite)
andlor bauxite. Pedogenic silcretes develop in a simi-
lar way as calcretes, but apparently in a somewhat
wetter elimate with seasonal rainfall. When primary
minerals such as feldspar are already destroyed, silica
is mainly provided by elay minerals, present in the
soil or saprolite, and reprecipitated as microcrystal-
line quartz. Aluminum should either be fixed in sta-
ble minerals or be more soluble than silica within the
zone of silicification. A kind of columnar or lenticu-
lar structure appears to be characteristic of silcrete.
Thickness and specific structures of calcrete,
ferricrete, and silcrete depend on the time period
available for their development (Fig. 9.3a and b).
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
Thick representatives of these "duricrusts" or hard-
pans need time periods of hundreds of thousands up
to millions ofyears to form. For such long time spans
it is not uncommon that certain land surfaces have
experienced c1imate change which has produced dif-
ferent duricrusts on top of each other. When the eli-
mate became slowly dryer, lateritic crusts may have
been overprinted at places by silcretes and these in
turn by calcretes (Fig. 9.2).
All these pedogenic duricrusts have counterparts
formed many meters below the land surface within
the capillary fringe of a fluctuating groundwater ta-
ble. These are "groundwater calcretes", "groundwa-
ter laterites", and "groundwater silcretes" (Fig. 9.2)
which more or less originate from the early diage-
netic cementation of unconsolidated sediments, e.g.
channel fills. The cement material normally comes
from chemical weathering (e.g. the saprolite) and is
transported laterally by groundwater flow. Repre-
cipitation takes place in the water-unsaturated zone
above the groundwater table. Groundwater with a
high Mg/Ca ratio of dissolved species (e.g. elose to a
playa system) can generate groundwater dolocrete.
There are some distinctive features to discriminate
between pedogenic calcretes or silcretes generated
within the soil zone and diagenetic "crusts" related to
the groundwater table (Wright 1994 and 1996).
Silcretes consisting mainly of opal and chalcedony
seem to have been precipitated from groundwater
richer in dissolved silica (>6 mg/I) than meteoric soil
water.
Vertisols develop on substrates rich in swelling
elay minerals, such as smectites or mixed-layer min-
erals, in a seasonal dry and wet elimate. These soils
and their paleosols exhibit structures associated with
shrinking (desiccation cracks) and swelling (pseudo-
antidunes and slickensides; Fig. 9.2). Below the zone
of plastic deformation, carbonate nodules can occur.
Vertisols are common in ancient continental
elaystones and marls.
Soils Controlled by Sediment Aggradation or
Erosion
In environments with regular or episodic sediment
accumulation, e.g. on flood plains of meandering
rivers, the time available to develop soils at the land
surface is limited. The higher the sedimentation rate,
SR, the shorter is the so-called residence time, RT, of
the soil to stay within the near-surface zone of soil
formation. This relationship is shown in Fig. 9.3a for
a certain depth of active pedogenesis, H ap (Wright
1992 and 1994). For example, when Hap =2 m and
SR=2 mm/a, the residence time of the soil is
RT=1000 a. As shown in Fig. 9.3b, this is the mini-
mum time span to develop some initial soil features
such as destratification, carbonate nodules, or argillic
9.1 Weathering, Soils, Terrigenous Sediments 419

a SOlL FORM ATION DURING SEDIMENTATION

r----f--, b
MAIN FEATURES OF PALEOSOLS
I I; RESIDENCE MOTTLING
I I TIME 2.5
I
I

H. p I RT = H.p/SR RT- - - - - - ._-. DESTRATIFICATION

I CURVE
I ! ~ 2.0 ARGILLIC HORIZON.
ISR~r-t--i For H... = 2 m
I E ± CARBONATE LEACHING
and SR = 2 mm/a
. .. '. I :~. ~ t. :,,, i\ is RT = 1000 a E 1.5 ---rr----- - - - - - - - . CARBONATE NODULES
::DE'pi'~ ÖF .:: ~ RTM1N .--1
DURIPANS (LATER.!.T!~,_
; ACTIVE ~ <{ 1.0 FOR SOlL I

J
PEDOGENESIS CI: DEVELOPM . THICK CAlCRETES, SILCRETESI

:'.\ H.
.
p
:: '.. ~ 0 .5 I WEAKLY I I
: I ! o NO I DEVEL. : STRONGLY
UJ
o SOlLS SOlLS I . DEVEL. SOlLS
...,"·. n~..-n . tT·1 IJ) I
• .-c".
............... .··
0 .1 10 100 1000 10000
TIME PERIOD OF PEDOGENESIS (kai

c SOlL FORMATION AND EROSION

RA TE OF MECH .
EROSION
d
SOlL UNSTABLE ST ABLE THICK
<}::::>
SAPROLITE
ION
LOSS ......~~!':"'!~ PR2, SAPROLITE

lil~~ i~illli~11 1 TO SOlL

: SAPROllTE:,
:i.:.i. :.i:':~ :·: ;';~i:"::· PR1. ROCK TO
SAPROLITE
.-;,,/ .....(,,! . -. PR1, PR2, RATES
PARENT ROCK,"/.... OF PEDOGENESIS
OR SEDIMENT I (·~ :- (PRl = 5-50 mm/kal

Fig. 9.3. Quantitative aspects of soil fonnation in
relation to sedimentation rate SR (e.g. on flood
plain), (even) soil erosion ER and the thicknesses of
soil zone and saprolite. a,b The residence time RT of
the zone of active pedogenesis H ap near the land sur-
face (e.g. Ha~=2 m in thickness) depends on the mean
SR of aggraaing material. In b the time period neces-
sary to generate some specific features observed in
paleosols is indicated. With SR=O, the land surface
would become slightly lowered. c Rates of saprolite
formation PR] from parent rock, soil formation PR2
from saprolite, and mechanical soil erosion ER at
surface. d Rates introduced in c control thicknesses
and removal of soil and saprolite. (Modified from
Wright 1992 and 1994)

horizons. For more pronounced soil characteristics
residence times of 1 to 100 ka are necessary. Thick
pedogenic calcretes, laterites, and silcretes commonly
need 100 ka up to several Ma to form, i.e. they de-
velop in environments with no, or extremely low, or
even slightly negative net sediment aggradation.
In reality, sediment accumulation is often very
irregular and episodic. A kind of steady-state
upbuilding of soils in conjunction with sediment
aggradation is therefore an idealization of t11e more
complex processes taking place in nature (see be-
low).
In erosional regimes, for example at the rim of
platforms, terraces and on slopes, the soil profiles are
truncated and the zone of active pedogenesis tends to
penetrate deeper into the substrate (parent rock, Fig.
9.3c).
As a result, the bases of both the biologicaUy active soil
zone and the chemically and mineralogically alte red
saprolite move downward at certain rates of pedogenesis
(PRl and PR2 in Fig. 9.3c). If these rates and the rate of
erosion, ER, are equal a kind of steady-state weathering
profile is established. When the rates differ the thiclmesses
of the soil zone and saprolite change with time (Fig. 9.3d).
Thick saprolites develop when PR2 and ER are low; soil
and saprolite are reduced and finally removed when ero-
sion, ER, exceeds PRl or PR2.
The absence of paleosols (and saprolites) points to
either rapid deposition or rapid erosion, sometimes
420
also to climatically unstable conditions. The presence
of thick paleosols indicates long time periods of sta-
ble land surfaces.
Cumulate, Composite, and Compound Paleosols
In addition to irregular sediment aggradation and ero-
sion, climate change may generate different types of
soil on top of each other. The interrelationship of
these factors controls primary pedogenesis, over-
printing of older by younger soils as well as the pres-
ervation or destruction of paleosols in sedimentary
sequences. Some of the numerous possible interac-
tions are shown in Fig. 9.4. They may be subdivided
into several groups (Mariott and Wright 1993):
(a) Non-deposition, neither erosion nor climate
change. The soil matures and may become
thicker with time.
(b) Climate change leads to overprint of the initial
soil profile (polygenetic profile). If the new cli-
matic conditions persist for a long time the re-
cord of older soil profile(s) may be completely
obliterated.
(c) Erosion (truncation) causes the soil to penetrate
deeper into the parent rock (reforrned profile).
(d) Continued slow (regular) deposition allows the
soil to thicken with time (cumulate soil).
(e) Episodic rapid deposition creates interruptions
and repetitions of the soil profile (composite soil
and compound soil sets). Prior to deposition the
original soil profile can be truncated (compound
truncated profile).
These principal types of paleosol profile may be
modified by further complications caused by changes
in the characteristics of the parent rock, differences
in relief, and types of the accumulating sediment
which may contain redeposited soil material (e.g. in
floodplains), etc. Specific soils also develop on top
of dry lake sediments, on carbonate rocks subjected
to karstification, or on quartzitic sandstones. Finally,
it should be mentioned that pedogenesis in the Pre-
cambrian and early Paleozoic periods was controlled
by processes partly different from those in the mod-
em world because plant life comparable to the pres-
ent situation did not yet exist on land (cf. Sect. 6.5).
9.1.3 Weathering and Composition of
Suspended River Loads (Overview)
General Aspects and Problems
With respect to the transport capacity of running wa-
ter and wind, the weathering products of various rock
types can be subdivided into two groups: (1) rela-
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
tively coarse- (gravel and sand) and fine-grained ma-
terial (clayand silt-size fractions). If the provenance
of sediments is of primary interest, studies on the
coarse fraction (including heavy minerals) renders
good results, whereas the fine fraction is more diffi-
cult to evaluate. In terms of quantity, however, the
fine fraction is more important.
As will be demonstrated in Section 9.3, the solid
river load mainly consists of fine-grained particles
carried in suspension during high runoff and floods
(e.g., Pye 1994). For this reason it is not surprising
that clays and claystones (argillites), clayey silt-
stones, muds tones, marlstones, shales and slates (in-
cluding schists) are the most abundant group of all
sedimentary rocks. In addition, marine hemipelagic
and pelagic sediments contain high proportions of
allochthonous terrigenous material apart from their
biogenic components.
The suspended particle flux of rivers consists es-
sentially of a limited number of minerals which can
be ascribed to two sources:
- Primary detrital minerals inherited from the par-
ent rocks.
- Secondary minerals (neo-minerals) generated by
chemical-mineralogical weathering in the drainage
area.
An additional group of fine-grained minerals incIudes
authigenetic and diagenetic clay minerals, glauconite and
pyrite, which form in the depositional environment or
within the sediment. These minerals are not further dis-
cussed in this section. The impact of deep-burial diagenesis
on the clay mineral suite of fine-grained sedimentary rocks
is mentioned in Sect. 13.3.
Provenance studies based on the mineralogical com-
position of the sand-size fraction have to be treated
with caution. Some of these studies may reflect the
composition of the weathering profile mantling
source rocks rather than bedrock (Nesbitt et al.
1996), particularly in regions where substantial
chemical weathering has occurred prior to erosion.
Analysing the mineralogical composition of sus-
pended river loads has its problems. Data gained by
different authors and methods on the same river sys-
tem sometimes display considerable scatter. A com-
mon explanation of these discrepancies is the investi-
gation of sampies of differing grain size distribution.
Sampies taken during peak floods contain higher pro-
portions of silt than those collected during lower run-
off. If only the ::;2 J.1m fraction is analyzed, clay min-
erals would predominate, whereas quartz and other
source rock minerals would be rare. The presence of
X-rayamorphous matter can add to the uncertainties
regarding quantification of the mineralogical compo-
sition of fine-grained material.
9.1 Weathering and Suspended River Loads 421

a NON-DEPOSITION C EROSION
ORIGINAL INCREASED TRUNC- REFORMED
PROFILE MATURITY ATION PROFILE

~-~ ~~~
l\~
CH~NGE IN d CONTINUOUS SLOW

C~\
POLYGENETIC \
i:~ CUMULATE
PROFILE SOlL

e RAPID EPISODIC SEDIMENTATION

COMPOSITE r-r-r-r-,., Fig. 9.4. Soil development in relation to deposi-

SOlL SET tion (continuous or episodic) or erosion (trunca-
tion). Furthermore, the time available for pedo-
genesis (increasing maturity) and changing cli-
mate control soil formation (polygenetic profi-

rro A or B
COMPOUND COMPOUND
les). Note the difference between cumulate,
composite, and compound soils. Arrows indicate
lines of evolution. (Modified after Mariott and
~ BorC SET TRUNCATED Wright 1993)

Minerals Derived from Parent Rocks
When physical weathering processes predominate
and chemical weathering is limited, primary minerals
and rock fragments derived from parent rocks con-
tribute substantially to the river load (e.g., Konta
1988). The sand-size fraction rnay contain significant
proportions of relatively unstable silicate minerals of
the pyroxene, hornblende and feldspar groups. The
finer grained fractions include quartz, some
plagioclase and K-feldspar, calcite and dolomite, as
well as smaller particles, such as chlorite and other
clay minerals. A certain amount of quartz (often up
to 20%) is found in most ofthe major rivers.
The presence of carbonate minerals is a particu-
larly sensitive indicator of the absence of deeply
weathered soils in parts of the drainage area. This
situation is common in regions of high relief or under
arid conditions. Examples are the rivers Nile, Mac-
kenzie, the Himalayan rivers, and the Alpine river
Rhine entering Lake Constance.
Significant amounts of feldspar, especially the
relatively unstable plagioclase, strongly indicate con-
ditions of limited chemical weathering. Large quanti-
ties of plagioclase (10 - 20%) are known from the
Nile River (draining arid regions) and St. Lawrence
River (from the Canadian shield). Srnall proportions
of plagioclase occur in nearly all major rivers be-
cause of the presence of crystalline rocks and pre-
dominating physical weathering in some part of their
drainage systems.
Even river-borne clay minerals may be derived
directly from parent rocks (older claystones, shales,
etc., exposed to mechanical erosion). These can be
broken down rapidly to their fine-grained fundamen-
tal components alone by mechanical processes (re-
peated drying and wetting). Then the parent rocks
largely control the clay mineral composition of the
new sediment. Illite, for example, is not only a com-
mon weathering product from acidic crystalline rocks
in humid temperate clirnates (see below), but it is
also abundant in many slightly metamorphosed
shales of mountain ranges. Thus, sheet-silicates, in-
cluding muscovite and sometimes mixed-Iayer miner-
als, may largely originate from parent rocks. Illite
predominates in the suspended loads of the Indus,
422
Ganges, Yangtze, Yellow and Parami rivers, and in
several major rivers of Europe (Konta 1988).
Chlorite is a major constituent of slates and green-
schists. If it occurs in the river load in considerable
quantities it comes from the mechanical erosion of
pre-existing rocks containing this mineral. Chlorite is
therefore a main constituent (around 20% ofthe total
suspended load) of rnany rivers draining high moun-
tain ranges, such as the Hirnalayan rivers or some
rivers in North and South America (Mackenzie, St.
Lawrence, Orinoco). However, chlorite is destroyed
in warm, humid climates, because it is very sensitive
to chemical weathering. Hence, the presence of detri-
tal chlorite indicates either cold or possibly arid cli-
mate (see also, e.g., Chamley 1989).
Climate Control of Soil-Derived Minerals
If transport-limited conditions prevail in large parts
of the drainage area, thick soil profiles can develop.
Then slow mechanical denudation mainly removes
soils but little parent rock material. As a result, soil-
formed neo-minerals tend to predominate in the sus-
pended river load. Under these conditions it is diffi-
cult to find out the original nature of the source
rocks.
In humid tropical and subtropical regions, a rela-
tively short time period (often some thousands of
years) is needed to completely remove carbonate in
solution from the soil and saprolite. Then, during the
first stage of mineral transformation, kaolinite is the
predominating, newly formed clay mineral reflecting
the clirnate rather than the mineralogical composition
of the source rocks. Iron-oxyhydrate and FeZ0 3 (he-
matite) lead to red soils (laterites, see above and
Chap. 6.3). In a second phase of mineral transforma-
tion, even the common clay minerals (aluminum sili-
cates, including kaolinite) become unstable and their
silica content is dissolved and carried away by water.
Hydroxides and oxides of a1uminum and iron are left
behind as a residue and may form thick lateritic
crusts (ferricrusts, Figs. 9.1a and 9.2) or, after some
lateral displacement, locally accumulate to bauxite
deposits (e.g. Ollier 1969; Chorley et al. 1984;
Retallack 1990; Valeton in Füchtbauer 1988).
In temperate humid zones, carbonate is still well
dissolved from the soi1 zone and underlying rocks.
Here, illite is a characteristic, low solubility weather-
ing product. It is on1y under semi-arid conditions that
carbonate rernains in the soil zone as reprecipitated
calcrete or caliche (cf. Fig. 9.1a and 9.2).
Generally, the neo-mineral group includes miner-
als of the montrnorillonite/smectite types (mostly ba-
sic parent rocks, temperate to subtropical climates),
the sheet-silicates of the illite/muscovite type (humid
temperate climate), kaolinite and gibbsite (and the
iron oxide goethite; semi-arid to tropical climates).
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
The iron oxides indicate either humid conditions
(goethite) or a semi-arid to subtropical climate (he-
matite).
Montmorillonite is an important constituent in the Caroni
and some other tributaries ofthe Amazon River (crystalline
rocks, tropical c\imate), in the Orange River (SW Africa),
and in the Deccan Plateau rivers of India draining basaltic
rocks and their weathering products (subtropical c\imate).
It is also common in the Mississippi River near its mouth,
where the :> 10 Ilm size fraction contains 40% smectite or
montmorillonite, 25% illite, and 20% kaolinite (Potter et
al. 1975). Kaolinite and gibbsite are abundant in the soils
of wet tropical c\imates, where the less stable chlorite dis-
appears. Kaolinite is a principal component in the river
loads ofthe Orinoco and Caroni, Niger, Congo, the Deccan
rivers, arid in some rivers of New Guinea; gibbsite was
reported only from the Niger River.
It is a general rule that small river systems displaya
more uniform mineralogical composition of their sus-
pended solids than large systems. The latter normally
reflect the influence of mixed parent rocks, different
relief, clirnatic zones, and soils.
There are more soi1-formed clay minerals than
those mentioned here, but a more detailed treatment
of this topic is beyond the scope of this text (see e.g.
Chamley 1989; Weaver 1989; Velde 1995). In any
case, one should be cautious in deducing the
paleoclimate of a specific region solely from the clay
mineral composition of sediments derived from the
area.
Chemical-mineralogical weathering is also characterized by
different partitioning of elements between the dissolved
and the suspended phases. Generally, the solids tend to
become enrlched in aluminum, iron, and (in regions of
humid, temperate c\imate) in silicon, while sodium, cal-
cium, and (to a lesser extent) potassium and magnesium are
carried away in solution (e.g., Stallard 1985). Ifthe cation-
poor minerals (kaolinite, gibbsite, goethite) are regarded as
the end products of intensive weathering, then a kind of
chemical-mineralogical maturity of the soil-derived solids
can be defined (Emeis 1985; Konta 1988) with the aid of
their bulk chemical composition. Relatively high concen-
trations of A1 3+(and ferric iron), or relatively low Si0 2 con-
tents and low concentrations of Na + and Ca 2+ (and Mg22+,
K+) indicate an advanced maturity (tropical rivers). Low
maturity, expressed by a low Al/Si ratio, is typical of arid
drainage basins. With growing maturity, the Al/Si ratio
also increases.
Sediment Recycling
In the early history of the Earth, the land masses
were entirely or predominantly composed of igneous
rocks and experienced jirst-cycle weathering. As
long as soil-generating processes and hence the for-
mation of neo-minerals were limited, in particular
hill-slope erosion and valley cutting could provide
unstable rock-derived minerals for sediments.
9.1 Weathering and Suspended River Loads
Later in the Earth's history, as a result of succes-
sive cycles of tectonic uplift, mountain building,
weathering and renewed sedimentation, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks became increasingly impor-
tant at the land surface and thus as a source of youn-
ger sediments (cf. Chap. 11.7). The composition of
successive sediment cycles therefore tended to be-
come richer in stable secondary minerals (increase in
mineralogical maturity) through geologic time at the
expense of primary minerals (cf. Chaps. 6.5 and
11. 7).
However, there are many exceptions to this general rule.
For example, first-cyc1e sedimentary rocks (mainly sands
and gravel, containing a large proportion of unaltered pri-
mary minerals) are known from al1 geological epochs, not
only from the Precambrian. Volcanism and magmatism in
conjunction with mountain building provided new igneous
source rocks and relief, i.e. weathering-limited conditions,
for the formation of first-cycle sediments. On the other
hand, even first-cyc1e sediments may have already gained a
considerable proportion of stable neo-minerals if humid
c1imate and low relief al10wed intense pedogenesis.
Sorting processes during sediment transport may
have led to fine-grained deposits which are difficult
to discriminate from sediments derived from older
sedimentary rocks. Silty claystones and mudstones
are therefore less useful than coarser-grained strata
for evaluating sediment recycling. It appears that
only high relief areas or arid zones can significantly
contribute with fresh rock material and minerals to
the composition of successive sediments. Although
gravel and coarse sand are partially worn down dur-
ing transport, the resulting silt-size particles may still
indicate the types of source rock. Older sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks can be identified by relics of
their cements or specific minerals. In subsequent cy-
cles of erosion and deposition these particular signals
will become less distinctive.
Generally, it is assumed that the sediments of suc-
cessive cycles of erosion and deposition become in-
creasingly mature both mineralogically and texturally
(i.e. in their grain-size distribution).
9.1.4 Detrital Clay Minerals in Lake Basins and
in the Sea
General Aspects
Clay mineral associations of lakes with relatively
small drainage areas and a limited number of differ-
ent rock types usually reflect the rock types and cli-
mate in their source area. Here, the general roles dis-
cussed in the previous Section can be applied. Ma-
rine clay mineral associations, derived from major
rivers and affected by changing current systems, are
more difficult to interpret. In addition, the transition
423
zone from fresh to sea water and the flocculation of
clay minerals lead to some sorting of the incoming
suspended river load (cf. Chap. 3.4). In wide areas of
the oceans eolian dust also plays a significant role
(Chaps. 2.3 and 5.1).
Fine-grained marine sediments on prodelta slopes
and in nearby regions usually exhibit clay mineral
suites similar to those of the entering rivers.
The c1ay mineral eomposition of the sediments in the Gulf
of Mexieo is about the same as that of the Mississippi
River at its mouth (Potter et al. 1975; cf. Chap. 11.3). The
sediments off the Niger delta (cf. Chaps. 3.4.2 and 14.4)
are rieh in kaolinite delivered by the Niger River. However,
the kaolinite eontent in the sediment deereases seaward due
to the specifie transport and settling behavior of the various
elay minerals (Chap. 3.4.2). The eastern Mediterranean
aceumulates sediments relatively rieh in montmoril1onite,
whieh for the most part is supplied by the Nile River. A
large portion of the suspended load in the Amazon River
(predominantly montmoril1onite and kaolinite) is trans-
ported to the northwest and deposited in the eoastal region
as mudflats (Weaver 1989).
The clay mineral distribution in modem ocean sedi-
ments reflects to some extent the global climatic
zones. The largest amounts of kaolinite are found in
low latitudes, where rivers from humid tropical re-
gions enter the sea. The kaolinite content tends to
decrease towards the poles and from coastal waters
to the deep sea. Detrital chlorite is most abundant in
the polar and subpolar regions, where chemical
weathering is limited. Illite and smectite (montmoril-
lonite) are the most important clay minerals in mod-
em ocean sediments. Illite-rich sediments are found
in temperate to cold climatic zones, whereas smectite
is abundant in regions of extensive volcanic activity
both below the sea and on land.
Paleoceanography and Paleoclimate from
Clay Minerals
Using the results from modem sediments, several
authors have tried to determine the regional or global
climate of the past (paleoclimate). For example, the
clay mineral composition of early Eocene fine-
grained sediments in the Atlantic ocean significantly
differs from the present situation (Robert and
Chamley 1991). The smectite content was found to
be generally higher at all locations investigated and
kaolinite is more abundant in regions of high lati-
tudes than at present. Both findings (among other
evidence) indicate that the climate during the early
Eocene was globally warmer and in part seasonally
wet and dry.
Clay mineral associations mayaiso indicate the
predominance of certain source areas and the current
systems distributing them in the ocean. During the
424
late Quaternary, for example, a high kaoli-
nite/chlorite ratio in sediment sampies taken in the
South Atlantic correlates with warm interglacials
(Diekmann and Kuhn 1997). During these times
North Atlantic deep water masses transported more
kaolinite from low-Iatitude warm and humid regions
to the south and southeast than during glacial peri-
ods. The latter were characterized by enhanced for-
mation of cold Antarctic bottom water reducing the
influence of currents from the north and carrying
high amounts of chlorite and coarser silt-size sedi-
ment from south to north.
Reworked weathering products (e.g. clay minerals,
laterite, ferricrete, bauxite, silcrete) and the presence
of iron oolites and phosphorites in fluvial, lacustrine,
and marine basins of northeast Africa reflect the
paleoclimate ofthe African continent (Gennann et al.
1994).
9.2 Chemical Denudation
(Quantitative Aspects)
9.2.1 Introduction
Chemical denudation is the lowering of the land sur-
face by total or partial dissolution of soils and rocks
in water at or below the surface. The dissolved con-
stituents are carried away by running surface water or
groundwater.
The chemistry of natural surface waters and
groundwaters is the result of interaction between in-
filtrating rainwater and the solid matter of soils and
rocks (water-rock interaction). Carbonates and
evaporites are relatively easily dissolved after a short
contact time. The concentrations of many dissolved
species, however, are lower than those possible at the
thermodynamic equilibrium between water and the
corresponding solid phases. This applies in particular
to silicate minerals in low-temperature systems when
the water-mineral contact is relatively short (for more
information on dissolution kinetics see, e.g., Lasaga
et al. 1994). As a result, short-term overland flow
during storm events as weIl as near-surface ground-
water flow (interflow) do not reach the same concen-
trations for silicate-derived species as deeper and
longer circulating groundwater.
Nevertheless, the chernistry of river water during low and
intennediate runoff (between peak floods) is often elose to
the chemistry of groundwaters of the same region. This is
so, because the groundwater component and long-tenn
interflow make up 60 to 80% ofthe total discharge ofmany
river systems. In other words, the composition of river wa-
ter largely reflects the major soil and rock types present in
the catchment area rather than other environmental condi-
tions (e.g., elimate and relief). In addition, the presence or
absence of vegetation cover may play a significant role,
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
particularly in carbonate karst terrains (see below). How-
ever, streams soleJy draining areas of high relief, polar and
subpolar regions, or ephemeral streams resulting from
stonn events in arid zones, mostly show low concentrations
of dissolved species as a result of dilution (if no highly sol-
uble salts are piesent at the surface ofthe drainage area).
Apart from rock type, chemical denudation is of
course also controlled by temperature (enhancing, for
example, the dissolution rate of silica) and the effec-
tive rainfall (creating runoff, i.e., precipitation minus
evapotranspiration). High runoff can bring about
substantial chemical denudation even in regions of
cold climate and under nonequilibrium conditions of
water-soil-rock interaction. For these reasons, chemi-
cal denudation rates of large regions (up to the size
of continents) do not differ as much as do mechani-
cal denudation rates (see below).
Chemical denudation in a particular region may
also vary considerably with the nature and thickness
of the soil profile. According to several authors (e.g.,
Carson and Kirkby 1?72; Stallard 1985) there is pre-
surnably an optimum soil thickness which maximizes
the rate of chemical rock weathering. For less than
optimum soil thickness, the soil cannot retain the wa-
ter supplied by precipitation long enough to interact
sufficiently with the altered or fresh subsurface bed-
rock. Then, chemical denudation decreases. If soil
thickness exceeds the optimum, more water is stored
in the soil and cvapotranspiration can reach its maxi-
mum. As a result, less water is available for the
weathering of bedrock and export of dissolved mate-
rial. In addition, the formation of thick, low-perme-
able soil layers can further reduce the weathering
rate. Thus, the denudation rate for a certain area may
decrease through time, for example after 50 to 500 ka
of soil formation, even if the climatic conditions re-
main constant.
The method of determining both chemical and
mechanical denudation from the dissolved and solid
river loads is demonstrated in Fig. 9.5 and further
explained in Section 9.2.4. It can also be applied to
the denudational effects of rock dissolution by
groundwater.
Besides the river-Ioad method, chernical denudation rates
can also be inferred from chemical residues of the parent
rocks enriched in the soil profile (e.g. clay minerals on
carbonate rocks). In this case, the degree of dissolution
which the parent rock has undergone since it was exposed
to weathering is analyzed. This method can be applied only
under favorable conditions when, for example, the age of
the original soil or a former fresh surface can be ascer-
tained and subsequent mechanical denudation can be mied
out. Fresh surfaces are produced by datable Quaternary
deposits or by erosion, e.g., by glacier abrasion. Thus far,
only sparse data have been obtained by this method (e.g.,
Colman and Dethier 1986; April et al. 1986; also see Chap.
9.5.1). The following discussion is therefore based mainly
on groundwater chemistry and the "river-discharge
method".
9.2 Chemical Denudation 425

GANGES RIVER ,- t'-----,'~ : l BASIN

I , EVAPO- AELIEF
! TAANSPIAA TION
PAECIPITATION (mm/a) P
I RESERVOIR
I

AUNOFF (mm/a or m 3 /a) A vf

k ___ 't. -'------IJ
RUNOFF
VARIABILITY
t!\
/

CONCENTAATIONS (g/l) DELIVERY

RATIO ) ~
~ YEAR

INTERMITTENT
DEPOSITION
OF SOLIDS

TOTAL LOADS (x 10 6 t/a) SPECIFIC LOADS (t/km 2 /a) DENUDATION AATES , DA

/" si SOlUTES "" 1 (mm/ka)

680 :!~TOT Al 694 ~~blENUDATIONAl

iH \DENUDATIONAl ~ SOlUTES MECHANICAL
SOUDS ~: (751~1 -----i~~ SOLIDS I!ml 42 (DAme)

Fig. 9.5. Scheme demonstrating the relationship of
various factors (relief, climate and hydrology, rock
types) controlling the concentrations of total suspen-
ded solids TSS and total dissolved solids TDS. Mean
concentrations multiplied by annual runoff render
total annual river loads (solids and solutes, in tla) and
specific loads or specific yields (per unit area and
time, tlkm2/a). The latter are converted into denuda-
tion rates (mmlka). All numbers refer to the Ganges
river as an example. Note that part of the eroded so-
lids (soil) may be deposited along the river course
before it reaches its mouth (delivery ratio <1). Like-
wise, part of the dissolved matter (rnainly atmosphe-
ric CO 2 and Cl) does not contribute to chemical de-
nudation. For further explanation see text

9.2.2 Groundwater Chemistry and
Denudation Rates in Specific Rock Types
Rock Salt and Sulfate Rocks
Chemical dissolution, as weH as the alteration of rock
and soil minerals, are selective processes. Rock salt,
gypsum and anhydrite, and other salt minerals are
easily dissolved either directly on the land surface or
at some depth underground. LocaHy, they can con-
tribute enormously to the dissolved river load and
thus increase the denudation rate substantially (Fig.
9.6), even when the concentration of these salts in
river waters and waters from springs is mostly far
below saturation.
During an active phase of subsolution of rock salt in a re-
gion with temperate climate, the land surface may be low-
ered by I to 5 mmla (assuming an effective precipitation of
200 to 500 mmla and a concentration of only 10 to 20 gll
NaCI in the runoff, i.e., far below saturation). Dissolution
of salt proceeds along the dip of a salt layer and creates
dissolution fronts which can be identified at the land sur-
face by increasing slopes; subsolution in central parts of a
salt deposit generates depressions and sink holes. Intense
salt dissolution may last only for a short time period be-
cause then either the salt deposit is used up, or it becomes
more or less sealed by residual clays released from the
evaporitic sequence.
Near-surface and subsurface dissolution of sulfate
rocks may proceed in temperate humid regions at a
rate of about 0.2 to 0.5 mmla (200 to 500 mmlka).
These values do not necessarily mean that the land
surface is lowered at this rate, because substantial
dissolution occurs along fracture zones and in caves;
nonetheless, in the long run, an entire sulfate layer
can be removed in a rnanner similar to rock salto
426 Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport

10
II
I
i II
I
CHEMICAL DENUDATION RATES
IN VARIOUS ROCK TYPES
6
--E
n:J
.x I I

t
I I
6
ROCK SALT
4
(CONCENTRATION IN
RUNNING WATER 10-20 g/l
2

GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE

600
(CONCENTRATION IN RUNNING
400 WATER 1-2 9/1)

t
200
n:J

~E O~-----------------------------------
CARBONATE ROCKS
E 100 HUMID TROPICS AND
80 TEMPERATE WITH HIGH RAINFAll
HUMID TEMPERATE
60
"NUDE" KARST
40 • ~ ~ DIFFERENT ROCKS
:iI 19 AND SEDIMENTS
20 ~

I
SUBTROPICAl.,--____-.-_ _ _W_IT_H_C_A_R_B_O_N_Ä_:T_E_-,
o SUBARCTIC - 1
GLOBAL MEAN - 10mmIka
Fig. 9.6. Chemical denudation
rates primarily controlled by
rock type, mainly in temperate
BASALTIC AND climates. Note the different
ULTRA-BASIC ROCKS orders of magnitude for eva-
6 porites (rock salt, sulfate

r/, rocks), carbonates, carbonate-

bearin~ rocks, i~eous, meta-

--EE
n:J 4
.x I morphlc, and sihciclastic sedi-
2 mentary rocks. (After Pries-
nitz 1974; Hohberger and Ein-
0 sele 1979; Ford and Williams
1989; and others). 1000 a =
METAMORPHIC QUARTZ-
1000 years = 1 ka
ROCKS SANDSTONES

Carbonate Rocks temperate regions, enabledenudation rates of be-

Of particular interest in this context are carbonate
rocks, because they often form thick and extensive
platforms which may be exposed on the land surface
for comparatively long time periods. Since carbonate
is chiefly dissolved as hydrogen carbonate, the vege-
tation cover, the type and thickness of soil and its
production of CO 2 by decomposing organic matter
are important factors controlling the carbonate denu-
dation rate (Fig. 9.6; Priesnitz 1974; Bögli 1978;
Ford and Williams 1989). Therefore, regions with
dense vegetation ("green" karst) and high effective
precipitation, such as large parts of the tropical zone
or mountainous areas with high rainfall in the more
tween 50 and 150 mmlka. In zones of temperate cli-
mate and medium rainfall (700 to 1000 mmla), the
carbonate dissolution reaches 20 to 50 mmIka, and in
subtropical and subarctic regions 15-30 mmlka.
Where soils and vegetation are absent (barren or un-
covered karst), springs and stream waters have hy
drogen carbonate concentrations of only 25 to 50%
of those observed in green karst regions.
Although dissolution processes below the land
surface (caves, etc., summarized as endokarst) can be
very spectacular, most of the carbonate dissolution
takes place near the surface (exokarst and epikarst),
because the infiltrating waters become saturated with
hydrogen carbonate relatively fast. Therefore, sub-
9.2 Chemical Denudation
solution is responsible for only a sma11 percentage
(up to a maximum of ca. 10%) of the total carbonate
dissolution (Bögli 1978). Despite the fact that lower-
ing of the land surface in karst regions often pro-
ceeds very irregularly, one can assume and calculate
from river output a certain mean denudation rate for
such regions.
Silicate Rocks
Crystalline rocks, free of carbonates and other easily
soluble constituents, display reduced denudation
rates (Fig. 9.5) and yield lower quantities of dis-
solved matter than the rock types discussed so far.
The chemie al characteristics of groundwater from
silicate rocks (including their soils) are shown in Fig.
9.6 for some common rock types compared with
limestone. Water-rock interaction has norma11y not
reached thermodynamic equilibrium conditions in
these systems, and the concentrations of dissolved
matter varies considerably between the different rock
types.
The mostly dark minerals of ultrabasic, basic
(such as basalt and gabbro), and intermediate rocks
(such as andesite) are rich in iron, magnesium, and
calcium. They break down more readily than most of
the light minerals, such as feldspars, muscovite, and
quartz, which are abundant in granitic rocks. Among
the plagioclase group, anorthite rich in calcium is
less stable than albite (rich in sodium) or K-feldspar;
biotite is altered more quickly than muscovite. From
these and other observations we can draw the fo11ow-
ing conclusions:
- In the case of basic and ultrabasic rocks, a11 princi-
pal minerals are readily altered and therefore contrib-
ute substantia11y to the composition of groundwater
and river water. The concentration of dissolved spe-
eies tends to be relatively high (<: 150 mg/I, Fig. 9.7),
and the waters are fairly rich in Ca and Mg.
- Waters from granitic rocks, on the other hand,
draw their ions essentia11y from the weathering of
plagioclase (rich in Na), biotite, and K-feldspar.
Since most of the potassium is fixed in clay minerals,
such waters tend to be relatively rich in sodium, but
poor in calcium and magnesium; their total dissolved
species concentrations are low (50 to 100 mg/I, Fig.
9.7).
- SiOz released by the breakdown of unstable pri-
mary minerals is partly retained in secondary miner-
als. Therefore, the silica acid content of natural wa-
ters (R 4Si04 , here written as SiOz) derived from ig-
neous rocks is limited and far below the values
known for amorphous silica dissolved in water. In
the first case, the aqueous silica content mainly re-
fleets equilibrium conditions with newly formed
aluminosilicates.
427
- Except for environmental conditions with very low
pH-values, a11 the Alz0 3 released by the weathering
of primary minerals is retained to form secondary
minerals.
- Quartz is dissolved in substantial quantities only
under tropical to subtropical conditions (alkaline soil
waters) and is therefore of minor importance for the
composition of groundwaters outside these regions.
It is enriched in the alteration products within the soil
zone and thus in the sediments derived from these
sourees.
- Iron, although present in many rocks in consider-
able quantities, is rarely a substantial component in
near-surface groundwater. It is generally fixed in the
soil zone as oxide or hydroxide and may later be me-
chanica11y eroded and carried away as solid river
load.
- The presence of sulfate ions in waters from crystal-
line rocks commonly results from sulfide weathering.
- Groundwater as we11 as river waters from crystal-
line rocks are relatively rich in hydrogen carbonate.
In fact, RC0 3 is commonly the most important con-
stituent of these waters.
In the case of silicate rocks, RC0 3 is entirely derived from
the atmosphere, whereas the weathering and subsequent
precipitation of carbonates only intermittently draws CO 2
from the atmosphere (cf. Sect. 5.6.2). Weathering of sili-
cate rocks has therefore been quoted by many authors as an
important factor controlling atmospheric CO 2 and affecting
global climate. The ongoing debate on this topic is not fur-
ther discussed here (e.g. Blum et a1. 1998).
Meteoric: waters passing metamorphic rocks, which
do not contain substantial amounts of carbonate,
have chemical characteristics similar to those of
rnany claystones and shales, impure sandstones, and
acidic and basic magmatic rocks. Groundwaters from
mica schists (Fig. 9.7) do not deviate much from
those of intermediate or basic igneous rocks.
Very low mineralization of near-surface ground-
waters is usually observed in quartzitic sandstones,
shales and slates devoid of carbonate. These rocks
consist of the most stable minerals which are not dis-
solved much under normal weathering conditions.
Shales containing pyrite may deliver waters relatively
rich in sulfate.
When sedimentary or metamorphic rocks contain
carbonate (e.g., marly or dolomitic claystones,
carbonatc-cemented sandstones, and greenschists
with lenses of marble), their groundwater chemistry
approaches that of limestones or dolomites with high
concentrations of earth alkali ions and hydrogen car-
bonate, RC0 3·• The latter comes partly from the at-
mosphere or soil zone, and its concentration in-
creases in temperate humid climates with acid soils.
428 Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport

KEV ( . .. ) =Sum 0'

catlons
or anions In meq / l
(wlthout 51°2)
meq / l

meq / l
4 (1.30) 16.4)
K , ~r( 1 ...---~ 5
' .... 7 10.85)
3 CI 3
1 ;.;.;.:.:.:.:..
4 ... ä
2 3 :: 36:::
8 .:. :. :.:
1
87
98 1
o o SHALES AND
Total dlssolved MICA SCHIST SLATES 3
sollds ( wlthout (devold 01
mlnor constltuents)
carbonate)
298.5 mgI I
.... I 1
mmo 1/
'1.. . .... __ ---
Si02

11.56)
==.-3
(1 .0) 4
5

;~lom'4 i 1 5 6 10.45)
6
2 .... . . . .
7
3 1~~
5~
l?l5
18 71
100 151 38 509

GRANITE, ANDESITE, BASALT QUARTZITIC LIMESTONE

GNEISS QUARTZ-DIORITE SANDSTONE

Fig. 9.7. Major constituents of near-surface natural
groundwaters for some principal (nonevaporitic) rock
types. All analyses come from humid temperate re-
gions and represent mean values in mg/I, meq/l, or
mmol/l (for Si0 2 which is dissolved as H4 Si04). Wa-
ter chemistry of similar rock types may, however,
vary considerably from location to Iocation. (Data
from various sources, e.g., Matthess 1973; Georgotas
and Udluft 1978; Drever 1982; Hem 1983)

9.2.3 Solute Transport of River Systems discharge-weighted mean values for one or several
(Mixed Rock Types) years.

Solute Concentrations in Rivers
Solute transport in rivers all over the world has been stud-
ied for many years (e.g. Walling and Webb 1986; Meybeck
1979, 1983, 1987; Degens et al. 1991; Sumrnerfield and
Hulton 1994, and many others).
Figure 9.8 shows the water chemistry ofmajor world
rivers. Most of the published data correspond to
Modem pollution problems (see, e.g., Meybeck 1989) are
not discussed here.
The concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) of
large river systems vary between 33 and 880 mg/I. If
smaller catchments are included, TDS ranges from 5-
8 mg/I (some tributaries of the Amazon river) to
more than 20 000 mg/I in rivers draining rock se-
quences with evaporites. Most rivers fall into the
9.2 Chemical Denudation 429

4
.----__...... 4 WORlD 15
7 RIVERS ",--,'~-c-;-"
_ _~3
......... 9 (AVERAGE)
};ü/ ::
3
5
5
5.5
5 115
(-120 1
98 110

171 167
INDUS GANGES 1) YANGTZE 5) <25<:
........ .....
' _
K
(VARIOUS (CRYST., VOLC., AND (V ARIOUS SEDIM.
SEDIM. ROCKS) SEDIM. ROCKS) AND CRYST. ROCKS)

.-----......7
0.5 -"----I7""~_.
9
4 6 . .
4

2~it3
5 .... 379
58 110 MURRAY 1)
INDONESIA 1) (PARTL Y FROM
(VOLC. AND OB. YENISEI SEMI-ARID AREAS)
SEDIM. ROCKS) (SED. & CRYST. ROCKS)

1.0~7 . .. 63 f~7
13 10 ' ~; 10 S~
4 39
19

SCANDINAVIAN R.
: )24{
ORINOCO 3) MISSISSIPPI ,)
(CRYSTALLINE ROCKS) (DIFF. SEDIM. ROCKS)
(CRYST. AND

~
ARGILL ROCKS)
5.5........
. .. ~--,... 8
3 1 4 2 :: :31 :: 11
5.5 ...
J~'2:313 14 69 3

AMAZON R. 1) PARANA 1)
(SED. & VOLC. R.)
(ARGILL AND

15~ : .... 11
CRYST. ROCKS)

2 1 .....3 :)6.:-
34 ...
... . .
~: :- ;:] 1,3
210 33 15 66

CONGO (ZAIRE) NIGER 1) NllE R. 2) DANUBE R. 1)

(CRYST. AHD (CRYST. AHD (CRYST., VOLC., (PARTl Y RIO GRANDE
SED. ROCKS) SED. ROCKS) AHD SED. ROCKS) lIMESTONES) (PARTLY EVAPORIT

Fig. 9.8. Water chemistry of major rivers of the
world, all values in mg/I, chemical species marked in
Rio Grande plot and in Fig. 9.6. Total dissolved so-
lids TDS increase with the proportion of carbonate
and evaporitic rocks in the drainage basin (e.g. Danu-
be and Rio Grande rivers). Rivers draining tropical
zones with deep soils are low in TDS and little affec-
ted by parent rock types (e.g., Congo, Orinoco rivers,
etc.). Many large rivers drain areas of mixed rock
types and zones of different climate and relief, and
therefore show medium TDS values (e.g., Nile, rivers
of India, Yangtze, etc.). (Mainly after Livingstone
1963; Meybeck 1979, 1983, 1987; supplemented by
Degens et al. 1982, 1983, 1985; and others)
430
range of 30 to 300 mg/I. Within this wide range, one
can distinguish several groups with similar character-
istics:
- Low solute concentrations (TDS between 30 and
ca. 100 mg/I). This group comprises rivers largely
draining either tropical regions with thick soil covers
consisting of stable neo-minerals (e.g. Amazon,
Orinoco, Congo, Indonesian rivers) or crystalline
rocks in wet humid areas (e.g. Scandinavia, effect of
dilution) and rivers in subarctic regions (Fig. 9.8).
In most of these cases, the river water contains litde hydro-
gen carbonate and less TDS than the groundwater circulat-
ing in unweathered or only partly altered rocks, except
quartzitic sandstones (Fig. 9.6). The concentration of dis-
solved Si02 in these river waters, however, approaches the
average ofworld rivers (lI mg/I). The Siberian rivers Lena,
Ob, and Yenisei coming from subarctic areas with sparse
vegetation also have low TDS values, although carbonate-
bearing rocks are present in their drainage areas.
- Medium solute concentrations (ca.150 to 300
mg/I). Rivers originating in the Alps and Himalayas
(including the Yangtze River), as well as the Missis-
sippi River belong to this category (Fig. 9.8). They
all display medium values for calcium and hydrogen
carbonate due to the presence of carbonate rocks in
their drainage areas.
- High solute concentrations (>300 mg/I) are only
found in a limited number of large river basins which
are markedly affected by the dissolution of rock salt
and/or gypsum (e.g. the Murray River in Australia
and the Rio Grande River in North America, Fig.
9.8).
Global Mean Values of Solute Concentrations
According to Livingstone (1963) and Meybeck
(1979, 1983, 1987) the average river water of the
world contains ab out 115 mg/l TDS (load-weighted
mean) and has a composition as shown in Fig. 9.8.
The most important constituent (by weight) is hydro-
gen carbonate HC03- (about 58 mg/I) which, how-
ever, is derived to a large extent (-70%) from decay-
ing plant material in the soil zone and is recycled into
the atmosphere. HC0 3- is followed by Ca2+ (about 14
mg/I), Si02 (about 11 mg/I), and SO/" (10 mg/I).
These four components generally make up more than
80% of the total dissolved river load.
Fig. 9.9. Water chemistry (total dissolved solids
TDS) in various morphological and lithological zo-
nes of river catchments. a,b Rivers Amazon and Ori-
noco, tropical wet climate. (After Drever 1982; Stal-
lard 1985). dRiver Main, Germany, humid temperate
climate. Numbers refer to dissolved load in ground-
water (in t/km2/a. (After Einseie and Hohberger
1978). c,e Downstream changing concentrations of
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
Variations in Water Chemistry Along
River Courses
The mean concentrations of dissolved species com-
mon1y vary along the courses of large rivers which
drain regions of various lithologies. The reason for
this observation is the fact that their water chemistry
is affected not only by tributaries but to a large de-
gree by groundwater originating from rocks of differ-
ent chemical composition (Sect. 9.2.2)_
The water chemistry of the Amazon River, for example,
changes greatly along its course from the Andes to the At-
lantic (Fig. 9.9a, band c). Water from the snow-covered
Andes, relatively rich in dissolved constituents, is diluted
by tributaries draining areas with deeply leached tropical
soils (e.g. Drever 1982; Stallard 1985). The major part
(86%) of the dissolved load entering the Atlantic Ocean is
supplied by 12% of the total drainage area of the river (the
Andes). The chemical denudation rates of the different
morphotectonic units of the Amazon and Orinoco drainage
basins vary by a factor of almost 100 and, if the evaporitic
sediments are inc1uded, even by a factor ofup to 1000 (Fig.
9.9b).
In the river Main, a major tributary of the river Rhine
in central Europe (temperate, humid climate), the
water chemistry also marked1y varies along its
course. Most of the total solute load (86%) is pro-
vided by groundwater from different rock types (Fig.
9.9d and e). Of these lithologic units, carbonate and
sulfate-bearing sedimentary rocks deliver approxi-
mately 90% of the dissolved load, whereas regions
with crystalline rocks and quartzitic sandstones
(comprising 22% of the total drainage area) yield
only 5%_ The average specific transport rate (or spe-
cific yield of TDS) of the entire drainage basin
amounts to about 100 t/km2/a, which corresponds to a
mean chemical denudation rate of 40 mmlka. In real-
ity, the denudation rates vary from approximately 5
mmlka (Bunter sandstone) to 80 mmlka (claystones
with gypsum).
chemical species. The river Amazon is influenced by
low-concentration tributaries from tropical soil re-
gions; the river Main passes densely populated areas
of different soils and rock types. Even here, only a
small percentage of the dissolved river load (mainly
N03- and some Na+, Cl- and partly SO/") comes from
anthropogenic sources (Udluft 1978)
9.2 Chemical Denudation 431

CONCENTRA TlON OF TOS IN mg/l

10 100 1000 10000
ELEVATED SHIELD
LOW - LYING LOWLAND SHIELD
SHIELD _ NEGIIO AIVER
b
C"MP'HA-
c;: .... TING ..

LOWLAND SEDIMENTS

ELEVATEO SHIELD

ANDEAN DRAINAGES

o, km
10 100 1000 10000
DENUDATION RATE miMe

TOTAL DISSOLVED
CONSTITUENTS C
(mgli)
140
" DRY SEASON

,,
" ' ( WET SEASON
120
\

MAIN STREAM
100 OF AMAZON R.
CLAYST. + GYPSUM _
SAN OST . ± CARB . i' d
80 TDS (g /l)
,
"
,0
60 "-
e
'- - ...... _-
"- ....

/ • 400
RIVER

0\
TRIBUT ARIES
40 MAIN
200
20 • 0 00 "WET SEASON
o
• .,
• •••
• o
o km 3000 2000 1000 oI
A1NOES OIST ANCE FROM OCEAN OCEAN
432
9.2.4 Chemical Denudation Rates in Different
Morpho-Climatic Zones (Overview)
Specific Transport Rates and
Mean Denudation Rates (Definitions)
If the annual average concentrations of all dissolved
species, the total dissolved solids, TDS (mg/l or
g/m3), are multiplied by the average annual runoff
(m3/year) one obtains the average total solute load
(e.g. in metric tons/year, tla) of the river system (cf.
Fig. 9.5). Seasonal and short-term variations have to
be taken into account for this calculation. The long-
term annual mean of runoff can be expressed either
as specific runoff per unit area of the drainage basin
(e.g. m31km2/a) or height of water in mmla (as annual
precipitation).
Measurements of element concentrations and runoff (vol-
urne of water per time unit) should be carried out at short
intervals for several years in order to evaluate seasonal or
short-term changes in water chemistry. Moreover, it should
be ascertained that no substantial quantity of groundwater
is lost by subsurface flow from the area studied.
The product of TDS and specific runoff is the spe-
cific transport rate or specific yield (load) of dis-
solved constituents, SYeh (e.g. in tlkm2/a). SYeh can
be converted into a mean (total) chemical denudation
rate, DReh,! (mm/ka or m/Ma). To obtain the
"denudational" chemical denudation rate, DReh' the
atmospheric components of the solute load have to
be subtracted. The most important ones of these are
chloride and hydrogen carbonate. The latter is
needed to dissolve silicate minerals and, in addition,
to trans form carbonates into hydrogen carbonates.
For the weight to volume conversion, an average
rock density has to be assumed (here 2.5 tlm3 ).
Examples from River Catchments and
Various Morpho-Climatic Zones
Values of the specific yield, SYeh, or transport rates
of dissolved constituents and chemical denudation
rates, DReh' as defined above, frequently range be-
tween 5 and 80 tlkm2/a or between about 2 and 32
mmlka, respectively. Large river systems of mixed
relief, rock types and elimate display a narrower
range of denudation rates than smaller catchments in
which specific rock types play a major role. In most
cases, a elose positive relationship between runoff
and DReh can be found.
This rule even applies to regions where TDS concentra-
tions are fairly low (e.g., Iceland or most of the tropical
river basins, Figs. 9.8 and 9.9b and c). Under conditions of
low specific runoff (arid to semi-arid climates), salt con-
centrations in river water must be extremely high in order
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
to produce high values of SY eh and DReh' Examples of this
situation are catchments of the Aral Sea, the Caspian Sea,
and the Shatt el Arab. Due to medium concentrations and
high specific runoffs, many mountain ranges have high to
very high DReh values (e.g., the Alps, partially drained by
the Danube River, or the rivers Indus, Ganges, and
Brahmaputra originating in the Himalayas).
Climate control of the chemical denudation rates,
D~h' becomes most obvious if specific transport
rates or yields of dissolved matter, SYeh, and DReh are
correlated with various morpho-elimatic zones (Fig.
9.10). The drainage areas used for this correlation
should be composed either of similar rocks or a vari-
ety of different rock types to eliminate rocks as an
important factor. This approach elearly shows two
maxima of solute transport and chemical denudation:
(1) the temperate zone with high rainfall and (2) the
humid mountainous zone in the tropics. Minima of
chemical denudation are found in arid zones as weIl
as in tundra and taiga regions with low specific run-
offs and moderate solute concentrations. The maxi-
mum and minimum DReh values of the morpho-eli-
matic zones differ by a factor of 20 to 30.
9.2.5 Global Effects of Chemical Denudation
GlobaIly, the mean (discharge-weighted) transport
rate of dissolved solids is about 50 x 109 t/a or ~ 34
tlkm2/a (e.g. Degens et al. 1991). After subtraction of
the atmospheric components (e.g. part of RC0 3 and
Cl, i.e. ~25% ofTDS) we get ab out 25 tlkm2/a, corre-
sponding to a chemical denudation rate of 10 mmlka.
This rate would produce a "salt" layer of roughly 4
mmIka in the oceans with the assumption that the
salts are distributed evenly. Of these, roughly 2
mmlka would be carbonate, 1.5 mmlka other salts,
and 0.5 mmlka silica. This estimate is based on the
average chemical composition of the world rivers (cf.
Fig.9.8).
In the geological past, the global average of the
chemical denudation rate may have been different.
Righer rates can be assumed for the greenhouse state
of the Earth (e.g. the Cretaceous and the Paleocene)
when precipitation and runoff were enhanced.
This is also postulated for the Eocene, but Si0 2 flux to the
ocean seems to have been lower than today, because the
area of exposed silicate rocks was smaller (Sloan et al.
1997) than it is at present.
9.2.6 Geomorphological Consequences of
Differential Chemical Denudation
Differences in the chemical denudation rates of vari-
ous rock types control the landscape development to
some extent. This topic is addressed here only briefly
in a semi-quantitative way.
9.2 Chemical Denudation 433

CHEMICAL DENUDATION RATES IN DIFFERENT MORPHO-CLIMATIC ZONES

TUNDRA TAIGA TEMPERATE TROPICAL
AND
TAIGA HU- VERY VERY VERY HUMID
HU- HU- PLAINS
MID MID MID MOUNT.

400 CONCENTRA TlON

OF TOS

200

20

40

TRANSPORT RATE
80 OF TOS 1)
t /km 2 /a

40

10
CHEMICAL 27
20 DENUDATION
30 RATE (DReH) 2)
mm/ka or m/Ma

Fig. 9.10. Average chemical denudation rates in dif-
ferent morpho-clirnatic zones derived from concen-
trations of total dissolved so lids TDS, specific runoff,
and srecific transport rates or specific yields of TDS.
1) Al measured rates are corrected for cyclic salts
(e.g., NaCI) and atmospheric CO 2 ; rock density is
assumed to be 2.5 t/m3• (Prirnarily after Meybeck
1979).2) Values for temperate, very humid zones are
affected by the abundance of carbonate rocks and
therefore appear too high as compared with the valu-
es of very humid tropical regions with predominantly
crystalline rocks

The model of Fig. 9.11 represents a cuesta land-
scape of moderate relief with slightly tilted Mesozoic
rocks resting on a crystalline basement. It is assumed
that (1) chemical denudation in a wet temperate or
tropical climate is the dominant process, (2) climatic
conditions remain constant and denudation proceeds
continuously at the same rate in each rock unit ex-
posed to weathering, and (3) the investigated region
is tectonically stable.
As a result of great differences in solubility of
rocks, denudation proceeds very irregularly. The out-
cropping carbonate rocks, initially covering wide
areas, are more or less removed after 10 Ma, unless
they are protected by less soluble overlying beds or
thick residual soils. (The development of specific
karst phenomena is neglected here.) The rocks least
affected by chemical denudation are quartzitic sand-
stones. They maintain almost all their initial elevation
and, in addition, their exposed surface area increases
at the expense of less resistant rocks. After 20 Ma of
continued erosion, the sandstones form the highest
mountains or hills in a region largely eroded down to
the base level of rivers. During this development,
tectonic grabens may temporarily display inverted
relief.
In reality, however, denudation in such regions is more
complex and irregular. Valley incision controlled by the
(possibly changing) base level of erosion and mechanical
denudation along the valley slopes of shifting river courses
generates slope and escarpment retreat. Headward
prograding valleys dissect plateaus formed by individual
rock units. The effect of progressive denudation on the
landscape is also frequently modified by intercalated beds
in the rock sequence which are particularly resistant to
434
z
W GRANITE, QUARTZITIC
!Xl
<! GNEISS SANDSTONE
a:
(!) 5 2 CARBONATE
km + EVAPORITES
40
50
Fig. 9.11. Theoretical model for thedevelopment of
a cuesta landscape with different rock types in a per-
sistently humid temperate climate. Only chemical
denudation is considered, The geological setting re-
sembles that in southem Germany. In reality, carbo~
weathering. Climatic change, including periglacial pro-
cesses, may promote mechanical denudation.
Under arid conditions, the evolution of the cuesta
landscape would be quite different. Chemical denu-
dation would be drastically reduced, in particular that
of carbonate rocks barren of soil and vegetation. In-
stead, mechanical denudation of shales and marls
would be the dominant process controlling the land-
scape development. Many cuesta landscapes in Eu-
rope and elsewhere actually are the result of complex
denudational pro ces ses reflecting changing climate
with periods of either dominating chemie al or me-
chanical weathering. Differential chemie al (and me-
chanical) erosion operates everywhere on the land
surface of the Earth. A thorough discussion of this
topic for particular regions is· beyond the scope of
this book.
9.3 Mechanical Denudation
9.3.1 Introduction
Mechanical denudation is the lowering of the land-
scape of a certain area by erosion of solid material
consisting of soil particles and fragments of the un-
derlying rock. Mean denudation rates indicate the
mean thickness of soil or rock material removed from
the total drainage area studied for a certain period of
time. Therefore, these denudation rates do not distin-
guish between (1) summit lowering, (2) slope denu-
dation, and (3) rate of stream erosion in river valleys
or lowlands (Ahnert 1970; cf. Fig. 9.19d).
In the context of this volume, mean denudation
rates per area and the sediment flux to the sites of
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
CLAYSTONES
SAND+CARB.
CARBONATES, MOLASSE:
10
SHALES SANDS TONES
30 CLAYSTONES
10
100 150 km
nate denudation in particular may proceed differently
if dissolution is hampered by primary clayey interca-
lations and/or soil formation protecting the underly-
ing rocks. See text for further explanation. (After
Hohberger and Einsele 1979)
deposition are of main interest. The specific pro-
cesses operating in the sediment source, such as
gravity mass movements and sheet erosion on slopes
as well as erosion along rills, gullies and rivers are
not considered. Similarly, short-period storage and
uptake of sediment along valleys and in lowlands
will be mentioned in only a few cases. Average rates
of mechanical denudation can be determined in dif-
ferent ways for varying time periods:
- Modem rates are derived from the sediment dis-
charge of rivers and the sediment fill of artificial res-
ervoirs (ltriver-Ioad lt method).
- Long-term rates of total denudation are found from
studies on the lands cape evolution of particular areas
(landform reconstruction, unroofing or exhumation
of mountain ranges).
- Long-term rates of mechanical denudation can also
be gained from denudation-sediment-accumulation
systems of some size (lakes, larger basins) when the
average accumulation rates can be determined and
the ratio of the areas of sediment source and basin
are known (Sect. 11.2, denudation-accumulation
method).
The river-Ioad method in combination with the char-
acteristics of the river drainage area allows an evalu-
ation of the factors controlling denudation, but mod-
em mechanical denudation rates are more or less
biassed by anthropogenic effects. Therefore, addi-
tional methods have to be applied to gain more reli-
able data for natural scenarios and longer time peri-
ods relevant for sedimentary basins. The physical
processes controlling the transport of bedload and
suspended load in rivers is not dealt with here (see,
e.g., Pye 1994).
9.3 Mechanical Denudation
9.3.2 Modern Denudation Rates
The River-Load Method and Its Limits
A eommon method for determining modem rates of
denudation (and soi1 erosion) is the measurement of
the sediment diseharge of rivers. As will be dis-
eussed further be1ow, the easiest way to do this is the
measurement of the suspended river load, whieh nor-
maHy aecounts for the majority of the total solid
load.
Measurements of the suspended river loads are usually
accomplished by taking water sampies within the cross-
section of a river and analysing their contents for total sus-
pended solids, TSS, expressed as concentrations (e.g. in
g/m3). With the aid of river discharge-weighted concentra-
tions, annual freights of TSS (tla) are found. Taking into
ac count the river drainage areas, these values can be con-
verted into specific transport rates or specific sediment
yields, SY, (tlkm2/a), or mean mechanical denudation rates;
DRne, for the average rock density in the study area (cf.
Fig.9.5).
Data gained by this method must be viewed with eau-
tion for severa1 reasons: (1) These measurements
often do not inc1ude rare events, for examp1e eata-
strophie floods, whieh may oceur onee in 10 or 100
years and earry more suspended and bed10ad than a
10ng period of normal river discharge. Therefore,
average va1ues based on measurements of a few
years are often not representative of 10nger periods.
(2) It is on1y the suspended river load whieh ean be
easi1y determined; the bed10ad (midd1e to eoarse-
grained sand and grave1), which is almost exc1usive1y
transported during peak flows, is diffieu1t to mea-
sure.
The best way to determine bedload transport is to observe
delta prograding in lakes and artificial reservoirs. Small
and middle-sized rivers leaving mountain ranges may carry
bedloads of 50% or more of the total solids. However, the
bedload of major rivers having passed wide valleys and
floodplains makes up only a few percent of the total solid
load.
(3) Many of these measurements are strong1y af-
feeted by human aetivities (e.g., deforestation, agri-
cu1ture, construetion of dams and roads, etc.) and
therefore yie1d denudation rates mueh higher than
those of prehistorie times.
Present-day loads are often higher by a factor of 2 to 5 for
land of mixed use in a humid temperate climate, and by a
factor of 5 to 10 in plain regions in subtropical to tropical
climates (Dedkov and Mozzherin 1996), but locally up to a
factor of 100 and more! (e.g., Toy 1982; Douglas 1996;
Walling and Webb 1996; Einseie and Hinderer 1997). Be-
cause this text focuses on sediment sources of ancient sedi-
mentary basins, this problem is not discussed further here.
435
On the other hand, modern solid loads of middle and
lower river courses can also be too low compared with nat-
ural conditions. Artificial dams and reservoirs upstream
may trap large portions of the sediment provided by the
upper parts of the drainage areas. The sediment load arriv-
ing in the Ebro delta, Spain, for example, has been drasti-
cally reduced during the past hundred years (Guillen and
Palanques 1997).
Moreover, a considerable number of rivers draining pre-
viously glaciated areas pass ice-formed lakes, where they
deposit most of their solid load. Such sediment traps are
short-lived and did not exist during long periods of the
Earth's history. Hence, many measurements in rivers repre-
sent present-day sediment delivery rates into the oceans
and not denudation rates in the source areas (Leeder 1991).
(4) Data coHected at gauging stations upstream of a
river mouth do not necessari1y record tlte actua1 input
of sediment into the eorresponding depositiona1 basin
because of storage or uptake of sediment downstream
of the measuring point.
A striking example of the first case is the Yellow River in
China which deposits as much as 75% of its suspended
load before it reaches the open sea (Milliman et al. 1987).
In the middle reaches ofthe Amazon River in Brazil, large
amounts of sediment are exchanged between the river and
its flood plain (Dunne et al. 1998). In aperiod of >10
years, deposition on the river bars and flood plain exceeded
bank erosion by 500 x 10 6 tla at irregular time intervals. A
specific investigation of flood-plain sedimentation along
the Brahmaputra River, using 137C as tracer, has shown that
about 40-70% of the solid river load is trapped landward of
the river mouth (Allison et al. 1998).
The best modern values for TSS and SY transported by
rivers can be obtained from the sediment masses trapped in
artificial reservoirs (Fig. 9. 13b). The sediment volume is
determined by bathymetric surveys and can be converted
into units of mass using porosity values of undisturbed
sampies. This method renders mean values for time periods
of tens of years which also include river bedloads. How-
ever, the drainage areas of these sediment traps, mostly 10-
cated in mountainous areas, are often of limited size. A
number of values from modern reservoirs are little affected
by human activities in their drainage areas and therefore
can also be used for long-term sediment mass balances
(Sects .. 11.2 and 11.3).
(5) The suspended loads of rivers inc1ude various
amounts of particu1ate organic matter which does not
come from eroded rocks. As an average, about 10%
of the suspended material consist of organic matter
(Ludwig et al. 1996; also see Sect. 10.3).
436 Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport

:;:::: --:- Ql
t t
50
....N
.... 1000
121
124
b
v
0 40
0
"C
0
() 800 E --E
co

-....g
0
~ c
x ....
0
600
--. 30
....J
x
E
2
I
400 c~
0 20 c
';J
co co
....
.... 200
c
~
Q)
10
Q)
CI:
~
..
0 ~LlZLaz~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O
10 10
Chemical denudation rate 20
:-:·:·670 (mm/ka)

t: ,~ I I,I~ i, ; ~ ~
M 600 )[:II! 470 Brahmaputra

1000
Relief ratio Hma.lL t
1500
11 I I I I"C C
~ H max of ~

..
c:t
I: I
I I I I E
1120
:~
g'
~~--------------------~------~
~- t - - loeal relief NE
~
Cl L max, length of drainage area 300 ~
C c
ß 2 'e. J2
Q)
Ql ltI
E 'Vi
C.
'>
....c
....Q)
<t: .~ 8
o
c
a Q)

80 .... E
~ Mechanical denudation rates (mm/ka)
c 200~
Q)
o rJ)
';J (,l
~ 60 c Ql
ltI ;;::
'N 'ü
:J
C ~
0
Cl
Cl
C
Ql
Ql
"C ....
~
tf)
Q)
Q) :l Co
'0 >- ....ltIc ~ C
~
:l
<t: Cf)

co
40 ()
ltI
l'J ....ltIltI Ql
() 100
(,l
0 ~ >- .... C
0 (:[ Ql
c ä: ~ E :l ltI
E ~
.... ltI
co ltI :l ~ ~
<t: Z
'5
...J >- C.
20 ~
0
ltI
C .D Ql ...J
Q) ~ Ql
...J 0 0C ..;
~ 3 2
Cf)
1
o
... ..
o

Fig. 9.12. Mean mechanical and chemical denuda- ratios (shaded eolumns) and, to a minor degree, with
tion rates, DR", and DR.,h (here for rock density 2.7 annual runoff (dotted lines), (Drawn after data from
glcm3 ), in the drainage areas of major world rivers, Summerfield and Hulton 1994), DR",e of the YeHow
DR",e values correlate relatively weH with the relief river is calculated from its modem river load
9.3 Me~ L'lanical Denudation
Mechanical Denudation Rates in Relation to
Relief and Climate
The river-load method (including the filling of artifi-
cial reservoirs) has been applied for small and large
rivers all over the world. There is a great body of
data now available, but detailed information about
the quality of these data and the characteristics of the
corresponding drainage areas is often missing. These
shortcomings, but also the complexity of the pro-
ces ses involved in weathering, erosion, and sediment
transport have so far prevented the establishment of
clear rules for the evaluation of sediment yields and
mechanical denudation rates. The following discus-
sion is therefore mainly based on empirical results
rather than a theoretical approach.
As has been pointed out in Section 9.3.1, specific
transport rates of total suspended solids, TSS, or spe-
cific sediment yields, SY (tonsIkm2/a) of rivers and
the mean denudation rates, D~e (mmlka or m1Ma)
of the their drainage areas are closely related (Fig.
9.7). Most of the available data are solely based on
measurements of the suspended load, TSS, but the
error caused by neglecting the bedload is normally
small except for rivers leaving high mountain ranges.
Results from Major River Systems
Major world rivers usually drain regions of different
relief, climate, and rock type (catchment areas of the
order of 106 km2). The influence of the factors con-
trolling denudation is therefore not very clear in
these cases. Nevertheless, large river systems show a
distinct increase in their mean denudation rate with
increasing relief (Fig. 9.12). Even the overall relief
ratio, which is easy to determine (compared with the
mean local relief), describes this relationship fairly
weIl (Summerfield and Hulton 1994). The second
factor of some importance for mechanical denudation
is c1imate in terms of mean annual runoff which, on
the other hand, mainly controls chemical denudation
(Fig. 9.12, cf. Sect. 9.2).
Results from Selected Regions and Artificial
Reservoirs
A better evaluation of the factors controlling me-
chanical denudation can be made for smaller river
systems and the catchment areas of artificial reser-
voirs. Smaller areas are less heterogenous than larger
ones; they often represent regions in which a certain
relief, c1imate and rock type dominates. Using the
large data base collected by Enos (1991), Milliman
and Syvitski (1992), and data summarized by Einseie
and Hinderer (1997) one can draw the following con-
clusions (Figs. 9.13aand b):
437
1. Rivers draining high-reliefareas may produce spe-
cific sediment yields, SY, of suspended matter and a
bedload of some 100 to more than 1000 tlkm2/a.
These values correspond to mean denudation rates of
50 to 200, up to 1000 mmlka (1 mmlka = 2.5 t!km2/a
for a mean rock density of 2.5 g/cm3). Denudation in
high-relief areas is about two orders of magnitude
greater than that of lowland rivers. Steep valley
slopes, insufficiently protected by vegetation, and
steep stream-channel gradients favor erosion and
sediment transport by running water. Annual or sea-
sonal precipitation and rainstorm events are often
greater in high mountain ranges than in lowlands.
However, one should bear in mind that poorly
lithified sediments deliver a great part of the sedi-
ment yield of these regions. Old mountain belts dis-
play lower denudation rates than young ones, be-
cause their weIl erodible lithologies have been re-
moved by earlit'!' 0rosion (Stallard 1995).
2. Mountain glaciers may enhance the sediment yield
of non-glaciated regions bya factor of 2 to 10. Ero-
sion of wet-based, rapidly moving glaciers in high
mountain ranges produces specific sediment yields in
the order of 500 to more than 5000 t!km2/a, often
around 2000 t!km2/a and thus denudation rates of
about 200 to 2000 mmlka (summary in Einseie and
Hinderer 1997). However, glacial erosion under large
continental ice sheets is less effective, as for example
in Antarctica (Alley et al. 1988; Henrich 1990). Esti-
mates of the present global flux of glacial detritus to
the oceans vary greatly (Hay 1998).
For the Glacier Bay area of Alaska, an average denudation
rate of 12 m/ka has been suggested (PoweIl and Molnia
1989). The rapid1y moving, cool-temperate glaciers of
southem and southeastem Alaska produced sedimentation
rates on the shelf along the north-east coast of the Gulf of
Alaska of 10-20 mika in the Holocene (Jaeger et al. 1998).
Here, the total annual sediment accumulation on the shelf
is 250 x 10 6 tla. Ifthe source area is assumed to be 5 x 10 4
km2 in size, then the specific sediment yield of the actively
rising, glaciated Alaskan mountain range is in the order of
5000tlkm2/a which is probably one of the highest values
on the present-day globe. On the Alaskan shelf edge and in
deeper water the sedimentation rate amounted to about 0.5
mlka during the past 6 Ma (PoweIl and Molnia 1989).
On the Barents shelf, glacigenic sediments accumulated
at rates between 0.1 and I m/ka; fjord troughs were filled at
rates up to 60 mika (Vorren et al. 1989). In the Ross Sea of
the Antarctic region, however, Pleistocene diamicton accu-
mulated at a much lower rate (around 10 mmlka, Alley et
al. 1988).
In particular, phases of deglaciation can lead to rework-
ing and redistribution of older glacial sediment as observed
in marine sediments offnorthem Norway (Haflidason et al.
1998). Here, about 90% of the sediment mass of the past
15 ka accumulated during deglaciation (15-9 ka B.P.) and
only 10% (hemipelagic sediment) in the Holocene. Like-
wise, the filling of Alpine lakes by delta prograding is
mainly associated with late Pleistocene deglaciation (cf.
Chap. 11.3).
438 Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport

Specific sediment yield SV (tlkm 2/a) Mechanical denudation rate

(mm/a)
10000 ... B
....
.. ... ............
-A
a 500
.Sparse . <" $",;;#t1~~f.}
.... I Ä vegetatIon .ß:,;;;:;:;:~·rt·· ·

------ ':~f\/
E - ...... C.... .... . ... .... ........
1000 ...... ....
........ ........... ....

---- c
............
... ....
100
........

5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
o 500 1000 1500
10
Mean annual precipitation
(mm/al
Drainage area (km 2)

0.1 10 100 1000 X 103

A High mountains (> 3000 m), mostly subtropical to tropical (e.g. Himalayan rivers,
Taiwan, New Guinea, equatorial S.America, Yangtze R, Colorado and Miss. R)
B Mountains (1000-3000 m) of S. Asia and Oceania, mostly subtropical to tropical
(e.g. India, China, Thailand, Philippines, New Zealand)
C Mountains (1000-3000 m) of N/S America, Africa, Alpine Europe, mostly humid-
temperate
D Mountains (1000-3000 m) of non-Alpine Europe and High Arctic, temperate to
subpolar climate
E Uplands (500-1000 m) mostly humid-temperate, partly subtropical
F Lowlands (100-500 m), mostly humid-temperate
G Coastal plains( < 100 m), humid-temperate (e.g. UK, USA, Finland)

Specific sedimeht yield SV (t/km 2 /a

Tropical to subtropical
:... - .....
b
I . ~ - - ... ..........
-- -.-. __ • Vellow and Yangtze rivers
. ,._- . ... -.~
. -·'·_---·-·l
I
I
I
I

.,I

General trends with increasing Arid to

100 - Relief semi-arid
- Runoff
- Sparse vegetation
- Proportion of weak rocks and sandy soils
- Land use
' - - - - - - + Increasing drainage area
Drainage area (km 2 )
104-~---~~r---~-.-~---_-----r+
0.1 5 10 100 1000 x 103
9.3 Mechanical Denudation
From a mass balance of glacial and glaciofluvial sedi-
ments left behind by the fonner Laurentide continental ice
sheet, the mean rate of glacial erosion in Canada was 40-70
mmlka during the past 3 Ma (Bell and Laine 1985). The
volumes of glacio-marine sediments in the Orphan Basin
(northeast of Newfoundland) and deep-sea fans in the
northern North Atlantic point to glacial denudation rates
ranging from 100 mrnIka (in the Holocene, Svalbard) to
130 to 400 mrnIka in the Pleistocene (Newfoundland,
Svalbard and the Barents Sea, Hiscott and Aksu 1996;
Elverooi et al. 1995). Modern ice f10w records and glacial
sediments investigated in some fjords of eastern Greenland
gave a mean Holocene denudation rate of 10 mm/ka (An-
drews et al. 1994).
3. Small drainage basins in mountainous areas have
a higher specific sediment yield than larger river sys-
tems draining regions of both high imd lower relief
(Fig. 9.13). The denudation rate ofan area 100 times
srnaller may be ab out 10 times higher than that of the
large area. This rule applies to most examples stud-
ied, but in humid forested areas with dominating
bank erosion the sediment yield mayaiso increase
with growing drainage area (Walling and Webb
1996).
The upper river Rhine and smaller rivers draining central
parts of the Swiss Alps provide about 1000 t/km 2/a, which
are deposited in peri-Alpine lakes or reservoirs (cf. Fig.
11.4). The transport rates of the rivers Rhone and Danube
measured farther downstream are much lower (110 and 150
tlkm2/a, respectively). The Alps in total are thought to pro-
duce 150 tlkm 2/a. The major rivers draining the Himalayas
have average sediment yields from about 100 tlkm 2/a
(Indus river) to 600 and 900 t/km 2/a (Ganges and
Brahrnaputra rivers, respectively), but their drainage areas
also include lowlands.
4. Lowland rivers of the humid temperate zone show
denudation rates of 3-5 mmlka and deliver sediment
on the order of 10 tikm2/a. With increasing portions
of hills and mountainous regions in their drainage
areas, DR.ne may reach values of 20 to 40 mm1ka
(Figs. 9.12 and 9.13). Rivers draining arctic or high-
latitude regions. of mostly low relief have low spe-
cific sediment yields, SY, of approximately 5 to 10
t/km2/a.
The Siberian rivers Ob, Yenisei, Lena, and many rivers of
the Canadian Northern Territories and northwestern Eu-
rope belong to this category. If areas of high relief make up
a large proportion of the drainage area, the sediment yield
may increase to about 50 tlkm 2/a (e.g., Mackenzie and Co-
lumbia rivers).
Fig. 9.13. a Specific sediment yields sr versus drai-
nage areas (overview, logarithmic scale!) of small
and large river "basins" all over the world. (After
Milliman and Syvitski 1992). Note the wide ran~e of
SY values mainly controlled by relief. The lInear
regression lines do not show the large scattering of
439
5. To a large extent clirnate controls soil formation
and vegetation. Dense, permanent vegetation cover
prevents or strongly reduces soil erosion. Many stud-
ies in forested areas in the temperate humid zone
have shown that even on relatively steep slopes
hardly any soil erosion takes place, apart from spe-
cific sites where gravity mass movements, rill and
gully erosion occur. In these areas erosion is nor-
mally restricted mainly to the banks of stream chan-
nels.
In contrast, in regions of sparse or missing vege-
tation, erosion also operates on the surface of slopes.
Thus, even little but irregular annual rainfall, can
deliver comparatively large amounts of soil and rock
debris to river systems. In addition, wind erosion
plays some role. Therefore, denudation rates and sed-
iment yields from limited mountainous areas in arid
to semi-arid zones are often surprisingly high (some
100 to more than 1000 mmlka, Fig. 9.13b) and may
even approach the same magnitude as values .from
tropical to subtropical regions. Extremely high rates
are typical of badlands which usually develop in
weak, easily erodible rocks.
Larger drainage systems of mixed relief under dif-
ferent climate zones (but mostly arid to semi-arid) are
characterized by low to moderate specific sediment
yields or mean denudation rates (10 to about 100
tikm2/a, corresponding to denudation rates of 4 to 40
mmIka).
The rivers Nile, Niger, Murray, and others have SY values
of 10 to 50 tlkm 2/a. Large areas in southern Europe, central
America, and central China provide suspended solids
within the range of 100 to 500 tlkm 2/a (Figs. 9.12,9.13 and
9.14).
A special investigation in lowlands has revealed that
the sediment yield significantly decreases and
reaches a minimum value at the transition from
sparse to dense vegetation (e.g. Ohmori 1983) associ-
ated with increasing annual precipitation (Fig. 9.13c).
However, if seasonal or annual rainfall surpasses the
lower limit necessary for a dense vegetation cover,
the specific sediment yield and thus mechanical de-
nudation again markedly increase.
The highest sediment yield of rivers (1000 up to
10 000 t/km2/a) is reported from relatively small
mountainous areas in the tropics, where annual or
seasonal (monsoon) precipitation is in the order of
2000 to 3000 mm (e.g., Indonesia, Taiwan, New
Guinea, Philippines, Japan, the southem slopes ofthe
Himalayas, Hawaii). In these cases, both rapid
data. b Diagram similar to a, but data come mainly
from artificial dam sites and are plotted for principal
climate zones. Insert indicates general trends. c In-
fluence of annual precipitation and vegetation on SY
from lowlands. (After Ohmori 1983)
440 Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport

PRECIPITATION
MECHANICAL
TROPICAL DENUDATION
CLiMA TE BEL T
(LATITUDE)
- --------,I
SUBTROPICAL
(m /Ma or
mm/ka)

/ - Ä"Riö-TOi
SEMI- I
--MEDI-I ARID :
TERRAN- : I
EAN I I CHEMICAL
--HUMIDI I I DENUDATION
TEMP. I : (m /Ma)

-sus-- -1. 1
ARCTIC i
. tI roo:sb
TO
ARCTIC .1 100~O

//
,,/'
./ GLACIATED AREAS

LOWLANDS AND
UPLANDS WITH
/ '"
MOUNTAIN
RANGES

°W'·
INLAND ICE 200-2000

RIVERS
DRAINING
AREAS OF LARGE RNERS
VERY HIGH MOUNTAIN PLAINS DRAINING AREAS OF
RELIEF RIVERS RIVERS DIFFERENT RELIEF AND CLiMATE

Fig. 9.14. Common range of mechanical and chemi-
caf denudation rates in relation to relief and climate
(including vegetation) for medium to large drainage
areas. In small river basins, denudation may be large-
ly controlled by rock types and therefore deviate con-
siderably from the v.alues shown in the graph. Speci-
fic transport rates (tlkm2/a) are converted into denu-
dation rates (mmlka or rnIMa) using an average rock
density of 2.5 tlm3 • (Based on many sources, e.g. Sel-
by 1974; Meybeck 1979, 1987; Milliman and Meade
1983; Chorley et al. 1984; Collins 1986; Radley
1986; Tarnrazyan 1989). See text for further explana-
tion

weathering (see Chap. 9.1) and the abundance of run-
ning water enhance the sediment yields and denuda-
tion rates. In contrast, lowlands and large areas of
mixed, mostly moderate relief in the tropics usually
exhibit low to intermediate sediment yields (50 to
some 100 tlkrn2/a), e.g. the rivers Congo, Zaire, and
Amazon (without the Andes).
6. Finally, specific sediment yields markedly increase
in areas of unlithified and weakly indurated sedi-
ments. Claystones and marlstones are rapidly disinte-
grated by mechanical processes if they are not pro-
tected by soil and vegetation cover. They may then
form characteristic badlands delivering large
amounts of fine-grained clastic sediment.
Relatively long-tenn (0.2-1.5 Ma),rapid denudation rates
of 1-15 mika have been reported from the Cenozoic fore-
land basin of northern Pakistan where older, unlithified
molasse sediments are being eroded (Burbank and Beck
1991). Some ofthe extremely high sediment yields oftrop-
ical regions result from both high relief (i.e. steep slopes)
and the erosion ofyoung volcanic rocks and tephra as, e.g.,
observed in Japan (up to >10 000 tlkm 2/a; Mizutani 1987).
Granitic and metamorphic rocks are less easily eroded;
quartzitic sandstones and cherts resist weathering far longer
than carbonate-cemented sands or clayey silts. Pleistocene
loess is very sensitive to river erosion as exemplified by the
Yellow river (Huanghe) and, partially, the Yangtze River
(Changjiang) in China (Fig. 9.12) .
7. The combined effects of rock types and climate
change has been pointed out for Mediterranean re-
gions (Leeder 1997). Sediment yields of transport-
limited "soft rock" substrates increase during glacials
when steppe conditions with high episodic runoff
prevail, whereas forests reduce soil erosion during
9.3 Mechanical Denudation
interglacials. "Hard rock" substrate~ show peaks ~f
erosion soon after the onset of glacIal steppe condl-
tions when the forests die and their soils can be eas-
ily removed. In the subsequent glacial inten:al ne~
soil formation and thus erosion are limited unhl agam
trees can grow and promote rock weathering and soil
formation.
The Global Mechanical Denudation Rate
Globally, the contemporary total river flux of sus-
pended sediment to the oceans is 15 - 20 x 109 tla or
100 to 130 t/km2/a (Milliman and Meade 1983;
Tamrazyan 1989; Ludwig et al. 1996). The highest
values of this range come from a very large data base
summarized by Milliman and Syvitski (1992). About
40% of this sediment flux originates from the wet
tropics, 21 % from wet temperate climates, 5% from
boreal climates, and 34% from dry climates (Ludwig
et al. 1996). If 50% of the present-day sediment flux
to the oceans reflects "natural" erosion (e.g. Hay
1998) and the contemporary total soilloss (including
human-induced erosion) is 50-75 x 109 tla, it appears
that only c. 15-20% of the eroded soil is delivered to
the oceans (Walling and Webb 1996).
There are significant differences in the specific
sediment yields of the present-day continents (e.g.
Harrison 1994). Asia with its widely extended high
mountain ranges yields 310 tlkm2/a, whereas Africa,
Australia, and Europe only deliver 17 to 27 tlkm2/a.
The va1ues for North and South America are 88 and
57 tlkm2/a, respectively. The natural (pre-European
settlement) sediment yield of Australia is estimated
to have been 2 to 5 times 10wer than the modem one
(Wasson et al. 1996).
A global average specific transport rate of 100
tlkm2/a, corresponding to a mechanical denudation
rate of about 40 mm/ka, would lead to an average
sedimentation rate (pore-free) in the world oceans of
about 17 mmIka (also see Sect. 9.4).
9.3.3 General Laws for Mechanical Denudation
Using the empirically gained data discussed above,
several authors have tried to formulate a general law
to express mechanical denudation in relation to relief
and climate. The rock types exposed in the drainage
areas are usually not considered in these attempts.
Taking into account that relief is the main fac~or,
Pinet and Souriau (1988) assurne that the mechalllcal
denudation rate, DR.ne' is largely correlated with the
mean drainage basin elevation (Hm in m) above the
base level of erosion (e.g. sea level). They therefore
neglect environmental factors and propose the fol-
lowing empirical formula:
441
DR.ne = 419 x 10.3 H m- 0.245
(mm/ka or mlMa) (9.1)
(1 ka = 1000 years).
This simple formula often gives the correct order of magni-
tude, but sometimes renders results which significantly
differ from those depicted in Figs. 9.13 and 9.14 (see also
Leeder 1991). For example, an elevated plateau which is
not dissected by deep valleys may undergo much le~s denu-
dation than a coastal region with steep slopes, as In South
Africa (Summerfield 1991).
An expression similar to that given above is used by
Pazzaglia and Brandon (1996):
DR.ne = ~ x Hm (mlMa). (9.2)
Ku is a proportionality constant of denudation (in
short: denudation constant; global average 0.07-0.1
Ma'l). It varies significantly from region to r~gion
(often within a range of two orders of magllltud~)
and therefore has to be calibrated by local mechalll-
cal erosion data. Possibly there is an exponential re-
lationship between Hm and DR.ne, but the deviation
from the linear relationship seerns to be small, at
least at a continental scale (Harrison 1994).
Some improvement in this approach is obtained by
considering loeal relief, R 1, R2, R3 ... (the differenee
in m between maximum and minimum elevation
within a local area). This method also roughly in-
cludes, indirectly, the density of the river net and the
slope gradients which eontrol de!1udation? ra~er than
the absolute elevation of a reglOn. Taking mto ac-
count mean local relief, R.n = R 1+R2+R3•• .ln (n =
number of grids) of a drainage basin, Slingerland et
al. (1994) propose the formula (based on Ahnert
1970):
DR.ne = 0.1535 R.n (mmIka or mlMa). (9.3)
As shown for major rivers, denudation also corre-
lates fairly well with the relief ratio or the overall
slope of the drainage basin (Fig. 9.12, Summerfield
and Hulton 1994).
To introduce the influence of climate, apart from
relief, Ludwig and Probst (1996) have presented the
following empirical equation for sediment yield, SY
(modified):
SY = 0.02 (Q x SP x VP) (9.4)
where Q is the specific runoff in the river basin
(mmlyear), SP is the average basin slope (in r~dians,
cf. Fig. 9.12), and VP is the index to charactenze the
variability of precipitation over the year: VP = ~
p2monthsIPyear (mmlyear).
In regions ofprecipitation equally distributed over the year,
VP has lower values than for those of seasonal rain. The
442
product of Q, SP and VP is calculated separately for all
grid points in the basin (not as the product of .basin aver-
ages). In addition to these parameters, lithologIcal charac-
teristics of the basins can be introduced into the forrnula. It
appears that the sediment yield of large wet drainage basins
can be weil approxirnated with this method. The forrnula
seems to be less suited to dry climates and small areas with
specific rock types.
All these attempts as well as the discussion in the
previous chapter demonstrate that the complex pro-
cesses controlling mechanical denudation cannot be
expressed by a simple law. Each region reacts in a
somewhat different way, even if most of the variable
factors are comparable. Changes in climate and vege-
tation appear to be especially difficult to evaluate.
Cold and moist conditions during glacials, for exam-
pIe, can reduce sediment yield from mountain ranges
if they lead to more widespread vegetation (Leeder et
al. 1998; also see Weltje et al. 1998). For all these
reasons, mechanical denudation rates are more diffi-
cult to predict than chemical denudation rates (shown
in Figure 9.10 for different morpho-climatic zones).
Total denudation, Dt = D~e + DReh' can be deter-
mined by using one of the above formulae for D~e
and adding a constant value for the regional chem~cal·
denudation D~h which does not depend on the rehef.
9.4 Modern Chemical vs. Mechanical
Denudation Rates
9.4.1 Global Values
On aglobai scale, the contemporary total river flux
of suspended sediment (TSS) to· the oceans is 15 - 20
x 109 t/a or 100 to l30 t/km2/a (Sect. 9.3.2). This cor-
responds to a mean global mechanical denudation
rate of -40 to -50 mmlka. Likewise, the mean global
chemical denudation rate is -25 t/km2/a or -10
mmIka after correction for atmospheric components
in the dissolved river load (Sect. 9.2.4). Thus, the
ratio of mechanical and chemical denudation,
D~/D~h' is 4 to 5. Globally, mechanical denuda-
tion and transport of particulate matter clearly ex-
ceeds solute transport.
Distributed evently over the entire ocean basins,
D~e would produce a pore-free clastic sediment
layer at a rate of -20 mmlka and DReh a "carbonate-
silica-salt" layer at a rate of -4 mmlka.
9.4.2 Regional Variations and Trends
On a regional scale or for individual drainage basins,
the D~/D~h ratios vary considerably. In the river
basins discussed earlier, the ratios range from -0.3
(Siberian rivers) and 20 to 40 (Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
Fig. 9.12). If smaller catchments are included, the
deviation from the global mean is even greater. As
Walling and Webb (1983) have pointed out, there is
no clear relationship between the particulate (TSS)
and dissolved loads (TDS) of rivers. This may partly
result from the significantly differing transport mech-
anisms for the two load components. Most of the
particulate load is transported ?y peak .n0ws during
just a few days of the year, whJle the dlssolved load
moves continuously downriver. However, TDS var-
ies seasonally and decreases during storm events due
to dilution. Furthermore, the specific transport rate of
suspended so lids commonly declines from the. upper
to the lower reaches of a fluvial system, whlle the
transport rate of dissolved solids generally does not.
Ifthe data plotted in Figs. 9.l2. 9.l3 and 9.14 are
considered together with information summarized by
Walling and Webb (1986), some ~eneral tren.ds f~r
regions of different climate and rehef can be Identl-
fied.
- In mountainous regions, due to incomplete soil
cover and high precipitation, both load compon~nts
usually increase as relief increases, but the speclfic
sediment yield or the mechanical denudation rate
increases much faster than the chemical denudation
rate. In the Himalayas the D~/D~h ratio is > 10, but
in the Alps it is only 1 to 2 because of widespread
carbonate rocks. In tropical mountain ranges,
D~jDReh can reach values ranging from 10 t~ 30;
the very high values commonly come from relatlvely
small study areas.
- In tropieal areas with low or mixed relief, the
D~/D~h ratios often vary between 5 and 10 (cf.
Fig. 9.l2). Similar ratios have been found for large
river basins of arid to semi-arid regions.
- In areas with temperate to subtropieal climates and
mixed relief the D~/DReh ratio varies between
about 0.5 and 4. Most of the rivers in northwestem
and central Europe (apart from those originating in
the Alps) have ratios <1, i.e., chemical denudation is
more effective thanmechanical denudation. With
increasing annual runoff (and no change in relief)
chemical denudation is enhanced, while mechanical
denudation remains approximately constant or even
declines due to increasing soil protection by dense
vegetation cover.
- The lowest reported D~/D~h ratios are from the
aretie to high-latitude rivers of Siberia which mainly
drain lowlands. With growing relief, this ratio also
increases and exceeds 1 (e.g., Mackenzie River, cf.
Fig. 9.12). For glaciated regions, DR.n/D~h can be-
come very high due to intense mechanical erosion.
9.5 Long-Term Denudation Rates 443

EROSION FROM LANDSCAPE RECONSTRUCTION

b ± CRUST

,.... ,----, 1
.....
,----------- -7'11
r1 ...
--'f-:.zJ.,(17'T"~-J ..
,_-.J_-'C)
I
I
Y -- -;- I
I (,
"I' •
I , I I
I
I
r
:
~ ,. J

~2
____
~",:... -
• I ,
~ ~. .. , ~

VOLCANIC PIPE

EROSION OF GRABEN SHOULDER d ESCARPMENT RETREAT

\-~----
: ""':::'::--' ~---

9 ------
---,
e f .. " :
~,

~:::-t--,..
! I I ,
Fig. 9.15. Landfonn re-
EXHUMATION ' construction using geo-
•
I
I
l---I---:::;;!!J morphological (a,b), geo-
logical (c-f), and rniner-
alogical-radiometric me-
thods (g) to determine
INCISED VALLEY , THERMOBAROMETRY, exhumation. See text for
LATER FILLED CHRONOTHERMOMETRY further explanation

9.5 Long-Term Denudation Rates from
Landform Reconstruction
9.5.1 Methods for Reconstructing Former
Land Surfaces
Longer-tenn mean values of denudation can be in-
ferred from landfonn reconstruction if thevolume of
the eroded rock mass and the ages of the fonner and
subsequent (often the present-day) landscapes can be
assessed. The factors controlling landscape evolu-
tion, such as tectonism, isostasy, or base-level change
(Sect. 9.7) are only of indirect importance in this
context.
Valleys cutting into the slopes of a datable volca-
nic structure allow detennination of the volume of
eroded rock material since the last eruption (Fig,
9.I5a). Pre-existing valleys may be filled by lava
flows which later res ist erosion and then indicate the
fonner landscape level. Dated river terraces can be
used to find the eroded rock volume for a certain val-
ley length (Fig. 9.15c). Sirnilarly, datable valley inci-
sion (Sect. 7.6) allows an estimate of linear and pos-
sibly average denudation rates for wider areas (Fig.
9.15t). Blocks of sedimentary rocks previously fonn-
ing the land surface may have sunken into a volcanic
pipe of known age (Fig. 9.15c). If they are found on
the present land surface at the level of older rock lay-
444
ers, they indieate the amount of denudation (equal to
the thickness of the removed sequence) for the time
period between the volcanic aetivity and the age of
the present land. The amount of erosion on graben
shoulders (Fig. 9.15d; rift flank uplift) has been as-
sessed in several regions. This is possible when strata
of the same age as the eroded ones are preserved
within the graben fill or at some lateral distanee from
the graben strueture (also see e.g. Roll 1979). Dating
of the rifting or relies of a former, higher landscape
along an esearpment may indieate the time involved
in esearpment retreat.
Digital topographic data in a geographical infonnation
system (GIS) can considerably help in refining landfonn
reconstruction and in assessing mass balances of eroded
rocks (e.g. Roessner and Strecker 1997). For example in
the Central Kenya Rift, East Africa, ashflow tuffs of known
age (~3 Ma) mark the remnants of a fonner plateau surface
which was subsequently affected by faulting and valley
incision. Using this method, the long-tenn mean denuda-
tion rate of an area of 710 km 2 was found to have been
about 12 mlMa.
A young example of escarpment retreat has been
described from the Gulf of Suez and its junction with the
Red Sea (Steckler 1994). The pre-rift strata are composed
of the Nubian sandstone (Paleozoic up to early Cretaceous
in age) and cliff-fonning Cretaceous-Eocene carbonates.
The relatively weak sands tone is more easily eroded than
the carbonates in the arid climate; the underlying basement
is intersected by wadis. The rate of escarpment retreat var-
ies inversely with the sediment thickness (400 to 2000 m).
The average rate was 6 kmlMa during the past 20 Ma.
In southem Gennany the escarpment fonned by upper
Jurassic limestones and older Jurassie strata (500 to 600 m
in total thickness) has retreated at a rate of about 2 kmlMa
(based on data in Geyer and Gwinner 1986).
The amount and average rate of paleo-denudation
can also be derived for older time periods. For exam-
pIe, the end of an aneient erosion period on top of
tilted and folded strata ean be dated by the overlying
rocks; the onset of erosion and the volume of eroded
material may be found from the age and structure of
the sediments below the uneonformity (Fig. 9.l5e).
Recently, thermobarometry and ehronothermometry,
indieating deep-reaehing exhumation, have been ap-
plied to a number of regions to determine long-term
rock uplift and denudation (Fig. 7.l5g; cf. Seet. 7.6
and Table 9.l). "Tectonic" erosion is not considered
here.
These are only some examples of a variety of
geomorphological and geologieal methods whieh can
be used to make estimates for loeal and more re-
gional paleo-denudation rates.
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
9.5.2 Long-Term Denudation Rates (Overview)
Data Base and Discussion
Some data for long-term average denudation rates
derived from landscape reeonstruction, sediment vol-
umes (denudation-aceumulation systems, Seet. 11.2),
and exhumation studies are listed in Table 9.1. The
data are grouped aceording to regions of different
relief and time spans studied (Holoeene, Quatemary,
longer periods). Some brief eomments on these val-
ues are necessary:
- Denudation values for the Pleistoeene and to some
extent also for the Holoeene confirm the impact of
relief but the data vary signifieantly from region to
region.
Some ofthis scattering may be caused by drastic variations
in climate and the possibility that weathering and sediment
transport are still in a kind of transitional state. For exam-
pie, glacial sediments within and at the foot of many moun-
tain ranges may still being reworked and incorporated into
Holocene deposits.
The accuracy of longer-tenn paleo-denudation rates de-
pends to a large degree on our knowledge about the geo-
10gical history and the chronostratigraphic dating of rocks
preserved in the study region (e.g. Gilchrist et al. 1994).
Some very high "denudation rates" found by the fission
track method in Alpine regions include "tectonic erosion"
(cf. Sect. 9.6.2, Rates ofUplift).
- Long-term denudation rates of large regions of
mixed relief are mostly in the same order of magni-
tude (20 to 70 mmlka), regardless of the time period
considered. This is true of the examples from North
Ameriea, Europe, Afriea and India (drainage areas of
the Mississippi river and the Blaek Sea, East Mid-
lands in England, Southwest Germany, rifted margins
along the Atlantie and Indian oeeans).
- The lateral retreat of escarpments associated with
rift flank uplift or erosion along the front of fold-
thrust belts may operate faster than vertical exhuma-
tion (e.g. Masek et al. 1994; Einseie et al. 1996).
There are not sufficient data to direetly compare the
results from different time periods. The values from
the Alps, the Pyrenees, and Southwest Afriea indi-
eate that there is no fundamental difference between
Holocene and long-period denudation rates, although
the data represent neither exaetly the same region nor
have been assessed by using the same method.
Erosion at the base of large iee sheets (40 up to
400 mmlka) does not reaeh the extremely high values
reported from mountain glaciers.
Further data for long-tenn denudation are compiled, e.g.,
by Biennan (1994), Walling and Webb (1996), and in
some further references listed above.
9.5 Long-Term Denudation Rates 445

Table 9.1 Long-tenn mean denudation rates (chemical and mechanical) determined by different methods
Relief Region Specific Time period and denudation rate Method 8 Reference
characteristics (mmlka)
Holoc. Quat. Longer

High High Mainly cryst. 1000 (20 Ma) LE+DA Einseie et al. (1996)
moun- Himalaya rocks
tains
Entire Cryst. and 350 (20 Ma) LE+DA Einseie et al. (1996)
Himalayas sed. rocks

Alps Cryst. rocks, 150-350 DA Einseie and Hinderer

(from lake sed.) (1997)

WAlps Rhone sub- 400 DA Menard et al. (1965)

marine fan
Swiss Alps Lake Zürich sed. 1000 Schindler (1974)
Cryst. massifs 100-500 (30-50 ~Ia) FT Schmid et al. (1996)

E Alps Tauern Window 200-500 (30-50 Ma) FT Frisch et al. (1998)

EPyrenees 200 130-170 LE Calvetand Lamartinel (1993)

Cent. Pyrenees 35-60 (40-10 Ma) FT Morris et al. (1998)

S Chile Andes 660 DA Kopf (1995)

Moun- Appalachians Paleoz. sed. 40-50 (175 Ma) DA Pazzaglia and Brandon
tains (1996)
N California 200 (5 Ma) LE Kelsey (1980)

S California Coastal range 120 (l Ma) DA Moore (1969)

W. Mexico Coastal ranges 50(4 Ma) DA Einseie and Niemitz (1982)

Up- NewEngland Connecticut r. 10 DA Gordon (1979)

lands
and N Africa Chad basin 2-6 (min. values) DA Gac (1980)
low-
lands England East Midlands 35 (Cenoz.) FT Brown (1991)

Greenland Passive margin plume 100 (Cenoz.) FT Clift et al. (1998)

Shetland Isl. Passive margin plume 40 (Cenoz.) FT

SW Africa Paleoz., volc. 10-20 (Mesoz.) LE Gilchrist et al. (1994)

SW Africa and ign. rocks 25-30 (Mesoz.) FT Brown (1991)
SW Africa Rifted margin, synrift phase 6-20 (158-118 Ma) FT Gallagher et al. (1998)
SW Africa Rifted margin, postrift phase 20-30 (118-0 Ma) FT

SE Australia Rifted margin 1-10 (65 Ma) FT van der Beek and Braun
(1998)
S India Rifted margin 15-20 (Mesoz.) LE Gunnell (1998)
40-60 LE
Europe Black Sea basin 70 DA Degens et al. (1978)

Mississippi Miss. fan 46 30 (2.4 Ma) DA Wetzel (1992)

drainage

SWGermany Cuesta landscape 33 (18 Ma) LE Einseie (1992)

Glaci- N America Glacial erosion 40-70 (3 Ma) DA Bell and Laine (1985)
ated
areas Swalbard Barents Sea 100 200-400 (2.5 Ma) DA Elverhoi et al. (1995)

Newfoundl. 130 (175 ka) DA Hiscott and Aksu (1996)

Antarctica
(Scott glacier) 100 (Cenoz.) FT Fitzgerald and Stump (1997)

8 LE, landscape reconstruction; DA, denudation-sediment-accumulation systems; FT, fission track method
446
The Late Glacial-Holocene Transition
New data for the Pleistocene and Holocene mechani-
cal denudation of the entire Alps, derived from the
fillings of perialpine lakes, demonstrate that the aver-
age denudation rate since the last glacial maximum
(~17 ka B.P.) was about 5 times higher than the Ho-
locene rate (620 vs. 125 mmlka, Hinderer 1999).
During the total Quaternary, the average denudation
rate in the Alps (--400 mmlka) was two to three times
higher than in the late Oligocene and Miocene
(Kuhlemann et al. 1999).
Data for the fjords ofwestern Norway which were
shaped by the advancing ice during the glacial peri-
ods but later filled with sediment displaya reduction
in denudation similar to that found for the Alps.
Late-glacial (since the last glacial maximum) denuda-
tion in the catchment of Sognefjorden (520 mmlka)
was 7.4 times higher than denudation in the Holo-
cene (Bogen 1996; Aarseth 1997).
The sediments of the Black Sea also document the
influence of climatic change (Fig. 9.19, Degens et al.
1991, cf. Sect. 11.2.3). The present-day mean me-
chanical denudation rate in its drainage area (~30
mmIka), as derived from river loads, is similar to the
rate (~40 mmlka) calculated from the carbonate-free
solid sediment for the past 5 ka. During the last
deglaciation (15 to 8 ka B.P.) the sediment yield of
the rivers was two to four times greater than at pres-
ent.
9.5.3 Regions ofVery Siow Denudation
Some of the great Precambrian shields which were
not affected by the Pleistocene glaciations have
shown little evidence of denudation for very long
time periods (e.g. Fairbridge and Fink! (1980). These
tectonically stahle areas, such as parts of the former
Gondwana continent, were leveled many hundred
million years ago and since then have kept an eleva-
tion most of the time slightly above base level of ero-
sion. Intermittently, part of their almost planar ero-
sion surface (peneplain) has been buried by a thin
veneer of sediment and exhumed by subsequent ero-
sion.
This is documented by the presence of relic sediments of
different ages at the edges of these cratonic regions. In Af-
rica and particularly in western Australia, such multiple
"stacked" veneers are superimposed and subparallel not
only to each other, but also to the original cratonic surface.
They are often separated from the basement and from one
another by paleosols and duricrusts (e.g., silcrete or
lateritic ernsts). In more central parts of the peneplain,
which remained uncovered or were rarely buried by sedi-
ments, very deep, old weathering profiles may be preserved
(see also, e.g., Firman 1988). The total denudation rate in
the humid tropical environment of the Guayana Shield
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
(Venezuela, Colombia, and Brazil) was found to be only
about 10 mmlka, with equal contribution from chemie al
(mostly dissolved silica) and mechanical erosion (Edmond
et al. 1995). Here, a thick lateritic regolith with kaolinite
and gibbsite has developed on basement rocks.
The long-term net surface lowering of these regions
can be extremely slow (in Northwest Australia 0.1 to
0.2 mlMa, in Southeast Australia 3 to 8 mlMa, in the
Chad Basin 0.5 to 2 mlMa; Table 9.1; cf. Sect.
11.2.3). Some isostatic rebound enables denudation
to continue for long time periods, even when thermo-
tectonically generated uplift is absent.
9.5.4 Modern vs. Long-Term Denudation Rates
In the context of this volume geological time periods
of some 100 ka to many miIlions of years as weIl as
mean denudation rates of large areas (> 100 000 km2)
are of interest. Therefore it is important to know
whether or not modern sediment yields of large
drainage systems can be used in studies of ancient
denudation/sediment-accumulation systems (cf.
Sects. 11.2 and 11.3). Drastic increases in man-in-
duced soil erosion have been reported from many
countries and seem to restrict the usefulness of mod-
ern sediment yields in basin analysis. However, sig-
nificant soil erosion normally takes place in areas of
limited size, specific natural characteristics, and in-
tensive land use, whereas the average sediment yields
of many large drainage systems often are less af-
fected by human activities. This is demonstrated for
two examples of mountainous regions and two larger
areas ofmixed relief and land use (Fig. 9.16), where
modern and long-term values for sediment yield or
mechanical denudation have been determined inde-
pendently from each other.
- Tbe large Tarbela reservoir at the Indus River near
Islarnabad in northern Pakistan has a drainage area (171
000 km2 ) comprising ab out one third of that of the total
Himalayas. A great part of the storage capacity of the dam
site was filled with sediment after 20 years of operation.
Tbe mean specific sediment yield ofthe upper Indus river,
as calculated from the sediment storage in the reservoir, is
1170 t/km2/a, corresponding to a mean mechanical denuda-
tion rate of 425 m1Ma in the northwestern Himalaya (mean
rock density 2.75 glcm 3). In this case, the modern denuda-
tion rate can be compared with the long-term (past 20 Ma)
denudation in the entire Himalayas (360 mlMa, cf. Sect.
11.5.5; Einseie and Hinderer 1997). In the High Himalayan
crystalline chain, the rate was higher (about 1000 m1Ma).
Only about 5% of these rates are caused by chemical denu-
dation.
- Tbe relatively large Sefid-Rud reservoir in northwestern
Iran drains an area of 56 000 km 2 of semiarid c1imate (mean
precipitation 350 mm1a) and high relief in the Elburs
mountains. Tbe average sediment yield of the river basin,
partly containing unconsolidated c1astic rocks and volcanic
tuff, was ca. 900 t/km 2/a (or 360 mmlka) for the first 17
9.6 Steady State and Dynamic Denudation Systems 447

o 100 200 300

UPPER INDUS
(T ARBELA RIVER
RESERVOIR) -illllt~JIIIII
ENTIRE HIMALAYAS

RIVERS OF N IRAN
AND CAUCASUS ---nWWß~WiW1mW
S CASPIAN SEA
I
1

ENTERING RIVS~'O1
BLACK HOLOCENE SED.- 40 I
SEA I

SED. OF LAST
DEGLACIATION 100
1 I
Fig. 9.16 .. Modem vs. long-
I term denudation rates. Modem
I
1
MODERN VS. LONG- rates are based on measured
MISSIS- MODERN RIVER 48 1
I
TERM MECHANICAL river loads or sediment fills of
artificial reservoirs; long-term
SIPPI
DEEP-SEA FAN .
I
1
DENUDATION RATES
data are derived from sediment
fills of large basins
o 100 mm/ka

years of dam operation. This river, the large Kura River (95
mmlka), and some smaller rivers from the Great Caucasus
(Terek 285 mmIka, Samur 788 mmIka; from data summa-
rized in Ohmori 1983) enter the South Caspian Sea. From
these values the (weighted) modern mean denudation rate
of the mountain ranges around the South Caspian Sea is
estimated to be about 280 mm/ka. The sedimentation rate
ofthe South Caspian Sea (around 800 mmIka for dry sedi-
ment during the past 2 to 6 Ma, cf. Sect. 11.2.3) renders a
long-term mean denudation rate in its drainage area (about
three times 1arger than the basin area) of about 270 mmlka.
- The sediments of the Black Sea document the influence
ofclimatic change (Fig. 9.19, Degens et al. 1991, also see
Sect. 11.2.3). The present-day mean mechanica1 denuda-
tion rate in its drainage area (ca.30 mmlka), as derived
from river loads, is simi1ar to the rate (ca.40 mmlka) ca1cu-
lated from the carbonate-free solid sediment for the past 5
ka. During the last deglaciation (15 to 8 ka B.P.) the sedi-
ment yield of the rivers was two to four times greater than
at present.
- In the Mississippi drainage area, the modem mean denu-
dation rate based on river load measurements is somewhat
higher than the rate found from the volume and age of the
Mississippi deep-sea fan (Wetzel1993).
9.6 Steady State and Dynamic
Denudation Systems
The formulae introduced in Sect. 9.3.3 render data
for short-term denudation systems (up to some 100 to
1000 years) which are in a kind of steady state condi-
tion, i.e. elevation above base level, local relief, and
other factors remain more or less constant. When
longer time periods are involved, one has to take into
account concurrent changes in elevation and relief of
the denudation area and possibly also changes in
climate and the rock types exposed. In the following
we first discuss the influence of isostatic uplift and
then the interplay between tectonically driven uplift
and denudation.
9.6.1 Isostatic Response to Denudation
Total denudation D, within a time increment at is the
sum of mechanical and chemical denudation:

There are other examples, such as the Nile River (m). (9.5)
with the High Aswan dam or the Yellow River and
the Yellow Sea, where modem denudation rates ap- Dm. may be calculated by using e.g. equation 9.2 and
pear to be much higher than long-term rates. Never- assuming that D ch can be kept constant for a certain
theless, Fig. 9.16 indicates that cautiously selected region. D ch often ranges from 5 to 15 rnIMa (cf. Figs.
modem mechanical denudation rates can be used in 9.12 and 9.14). The change in mean elevation, aH, is
considerations on the sediment flux of ancient
denudation-accumulation systems. (m), (9.6)
448 Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport

talSOST ATIC REBOUND ONL Y o = Dme + Dch

t.H = Cj • t.D
I

: 0.63 Ho
: (3.15 Ho
: eroded)

• I •••••••••
ULTIMATE
EQUILIBRIUM
LEVEL

b PROCESSES
2nN4{ynnn//n) /f.lf t.H = SURFACE
1 77 TU = TECTONIC, _:_...J. UPLIFT
, ,/ .ll.:.:.. UPLIFT :, ,; I
E (=0) E~1';I,_,/,,"---,,,',.. IR+TU=ROCK
EXHUMATION f,_, I~=ISOSTATIC_ UPLIFT
(DENUDA TION)
-~ ~,~E.~?~N~, (RU) Fig. 9.17. a Model of the
I ."\ - / '- / ..... / , - I .... interplay between total
BASE LEVEL ,/,' 1'"\," ',':. / ~_, (meehanieal and ehemieal)
- _ . __ ._-- /' - .) , ' , ' "/ .... J"" ........ "_. . . . . _ _ • _ _ . - - -
denudation D, isostatie
, CRUST AL BLOCK rebound IR (Airy model),
and lowering. dH of the
landseape in diserete steps;
no teetonie uplift. H, mean
C BACKSTACKING r-l--' elevation of the landseape
above base level (e.g. sea
I I I
level or the level ofultima-
THERMOBAROMETRY, I I I PRESENT
te isostatie equilibrium).
I E I
INITIAL
FISSION TRACKS I I LAND The amounts of D, IR, and
I I SURFACE dH deerease with lowe-
LAND SURFACE I ring H (in the time inter-
vals tl-to ete.). tc is eharae-
teristie response time.
b Interplay between denu-
dation or exhumation E,
isostatie rebound IR, teeto-
nie uplift TU, and eleva-
tion of the land surfaee H.
(Based on England and
INITIAL p,T Molnar 1990). c Baekstak-
king method to determine
CONDITIONS TU and t.H for a eertain
time period. (After Brown
TU = E - IR + t.H 1991). See text for further
TIME :> t.H = H p - H j ± t.SL explanation

where Ci is the eompensation ratio for Airy isostasy:
Ci = (Pa - PYPa (ef. Seet. 8.1).
Then isostatie rebound IR for a time inerement dt is
(m).
Struetural geologists and petrographers often replaee
D t by the term "exhumation" E (see below).
U sing the model parameters of Fig. 8.1 b for the
asthenosphere and erust, Ci is 0.16; for Pa = 3.40 and
Pe = 2.70 the value of Ci is 0.21 (Pazzaglia and
(9.7) Brandon 1996). For reasons of simplieity, the value
9.6 Steady State and Dynamic Denudation Systems
Ci = 0.20 is assumed for the following discussion.
Equation 9.6 signifies that isostatic uplift in response
to unloading (aD t) causes the mean elevation, H, to
decrease by aH more slowly than the rate at which
material is being removed. From equation 9.6 follows
aD t = aHiCi , and for Ci = 0.20 it is
aD t = 5 x aH (m). (9.8)
This means, for example, that 5 x 1000 = 5000 m of rock
have to be eroded to reduce the mean elevation of a region
by 1000 m. This is solely the effect of Airy isostasy without
any additional flexural component or tectonic or thermal
process generating syn-erosional uplift. The simple model
of Fig. 9.17a shows the effect of isostatic rebound in sev-
eral time steps. During each step, a rock column half as
thick as the previous elevation ofthe landscape is removed,
but at the same time rebound of the ernst generates uplift
compensating for 80% of the eroded rock column. Lower-
ing of the landscape therefore proceeds much slower than
denudation.
An integral solution for the decay of the landscape
due to mechanical denudation is (Pazzaglia and
Brandon 1996):
(9.9)
where Ho is the initial mean elevation, H is the eleva-
tion after time t, and K.J is the constant for mechani-
cal denudation (equation 9.2).
The time necessary, to get a 63% reduction of an ini-
tiallandscape is commonly defined as a characteristic
response time, t c ' of the dynamic system (e.g.
Pazzaglia and Brandon 1996):
(Ma). (9.10)
A more general definition of the response time is tc =
lIe = 0.37 (e = 2.718). It is the time taken to reduce
the disequilibrium to 0.37 times the initial disequilib-
rium of a system (Fig. 9.18b; e.g. Kooi and Beau-
mont 1996). The introduction of this term is useful,
because it may take a very long time to achieve full
equilibrium conditions.
Inserting the values discussed above (Ci = 0.20, Kd
= 0.07 Ma"), the average response time of denuda-
tion is tc :::::: 70 Ma. Other denudation constants lead
to shorter and longer time values. For the rapid ero-
sional decay of a young volcanic structure in Papua
New Guinea, for example, a response time of 1.4 Ma
was determined (Pazzaglia and Brandon 1996). Other
authors have found higher response times of up to
150 to 330 Ma, e.g. for a Paleozoic fold belt in Aus-
tralia (see Harrison 1994). This problem is further
discussed in Section 9.6.3
449
9.6.2 Uplift and Denudation
General Concepts
In studies· on the interplay between tectonic uplift
and denudation, one has to distinguish the following
terms (Fig. 9.l7b; England and Molnar 1990):
- Surface uplijt is the displacement of the land sur-
face with respect to the geoid or mean sea level.
- Rock uplijt is the displacement of rocks with re-
spect to the geoid.
- Exhumation (= erosion, denudation) is the removal
of rocks with respect to the initial land surface. Ex-
humation of formerly buried rocks can also be
brought about by tectonic movements, e.g. gravity
tectonics, a case which is not considered here.
These terms should be only used for large areas
where mean values can be determined. In this case it
is (Fig. 9.l7b)
Surface uplift (aH)
= rock uplift (RU) - exhumation (E), or:
Rock uplift (RU)
= tectonic uplift (TU) + isostatic rebound (IR)
= surface uplift (aH) + exhumation (E)
The amount of exhumation can be determined by using
several methods. In favorable cases the present-day poros-
ity of shales or the vitrinite reflectancy of fossilized plant
rernains (cf. Fig. 14.4) allow an estimate ofthe thickness of
formerly overlying rocks removed by erosion (Sect. 13.2).
Specific mineral associations formed under certain temper-
atures and pressures (thermobarometry) indicate the thick-
ness of rocks eroded, but they do not provide information
about the time period involved. However, thermochrono-
logical methods (e.g. 40ArP9Ar and apatite fission-track
analyses) yield both the amount of exhumation as well as
the time needed for this process. These methods are de-
scribed in modern textbooks of petrology and isotope geol-
ogy (see, e.g. Gallagher et al. 1998 for abriefreview).
To find out the uplift and denudation history of a
region, a backstacking method has been proposed
(Fig. 9.l7c, based on Brown 1991). After having de-
termined exhumation, E, of rock sampies from the
present land surface for a certain time period, uplift
by isostatic rebound, IR, is calculated by using equa-
tion 9.7. Then tectonic uplift is TU = E - IR - aH,
where aH = Hp - Hi, i.e. is the difference in elevation
between the present and the initial land surface. If
there was a change in sea level, aSL, or base level
we get aH = Hp - H i ± aSL.
Tectonic uplift TU is difficult to evaluate when exhumation
E and surface uplift aH are uncertain. Because the amount
of E is normally greater than that of aH, for example in
orogenie belts, an error in the determination of E may
450 Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport

a: ------- - ----
o a .,,.- ---- ~ "... -,_"'\"\----~
,/ 'v/ DENUDATION RATE, DR
....
.- ....
;'
/
/
TECTONIC PULSES
f-
u.. TU = TECTONIC UPLIFT
:::i IR = ISOSTATIC REBOUND
Q..
::> D = DENUDATION z
u.. (= E, EXHUMATION)
o
o i=
«
UJ
f- >
«
a:
UJ
.....J
DandiR ~ UJ

.-'-'-'-' . Fig. 9.18. Interrelationship

between tectonism, denu-
dation rates DR, and land-
scape evolution. a Effects
f-
u.. b CONTINUOUS UPLIFT OR SUBSIDENCE
of two tectonic pulses; in
between slow lowering of
.....J the land surface as in Fig.
Q..
::>
LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION 7.17 a. b Continuous ul'lift
o~~,~~~~~~~ ~==-~ t c =RESPONSE
z
o
i=
or subsidence at rapld1y
changing rates. In contrast
to a, this model shows in-
UJ
f- I TIME « tervals of equilibrium con-
«
a: TIME
>
UJ ditions (i.e. DR = rate of
.....J
UJ total uplift). See text for
Cf)
OJ 4---- further explanation
:::>
Cf)

cause the ca1culation of TU to become problematic. In ad
dition the uncertainty in estimates of E tends to be larger
than ;ny likely change in surface height accompanying ex-
humation (England and Molnar 1990). This means that
further methods and criteria are needed to assess surface
uplift for geological time periods.
Rates of Uplift
One of the consequences of the interplay between
tectonic uplift, denudation, and isostatic rebound is
that published data for the rates of tectonic uplift and
surface uplift have to be regarded with caution. Sur-
face uplift determined for geological time periods is
normally smaller than tectonic uplift because it is re-
duced by concurrent denudation (see above). In com-
parison with rock uplift, which ineludes isostatic r~­
bound, surface uplift is even more limited. For thlS
reason, rates of surface uplift should be measured for
very short time periods andlor in regions where denu-
dation and thus also isostatic rebound can be ne-
glected or determined with confidence. In the fir~t
case, surface uplift related to a constant base level IS
equal to tectonic uplift.
With epeirogenic movements, large areas are af-
fected by moderate vertical uplift or subsidence on
the order of 5 to 50 mmlka (5 to 50 mlMa), which
may persist for tens of millions of years.
These movements often originate from slowly operating
processes within the lithosphere and man~le (cf. Chaps. 1
and 8), but isostatic response to denu~tlon on .land and
deposition in basins on continental or mtermedlate .crust
can cause vertical displacements of the same magllltud~.
The central Appalachian Piedmont, for example, ~xpen­
enced flexural upwarping of about 2 to 9 mlMa dunng the
past 15 Ma (Pazzaglia and Gardn~r 199~). Higher rates of
vertical movements result from lsostatlc response of the
crust to rapid loading or unloading, for eJrn?l~le by th~
growth or melting of ice caps. Post-glacial uphft l~ Sc~n~l­
navia and other, formerly thickly glaciated areas lS stIlI m
progress and reaches values as high as several mmla and
more, but is exponentially decreasing with time.
In tectonically active zones, discrimination between
surface uplift and rock uplift is more diffic~1t be-
cause of ongoing 'rapid erosion. If surface uph~t (or
lowering) for a certain time period was relatlvely
small the amount of rock uplift is elose to that of
exhu~ation (cf. Fig. 9.17b). Long-term rates for this
process commonly range from 20 to 500 mmlka .(20
to 500 mlMa); in limited regions and for short tIme
periods, they can be much higher (up to .5000 - 10
000 mmlka) , for example along emergmg accre-
tionary wedges of subduction zones, at the front of
overthrust-sheets, or along transform faults.
Plio-Pleistocene, collision-related rock uplift of an
accretionary wedge in Taiwan occurred at an average rate
of 4 to 5 mmla, as inferred from fission track ages and ra-
9.6 Steady State and Dynamic Denudation Systems
diocarbon dates of coral reefs raised above sea level during
the Holocene (Dorsey 1989). Along the Cascadia
subduction zone on the northwestern coast of the United
States, young surface uplift ranges from 0 to 5 mrnIa
(Mitchell et al. 1994). Surface up1ift in Japan, associated
with an active subduction zone, amounts to 1 to 4 mrnIa.
Parts of the North Island of New Zea1and show young,
subduction-related surface up1ift of > 1 mrnIa, locally >3
mrnIa (Walcott 1987). For the Caucasus, surface uplift
rates of about 10 mrnIa have been reported (International
Union ofGeodesy and Geophysics 1975).
Uplift of orogenie hefts is a lengthy process lasting
between 20 and 100 Ma Tectonic uplift generally
evolves as a result of plate convergence, subduction,
and underthrusting of oceanic or continental crust.
Later, isostatic rebound of the thickened mountain
root is the principal factor of slowly declining uplift
rates. In detail, the history of mountain ranges is of-
ten more complex. Crustal thickening and updorning
of central zones frequently causes detachment zones
and backthrusting, i.e. the upper crust and its sedi-
ment cover move, driven by gravity forces, away
from the centers of tectonic uplift. This process is
called "tectonic exhumation" and does not provide
sediment. Furthermore, the structures of orogenic
belts or parts of them may be significantly modified
by lateral extrusion tectonics (e.g. Ratschbacher et al.
1991; Frisch et al. 1998). As a consequence, crustal
blocks (or basins) separated by strike-slip motions,
may experience different histories of tectonic uplift
and exhumation. Average rates of uplift and denuda-
tion for entire orogenic belts are therefore problem-
atic.
Exhumation of the Tauern Window, eastern Alps, mainly
occurred in the Miocene at a rate of 1-2 mrnIa which was
largely due to tectonic exhumation (Hey11997; Frisch et al.
1998). Average denudation rates for individual parts ofthis
mountain range and longer time periods range from 0.02 to
0.5 mrnIa. The western (Swiss) Alps mainly evolved under
the influence of north-south convergence and gravity tec-
tonics, but were less affected by lateral extrusion than the
eastern Alps (Schmid et al. 1996). Here, exhumation also
varied significantly in space and time reaching peak values
of up to 5 mrnIa in some crystalline massifs (e.g. the
Bergell) for specific time periods (5-10 Ma). Long-term
denudation rates again are much slower (on the order ofO.5
mrnIa in the crystalline massifs and <0.1 mrnIa in the nappe
zones where sedimentary rocks are exposed. In the Pyre-
nean orogen, uplift-driven denudation in the time period
from 40 to 10 Ma B.P. mostly operated at rates of 35-60
mrnIka (max. 240 mmlka) but varied spatially and tempo-
rally (Morris et al. 1998).
The uplift history of the Tibetan Plateau seems to be
controversial. The long-term (25 Ma) average uplift rate
may have been 200 to 300 mmJka (Zhao and Morgan
1985). The High Himalayas reached an average rate of
1000 to 1500 mmJka during the past 20 Ma (Burg et al.
1987; Einsele et al. 1996), but locally and temporarily the
rates varied. The uplift rate in the Nanga-Parbat-Haramosh
massif, for example, increased from :;0.5 to more than 10
451
mm1a during the past 7 Ma (Hurford 1991; Burbank et al.
1996). In the backthrust zone of the Transhimalayas with
exposed sedimentary rocks, the long-term (20 Ma) average
rate of denudation was 100-200 mmlka only (cf. Sect.
11.5.5).
Modern rates of tectonic uplift are sometimes unusu-
ally high because of delayed isostatic rebound in re-
sponse to ice melted after the last glacial period.
Evaluating repeated geodetic surveys or dated ele-
vated fluvial terraces, very high uplift rates (~3
mm1a) were found in several high mountain ranges
(Gansser 1984). Using geomorphological marker ho-
rizons, Darmendrail et al. (1993) found uplift rates of
1 to 3 mrnIa for the past 100 ka in the French Alps.
In the less glaciated Umbrian Apennines, central
Italy, uplift rates in the Quatemary ranged from ~250
to 500 mmlka (Rasse 1993). More data ofuplift rates
in various tectonic settings are summarized in special
articles (e.g. Leeder 1991).
9.6.3 Simple Uplift-Denudation Models
Substantial denudation is commonly initiated by tec-
tonic and· thermal uplift (both included in the term
"tectonic" uplift in the following). Later, after the
end of this process, rock uplift is maintained to some
extent by isostatic rebound following erosional un-
loading as mentioned above (Fig. 9. 17a). Repeated or
changing vertical tectonic motions and their effects
on denudation and landscape evolution are demon-
strated in the models shown in Fig. 9.18a and b and
Fig.9.151:
- Scenario 1, teetonie pulses (Fig. 9.18a). Lowland
(around base level) is raised rapidly by tectonic uplift
during a short time period. After this event, land-
scape lowering is controlled by denudation and iso-
static rebound until a second tectonic pulse increases
mean elevation and thus generates a second period of
slow, exponential decay of the land surface. In this
case, no equilibrium between the (changing) denuda-
tion rate and total uplift during the pulses is reached
because the response time of the system is longer
than the tectonic pulse ("Penck-type" landscape evo-
lution; see e.g. Kooi and Beaumont 1996). Finally, a
short period of subsidence brings about accelerated
surface lowering followed again by slow decay.
- Scenario 2, eontinuous lang-term upliji (Fig.
9.18b). Rapidly changing rates of epeirogenic uplift
force denudation to follow until, after some time, a
kind of dynamic equilibrium (steady-state condition)
between total uplift and denudation is obtained
("Hack-type" landscapes). After each change in the
rate of uplift, the system approaches a new dynamic
equilibrium at higher or lower elevation above base
level. The equilibrium level also follows a lowered
base level with a certain response time, tc •
452 Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport

a b
...-
«3

~ 40
~
EQUILIBRIUM
. .L
._'-;:oor-- --
~-~ -
g2
UPLIFT
WITHOUT.
/
/

LOW DR
E ~" I ~I- - -- ---
1 Z .." - 1

"" ..,,-,_.:-._.-
I
CI: I 0 "" ., MEDIUM DR
Cl
20 I
~ 1 ,HIGH OR
"0 I /. I
C
«3
I
I
>
W
I .....J
CI:
::) 0 w 0
to t, t2 te t 3 Time 0 10 Ma

d
...-
c /
A"- .....
/1
I
.....
..........
«3 )
E 1,0
/
HUMID
TEr-.wERATE / los
E
;0,8
l.L.
~
er
::J
0,6 TROPICAL
CLiMATE __

l.L. 0,4 \1 I' ARID TO

~ 0,2
1
11 111 .. ; :.~ SEMI-ARID MEAN SLOPE DENUDATION D= +(0 5 + Oe)
f-« I~.;:.:.::::.::::::.::::::·:AB"QVE
I~II_~ ........ . BASE LEVEL
CI: O~~+=~--r--,---.~
o 1000 2000 3000 4000

SUM OF UPLIFT
e ARID TO SEMI-ARID

RELIEF ABOVE BASE LEVEL

(SUMMIT ELEVATION) c TR:ICS
3 /
E
.::%:. CLiMATE-CONTROLLED
/' \PENEPLAIN)

Z 2 -.--z.:_~~LANDFORMS ~
0
~
>
w 1
.....J
W

0
0 20 40 60 80 Ma

Fig. 9.19. Interaction between rock uplift RU (teeto-
nic and isostatic rebound) and different rates of de-
nudation DR. a After pulse of instantaneous uplift
(t o), uplift proceeds at constant moderate rate
(RU=40 m1Ma). Time intervals, t" ~, etc., to reach
equilibrium (DR=RU) after tectonic pulse increase
with decreasing DR. b Rapid continuous rock uplift
(RU=400 m1Ma, beginning at 10) leads to different
equilibrium (maximum) elevations after t1, ~, etc. tc
is response time of system with low DR. c Ultimate
elevation above base level as a function of the rate of
uplift and climate. d Development of valley-side slo-
pes according to different rates of summit D s and
stream-channel denudation D e. (After Ahnert 1970).
e Simplified model of the landscape evolution of an
orogenic belt. A short phase of rapid rock uplift is
followed by reduced uplift and finally by a longer
period of slow decay controlled by isostatic rebound.
Denudation lags behind uplift; the resulting land-
forms reflect the influence of climate which may
change during the time span considered here. (After
Chorleyet al. 1984; Gerrard 1988, greatly modified)
9.6 Steady State and Dynamic Denudation Systems
- Scenario 3, constant tectonic uplijt and change 0/
the denudation constant Kd (Fig. 9.19a, b and c). Cli-
mate change or differences in the erodibility of rocks
lead to changes in Ku (equation 9.2) and thus also in
the response time and "equilibrium elevation" of the
land surface.
Beginning at zero elevation (in relation to the base level of
erosion), continuous uplift first leads to a rising land sur-
face, because denudation lags behind uplift. With increas-
ing elevation, the denudation rate grows linearly or expo-
nentially (Figs. 9.13 and 9.19c) until it matches the rate of
total uplift (tectonic and isostatic rebound). A wet tropical
climate (andJor easily erodable rocks) may bring about
equilibrium conditions earlier and at lower altitude than
temperate humid or arid to semi-arid conditions (Fig.
9.19b). Thus, low denudation rates allow the landscape to
raise to higher plateau or summit elevations, provided tec-
tonic uplift continues.
In all ofthese models, denudation is assumed to proceed
uniformly over the entire area as postulated for the forma-
tion of peneplains in tropical to subtropical clirnates. The
influence of different rock types exposed at the same time,
linear downcutting of deep valleys as indicated in Fig.
9.19d, as weIl as other small-scale geomorphological fea-
tures such as benches, terraces, and pediments, are ne-
glected.
Without denudation, even relatively low uplift rates
as characteristic of epeirogenetic movements (e.g. 20
m1Ma) would generate highly elevated regions in
geological time periods. High uplift rates (e.g. 1000
m1Ma, see scenario 4, below) would produce very
high altitudes within short time periods (10 Ma) if
denudation was absent. However, because the denu-
dation rate grows rapidly with relief, it normally
reaches, with some time lag, astate where it equals
or exceeds the uplift rate of a specific area. The ele-
vation of the land surface above sea level (at present
up to about 9 km) therefore cannot surpass a certain
limit on the Earth's surface. The maximum altitude of
mountain belts or plateaus is also limited by isostasy
depending on rock densities and crustal thicknesses
(cf. Chap. 8.1).
- Scenario 4, orogenic belts (Fig. 9.lge). The model
shows the long-term evolution of the central part of a
fold-thrust belt; it displays a situation similar to that
of large alpino-type mountain belts.
A phase ofstrong uplift (~l mmla = 1000 mlMa) is main-
tained for about 10 Ma. It is followed by aperiod of com-
paratively long-term (20 Ma) moderate uplift (ca. 0.3
mmla) caused by isostatic adjustrnent ofthe thickened crost
to previous or decelerating underplating. At the same time,
erosional unloading is compensated to a large extent by
rebound. Both processes control the final stage of the
orogenic system and their rates decrease with time.
At the onset of uplift above base level, the rate of
denudation once again lags behind uplift. After the
453
end of this phase, denudation still proceeds for some
time at a rate almost as high as before. During peri-
ods of constant uplift, an equilibrium elevation is
established (at altitudes of ;::3000 m and about 2000
m, respectively) as discussed above (scenario 2). Af-
ter 50 Ma, arelief of about 500 m is still present.
The two summit levels are, of course, intersected by many
deep valleys, which rnay generate a main valley floor con-
siderably ueeper than the summit elevation (Fig. 9.l8d).
During certain times, for example when uplift surpasses
denudation, channel lowering (D c in Fig. 9.l9d) rnay pre-
dominate over summit lowering (D s), ot vice versa. In these
cases, the mean denudation rate is approximately D = 1/2
(Dc + D s)'
Major. rivers are able to incise through the bedrock at
about the same rate as tectonic uplift. An outstanding ex-
ample is the upper Indus River in the Nanga Parbat region
where the bedrock was locally raised at a rate of 2-12 mmla
during Quaternary times (Burbank et a1. 1996). The barren
valley slopes maintain a maximum slope angle under these
conditions.
With decreasing uplift and the passage of time, the val-
leys usually become wider and their slopes gentIer; in this
way the areal extent and heights of the summits are re-
duced. During the later stages of landscape evolution, when
the summit elevation is already considerably lowered, the
evolving landforms are significantly controlled by clirnatic
factors (Fig. 9.1ge).
In total, rock uplift during the 80 Ma history
amounted to 23 km for this example. This appears to
be realistic, because mountain belts of this age now
exhibit outcropping metamorphie rocks which
formed at burial depths of approximately 10 to 30
km.
There are significant modifications and deviations
from this scenario of the landscape evolution of a
mountain belt. At the front of a foreland thrust-belt,
for example, the rate ofuplift during a short (~5 Ma)
active phase of overthrusting may be so high (up to
10 mmla) that it cannot be compensated for by denu-
dation (e.g. Delcaillau and Carozza 1993; Hurtrez
and Lucazeau 1999; cf. Chap. 12.6.2).
The theoretical background and modelling oflandscapes of
various crigin and scale (for time and space) have been
recently <!escribed by several authors (e.g. Zhou and
Stüwe 1994; Kooi and Beaumontl996; Pazzaglia and
Brandon 1996; Tucker and Slingerland 1996).
Geomorphologists have become cautious regarding the
usage of the term "equilibrium landforms" (see, e.g.,
Chorley et a1. 1984). It seems that steady-state equilibrium,
with only srnall fluctuations of certain landforms around a
specific average condition, does barely exist in nature. Rel-
atively short-term variations in clirnate and sea-level, espe-
cially in the Quaternary, have maintained non-steady con-
ditions in large regions of the world (cf. Chap. 7.9). Land-
forms resulting from uplift and denudation should therefore
be characterized as dynamic metastable systems. Such sys-
tems respond not only to "extemal" influences as discussed
above, but mayaiso be affected by "internai" exogenic pro-
454
cesses, such as the discontinuous storage or loss of large
volumes of detrital sediments in or from their drainage ar-
eas. During metastable equilibrium, channel patterns may
9.7 Denudation Rates, Summary
The effects of relief, climate and, to some extent,
the influence of soils and vegetation on (natural)
denudation rates are summarized in Fig. 9.14.
- Lowlands under wet climate with vegetation and
high runoff tend to display more chemical than
mechanical denudation. Furthermore, chemical
denudation rates depend largely on rock types
and hardly at all on relief and can therefore con-
trollandscape evolution.
- Mountainous regions and large drainage areas,
as weIl as entire continents, generally deliver
more (globally by a factor of ca.4) solid than
dissolved load.
- Mechanical denudation of large areas is mainly
controlled by (1) mean local relief or the overall
relief ratio and (2) annual runoff. Regions with
seasonal or rare but heavy precipitation (semi-
arid to subtropical) may yield as much sediment
as wet tropical zones if their relief is compara-
ble.
- The specific sediment yields or mechanical de-
nudation rates may vary from lowlands to high
mountain areas by 2 to 3 orders of magnitude,
but values for small drainage basins often stron-
gly reflect the erodibility of their dominant rocks
Chapter 9 Denudation and Mass Transport
change from straight and braided to sinuous; slopes may
retreat, become gentier, and evolve from convex to a more
concave form.
and may therefore deviate from values listed in
Fig.9.14.
- Long-term denudation rates (Table 9.1) largely
confirm the general rules established for the mo-
dem world.
- In times of a warm and humid "greenhouse
world" (Sect. 7.8.2) chemical denudation may
have been considerably higher and mechanical
denudation lower than at present.
- In glacial periods and during low sea-level
stands, the sediment yield of the continents was
higher (by a factor of about 2) than presently.
These variations in the global denudation pro-
ces ses have to be taken into account when extra-
polations into older time periods are undertaken.
- Various human activities have caused the solid
modem river .load to become globally twice or
three times as high as earlier in the Rolocene
(Walling and Webb 1996; Ray 1998).
- Due to isostatic rebound, denudation (or exhu-
mation of buried rocks) is norrnally much grea-
ter than surface lowering. As a result, mountain
ranges decay slowly, although they concurrently
deliver huge amounts of sediment into neighbo-
ring basins.
10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter
in Various Depositional Environments
10.1 General Aspects
10.1.1 Sedimentation and Accumulation Rates
10.1.2 Short- and Long-Term Sedimentation Rates
10.1.3 Potential and Actual Sedimentation Rates
10.2 Sedimentation Rates in Various Depositional
Environments
10.2.1 Introduction and Overview
10.2.2 Clastic Sediments
10.2.3 Sedimentation Rates in Carbonate
Depositional Systems
Reefs, Carbonate Platforms, and Shelf
Carbonates
Deep-Water Carbonates
10.2.4 Siliceous Ooze and Radiolarites
10.2.5 Mixed Siliciclastic-Biogenic Sediments
10.2.6 Sedimentation Rates in some Specific
Environments
10.2.7 Sedimentation Rates, Denudation,
Subsidence, and Sea-Level Change
10.2.8 Summary (Sedimentation Rates)
10.3 Production ofOrganic Matter in Various
Environments
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.2 Primary Production (Overview)
10.4 Organic Matter in the Oceans
10.4.1 Influx of Terrestrial Organie Matter
10.4.2 Primary Production and Heterotrophie
Organisms
Primary Production
The Food Chain
10.4.3 New Production and Export Production
General Aspects
Adsorbed and Dissolved Organic Matter
Vertical OC Flux through the Water Column
Regional Variation in Export Production
10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments
10.5.1 General Aspects
10.5.2 Organic Carbon Loss on the Sea Floor
Principal Processes
Quantitative Aspects
10.5.3 Inorganic Sediment Accumulation Rates and
OC Burial
Flux Rates and OC Concentrations
Benthic Degradation Loss (Burial Efficiency)
Clastic Dilution
10.5.4 Fluxes and Burial ofOC in Model Basins
10.5.5 Organic Carbon Preservation Factor
455 10.5.6 Black Shales (Hydrocarbon Source Rocks)
10.5.7 Summary (Production and Preservation of
Organic Matter)
459
10.1 General Aspects
10.1.1 Sedimentation and Accumulation Rates
It has beeome eommon in the sedimentologieallitera-
ture to distinguish between (linear) sedimentation
rates, SR (sediment thiekness per unit time), and ae-
eumulation rates, AR (solid sediment mass per unit
area and time). This diserimination is important when
sediments of different porosities are eompared, and it
is indispensable for any kind of sediment budget. In
papers dealing with relatively young sediments of
high porosity, for example sediment eores reeovered
by seientifie oeean drilling, mostly aeeumulation
rates are used (e.g., Van Andel 1983; Ehrrnann and
463
Thiede 1985).
Both sedimentation and aeeumulation rates are
determined for vertieal seetions of the thiekness, z,
taken between dated lower and upper boundaries
466
spanning the time interval, t. The sedimentation rate,
SR, represents an average value for the seetion eon-
sidered. It is based on the ineorreet assumption that
sediment deposition during t oeeurred eontinuously
at a eonstant rate.
SR = z/t (10.1 )
SR is ealculated ip mmla (a = year), mmlka (1 ka =
1000 years), emlka, or mlMa (1 Ma = 106 years;
1 cm/ka = 10 mlMa). In the following text, the latter
469 two notations are mainly used.
It is obvious that SR is not an accurate scale to describe the
deposition of solid partic1es quantitatively. The high
porosites of fresh sediments are later reduced by compac-
tion under the load of younger sediments (Sect. 13.2).
Thus, linear sedimentation rates calculated without taking
porosity into account become lower with decreasing poros-
ity. However, if sediments have undergone deep burial and
lithification, their differences in porosities become less
pronounced. The errors associated with dating of seetion
boundaries andlor the assumption of steady state deposition
456 Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter

within the measured section may often be substantial. Av-
erage linear sedimentation rates for sediments of some
thickness are therefore only an approximation. Nonethe-
less, SR is used for many applications in sedimentology
and geology because more accurate values are not available
or time-consuming to get.
The accumu1ation rate, AR, is defined as the quantity
(weight or mass), W, of solid particles deposited dur-
ing a certain time span, t, on unit area, A:
AR=W/AJt (10.2)
It may be expressed in g/m2/a, kg/m2/ka, g/cm2IMa,
or tlm2lMa; 1 g/m2/a = 1 kg/m2/ka = 100 glcm2IMa =
1 tlm2lMa.
Fresh fine-grained sampIes from drillholes or from the sea
bottom usually are fully water-saturated. If part of the pore
space is filled by gas, other formulae must be applied (see,
e.g., special literature on soil mechanics or from the oil
industry).
Having determined D d, the bulk accumulation rate, AR b, is
(10.8)
In order to calculate the accumulation rate of specific sedi-
ment components, AR., the concentration, C., of compo-
nent x in the total sediment must be determined. If Cx is
given in percent by weight, the accumulation rate, AR., of
component x is
(10.9)

One can distinguish between bulk accumu1ation To convert sedimentation rates, SR, of sediments of differ-
rates, ARb, comprising all constituents of asediment, ent grain densities, y" and porosities, n, into bulk accumu-
and specific accumu1ation rates for certain sediment lation rates, ~, and vice versa, the diagram in Fig. 10.1
components such as calcium carbonate, opa1ine si1- maybe used.
ica, organic matter, etc. GRAIN D~NSITY, Ys (g/cm 3 )
In order to ca1cu1ate bulk accumu1ation rates, be- 2.66
sides the requirements mentioned above, the poros- 2,2 2.4 2.7 2.8 2.6
0,2
ity, n (as a portion of 1), as weIl as the wet and dry 0.9 -F=====t=~o~t:::1h-T--r
.9 r-it--I--+--..J
bulk densities, D w and D d (in g/cm3 or tlm3 ), of the 0.4
sediment must be known.
0.8 r---r--+fH---l-1 0.6
(10.3) 0,7

0.8
D d is re1atedto the same vo1ume as D w ; it must not be u.
0.6 ü
confused with average grain density, y s' ci
c: 1.0 0
I-
If the total pore space is filled with sea water (density :>:' 0.5 Ü
I- <l:
Ysw = 1.025 g/cm\, wet and dry bulk densities are Ci) 1.2 u.
z
linked by the term ~ 0.4 0
Ci)
~ 1.4 CI:
w
(10.4) >
z
0.3
0
1.6 Ü
For pore fluids differing from sea water, other cor-
0.2
rection factors have to be used. Porosity, n, derived 1.8
from (5.3) is 1.862
0.1
2.0
(10.5)
o 2.2
Dwand D d are usually determined as follows:

(10.6) 2.4
ARb= SR·CF
SR = ARo,cF
where W wand W d are wet weight and dry weight, Example: 2.6
respectively, and VI is total vo1ume of the (water-sat- for~ = 2.66 and n = 0.3
urated) sampie being measured. is CF' = 1.862, then for SR = 25 mtMa: 2.8 CF
AR b = 25· 1.862 = 46.6 g;trn~ a) cr t /(i1l'. Ma) = (1-n)y.
The porosity, n, is also found by
Fig. 10.1 Diagram for converting sedimentation rates,
(10.7) SR, into bulk accumulation rates, AR, and vi ce versa.
Ys mean grain density; n, porosity; CF, conversion
where V w = volume of water in the water-saturated factor. For Ys = 1 g/cm3 and n = 0 it is 1 m/Ma = 1
sampie. glm2/a or 1 tlm2IMa
10.1 General Aspects 457

SEDIMENT BUILDUP
a
(THICKNESS)
SHORT-TERM
SED. RATE
h "'---
SR= AB /"
tA~,/'

A~~--~---++---~+---------~-r----~

Fig. 10.2a Sediment buildup/time

diawarn displaying diseontmuous
sedimentation with intervals of
omission (nondeposition) and ero-
OFSEDIMENT CHRONOSTRATlGRAPHIC SEQUENCE sion. Note that long-term average
sedimentation rates, SRAO may be
lower than short-term rates, SRAB ,
b and rates of single beds, for exam-
PRODELTA o pie, those of tempestites. The
SEDIMENTATION stratigraphie gaps (hiatuses) are
SPECIFIC
RATE MUDS
UMIT shown in the horizontally plotted
ehronostratigraphie sequenee.
b Mixed earbonate-silieiclastie
sediments tend to produee higher
sedimentation rates than pure car-
bonates. SR grows with inereasing
UMITED BY _ _~_... _"'1111""""'" proportions of terrigenous mate-
rial, as shown for some marine
CARBONATE FAN
PRODUCTlON
examples. (W. Ricken, pers.
eommun.)
100% MIXED 100%
CARBONATES SEDIMENTS SIUCICLASTlCS

10.1.2 Short- and Long-Term Sedimentation tion contain many short episodes of erosion and sediment
accumulation, wh ich can be barely defined.
Rates

Most sedimentary sequenees have not aeeumulated
eontinuously at a steady rate, but eontain minor and
major stratigraphie gaps (Fig. 10.2a; e.g., Anders et
al. 1987; Tipper 1987; Dott 1988; Sadler and Strauss
1990; Ricken 1991). However, only the long inter-
vals of non-deposition or erosion on the order of at
least 0.1 to 1 Ma ean be normally identified in terms
of geologie time as missing in the stratigraphie re-
cord.
Weil known examples of discontinuously accumulating
sediments are fluvial and tidal flat deposits displaying dis-
tinct erosional features, but their stratigraphie record is
difficult to evaluate. Minor erosional events can be de-
duced, for example, trom the truncation of primary bedding
features below traction current beds, or trom the truncation
of burrows at the base of turbidites and tempestites (Wetze!
and Aigner 1986). Discontinuous sediment accumulation,
such as that caused by aseries of mud turbidites deposited
at relatively long, irregular time intervals is, however, diffi-
cult to recognize. Similarly, foreshore sediments resulting
trom repeated wave and current reworking and redeposi-
Henee, short-term sedimentation rates deterrnined for
single beds or small proportions of the total sediment
seetion are generally eonsiderably higher than long-
term rates (Fig. 10.2a). This problem is not further
diseussd in the following seetions, beeause here
long-tern., large-dimensional basin fills are of pri-
mary interest.
10.1.3 Potential and Actual Sedimentation Rates
Another general problem is the distinetion between
potential and aetual sedimentation rates, SRp and
SRa. SRp as used here refers to the capacity of a
sediment-delivering system to aeeumulate a maxi-
mum of sediment thiekness per unit time in a partieu-
lar area. In other words, SRa in the area eonsidered
may be restrieted be insuffieient spaee to aeeommo-
date SRp (cf. Seet. 7.2). Then surplus sediment is
bypassed to areas where more spaee is available.
458 Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organie Matter

BIOGENIC SEDIMENTS SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTS

• u.a:z
cm/ka ~ 0 1 oOen
m/Ma
500 :J
e(:-f-- - - - - - - - - - - Cl_)w _ _ O· _ WZ ~
. - - - --I- Cl)ZI-: - -
1
0 I- ..Jf-~
I-: - ...I U. ce 5000
J: a: ua:--
e( 0
«e( wl
...1...1
«
W U. Z
-ceo
...I ..Je(w u.Cl. ~ Cl. ..J~e(
200 ~ CI)
-H~-+- W - ~---------- z u . :
~ (!)~CI) ..J~ I ~ W..J
e(:...J - O~> Cle( wa: 2000
ti:
J: -
CI) ~
CI)
W
w..J
Z W
0 W
i=0 ~I
'i::l
I, ..Ja:O
i
100 ~ _ I-W - 8
--CI) ~_ t:: ~ _ ~ -;1_ _ _I -_ .L-_-.-_-;"'_.:1'~u.::.(!).:;...:u.=-+ 1000
::l
CI) ~ ~ CI) ~ w a:e( 0" 1 1 !I'
Z Clwc(f-«..J '-' ,
>-- t- O - -;(' 0z ~ - Q -------,..----
Cl. U L" I W I,
50 r- --'-_ ..---1_ _ Cl. _-J._-I_~_-I-~ 500
I (!) ~)(
I Cl a.
1 Cl)e( xCl)a:w e(
Cl
I;-:! I
I ~ ~ 9 ~
1 Utt x:.::: e( w a : l
20 h - W - r - )( - U U e ~.
CI)

- g -----~- '-' - f- -I--"I - - ~ --I---!--h---IrJ{

•
.: I~
..::..=....-+ 200
I; a: x :5
S:2 ~ 0 :J w i Iw 11

10
I; x Cl (!) a: N
e( 0 - 0 w -
>:
«
I
, e (-
z en
Cl tT ~,
0 - --I-- - l- -IL- -I-----I- 100
!
I I x '...lu.
xjwl-:
Cl)N
W
..J
U ,
U. Cl.a: I
I x Cl.«~0 a:
5 1
I 1
x
x'
-!- - 1f-----:
, O__ ~
CI) CI)
I
1
.~ --,~--I--+--I!--'_-+ 50
Cl. I I
I I I z I I
~ ~ -+---t---+- W~ _L.iI --+--+ 20
x 1 Cl ::l' ::l CI)

2
I II I
:: ~
'-.J -
8U - 0~ 1 1

II
x
xi1
--r--
O:J 0 I ffi I I I ..J
I 1 : ~ en 1 ~ I ,I 1
I I
W 1
I I I ~ a: I 1 9 -+--+---+1--"'-1--1-1--+--+ 10
0.5
I
I
i I 1
I
!1 : I: 1 I 1
I 1 i
,
1 I 5
I I 1 I 1 xI I I 1 1 I
I 1 I1 1 I 1 : 1 I I I I I 1 1
I I I 1 1 ; I 1 1 I , I I 1 I I
2
I '
i
0.2 I , I 1 I I I I t I I I 1
I I 1 1 I 1 I I , I , I I ~ I ! 1

I : : I: ,I
0 . 1~--+-~-~+-T-+--7-T-~~-7--+-~~--r--+--+--+-~-4-~
1 :; 1 I : I, I 1 1
EVAPORITE I CARB. I, I 'I , I I , FLUVIAL
BASIN I I SHELF CONT . CLASTIC I 1 PRODELTA ' LAKE FILL OF
t 1 I I I 1 I I RISE SHELF , SLOPE I , GRABEN
I
I REEFS I
: 'I I
~d.t'i-J..il
I l lSOLATEO I
I 1 I P~ATFORM 1-1-~--l
I
SEA LEVEL
--+-t--r- - - - I- -
t
:
t 1 I
I
1 DELTA
I PLAIN I
1"~ I I, I I I I I ~t1"$l:T::>
,I , I C
-----;. , : cco l'
1----+--
: e
IN
]
MINOR OR SIGNIFANT
NEGLIGABLE t 1 II }I
SILICICLASTIC INPUT ,. "",fi OEEp ·SEA FAN
SILICICLASTIC
SOURCE
_Ji@y.ß""
* SEDIMENTATION RATE LlMITED BY SUBSIOENCE

Fig. 10.3. Overview of sedimentation rates in various sources, including Seibold and Berger 1982; Scholle
depositional environments which are dominated ei- et al. 1983; Nelsen and Stanley 1984; Stowet al.
ther by allochthonous, siliciclastic sediments, or 1985; Jenkyns 1986; Lützner 1989)
autochthonous, biogenic materials. (Data from many

For example, the sediment supply of a river system can fill
an open lake basin at a rate which is equal to the potential
rate, as long as the lake can hold the total river sediment
input. However, as soon as the lake is filled with sediment,
the subsequent sedimentation rate in the lake basin is con-
trolled by its subsidence, as weil as by the base level and
gradient of the river system. From then on, the actual sedi-
mentation rate drops below the potential rate, because most
of the river sediment is transported farther downstream out
of the lake area. Similarly, a tectonic graben filled up to the
gradient of a through-flowing stream can store sediment
only in the space provided by subsidence. In a slowly sub-
siding, high-energy shelf basin, only part of the sediment
supply can commonly settle permanently, while the remain-
der is swept into deeper water (cf. Sects. 1.4 and 11.5). Ad-
ditional examples of environments where the actual sedi-
10.2 Sedimentation Rates in Various Environments
mentation rates are normally slower than the potential rates
are delta plains, lagoons, tidal flats, and shallow carbonate
platforrns.
The sedimentation rate data discussed in the follow-
ing sections include scenarios in which SRa is equal
to SRp (e.g. water-filled deep basins) as well as cases
in which SRa<SRp (e.g. inner shelf, carbonate plat-
forms). Most values signify actual sedimentation
rates observed in modem and ancient environments.
10.2 Sedimentation Rates in Various
Depositional Environments
(Overview)
10.2.1 Introduction and Overview
Sediments principally consist of two different com-
ponents (Fig. 10.3):
- Allochthonous clastic or detrital sediments which
are derived from land sources (terrigenous material)
outside of the depositional area. These sediments
mainly consist of siliciclastic material but may in-
clude eroded bioclastic components from older rocks.
- Autochthonous, mostly biogenic sediments pro-
duced in the depositional area, including biogenic
skeletal material and organic matter. Locally, bio-
chemically induced carbonates and chemically pre-
cipitated evaporites playa role.
Biogenic sediments are formed from the skeletal
remains of plants and animals. In addition, some car-
bonate may be precipitated from supersaturated sur-
face waters, for example as a result of CO 2 uptake by
subaqueous plants. Most of the biogenic sediment is
produced by a few groups of organisms. In shallow
marine waters, benthic organisrns, such as various
reef-builders, algae, sea grass, molluscs, brachio-
pods, and bryozoa, are most important. Since the Me-
sozoic, biogenic sediments in deeper basins consist
mainly of the tiny remains of planktonic organisms
including calcareous nannofossils, foraminifera, and
pteropods, or siliceous tests of diatorns and
radiolaria. In their freshly deposited state these deep-
water sediments form water-rich oozes with porosi-
ties of around 80%. Later, they compact and undergo
chemical-mineralogical diagenesis, leading to chalk
and pelagic limestone, or to porcellanite and chert
(cf. Sect. 5.3).
The sedimentation rates of autochthonous biogenic
sediments are controlled by the production and disso-
lution of skeletal carbonate and opaline silica. (Phos-
phatic remains playa minor role in rock-forming pro-
ces ses and are therefore not discussed here.) As re-
gards dissolution in the water colurnn and at the sedi-
ment surface, calcareous and siliceous skeletal re-
459
mains behave quite differently. While carbonate skel-
etons are preserved in shallow and medium deep wa-
ters and only dissolve in deep water regions below
the lysocline and CCD, siliceous organism tend to
dissolve in shallow waters which are undersaturated
with respect to silica (cf. Sect. 5.3.5). This difference
in carbonate and silica dissolution contributes to the
general rule that shallow-water carbonates are com-
monly poor in opaline silica, and that pure siliceous
sediments mostly occur below the carbonate compen-
sation depth in relatively deep water.
The highest biogenic sedimentation rates, apart
from reefs (see below), are observed below zones of
coastal and equatorial upwelling, in estuaries, mar-
ginal basins with sufficient nutrient supply by rivers,
and shelf. seas. Such sediments may accumulate at
rates up to 10 cmlka and in special cases up to 50 to
100 cmlka.
Very low biogenic sedimentation rates are found
below central parts of large ocean basins where fresh
supp1y and recycling of nutrients are limited. The
modem Sargasso Sea· in the Atlantic is an example of
this situation. When the CCD is elevated and silica
concentration in near-surface sea water is low, the
preservation of skeletal carbonate and silica may be
markedly reduced, and sediments devoid of carbon-
ate andlor siliceous remains may be deposited. The
actual sedimentation rates of biogenic materials are
mostly equal to the potential rates, except for carbon-
ate deposition in very shallow water arid tidal flats
(see below).
Biogenic and biochemically precipitated carbonate
in fresh-water lakes may form at rates of 10 to 100
cmlka and more. The highest rates are observed in
the littoral zones, due to the assimilating activity of
macrophytes and the abundance of gastropods and
molluscs (Kelts and Hsü 1978). Sedimentation rates
similar to thoseof carbonates can be expected for
lakes rich in diatoms (cf. Sect. 2.5).
10.2.2 Clastie Sediments
The sedimentation rates of clastic (mostly silici-
clastic) sediments are controlled mainly by the size
and characteristics of the source area (cf. Sect. 11.2).
Furthermore, the distance of the depositional area
from the site of sediment input plays a role. Lakes,
marine prodelta slopes, and deep-sea fans fed with
sediments from a major point source may accumulate
large amounts of terrigenous material in short time
periods. Similarly, proglacial lowlands, lakes, and
marine basins in front of advancing glaciers and ice
shields frequently display very high sedimentation
rates (cf. Sect. 9.3.2). On the Barents shelf between
northem Norway and Swalbard, glacigenic sediments
accumulated at rates between 10 and 100 cmlka; the
Holocene sedimentation rates on the shelf off south-
460 Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organie Matter

cm Ika miM a
J, I~
500 5000

200 • 2000

100 I • ~
1000

50 I \ •• I
I
I
I I
500
i
1
I
I
• 1
I
I
I
I
1
1
1
I
1
I i
I
I
20 200
:
I I I
I
1 I 1
I I I
I I 1 I
I
10 100
: i J I
I I I I I
5
I I I ! I
I 1
50
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1 II I
1
T I
I
I I I I
I I I I I I
2 20
II I
I
I
I
1
I II
I
I
1
1 I
I
I
I
I
I
10

0.5
1
1 i 1
I
I
I
I
1
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I 5
I
I 1 I I
SABKHA TlDAl CORAl 0010 1 INNER OUTER
FlAT REEF SHOAl..! SHElP SHElF
I I I I I
I
1

PELAGIC
CARBONATE

SLOPE APRON,
CARBONATE OEEP-SEA FAN
LONG -TERM, SEVERAL cm/ka -------------71
I

Fig. 10.4. Sedimentation rates in carbonate
depositional environments. In shallow water, benthic
carbonate production is dominant, while in deeper
areas carbonate-secreting plankton prevails. Note that
long-term rates are commonly much lower than
short-term rates due to insufficient subsidence and
sediment transport from shallow regions onto the
outer shelf and into the deeper sea. (Compiled from
several sources, e.g., Samthein 1973; Schlager 1981;
Bosence 1989; Hubbard et al. 1990; Strasser 1991)

em Alaska reached 10-20 mlka. Fjord troughs were eolian dust. The actual sedimentation rate is equal to
filled at rates up to 60 mlka. the potential rate in these cases.
In intracontinental tectonic grabens, on delta
plains, tidal flats, in high-energy shallow seas and
foreland basins the actual sedimentation rates are
commonly high, but frequently lower than the poten-
tial rates (Fig. 10.3). By contrast, deep sea regions
far away from the coast and any significant sediment
source are characterized by extremely low sedimenta-
tion rates, as for example red, deep-sea clay. A major
portion of these clays may consist of desert-derived
10.2 Sedimentation Rates in Various Environments
10.2.3 Sedimentation Rates in Carbonate
Depositional Systems
Reefs, Carbonate Platforms, and
Shelf Carbonates
Although the sedimentation and accumulation rates
of biogenic carbonate are limited by organic produc-
tivity, they displaya wide range ofvalues from about
0.1 to 1000 cmlka (1 to 10 000 mlMa). The highest
va1ues have been observed in young is01ated coral
reefs which grew vertically upward with the rapid
Holocene sea-level rise (cf. Fig. 3.29). However,
these extremely high rates should not be taken as
average growth rates for longer time periods. Reef
mounds, calcareous tidal flats, ooid shoals, and
coastal sabkhas have the potential for growing up-
ward at rates on the order of 50 to 100 cm/ka (Enos
1989; Hubbard et al. 1990; Strasser 1991). Cool wa-
ter carbonates can reach values almost as high as
those of tropical carbonates (cf. Sect. 3.4; James
1997). Thus, the average sedimentation rate of a very
shallow carbonate platform may reach approximately
100 cm/ka (Fig. 10.4) provided there is an equal rate
of subsidence maintaining steady state conditions. If
subsidence is slower than this high potential sedi-
mentation rate, the actual sedimentation rate drops
below the potential rate.
In tropical and subtropical regions, benthic carbon-
ate production decreases with water depth (e.g.
Samthein 1973, confirmed by many other studies).
Coral reefs, algal structures, sea grass beds, and other
organisms depending on photosynthesis can live only
near the water surface where they receive sufficient
sunlight. They may be accompanied by large
foraminifera, molluscs, and gastropods growing on
shallow banks. In such a faunal and floral commu-
nity, biological and biochemical carbonate produc-
tion reaches its maximum.
Below water depths of 30 to 40 m, benthic carbon-
ate production drops by a factor of approximately 10
and is frequently on the order of 1 to 10 cm/ka. This
signifies that outer, deeper portions of carbonate
ramps exhibit benthic carbonate production which
has approximately the same magnitude as planktonic
production in this and deeper regions (e.g. chalk, Fig.
10.4). On the other hand, carbonate accumulation in
shallower water may be inhibited by insufficient sub-
sidence (see above) and lead to the export of carbon-
ate into deeper water. In this way, carbonate accumu-
lation in shallower and deeper water can be more or
less equalized and make up in total an average of
several cm/ka. Such rates are characteristic of the
long-term buildup of carbonate platforms (cf. Sects.
3.4.6 and 12.2.2). An excess in carbonate production
over the average subsidence rate is commonly used
for the lateral pro gradation of the platform.
461
Cretaceous chalk, accumulated in comparatively
deep shelf seas and consisting mainly of the tiny
skeletons of planktic organisrns, frequently reached
surprisingly high sedimentation rates of about 5 to 15
cm/ka (cf. Sect. 5.3.2).
Deep-Water Carbonates
Sedimentation rates of plankton-produced deep-sea
carbonates commonly are low (between 0.5 and 2
cm/ka; Figs. 10.3 and 10.4). Benthic carbonate pro-
duction becomes insignificant in deep water, but
mass flows and turbidity currents may transport con-
siderable volumes of shallow-water carbonates into
the deep sea. There, they contribute to the buildup of
deep-sea fans, slope aprons, and continental rises and
may lead to sedimentation rates similar to those listed
für their siliciclastic counterparts (Fig. 10.3).
10.2.4 Siliceous Ooze and Radiolarites
The sedimentation rates of modem siliceous oozes in
the deep sea normally range from 0.2 to 1 cm/ka. In
the North Pacific and Bering Sea values of about 1
cm/ka have been observed (when measured as mas-
sive beds without pore space). Compacted Miocene
diatomites of the Monterey Formation, California
(Isaacs 1984) and Mesozoic radiolarites from the
western Tethys (Jenkyns 1986) range between 0.2
and 2 cm/ka. Jurassic and Cretaceous radiolarites in
the Dinarides (Montenegro, Bosnia) accumulated in
deep-water basins mostly at rates of 0.1 to 0.2 cm/ka
(Goril an 1994). Younger radiolarites in the eastern
Pacific typically reach around 0.2 cm/ka (Gursky
1988).
In zones of high biogenic productivity rates up to
50-100 cm/ka have been found. This applies, for ex-
ample, to specific subpolar to polar regions where
diatoms flourish, but also to warm, low-latitude
zones of high fertility. Examples include Quaternary
uncompacted diatomites in the Gulf of California and
Miocene diatomites in Sicily (based on data from
Martinson et al. 1987).
10.2.5 Mixed Siliciclastic-Biogenic Sediments
Mixed sediments consisting of both siliciclastic and
biogenic components commonly show higher sedi-
mentation rates than do purely biogenic deposits. In
calcareous sediments, the carbonate content tends to
decrease with increasing sedimentation rate (Fig.
10 .2b), reflecting dilution of the limited carbonate
production by terrigenous material. Similarly, the
percentage of opaline silica decreases with increasing
sedimentation rate. Black shales frequently contain
462
considerable amounts of carbonate and accumulate at
a relatively slow rate (0.5 to 10 cmlka). Up to a cer-
tain point, preservation of organic matter and thus the
organic carbon accumulation rate in shales and marls
is furthered by an increasing sedimentation rate
(Sect. 10.5.3), but beyond this limit the effect of dilu-
tion prevails. The organic mattercontent also ~ends
to decrease with growing carbonate content (RIcken
1991).
10.2.6 Sedimentation Rates in so me
Specific Environments
The sedimentation rates in lakes displaya very wide
range (Fig. 10.3) depending largely on the size ofthe
lakes and the characteristics of their drainage areas.
Clastic sediments of small to middle-sized lakes of-
ten accumulate at rates of 100 to 1000 cmlka; car-
bonates at rates of 10 to 100 cm/ka.
Both lacustrine and marine evaporites, in particu-
lar highly soluble salts such as halite, can be precipi-
tated at extremely high rates (for halite up to about
5000 cmlka). This occurs because the salt precipitat-
ing brines must have reached very high concentra-
tions prior to salt crystallization. Then ongoing evap-
oration of water leads to rapid salt deposition. For
several reasons, however, such high rates cannot be
maintained for a long time (cf. Sect. 6.4).
Vertical growth of peat can be very fast under fa-
vorable conditions and surpass the common subsi-
dence rates of most basin types (cf. Sect. 14.4.1).
Holocene peats in temperate and tropical regions
have accumulated at rates ranging from 20 to 200
cmlka (Cameron et al. 1989).- Sedimentation rates
reported in the literature for compacted Paleozoic to
Cenozoic coals (Stephanian basins in France, upper
Paleozoic to Mesozoic basins in China, Tertiary
Rhine basin in Germany, African rift valleys) mainly
vary between 0.3 and 30 cmlka (CoureI1989).
10.2.7 Sedimentation Rates, Denudation,
Subsidence, and Sea-Level Change
The sedimentation rates in the various depositional
environments discussed above represent relatively
wide ranges and may be used as a general guideline.
However, they do not include special cases which
deviate from these common values. In addition, the
fact that sedimentation rates may vary through time
within the same basin is not taken into account. Dur-
ing sea-Ievel highstands, terrigenous input into the
sea usually slows down, and carbonate production.
may significantly vary as a result of sea-Ievel
changes andother processes. Neglecting these com-
plications, it is useful to compare common sedimen-
Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter
tation rates with other rates relevant in geological
processes. _
It is interesting to note that denudation rates on
land cover almost the same range (0.2 to more than
100 cmlka, cf. Sect. 9.5) as the sedimentation rates
discussed above (0.1 to 1000 cmlka; see also Kukal
1990). However, a direct comparison of sedimenta-
tion and denudation rates makes sense only for such
cases in which siliciclastic material predominates. In
addition, the drainage area of the basin should be
approximately equal to the area of the basin itself, or
the ratio between drainage area and basin area should
be known (cf. Sect. 11.2).
Furthermore, the subsidence rates in the various
types of sedimentary basins have a range (about 0.2
to more than 100 cmlka, Chap. 8) similar to that of
the sedimentation rates (cf. Fig. 3.29). This signifies
that, theoretically, any type of basin subsidence can
be compensated for by sediment accumulation, i.e.,
even the most rapidly subsiding basin may be kept
filled with sediments if an effective sediment source
is available. Acrually, all small basins, such as
graben strucrures, foreland basins,_ and pu!l-apart b~s­
ins, can be filled, for example wlth fluvlal matenal,
although they may display very high subsidence rates
in their early evolutionary stage. However, when the
basins become larger and continue to subside sub-
stantially, such as in growing ocean basins, sediment
supply and sedimentation rates are normally no lon-
ger sufficient to keep the basins filled. These prob-
lems are discussed further in Section 11.3.
Finally, it is useful to know whether or not the sed-
imentation rates in specific environments could keep
pace with pre-Quaternary and Quaternary sea-level
rises. In the early Holocene, the short-term sea-Ievel
rise was so fast (6 to 10 mlka) that carbonate plat-
forms were drowned, and many individual reefs were
not able to follow the rising water level (Schlager
1981). Pre-Quaternary, low-frequency s~a-Ievel
changes occurred at rates of about.l cmJka~ h~gh-fre­
quency, low-amplitude oscillatlOns wlthm the
Milankovitch frequency band (Sects. 7.1 and 7.9)
may have caused maximum rates of sea-level change
of ab out 10 to 50 cmlka. Even in the latter cases, the
sedimentation rates of some environments, for exam-
pIe tidal and subtidal carbonates, were sufficiently
high to keep pace with the sea-Ievel rise and to main-
tain approximately the same depositional system
through long time periods (Strasser 1991).
10.3 Organic Matter Production
10.2.8 Summary (Sedimentation Rates)
- In fluvial and shallow aquatic systems, the po-
tential sedimentation rates of terrigenous and
biogenic materials are often greater than the ac-
tual rates which are controlled by subsidence
and base-level change. Surplus sediment is by-
passed downstream or into deeper water.
- In areas of sufficient accommodation space (e.g.
on prodelta slopes and in deeper basins), the
sedimentation rates of siliciclastics can be very
high (up to 100-1000 cm/ka), whereas biogenic
sedimentation rates of pelagic carbonates and
biosiliceous deposits are low in these areas
(mostly 0.1-2 cmlka).
10.3 Production of Organic Matter in
Various Environments
10.3.1 Introduction
This section summarizes the most important facts
about the production and preservation of organic
matter in various depositional environments. The
transformation of organic matter under increasing
sediment load and temperature is described in Sec-
tion 14.2.
There is a large body of publications dealing with this
topic. This overview is largely based on articles and special
volumes by Durand (1980), Grant Gross (1980),
Romankevich (1984), Tissot and Weite (1984), Brooks and
Fleet (1987), Berger et al. (1989); Berger (1991), Stein
(1991), Hedges and Keil (1995), Tyson (1995), Schlünz
(1998). Some further references related to specific prob-
lems are mentioned in the following text.
All life on earth is based on photosynthesis, which
began two to three billion years ago (Sect. 6.5). In
this process carbon dioxide combines with water to
form carbohydrates, at the same time releasing oxy-
gen. The energy necessary for this synthesis is pro-
vided by the sun via light-absorbing pigments such as
chlorophyll. This basic process can be accomplished
by all autotrophic organisms, including primitive
bacteria and blue-green algae, as weIl as by highly
evolved plants. All of these organisms are the pri-
mary producers of the organic matter, whereas
heterotrophic organisms (animals) feed on this or-
ganic matter.
Carbohydrates contain stored energy which can be
released when oxygen is taken up by animals and
plants which thereby gain energy for their li fe pro-
ces ses (called "respiration"). Through respiration, the
gross productivity of plants, which is defined as the
mass of carbon fixed by photosynthesis per unit area
463
- Mixed siliciclastic and biogenic sediments tend
to produce higher rates than purely biogenic
material.
- Extremely high rates (up to several m/ka) can
be attained by weIl soluble evaporites (e.g. ha-
lite).
- Linear sedimentation rates should be given for
pore-free material or converted to accumulation
rates.
- The siliciclastic sedimentation rates of certain
basins are closely linked to the mechanical de-
nudation rates in their source areas.
and time, is reduced by 10 to 50%. The remaining
mass is the primary net production, which is dis-
cussed further below. Part of the energy gained by
respiration is used to build up other organic com-
pounds, such as proteins, lipids, lignin and tannin. Of
these, the carbohydrates (including cellulose), which
consist of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, are the
most important organic matter constituent of plants,
whereas animals (e.g., oceanic zooplankton or
zoobenthos ) and bacteria contain particularly high
proportions of proteins. Some of the organic com-
pounds incorporate small amounts of nitrogen, sul-
fur, and other elements. In the following discussion
all of these organic compounds, including the prod-
ucts of biological activity such as excretions and se-
cretions, :ue included in the term organic matter.
The overall terrestrial biosphere productivity ap-
pears to be six times higher than that of the marine
biosphere. However, if the consumption of primary
production by heterotrophic organisms and the pres-
ervation of organic matter in sediments are consid-
ered, the situation on land is completely different
from that in aquatic environments. Under aerobic
conditions in soils, only the most resistant organic
compounds, such as chitine or the cuticles of pollen
and spores (sporopollenine), can be preserved over
long time periods. Therefore, little organic matter is
preserved in continental deposits with the exception
of coal-forming environments and lakes (Sects. 2.2.3
and 3.4.3).
In aquatic environments, such as lakes, swamps,
and marine basins, in particular in coastal areas and
anoxic basins, decomposition of organic matter is
slower. Aerobic organisms may cease to destruct or-
ganic matter if the oxygen supply of the water body
is used up and cannot be replaced rapidly enough.
Thus, most of the organic matter preserved from ear-
lier geologic times occurs in marine and lake sedi-
ments. Here, the preservation of organic matter in the
marine realm is dealt with in some detail (Sect. 10.5).
464
The production, transport and preservation of or-
ganic matter is part of the global carbon cycle. The
quantification of the entire carbon cycle, including
exchange rates between the atmosphere, the land sur-
face and the ocean, is a complex topic which is not
discussed further in this book.
10.3.2 Primary Production (Overview)
The primary production of organic matter (here de-
scribed in a broader sense than defined in Sect. 10.4)
is controlled by several factors. Light (for photosyn-
thesis), temperature, and the availability of certain
nutrients all playa large role. On the continents, cli-
mate and precipitation are of eminent importance.
The most significant production per unit area on land
is accomplished by tropical rain forests, while desert
regions permit only very limited plant growth. In
aquatic systems, of course, water is not the limiting
factor. Here, primary production is a function of the
amount of light received by the autotrophic commu-
nity. Sun light also affects the surface temperature of
the water body and thus prornotes life processes.
Many swamps, lakes, estuaries, reefs, and nearshore
zones with inflowing water rich in nutrients have
high primary production rates (Table 10.1). The
growth rate· of primary producers may be limited
when nutrient supply (e.g., nitrate, phosphate, and
so-called micro-nutrients such as vitamins, soluble
organometallic compounds) is insufficient. There-
fore, some lakes and low latitude oceanic regions
enable only low growth rates.
Fig. 10.5. aGlobai terrestrial OC fluxes to the ocean,
subdivided into contributions from various climatic
zones which together comprise about 70% of the
entire land surface. Values in parentheses indicate
percentages of global fluxes. (Modified from Ludwig
et al. 1998). b Primary production (iri 10 12 gC/a or
106 tC/a) in various regions of the ocean as well as
plant-derived riverine and eolian influxes. Values of
export production to the sea floor are given in per-
cent of primary production. OC burial rates indicate
percentages of total marine burial rate (140-160 x
10 12 gC/a) of which ~50% are of marine, 30% of
terrestrial, and (?) 20% of eolian (thus terrestrial)
Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter
Table 10.1. Primary production in various Recent
environments, dry organic matter" in g/m2 per year or
t!km2/a. (Mainly after Huc 1980; for additional data
see Romankevich 1984)
Continents Short grasslands, deserts 50- 20
Temperate forests 1300-3200
Tropical rain forests 4000-9000
Fresh-water lakes 3000-6000
Salt marshes, mangroves 3300-6000
Marine Open oceans 10- 400
Continental shelves 200- 600
Zones of upwelling 400-1200
Estuaries 200-4000
Algal beds 1300-2500
Reefs 3500-9000
a Conversion factor for organic carbon/organic mat-
ter: 0.31
Another term to be considered in mass balances of
organic matter is the "standing crop". This is the bio-
mass present in a given area at a certain time. The
primary net production of plants, for example, can be
estimated by multiplying the average standing crop of
a population by its rate of generation (doubling time).
If the average standing crop doubles once every 2
months, the net production per year will be six times
greater than the standing crop. Thus, the productivity
of a population can be high even though its standing
crop or biomass is small (e.g., in the oceans); simi-
larly, the biomass or standing crop of an ecosystem
can be considerably greater than the annual net pro-
ductivity (e.g., in forests).
origin. (Based mainly on Hedges and Keil 1995;
Schlünz 1998). c Hydrocarbon index values (from
Rock-Eval pyrolysis and maceral analysis) as a
means of discriminating between marine and terres-
trial organic matter. DSDP sampies, vitrinite reflec-
tion Ru ::;0.5. (After Stein et al. 1986). d Generalized
relationship between primary net production PP and
new production NP in the present-day oceans.
e Downward C flux, Fe (export production), as a
function of new production NP and water depth z.
(Based on Martin et al. 1987; Berger et al. 1989). See
text for further explanation
10.3 Organic Matter Production 465

a
SOURCES AND TYPES OF TERRESTRIAL
CARBON FLUX RATES TO THE OCEAN
x 10 6 tC/a

o
...J
UJ
>=
U
5 LI: POLAR
U
UJ
Q..
Cf) TROPICAL
DRY

o
10 20 30 40 50 60 ro 00 00 100
AREA CONSIDERED x 103 km 2

b PRIMARY PRODUCTION AND

OC BURIAL IN THE OCEAN GLOBAL MARINE OC BURIAL RATE, OCBR ... 140.160,
OF THESE ARE 30 % OF RIVERINE, 20% OF EOLlAN,
UNITS x 10 12 gC/a 0: 10 6 tC/a AND 50% OF MARINE ORIGIN

TERR TOC 430 EOLIAN INPUT

y~O~E;;t;;O_~ __)__ I~or;;'~°ftJ°O.~

. = COAST AL ZONES HIGH-PRODUCTIVITY (7) 300 \ ÖPEN OCEAN

~" " 7 ---~

i

0 .8% I J I I : ,
ORGANIC CARBON ~~~"77i!i")Ir---.. I OC BURIAL I I I :; ,:
BURIAL RATE, OCBR", 1 0 % (7) 5 % I I I
~----------~vr------~
I I I ANOXIC B.
I (7) 10% 0.04% ~-1 %
OCBR 0: 85-90%
(SHALLOW-WATER CARBONATES -4%1
6%
3%
'~'----------~y~----------~I
10-15%
HYDROCARBON INDEX
1000 (mg HC /g Corg ) OC PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PP, NEW PRODUCTION,
500 c NP, AND EXPORT PRODUCTION, EP,
PP o 50 100 NP
_0,2
200
400
~"
1 d ,g
~
100

50 ~
~
200 i:.'
~
~
2 MARINE OM (%) ~
80 60 40 20 NP
100 20 40 60 80 0
190 0 200
TERRESTRIAL OM (%)
466
10.4 Organic Matter in the Oceans
10.4.1 Influx of Terrestrial Organie Matter
The organic matter of the oceans comes from two
sources: (1) riverine and eolian influx of terrestrial,
plant-derived dissolved (DOC) and particulate or-
ganic matter (POC) and (2) primary marine produc-
tion of organic matter in the oceans. In addition, dis-
solved inorganic carbon (DIC), mostly in the form of
hydrogencarbonate HC0 3, is transported by the
rivers to the sea. We first discuss the riverine and
eolian influx of organic carbon (OC) or total organic
carbon (TOC).
The river input of both DOC and POC from the
continents significantly contributes to the total car-
bon budget of the oceans. However, the flux rates
from the present-day continents and morphoc1imatic
regions markedly vary (Fig. 10.5a)
- Regions with high relief and forests, particularly
tropical rain forests (for example Oceania) contribute
larger amounts of organic matter per unit area to the
oceans than do areas of low relief and dry c1imate
(e.g. major parts of Africa).
- The present-day specific TOC yield oftropical wet
regions is about 8 tlkm2/a and makes up -55% of the
global terrestrial TOC flux into the ocean. The sec-
ond and third position in terrestrial TOC yield take
the zones of temperate wet c1imate (-4 tlkm2/a) and
the widely extended regions of tundra and taiga vege-
tation (-3 tlkm2/a). Each of these zones delivers
about 17% of the global TOC yie1d to the ocean. Dry
regions inc1uding deserts contribute only minor
amounts to the global terrestrial TOC flux. About
30% of the land surface have internal drainage sys-
tems which do not reach the ocean.
- The total carbon (TOC) flux from the present-day
continents to the oceans reaches about 400 x 10 12
gC/a. This is about 1% of the terrestrial productivity.
The mean terrestrial TOC yield of all coritinents (a
type of specific "terrestrial new productivity", see
below) is 2.7 glm2/a = 2.7 t/km2/a. Of these, about
55% enter the oceans as dissolved organic com-
pounds (DOC).
- Plant-derived TOC, i.e. DOC and POC, reaches
almost the same order of magnitude as the mean
"new productivity" of major parts of the ocean (Ta-
ble 10.2). It therefore potentially constitutes an im-
portant portion of the organic matter preserved in
marine sediments (Sect. 10.5). It appears, however,
that its contribution to the organic matter preserved
in modem sediments is limited (Hedges et al. 1997).
- Furthermore, particulate organic carbon supplied
by winds is a major proportion of the organic matter
accumulated in the organic carbon-poor sediments of
the central open-ocean regions (Zafiriou et al. 1985;
Prahl and Muehlhausen 1989; Stein 1991). Whether
Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter
the contribution of wind-borne POC is as great as
assumed by some authors (23% of the total amount
of carbon buried in sediments; e.g. Romarikevitch
1984) is an open question.
Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), derived to a large extent
from the atmosphere (-70%) is not further considered here,
but it is an important factor in the global carbon budget.
Data for carbon fluxes are still subjected to significant
errors and evaluated by some authors as "best guess". The
TOC yields of the continents to the ocean and that of the
surface layer of the ocean to the deeper sea and sediment
are mostly found by some sort of extrapolation (see e.g.
Schlünz 1998). The global values of terrestrial TOC yield
determined by different authors therefore range from 335 to
500 x 10 12 gC/a (e.g. Degens et al. 1991; Hedges et al.
1997; Ludwig et al. 1998). In addition, riverine carbon
transport data only partially inc1ude the effects of peak
floods which deli ver large quantities of organic matter.
They therefore often underestimate especially partic1e flux.
Better data are available for selected smaller regions,
such as the drainage areas of specific rivers or parts of
ocean basins. The results from these regions confirm the
general mies listed above. The river Amazon, for example,
delivers about 10% of the global terrestrial OC yield, and
on the Amazon shelf 6-10% of the global riverine OC dis-
charge are deposited (Schlünz 1998). In the Laptec Sea of
the Arctic ocean, terrestrial organic carbon also dominates
in the sediments (Stein and Fahl 1999). This is caused by
large rivers which drain tundra and taiga regions delivering
relatively high amounts of TOC (Fig. 1O.5a). Marine pri-
mary production is very low in this basin.
The sources of organic matter present in sediments can
be identified by different techniques (Sect. 14.1). As long
as the sediments are immature, i.e., not deeply buried and
substantially heated, marine organic matter (kerogen type
II) derived from algae, phytoplankton, zooplankton and
bacteria is characterized by a high "hydrocarbon index"
(Fig. 1O.5c). These organisms contain a high proportion of
hydrogen-rich lipid material, whereas terrestrial organic
matter (kerogen type III), dominated by cellulose and
lignin, renders low hydrocarbon index values. In addition,
C-isotopes and specific biomarkers can aid in the identifi-
cation of carbon sources (e.g. Killops and Killops 1993;
Westhausen et al. 1993; Peters and Moldowan 1993). De-
tailed work on the composition of organic matter in many
Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediment cores taken during scien-
tific ocean drilling has shown that a great portion of the
kerogen (insoluble organic compounds, Sect. 14.1) must
have come from neighboring continents (e.g., Stein et al.
1986,1989; Stein and Fahl 1999).
In this and the following sections, only the quantitative
importance of land-derived organic matter in marine sedi-
ments is considered.
10.4.2 Primary Produetion and Heterotrophie
Organisms
Primary Produetion
In the modem oceans the main producers of primary
organic matter are diatoms, coccolithophorids, and
dinoflagellates. These phytoplankton can grow only
10.4 Organic Matter in the Oceans
in the photic (or euphotic) zone where sunlight en-
ables photosynthesis. As soon as the autotrophie or-
ganisms sink or are carried by currents into deeper
water, their growth ceases or they die. The depth of
the photic zone usually extends to between 50 and
100 m. At mid-Iatitudes, surface waters cool in win-
ter, and the penetration of sunlight is limited. Conse-
quently, primary production is low. As insolation
increases with the onset of spring, the phytoplankton
begins to grow and reproduce more rapidly, also de-
veloping in deeper water, and thus forming "plankton
blooms". Such blooms, however, are restricted to
areas with abundant nutrient supplies either from
rivers or from deeper upwelling waters (Sect. 5.3.3).
About one half to two thirds of the present-day
global oceanic primary production is derived from
these fertile areas of the ocean (Table 10.1; cf. Fig.
10.11), although these make up only approximately
one third of the ocean surface. Such an unbalanced
regional distribution of organie production is even
more pronounced when new production and export
production are considered (see below).
The present-day oeeanie primary produetion amounts to
about 36 x 10 15 gC/a = 36 x 10 9 tC/a; e.g. Berger et al.
1989; Sehlünz 1998). Related to the entire oeean surface,
this mass eorresponds to an average speeifie primary pro-
duetion rate of -100 tlkm 2/a (also see Table 10.1).
In open oeean eonditions, primary produetion is -50
glm 2 /a, whereas in eoastal, non-upwelling regions about
150 glm 2/a are typieal (Table 10.2). Oeean regions with
oligotrophie waters (e.g., areas of subtropieal gyres sueh as
the Sargasso Sea) eontribute less than 5% ofthe global new
produetion (see below), although they constitute as much
as 40% of the ocean surfaee.
Tbe Food Cbain
The primary production by phytoplankton is used by
heterotrophie organisms as food. In the present
oceans we can observe the following food chain, or
food web:
Phytoplankton (primary producers)
Zooplankton (herbivores, i.e., plant eaters).
Zooplankton (camivores, i.e., eaters of other zoo-
plankton).
Fish (plankton-eaters.or fish-eaters).
Phytoplankton are eaten mainly by herbivorous zoo-
plankton; they in turn are eaten by camivorous zoo-
plankton or fish. At each "tropic level" in the food
chain, dissolved and suspended, dead örganic matter
is released from living organisms into the water. Part
of this organic detritus is used up by other
heterotrophie organisms living in the surface water,
but some dead plant and animal matter sinks into
deeper water, thereby supportirig life at all depths,
including on the sea floor (Fig. 10.6).
467
Most of the energy the animals gain from their
food is used for locomotion and other activities, and
only a small part for growth and reproduction. In
other words, the population at a higher trophic level
must be much larger (often five to six times by
weight) than the population at the lower trophic level
which feeds on the higher one. Thus, the amount of
organic matter produced by phytoplankton is reduced
drastically from one trophic level to the next, and the
biomass of the standing crop in the entire ecological
system represents only a small fraction of the primary
plant production. The organic matter, which is
needed as energy by organisms in the food chain, is
transformed into compounds with lower energy con-
tents (through metabolism) and fmally by bacterial
activity into carbon dioxide and water.
At the same time, inorganic nutrients are released
into the water. If these salts remain in the trophic
zone or are recycled by currents into surface waters,
they allow high primary production to be maintained.
10.4.3 New Production and Export Production
General Aspects
Primary productivity and life processes in the photic
zone are not commonly a focus of geologie al and
sedimentological studies. Geologists are more inter-
ested in the burial and preservation of organic matter
below the sea floor. For this reason, marine biolo-
gists and sedimentologists have introduced the terms
new production and export production (e.g., Berger
et al. 1989). New production is the vertical organic
carbon flux below the photic zone (at about 100 m
below sea level, Figs. 10.5d and 10.6). Most new
production occurs in narrow, high-fertility belts
along the equator, the subpolar divergence zones, and
in regions of coastal upwelling (cf. Figs. 5.1 and 5.2,
Sects. 5.2.3 and 5.3.3).
The vertical particle flux between 100 m and the
sea floor is further reduced by organisms living in the
deeper water. The remaining proportion of organie
matter (OM) at a given depth, as on the sea floor, is
called .export production. Thus, the vertical carbon
flux fina!ly reaching the sediment surface is often
only a small fraction of the new production. How-
ever, settling of OM to the sea floor can only occur if
the organic compounds form organic particles or are
adsorbed to inorganic particles. Dissolved organie
matter per se does not settle.
Whereas primary production is difficult to quantify, new
produetion, i.e., the downward flux of particulate organic
matter, can be measured by free-floating particle traps (e.g.
lahn 1990; Berger and Wefer 1992). It mainly eonsists of
various dead organisms, mostly micro-organisms, and their
fragments as weil as fecal pellets, peloids, floes and aggre-
gates. The quantity of this downward flux mayaiso reflect
the seasonal variation in primary production.
468
Specific studies on settling dead foraminifers have
shown that the number of tests devoid of organic matter
increases rapidly with depth; below 1000 m most of the
tests contain none. From rnany trap studies it is now possi-
ble to make estimates for the downward vertical carbon
flux below the photic zone (export production) as a TImc-
tion of either primary production, PP, or new production,
NP, and water depth, z (Fig. 10.5d ande). Data from differ-
ent regions reveal the same tendency. However, such calcu-
lations do not take into account terrestrial organic matter
which may be transmitted into the sea in greatly varying
quantities.
Adsorbed and Dissolved Organic Matter
Organic matter (OM) accumulates on the sea floor
either as pure organic particulate material, or in com-
bination with bio genie skeletal parts, fecal pellets,
peloids, and inorganic minerals, especially day min-
erals. Dissolved organic compounds in sea water nor-
mally attain concentrations on the order of 0.5 g C/m3
which are usually much higher than those of particu-
late organic matter. But only a fraction of this pool
can reach the sediment surface after it has been ad-
sorbed onto the surfaces of various particles settling
through the water column to the sea floor. Some of
the dissolved organic compounds is consumed by
plankton organisms. Thus, the contribution of dis-
solved organic matter to the total vertical carbon flux
is included in the data measured by the free-floating
sediment traps.
The larger the specific surface area of the partic1es, e.g.
c1ay minerals, the more OM can be adsorbed, commonly as
monolayer-equivalent coatings (e.g. Hedges and Keil
1995). This coatings largely resist . mineralization as they
pass through oxygenated water and surface sediments.
Strong oxygen attack leads to organic loadings lower than
monolayer equivalent; oxygen-depleted environments (dark
sediments) allow loadings higher than monolayer equiva-
lent. Fine-grained partic1es and sediments therefore have
generally a high capacity to preserve and store OM; the
highest organic carbon contents commonly cortelate with
the finest grain sizes.
Under specific conditions, particularly in front of deltas
or in estuaries where fresh water mixes with sea water, or-
ganic compounds and c1ay minerals can tlocculate and
form organomineral aggregates which slowly settle to the
sea floor.
Vertical OC Flux through the Water Column
In recent years considerable efforts have been made
to quantify the vertical carbon flux in different parts
ofthe modem oceans. Primary (total) production and
Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter
new production at the 100 m water depth appear
dosely related (Fig. 10.5d). If primary production is
low, most of it is consumed by heterotrophie organ-
isrns already in the photic zone, and little is left to
sink as export production into deeper waters. How-
ever, as soon as primary production increases to 100
g/m2/a) and more, a large part of it is left over as new
(and export) production. On the average, new pro-
duction at 100 m constitutes about 20% of the pri-
mary production (Berger et al. 1989). It amounts to
about 6 to 7 x 109 t/a in the modern oceans.
Export production decreases regularly with depth
(Fig. 10.5e), a pattern which can be found in all
present-day ocean basins where the deep water oxy-
gen content is at least 50 to I 00 ~mol/kg (0.8 to 1.6
g/m3). Commonly, 75-85% of the new production
leaving the upper 100 m of water are decomposed
within the underlying 500-1000 m ofwater.
For further information see, e.g., Suess (1980), Betzer et al.
(1984), Martin et al. (1987), Samthein et al. (1988), Berger
et al. (1989) and references listed above.
In the geological past, primary, new, and export produc-
tion may have been significantly different from the modem
situation. During the last glacial maximum, for example,
the lowered sea level and increased temperature gradients
between equator and poles promoted thermohaline ocean
circulation. This led to accelerated mineralization of OM
and nutrient supply for enhanced primary and new produc-
tion. In times of more equal global climate, organic pro-
duction may have been reduced but OM preservation en-
hanced in relation to the present-day scenario.
Regional Variation in Export Production
Similarly to primary and new production, export pro-
duction of organic carbon arriving on the sea floor
varies considerably in the different regions of the
present-day oceans.
It is only about 0.5 g/m2/a in the deep ocean (water
depths of 5000 m), but some 15 g/m2/a in non-
upwelling coastal waters (water depths of 250 m).
Thus, a ratio of 1:3 in prirnary production is magni-
fied to 1:30 on the sea floor. Consequently, the car-
bon flux to the deep-sea floor is less than that to the
continental shelf floors, although the shelves com-
prise only about 8% of the total surface area of the
oceans. Below zones of coastal upwelling, the or-
ganic carbon fallout on the sea floor at depths of 250
m is ab out 40 gim2/a (Table 10.2).
10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments 469

Table 10.2. Primary produetion, new produetion, 10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in
export production (organie earbon flux to the sea
floor), and organie earbon aeeumulation in sediments Marine Sediments
from various,gresent-day oeean regions (all values in
g/m2/a = tIkm ja). 10.5.1 General Aspects

Present-day deep-sea sediments are generally poor in

Open Coastal organie matter, beeause the vertieal earbon flux origi-
oeean non- up- nating from primary produetion is eontinuously re-
upweHing welling dueed by remineralization in the water eolurnn as
weH as by the aetivity of benthie organisms (Fig.
Primary production 50 150 250 10.6). Most of the land-derived organie matter enter-
ing the oeean is mineralized, used up by hetero-
N ew produetion 5 50 110 trophie organisms, or deposited in eoastal and
shallow-water zones. Here, the already fairly high
Export produetion autoehthonous vertieal earbon flux ean be aug-
at water depth of mented, partieularly in estuarine and prodelta envi-
250m 15 30 ronments. However, gravity" mass movements ean
transport organic-rieh sediments from the outer shelf
5000 m 0.5 or slope into deep water.

Organie earbon aeeu- Fine-grained mud turbidites, in particular, often contain

mulation in sediment, relatively high amounts of organic carbon (Degens et al.
when sedimentation 1986; Morris 1987; Stein 1991; cf. Sect. 5.4.5). For that
rate 1 ernlka 0.01 reason, the accumulation rate of organic matter can be
fairly high in some deep water sediments, even when the
vertical carbon flux from the overlying photic zone is neg-
10 ernlka 3 ligible. In addition, some smalI, deep ocean basins with
restricted water circulation (cf. Chap. 4) can store relatively
20 ernlka 13 large arnounts of organic matter.

Values from Stein 1991 (based on Romankevich 1984;
Betzer et al. 1984; Berger et al. 1989; for additional data
see Deuser 1986; Martin et al. 1987; Knauer et al. 1990).
The contribution of terrestrial organic matter is not in-
cluded.
The results obtained in the modem oeeans, summa-
rized in Fig. 10.5b, agree with the geologie reeord, in
whieh most of the organie matter preserved in an-
cient sediments aeeumulated in shallow seas. How-
ever, in eertain regions and during speeifie periods
organie earbon flux to the sea floor inereased as a
result of widespread anoxie deep-water environments
(cf. Seets. 5.2 and 7.5). In addition, organie matter of
slope sediments was transported by turbidity eurrents
into deeper water.
The late Quatemary sediments of the Arnazon shelf and
deep-sea fan markedly differ in their organic matter content
(Schlünz 1988). During sea-level highstand, the shelf accu-
mulates most of the incoming mud rich in terrestrial TOC
while the fan receives very limited amounts of sediment in
which marine organic matter is dominatinge The fan sedi-
ments of glacial lowstands, however, contain mainly terres-
trial organic matter which amounts to about 10% of the
present-day global riverine TOC discharge. An estimate for
the global organic carbon accumulation in the Neogene has
been carried out by Perry and France-Lanord (1996)
10.5.2 Organic Carbon Loss on the Sea Floor
Principal Processes
The export produetion, reaehing the sea floor as par-
ticulate matter, first enters the "benthie boundary
layer" (Fig. 10.6). This layer of bottom water has a
slightly higher eoneentration of suspended material
and somewhat deviates in its chemie al eharaeteristies
from thm.e of the overlying water body. Inereased
activity by planktonic miero- and maero-organisms in
this Iayer ean reduee" the vertieal earbon flux more
rapidly than it is the ease in the higher water eolurnn.
Although this proeess is linked with inereased oxy-
gen eonsumption, the bottom water usually still eon-
tains enough oxygen to support bottom life
(epibenthos, infauna, fungi and baeteria) on top of
and within the upper few eentimeters to deeimeters
of the sediment (Fig. 10.6). Miero-organisms, grow-
ing rapid1y in the uppermost millimeters or eentime-
ters of the sediment, aeeomplish further drastie re-
duetion of the vertieal earbon flux and thus release
eonsiderable quantities of CO/HC03 and nutrients.
This aetivity takes plaee under both aerobic and
anaerobie eonditions. In the ease of oxic bottom wa-
ters, oxygen flux from the water into the sediment is
faeilitated by burrowing organisms, but at some
depth below the sediment/water interface (usually
470 Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter

PRODUCTIVITY
SUN LIGHT VERTICAL CARBON FLUX
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~n7r.n7.0~--~

100
m
(PLANKTON,
EXPORT PROD. FISH, ETC.) (UPT AKE OF CO 2
AND NUTRIENTS)
::c
I-
a..
w DEAD '- ~
~
Q
ORGANISMS
FECAL MINERALIZATION OF
PELLETS, ORGANIC MATTER,
AGGRE- RELEASE OF CO 2
GATES, AND NUTRIENTS
HC.
~

~
BENTHIC BOUNDARY

lf\~ EPIBENTHOS
•••• . ......... "j • )~. • • (BURROWING ORG.,
several \-' _':-' .';;:''.:;J<::!.':;,::.';'::•• . : INFAUNA FUNGI, ETC.)
cm Fig. 10.6. Processes controlling vertical
to dm :.: :• .SEDIP.1E~': .: ': : ...
. . •. . . . . . .
AEROBIC
ANAEROBIC
BACTERIA organic carbon flux from zone of pri-
mary productivity to burial in sediment.
ORGANIC MATTER For further explanation see text
PRESERVED

several centimeters) oxygen transfer becomes insuffi-
cient. Then, only anaerobic organisms can persist,
such as bacteria which reduce nitrate and sulfate, or
bacteria which produce methane (cf. Sect. 13.6.3).
They gain their energy from the rnineralization of
organie matter and thus further reduce the vertical
carbon flux.
In environments with oxygen-depleted bottom
water and a high sedimentation rate, anaerobic bacte-
ria act as the main decomposers of organic matter.
Ultimately, at the end of this long chain of consum-
ers, only the most resistant organic particles and
compounds are preserved in the sediment and have a
chance of being fossilized. As a result of all these
activities, most of the organic matter arriving at the
sea floor is commonly decomposed above and below
the sediment/water interface.
Quantitative Aspects
It is difficult to quantify carbon loss on the sea floor.
The following methods have been used: (1) Measure-
ment of the OM accumulation rates on the sediment
surface and at some depth below the zone of biologi-
cal activity (input-output). (2) Determination of the
biomass of the different communities living in the
zone of biological activity in order to estimate their
reproduction and food requirements. (3) One may
also determine the oxygen consumption and CO2 re-
lease of the living communities, e.g., the CO 2 flux
from the sediment surface into the sea water.
Applying these and other methods to the 1300 m-deep sea
floor of the Santa Catalina basin off the coast of Califomia,
Srnith et al. (1987) found that up to one half of the total
mineralization of particulate and dissolved organic matter
occurs in the benthic boundary layer, mainly by micro-
plankton. At least the same quantity is decomposed within
the top layers of the sediment. In total, roughly 10 to 20
g/m2/a of carbon are mineralized. This is certainly more
than the vertical carbon flux available in most of the ocean
regions at this depth (Table 10.2), but it does correspond
approximately with the flux of particulate matter typical in
areas of upwelling, which is in fact the case for this basin.
Furthermore, it should be noted that part of the organic
matter mineralized on or near the sea floor is taken from
the large pool of dissolved organic compounds in sea wa-
ter. In the Catalina Basin, the buried sediments below the
benthic life zone still contain 6.5% (by weight) of organie
carbon.
10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments
A situation similar to that of the Santa Catalina basin
has been studied in the zone of coastal upwelling off Peru
(Suess et al. 1987). In the southem part ofthis region, aver-
age primary organic carbon production is on the order of
300 g/m2/a, and the carbon flux arriving on the sea floor
(water depth ;<;500 m) is 88 g/m 2/a. Ultimately, 24 g/m 2/a
are buried, i.e., about 8% of the primary production. This
results in an organic carbon content of <:5% in the sedi-
ment which signifies that about 70% of the organic carbon
fallout are used up by benthic organisms on the sea floor
and by processes of early diagenesis.
Oxygen consumption by benthic respiration, for ex-
ample, is substantial in ocean regions with high or-
ganic carbon fallout to the sea floor. It contributes
significantly to the strong oxygen minimum in many
shallow-marine regions (Berger et a1. 1989).
CO 2 released by aerobic decomposition of organic
carbon can lead to the dissolution of calcium carbon-
ate. In the upwelling zone off Peru, most of the
biogenic carbonate reaching the sea floor (on the or-
der of 150 gim2/a) is dissolved. This process operates
according to the following rule: In order to dissolve a
CaC0 3 flux of 100 g/m2/a, an organic carbon flux of
24 gC/m2/a is required. This quantity of OC is trans-
formed into CO 2 and HC0 3- which move into the
pore water and overlying sea water thereby increas-
ing alkalinity.
Another OC loss in the benthic boundary layer
and the uppermost sediment is accomplished by bac-
terial sulfate reduction under anoxic conditions (e.g.
Kempe 1990). To reduce 80 g S04-· present in sea
water or pore water, 24 g OC are consumed. The
HC0 3- released during this process enhances the al-
kalinity which is sometimes referred to a "alkalinity
pump". The presence of substantial quantities of iron
sulfide in many marine black shales testifies to the
fact that a considerable proportion of OM has been
consumed within the sediment.
10.5.3 Inorganic Sediment Accumulation Rates
and OC Burial
Flux Rates and OC Concentrations
Direct measurements of carbon flux rates close to the
water-sediment interface as mentioned above are still
rare, and their results cannot be applied direcdy to
other regions. However, a number of studies compare
organic carbon concentrations or accumulation rates
in young marine sediments with present-day produc-
tion rates in the overlying water body (e.g., Müller
and Suess 1979; Johnson Ibach 1982; Bralower and
Thierstein 1984; Emerson 1985; Stein 1991; and ref-
erences mentioned earlier). These data can be used to
gain an overview of the complicate interrelationship
between the varies factors controlling organic carbon
preservation.
471
In addition to the processes discussed in the previ-
ous section, organic carbon preservation is also fa-
vored by an increasing overall sedimentation rate, i.e.
mainly by the inorganic rate of sedimentation or ac-
cumulation. OC preservation is therefore mainly con-
trolled by the following four factors:
(1) Primary organic production and terrestrial OC
influx.
(2) Flux of organic matter to the sea floor (new pro-
duction and export production).
(3) Carbon loss through benthic life activity in the
uppermost sediment,
(4) The inorganic sedimentation (accumulation) rate.
The results of a simplified empirical approach to this
problem are shown in Fig. 10.7. Here, points 1 and 4
of the above list are considered. Instead of (decreas-
ing) OC fluxes through the water column and upper-
most sediment layer, the concentrations of organic
carbon, Corg, in the sediment below the zone of ben-
thic degradation are plotted. For oxic environments,
this diagram clearly shows that the Corg contents of
the sediments increase with growing sedimentation
rates. In the case of anoxic environments, the benthic
degradation losses and thus also the influence of the
sedimentation rates are lirnited. Under these condi-
tions, even zones of low to intermediate productivity
can lead to relatively high C or concentrations.
Considering, in addition, flux rates of organic car-
bon, Fe, and inorganic material, F" accumulation
rates for organic carbon, ARe, and in organic mate-
rial, AR" as weIl as benthic degradation los ses, BDL,
the relationship between the factors mentioned above
become more complicate (Fig. 10.8).
These parameters are further defined as folIows:
- Flux rates of organie carbon, Fe, and inorganic material,
F" refer to fluxes from the water body into the benthic
zone.
- Flux rates or accumulation rates of organie carbon, AR e,
and inorganic material, AR" describe processes in the sedi-
ment below the zone ofbenthic life activity.
- Concentrations of organic carbon, C org or Ce, are given in
weight percent of the total sediment.
If erosional processes and dissolution on the sea floor
can be exduded, AR, is equal to F" but ARe becomes less
than Fe due to benthic degradation. When describing these
relationships, one should not confuse accumulation rates,
e.g. in g/m2/a, linear sedimentation rates, e.g. in rnIMa, and
concentrations in percent by dry weight.
The relationship between the inorganic accumulation
rate, AR" and the total sedimentation rate, SR (induding
biogenie skeletal material), is shown in Fig. 10.8 at the hor-
izontal scales for three different porosities (25, 50, and
75%). The concentration of organie carbon buried in
deeper sediments is Ce=ARc/(AR,+ARc).
A simple relationship exists between Fc and F, (=
AR,) and thus between these parameters and Cc. If Fc
472
20
HIGH PRODUCTIVITY
10
:r:
I-
C)
w
~ 2
:>
In
cf.
.:;:::: ::;:;::::::::'".:
J · t~~!j!!M·~
j' n~~~R~~g~~~TY
O. :::::: .... :::::::::::::::.
:: : ::: : :: :: : ::: : :: :: : : . INCREASING
0.2 ;::;::;::;::;::}:::. WATER DEPTH
:}::;::}:~;;::~
0.1 .: .:
5 10 20 50 100 200
SEDIMENTATION RATE (rn /Mal
remains constant, Ce decreases systematically with
increasing F]. Ihis effect is usually referred to as
"clastic dilution". It is shown in Fig. 10.8 by solid
lines for the (hypothetical) case that the accumulation
rate, ARe, is equal to the fallout to the sea floor, Fe.
In reality, ARe is always smaller than Fe, even in
anoxic environments. Ihe concentration of organic
carbon, Co in sediments is therefore generally lower
than the theoretical upper limit shown for the various
FelF] ratios. In areas ofvery high inorganic sedimen-
tation rates, for example on prodelta slopes, Ce ap-
proaches a linear relationship in which it is nega-
tively correlated with SR or AR], although the flux
and accumulation rates of organic carbon, Fe and
ARe, into the depositional system are usually high.
Benthie Degradation Loss (Burial Efficieney)
Ihe difference between the organic carbon input, F0
into the benthic life zone and the accumulation rate,
ARe, in the deeper sediment is defined as benthic
degradation loss, BDL; (BDL=FcARe). Ihis loss is
also referred to as "burial efficiency". Ihis term de-
scribes the ultimately buried OC as percentage of the
. OC reaching the sediment/water interface (e.g. Ar-
thur and Sageman 1994). Ihe burial efficiencies of
normal oxic environments range from <1 to > 10%,
euxinic environments from 10 to 100%.
Burial efficiency appears to be high or degrada-
tion loss to be relatively low in environments where
Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter
Fig. 10.7. Correlation between organic
carbon concentrations, C qrg or Ce, and
sedimentation rates of OXIC and anoxic
environments as well as areas of high
organic productivity (e.g., regions of
upwelling). Based on data from the
present-day oceans (DSDP sampies,
mcluding Jurassic and Cretaceous sed-
iments) and adjacent seas (e.g. Baltic
Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean). (After
Stein et al. 1986)
500 1000
the residence time of organic matter in the zone of
benthic life is short due to a high inorganic accumu-
lation rate, AR] (= F]). Conversely, BDL is very high
in areas of low AR] (y ~ 1 cm/ka = 10 mlMa) and un-
der oxic conditions, because the benthic community
has a long time (hundreds to thousands of years) to
decompose the organic material near the sediment
surface. As a result, only the most resistant com-
pounds settle into the deeper layers. Under these con-
ditions, the organic carbon concentrations, Ce, in the
buried sediments generally remain low (usually 0.1 to
0.3% by weight), even ifthe carbon flux, Fe, into the
benthic zone varies between low and medium values.
If, however, the inorganic accumulation rate, AR]
(= F]), surpasses a certain lower limit (ab out 10 to 20
g/m2/a or roughly 10 to 20 mlMa, assuming a poros-
ity of 50 to 75%, cf. Fig. 10.8), then the residence
time of organic matter in the benthic life zone is sig-
nificantly reduced. Bioturbation begins to affect
deeper layers, because some food is still available.
Ihis in turn introduces carbon into deeper portions of
the sediment, where it more effectively depletes the
still oxygenated pore water and thus may reduce deg-
radation. With increasing inorganic accumulation
rates, benthic degradation loss, BDL, is further di-
minished and organic matter better preserved (in
terms of ARe). Consequently, the concentration of
organic carbon, Co in the buried sediment can in-
crease. Ihis positive correlation between Ce and in-
creasing sedimentation rates has been found in nature
for oxic environments (Fig. 10.7).
10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments 473

SEDIMENTATION RATES. SR (m / Ma), FOR DIFFERENT

POROSITIES (25, 50, 75 %: SR 25 , SR so , SR 75 )
5
I
10
I ,
50 100
I ,
500 10,0 0 SR 75

10
5
I
I
,
10
i
,
50
, , 100
i
,
500 SR 50
,
5 10 50 100 50q SR 25

3
z
o
j:
z
<
...a::z
UJ 11.-
(J
Z "-
o
(J
11
I1 11.0
11
z decreaelng
oID BOL
a:: 11
<
(J
(J
Z
<
~0. 2 0.2
o

O.l~~.-~--r-~~rT------.----r--r-~~-r~----~ = ""T'"""--r--r........"'I"'T~ 0.1

2 3 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
INORGANIC ACCUMULATION RATE I AR I = F, (g / m 2• a)

Fig. 10.8. Preservation of organie earbon, expressed
as eoneentration of Ce in % by weight of total sedi-
ment. It is eontrolled by OC flux Fe into the benthie
degradation zone, flux of inorganie material F[ to the
sea floor, and benthie degradation loss BDL. Solid
straight lines indieate ehanging FeIF 1 ratios, with Fe
held eonstant. Dashed line indieates FeIF 1 ratio, with
Fe inereasing with F 1• Both types of line mark the
theoretieal upper limit of organie earbon eoneentra-
tion Ce for BDL=O. Stippled and hatched fields show
possible C eoneentrations in sediments of oxie and
anoxie environments related to different earbon flux
rates Fe. Note that earbon eontents inerease with in-
termediate inorganie aeeumulation rates F[ but de-
erease with higher rates due to dilution

It is not quite clear to what extent this somewhat surprising
finding is caused by the processes mentioned above or by
other phenomena. Higher sedimentation rates are often
associated with increasing carbon flux, Fe, into the benthic
zone, especially so if part of the inorganic flux, F h consists
of biogenic skeletal material. Such a case is indicated in
Fig. 10.8 by the note "Fe increasing with F .... Here it is
obvious that Ce will grow with increasing F, (= AR,). Fur-
thermore, the proportion of relatively resistant organic mat-
ter (e.g., land-derived plant material) in the total carbon
flux also plays a significant role.
Clastie Dilution
Approaehing the "dilution line" marked by solid lines
in Fig. 10.8, Ce again deereases, as pointed out ear-
lier. This bend in the band of organie earbon eoneen-
trations oeeurs when inorganie aeeumulation rates
range from about 20 to 100 g/m2/a, depending on the
input rate, Fe.
Dilution of organie earbon also oeeurs in sedi-
ments deposited in anoxie environments (blaek
shales). In contrast to oxie eonditions, blaek shales
ean already have high organie earbon eoneentrations,
Ce, in eonjunetion with 10w aeeumulation rates (Fig.
474
10.8), because the benthic degradation loss, BDL, is
much lower under anaerobic conditions than under
aerobic ones. Therefore, a decrease due to dilution
rather than an increase in Ce with growing inorganic
input, F], is expected. This is in agreement with ac-
tual data shown in Fig. 10.8.
10.5.4 Fluxes and Burial of OC in Model Basins
In this section, the vertical organic carbon flux from
the site of primary production to the location of ulti-
mate OC burial in the sediment is demonstrated by a
number of semi-quantitative models (Fig. 10.9). Each
of these models displays two scenarios, one with low
and another one with high primary production. The
flux rates in the water column are defined as Fe
(=ARe) and in the sediment as ARe or AR] (inor-
ganic accumulation rate). These rates are plotted as
boxes below each diagram, together with the concen-
trations of organic carbon, Ce, ultimate1y buried in
the sediment. The models neglect the different types
of organic matter discussed in Sect. 14.1 and the
changing proportions of bioclastic and terrigenous
material in the inorganic flux. The models address
the following environmental conditions:
- Deep-sea oxic environments (Fig. 10.9a) with ei-
ther low or high primary and new production, very
low or low to medium inorganic accumulation rate,
AR], and relatively high to medium benthic degrada-
tion loss, BDL. (The absolute values of BDL are low
becimse oflimited OC input.) As a result, the organic
carbon flux, ARe, into the deeper sediment is very
low to low; Ce is consequently very low or medium,
respective1y.
- Large or smaller deep basins with stratified water
masses and an oxygen minimum zone (Fig. 10.9b);
primary and new production are either low or high.
Then, low AR] enables high to very high values of Ce
in both scenarios. However, BDL by bacterial activ-
ity (e.g. sulfate reduction) must not be neglected.
High AR] (clastic dilution) leads to low to medium
Ce values although BDL is limited. The OC preser-
vation factor (see below), however, is higher with
high AR].
- Shallow seas (e.g., shelves) with oxic conditions,
low or high primary and new production, and me-
dium to very high inorganic accumulation rate, AR]
(Fig. 10.9c). Here, organic carbon input, Fe and thus
ARe, into the benthic zone may become very high,
but the carbon concentration values, Ce. turn out to
be low to medium due to clastic dilution.
- Shelves, shallow epicontinental basins, or specific
basins within these settings, characterized by anoxic
or dysoxic bottom waters (Fig. 1O.9d). The oxygen
minimum zone results from restricted water circula-
tion or coastal upwelling; primary and new produc-
Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter
tion are either low or high. BDL is limited due to the
lack or scarcity of benthic macro-organisms, but bac-
terial activity may be substantial. The resulting low
to high values of Ce are mainly controlled by Fe and
AR].
One of the results of this exercise is that sediments
with high to very high Ce values are formed in both
shallow- and deep-water environments if they are
anoxic or dysoxic. To achieve high Ce values, pri-
mary productivities can be fairly low, but then the
inorganic accumulation rates must also be low or, at
the most, intermediate (in shallow water). Under
such conditions, organic carbon content does not in-
crease with the sedimentation rate (Stein 1991).
These models may be modified by additional factors, such
as lateral input of organic carbon, including plant material,
by bottom currents and gravity mass movements. The up-
pennost sediment layers can be reworked, and organic mat-
ter already buried may again be redeposited in the zone of
intense benthic degradation.
The identification of the different types of depositional
environments preserving organic matter (cf. Fig. 10.11),
including black shales (see below) is often difficult in an-
cient rocks. One has to keep in mind that paleo-oceano-
graphic conditions in the past may have been entire1y dif-
ferent from the modem world, at least during certain time
intervals.
During greenhouse times of the globe, the oxygen
content of sea water was most likely lower and water
circulation more sluggish than today. As a result, the
remineralization of organic matter and thus the recy-
cling of nutrients was hampered. In addition, an in-
creased loss of nitrate through denitrification in oxy-
gen deficient waters may have limited fertility and
caused "starved ocean basins" (Berger et al. 1989).
Hence, oxygen minimum zones of wider extent could
repeatedly form both in deep and shallow seas (cf.
Sects. 5.2 and 7.8) in spite of reduced organic pro-
duction. However, the general processes outlined
above must also have operated in the geological past.
Specific planktonic microfaunas of low diversity and high
amounts of biogenic opal may indicate upwelling condi-
tions (e.g., Thiede and Suess 1983; Kuhnt et al. 1986, cf.
Sect. 5.3.5). High concentrations of trace metals trapped
from sea water by hydrogen sulfide andlor organic matter
are probably best explained by a stagnant anoxic basin and
a low sedimentation rate (e.g., Brumsack 1986b).
10.5.5 Organic Carbon Preservation Factor
Finally, we may ask the question: which proportion
of the primary production, PP, in overlying surface
waters is preserved in the sediments be10w the zone
of benthic activity? The organic carbon accumulation
rate, ARe, in the sediment, expressed as a percentage
10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments 475

a PRODUCTIVITY AND b PRODUCTIVITY AND

VERTICAL Corg FLUX ( FeorARe > VERTICAL Corg FLUX
I
~ ... '"
J
.. .. PRIMARY
. ...
-/
I PROD.
I
:
, " NEW·
I
~ I
a. PROD.
w
I
I
DEEP
c I
I
BASINS
I

.
I
I NO OXYGEN
I MINIMUM

: BENTHIC
L__/- ~OUNDARY LA VER
: SEDIMENT

BDL =~
AR bJ
····· A~
.......
I - "--::;'.: I ::':'.:::
AR .. .. .:::'. :: ... . . :-:.::

--- -
e ARe C = ARe
eARl + AR e

C PRODUCTIVITY AND d PRODUCTIVITY AND

VERTICAL Corg FLUX ( Fc or ARe> VERTICAL Corg FLUX

!
.
I Fig. 10.9. Semi-
quantitative models
........... ,
.'
,'"
" SHALLOW showing the de-
erease in organie
BASINS
earbon flux Fe from
surfaee waters
through the deeper
water eolumn and
zone of benthie deg-
radation loss BDL to
site of ultimate
burial in sediment
(aeeumulation rate
BDL BDL ARe). The models
display deep (a,b)
and shaHow basins
(c,d) as weH as oxie

d:···
very (a,c) and anoxie
high environments (b,d).
BDL and eoneentra-

I,~-ob
very
~ '0 · · ',' .' :,'
high
tion of organie ear-
bon Ce in the buried
sediment are mainly
eontroHed by the

--
, 0, • • ••
low
ARe
.:->: :,0: ARe inorganie aeeumula-
tion rate AR! (cf.

-
Fig. lO.7b)
Ce
476 Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter

PRESERVATION FACTOR
10 1 10%
VARIOUS TROUGHS, /
BAYS, INLETS ~ 1 111J-H
IIj}m I
tU
..:.:
",. 10 0 1%
E
--
u
Cl
BLACK SEA
~~
// //

UJ -1
~ 10 / 0.1%
a: MARGINAL /- /
DEEP-SEA .:::::::: /
Z BASINS, '-....... ?~
o

///
OCEANIC '" . ~:.
RISES /
~ 10- 2
-.J
7 n.o 1%
::J
~
::J
o
o
« /// 0.001%
C) DEEP SEA ~ /
a: ~
o
(CENTRAL
PACIFIC) % // Fig. 10.10. Orsanic carbon preservation factors.
/ The accumulatlOn rate ARe is expressed as a
percentage of the primary production rate PP of
10 2 10 3 Holocene sediments. (After Bralower and Thierstein
1984)
PRIMARY PRODUCTION RATE gC/(m2.a)
[1gG/(m2• a) = 0.1 gC/(cm2·ka}]

of PP, is defined as the organic carbon preservation
factor.
This factor can be deterrnined for young sediments
for which both values, pp and ARe, can be measured
with confidence. As can be seen in Fig. 10.10, most
of the present-day pelagic and hemipelagic deep-sea
sediments have a low to very low preservation factor
(less than 1%, often only about 0.01 to 0.1 %; cf. Fig.
1O.5b and Table 10.2). In contrast, near-shore sedi-
ments deposited more rapidly display much higher
organic carbon preservation factors: up to 3%, espe-
cially in cases of coastal upwelling. Under anoxic
conditions, where burrowing organisrns can no lon-
ger live on the sea floor and the sediments are lami-
nated, the preservation factor can surpass 3% and
reach values as high as 10% or more. Globally, prob-
ably less than 0.5% of the primary production is pre-
served in the sediments.
Modem examples of a high preservation factor are the Peru
shelf (coastal upwelling), specific basins of the Gulf of
Califomia and in the Califomian borderland, large and
relatively deep estuaries, bays, and lagoons along various
coasts. Black Sea sediments under H 2S-bearing waters dis-
playan average preservation factor of 4.3%, ifland-derived
organic carbon is neglected.
Particularly high preservation factors also occur in strat-
ified lake basins. Here, both enhanced primary productivity
and very high sediment accumulation rates favor the pres-
ervation of organic matter. This is the reason why the mod-
em lake basins, covering only about 2% of the Earth's sur-
face, can store about one fourth ofthe OC presently buried
in the oceans (Dean and Gorham 1998). Lakes, artificial
reservoirs, and peatlands together seem to store per time
unit about twice as mueh OC as the oceans.
Taking into account modem preservation factors and
evaluating the paleoenvironment (oxie or anoxic condi-
tions, bulk aecumulation rate, ete.), some authors have re-
cently tried to reealeulate the primary productivity or,
paleofertility, of ancient ocean basins. Such estimates then
only rely on the OC accumulation rate of the preserved
sediments and their environmental interpretation (e.g.
Berger et al. 1989; Berger and Herguera 1992). Samthein
et al.(l987), for example, demonstrate that the fertility (or
in this case the new production) of low- and mid-latitude
ocean regions during the last glacial period must have been
about twice as high as that in the Holocene. In their investi-
gation of mid-Cretaceous, laminated black shales, Bralower
and Thierstein (1984, 1987) come to the conclusion that
the primary produetion rate may have been as much as one
order of magnitude lower than that measured in the modern
oceans.
In all estirnates in which the organic carbon accumula-
tion rate, ARe, is determined for compacted and more or
less lithified sediments, correetions foradditional organic
carbon losses from shallow to deep burial have to be intro-
duced. In immature hydroearbon source rocks (see Chap.
14) or nonsouree rocks, however, these diagenetic carbon
los ses appear to be relatively small (Berner 1982; Bralower
and Thierstein 1987).
10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments 477

MARINE DELTA SHAl.LOW LAKE FRESH-WATER LAKE

WITH SWAMPS (PEAT) OXIC SURFACE WATER
(PEAT)
SUBOXIC
LAYER

SLOPE BASIN
(:,: HYPER·SALINE
STAGNANT WATER) ANOXIC
SLOPE APRON CORE OF LlPTINITE-EXINITE-VITRINITE
WITH C-RICH INERTINITE COASTAL UPWELLING
MUD TURBIDITES

SILLED DEEP BASIN EXINITE-LiPTINITE

OPEN OCEAN

EQUATORIAL
UPWELLING
-- --
t
.--'--
SUBOXIC
LAYER

__ - -- --
...-=... ,-,.""

EXPANDED
OXYGEN MINIMUM
DURING TIMES OF
SllJGGISH OCEANIC CIRCULATION HIGHER SAUNE RESTRICTED BASIN
OCEANIC BLACK SHALE EVENTS SHELF WATER (?) IESTUARINE CIRCULATION)

Fig. 10.11. Various depositional environments for comparatively stable suboxie or eompletely anoxie
the aeeumulation of organie-rieh sediments with their zones, whereas zones of eoastal and equatorial
dominant types of kerogen. (After Brooks et al. upwelling are eharaeterized by spatial and temporal
1987). Basins with stagnant bottom waters develop variations in their degrees of oxygen defieieney
478
10.5.6 Black Shales
(Hydrocarbon Source Rocks)
The preservation of organic carbon in various
depositional environments is a topic of particular
interest in hydrocarbon exploration. In the evaluation
of petroleum source rocks (Chap. 14), the total or-
ganic carbon concentration, Ce. is a crucial factor.
Carbonate source rocks should contain at least 0.3%
organic carbon and clastic source rocks at least 0.5%
(Tissot and WeIte 1984). However, the nature of the
buried organic matter also plays an important role
(Sect. 14.1.2). Oil-prone organic constituents are
better preserved if the residence time of the organic
particles in the zone of intense benthic activity is
limited by high bulk accumulation rates. Therefore, if
two marine source rocks have the same lithology and
organic carbon content, the more rapidly deposited
one usually has a greater potential for generating oil
(Johnson Ibach 1982).
The so-called black shales are one of the most im-
portant groups of these source rocks. Black shales
are fine-grained, dark-colored, compacted sediments
which usually display distinct lamination and contain
~0.5%, commonly 1-4%, frequently up to 7%, and
occasionally up to 20% of organic matter. Their dark
gray color is caused by finely dispersed iron sulfides
and organic compounds. Widespread microbial mats
formed at the sediment surface often play a signifi-
cant part in the generation of lamination (e.g. Gerdes
and Krumbein 1987; Kemp 1996).
However, not all dark shales are true black shales
with sufficiently high organic matter contents, and
not every black shale is a hydrocarbon source rock
(cf. Sect. 14.1). Black shales develop under anoxic,
dysoxic (0.1 <0 2<1.0 mVl) and, to some degree, un-
der oxic conditions (02)1.0 mlll). The state of oxy-
genation at the sea floor and in the uppennost sedi-
ment is reflected by the presence, scarcity, or absence
of macro-benthos (epifauna) and burrowing organ-
isms (infauna). Many sections of black shales show
repeated changes from anaerobic to dysaerobic and
aerobic biofacies (cf. Sect. 13.3) and a kind of
cyclicity in their organic carbon contents at different
time scales (cf. Sects. 7.8 and 7.9).
This has been demonstrated in some detail by several au-
thors (e.g. Wetze I 1991; van Buchem et al. 1995).Oxygen-
ation events in the organic-rich siliceous Miocene
Monterey Formation, Califomia, can be subdivided into
Chapter 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter
two groups (Ozalas et al. 1994): (1) re1ated to increased
bottom currents and c1astic input (Glossifungites
ichnofacies on firmground) and (2) climate- and sea level-
controlled events producing little change in the quiet-water
pelagic sedimentation (soft-ground deposit feeders includ-
ing Chondrites).
Many authors have pointed out the positive relationship
between organic matter content and sea-level highstand
(e.g. Herbin et al., 1991, in the Kimmeridge Clay in north-
western Europe, which is a major source rock ofthe North
Sea).
Of the large number of publications on black shales all
over the world, only a few can be mentioned here. Sumrna-
ries have been provided, e.g., by Arthur and Sageman
(1994), Wignall (1994); the specific biofacies of black
shales are described by Savrda et al. (1991) and Oschmann
(1994). The latter as wen as specific geochemical charac-
teristics of black shales, such as the relationship between
OC, iron and sulfur, cannot be discussed in this section.
The most favorable terrestrial and aquatic environ-
ments for the formation of hydrocarbon source rocks
are summarized in Fig. 10.11. They include:
- Swamps and the tidal flat zones of marine deltas
(Sect. 3.4.2).
- Estuaries and lagoons with high nutrient supplies
(Sect. 3.2.3).
- Basins with restricted circulation on the continental
shelf and in continental borderlands (e.g. off Califor-
nia).
- Silled adjacent seas (e.g. Black Sea; Sect. 4.3.1).
- Shelves and upper continental slopes under zones
of coastal upwelling (Sect. 5.3.3).
- Widely extended deep-sea regions during periods
of sluggish oceanic circulation.
In most of these environments, intermediate to rela-
tively high sedimentation rates (up to several100's of
m/Ma) prevail. The kerogen types of the organic mat-
ter, mentioned in Fig. 10.11, are explained in Sect.
14.1.2. The presence of exinite and liptinite-type
kerogen is typical of aquatic environments with rela-
tively low benthic degradation loss. Inertinite ("dead
carbon") characterizes well oxygenated conditions,
including reworking, in which most of the organic
compounds have been destroyed. The significance of
sediments ± rich in organic matter as source rocks of
hydrocarbons is discussed further in Sect. 14.2.
10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments
10.5.7 Summary (Production and Preservation of Organic Matter)
- Presently, <0.5% (mean value) of the primary
marine production of organic matter is exported
to the sea floor and preserved in marine sedi-
ments. Land-derived organic carbon (oC) sig-
nificantly contributes to marine oe burial.
- High oe preservation factors can be expected in
fine-grained deltaic and shaHow-water sedi-
ments, in particular in front of tropical river del-
tas, below zones of high fertility (nutrient sup-
ply) and oxygen minimum zones. oe preserva-
tion in shaHow waters can be high even under
oxic conditions, if productivity is sufficiently
developed.
- In deep waters, most of the new production es-
caping the productive surface waters is
remineralized. The benthic degradation loss by
epifauna and infauna on the sea floor is reduced
by high inorganic accumulation rates, but con-
479
siderable amounts of oe may also be consumed
by aerobic and anaerobic bacteria (dissolution
of carbonate, sulfate reduction). High accumu-
lation rates of oe in deep water only occur if
productivity is high and the water anoxic.
- Thus, high oe concentrations in sediments do
not always reflect high primary productivity,
and low oe values can also occur in basins of
high primary productivity when they are weH
oxygenated and have low sedimentation rates.
- According to these roles, black shales (com-
monly Oe=1-4%) can form in a variety of
depositional environments.
- In the geological past, the environmental condi-
tions for the production and preservation of
organic matter often were quite different from
the present situation and repeatedly changed at
different time scales.
11 The Interplay Between Sediment Supply,
Subsidence, and Basin Fill
11.1 Introduction
Principal Factors Controlling Basin Filling
General Remarks to Basin-Filling Models
The Elementary Approach in This Book
11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation (DA) 482
Systems
11.2.1 General Concept
11.2.2 Simple Steady-State Models,
Clastic Sediments
Over-Supplied Basins
Basins with Moderate to Low
Sediment Supply
Influence of Several Sediment Sources
Transition to Dynamic Models
(Change in Relief)
11.2.3 Modem Examples of Steady-State DA
Systems
Open Lake Systems
Adjacent Semi-Closed Basins:
The Black Sea
Modem Closed Lakes and Larger Basins
The Great Salt Lake and Lake Bonneville
The Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, and Chad Basin
11.3 Dynamic Denudation-Accumulation (DA) Systems
11.3.1 Rebound by Unloading and Sediment 494
Load-Driven Subsidence
11.3.2 Variations in Subsidence and
Sediment Supply
Two East African Lakes: A Comparison
11.3.3 Extensional Basin Models
Rift Basins with Constant Sediment Supply
Rift Basins with Varying Sediment Supply
Rift-Drift Transition and Growing
Ocean Basins
11.3.4 Closing Basin Model
11.3.5 Foreland Basin Models
11.3.6 Pull-Apart Basins
(Dead Sea and Gulf of Califomia)
11.3.7 Summary (DA Basin Models)
11.4 Chemical Sediments (Evaporites) in Basin Filling
11.4.1 General Aspects 512
11.4.2 Mass Balances of Closed Lake Systems
(One Rock Type)
11.4.3 Evolution ofClosed Lake Basins
(Mixed Rock Types)
11.4.4 Summary (Evaporites in Basin Filling)
11.5 Distribution of Clastic Sediments in
Water-Filled Basins 517
11.5.1 Introduction
11.5.2 Transfer ofRiver Sediments to
Marine Deltas
Out- and Upbuilding of Sediment
from a Point Source
Delta Prograding into Low- to
Medium-Energy Marine Basins
Deltaic Sediments in High-Energy
Marine Basins
11.5.3 Sediment Accumulatioh in
Barrier-Lagoon Systems
11.5.4 Transfer ofRiver Sediments to
Deep-Sea Fans
11.5.5 Mud Deposition on Continental Shelves
11.5.6 Sediment Distribution in a Basin Chain
11.5.7 Long-Term Sediment Distribution
Along Passive Continental Margins
Gulf of Mexico: Coast and
Shelf Progradation
Northwestem AtIantic: Shelf-Slope-Deep
Sea Deposition
11.5.8 Global Marine Sediment Distribution
11.5.9 Summary (Sediment Distribution)
11.6 Consequences for Stratigraphie Sequences and
Facies Associations (Overview) 533
11.6.1 Vertical Facies Evolution: Three Principal
TYpes
11.6.2 Vertical and Lateral Facies Associations
(Overview)
11.7 Preservation and Recycling ofOlder Sediments 536
11.7.1 The Survival Rate of Sediment
11. 7.2 Recycling of Sediment
11.7.3 Sediment Loss along Subduction Zones
11.7.4 Summary (Global Sediment Recycling)
11.1 Introduction
Principal Factors Controlling Basin Filling
The filling of sedimentary basins and the architecture
and facies associations of their sediments are gener-
ally controlled by the interaction between several
11.1 Introduction
more or less independent factors (cf. Chaps. 7 and 9),
including:
- Size and denudation characteristics (specific sedi-
ment yield) of land areas delivering terrigenous sedi-
ments.
- Areal extent and geometry of the corresponding
basin receiving sediment.
- Biogenic sediment production in the basin itself.
- Tectonic and total subsidence ofbasin floor as well
as compaction of sediments.
- Distribution of sediments in relation to the hydrau-
lic regime ofthe water-filled basin or, on land, ofthe
river system crossing and feeding the basin with sedi-
ment.
- Relative sea-level or base-level changes and their
frequencies and amplitudes.
U sing these parameters and taking into account their
interrelationships, other, dependent variables may be
derived, such as:
- Grain size distribution and lateral and vertical sedi-
mentary facies successions within the basin, depend-
ent, e.g., on water depth.
- Sedimentation rates at different locations within the
basin (e.g. exponentially declining seaward).
- Occurrence and extent of carbonate buildups, etc.
These and other points have been intensely discussed
recently in numerous articles and some special vol-
umes dealing with computer simulations of sedimen-
tary basins and their application in different fields of
earth science, mainly in the oil industry. A thorough
treatment of this complex topic is beyond the inten-
tion of this book, but it rnay be useful to discuss
briefly some general principles related to basin mod-
eling. After that, some simple basin-filling models
are presented in which variations in terrestrial sedi-
ment supply are emphasized.
General Remarks to Basin-Filling Models
Basin-filling models or "quantitative dynamic stratig-
raphy" (Cross 1990) are a means of generalizing
complex systems and of exploring the effects of
varying parameters (Angevine et al. 1990). Basin-
filling models can be subdivided into two groups:
(1) Geometric models characterize basins which have
a constant surface geometry, for example a fluvial
basin which subsides but is filled with sediments all
the time. In this case, sedimentation rate and subsi-
dence are in balance and rnaintain an equilibrium.
Similarly, a coastal plain and the adjacent foreshore
zone rnay maintain a fixed slope which is restored all
the time, regardless of sea level fluctuations andlor
481
differential subsidence. Such models are relatively
simple to construct. These models are not identical
with the steady-state models introduced below in
which sediment supply is kept constant.
(2) Dynarnic models take into account sediment
transport and the rate of deposition. Both tend to
change laterally, i.e., downstream along rivers, or
from the coastline toward the center of a basin. As a
result, the geometry of the sedimentary surface rnay
undergo significant modification with time. The ba-
sic concept of this approach is founded on the fact
that the factors mentioned above and additional rele-
vant processes can be subdivided into two groups
(Lawrence et al. 1990; cf. also Sect. 7.2):
- Processes controlling the creation and destruction
of space in a basin.
- Processes controlling the introduction and removal
of sediment.
For a given rate of space creation, the volume of sed-
iment introduced into the basin controls how far the
sediments pro grade seaward. If clastic sediment
sources can be neglected, in situ biogenic sediment
production is the principal factor interacting with
space-creating processes (cf. Sect. 7.5). Most of the
factors mentioned above are subjected to changes not
only spatially (landward-seaward) but also during the
evolution of a basin. The characteristics of the source
area on land, the size and geometry of the basin, and
processes within the basin may vary substantially
with time. Such an evolution is referred to as "basin
dynamics".
Forward numerical simulation of carbonate buildups, for
example, is only possible under the assumption that empiri-
cal growth rates at different locations within a basin can be
used (e.g. Aigner et al. 1989). In addition, lateral
prograding of these buildups and their reactions to minor
fluctuations of sea level have to be taken into account.
Various working groups are trying to simulate the evo-
lution of sedimentary basins with the aid of computers
(e.g., Strobel et al. 1989; Cross 1990; Lawrence et al.
1990; Hermanrud 1993; Weite et al. 1997; and others).
This forward modeling is commonly carried out in two di-
mensions along transects and requires both a large data set
and special training.
So far, most of the published computer models have
been devised to produce two-dimensional cross-sections.
Common examples are cross-sections of rift basins and
passive continental margins. These models are normally
based on both theoretical and empirical algorithms for the
creating and filling of accommodation space within the
basin.
The most important objectives ofthe models are sim-
ulations of (1) the stratigraphic architecture including
the influence of relative sea-level changes, (2) the
thermal history of the basin fill, and (3) fluid flow
within the basin including hydrocarbon generation
482
and accumulation (e.g. Hennunrud 1993). It is evi-
dent that such models are becoming increasingly im-
portant in hydrocarbon exploration, i.e. in predicting
the occurrence and distribution of source rocks, res-
ervoirs, and seals in limited areas. With the aid of
simulations, based on a limited number of data and
assumptions, gaps in the existing data set can be par-
tially closed, although there is no guarantee that the
simulation is either correct or unique (e.g. Levell and
Leu 1993). On the other hand, such models also have
a high educational value. They help to better under-
stand the theoretical background of basin evolution
and to find out the influence of certain parameters on
basin filling and its stratigraphical architecture.
The Elementary Approach in This Book
The approach in the following Sections is generally
more elementary than the above mentioned computer
models. It takes into account part of the variables
listed above with emphasis on empirically deter-
mined data and can be done with small pocket calcu-
lators. Whereas most ofthe published computer mod-
els deal, for example, with the dynamic evolution and
stratigraphic architecture of specific regions within a
basin, the generalized models described below are
not "dynamic" in the same sense. They actually rep-
resent entire basin systems, often including the
source area of terrigenous sediments. They may
therefore be regarded as models of denudation-sedi-
ment accumulation systems which differ in some as-
pects of the geometric and dynamic models men-
tioned above. I distinguish between:
- Steady-state systems. The areas of both the
terrigenous sediment source and the receiving basin
as weIl as the rates of denudation (sediment influx)
and subsidence (unifonn over the entire basin) are
kept constant. This type of model is useful for rela-
tively short-period evaluations which are undertaken
to clarify, for example, the relationship between the
mean rates of denudation and sedimentation.
- Dynamic systems. One or several of the basin pa-
rameters vary with time. (a) The rates of denudation
(sediment influx) and subsidence change, while the
areas of both sediment source and basin remain con-
stant throughout the time considered. (b) Either the
basin area or both the basin area and source area and
thus also the sediment influx and sedimentation rate
change with time. These models cover long time peri-
ods and describe various degrees ofbasin filling.
In all cases, only mean rates of denudation, subsi-
dence and sedimentation for the entire drainage and
basin areas are considered (apart from Sect. 11.5).
The effects of sea-level or base-level changes are
neglected here (cf. Chap. 7). The data used in the
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
model calculations are adjusted to those found in
nature for regions of similar characteristics. Several
case studies supplement the results of the models.
Inspite of the various generalizations, this exercise
may serve as an introduction to more sophisticated
basin simulations with the aid of computer programs.
11.2 Denudation-Sediment
Accumulation (DA) Systems
11.2.1 General Concept
The method, evaluating denudation-sediment accu-
mulation systems (in short: DA systems) as an inter-
related unit, is based on the mass balance of
terrigenous sediment eroded in the source area and
accumulated in adjacent closed or semi-closed bas-
ins. In other words, the denudation area on land and
the depositional basin constitute a closed erosion-
depositional system (e.g. Hay et al. 1989; Leeder
1991 and 1997; Einseie and Hinderer 1998). Denu-
dation in the source area, although varying from 10-
cality to locality, can be expressed in terms of masses
of mechanical and chemical denudation, Mme and Mcb
(Fig. l1.1a). It is assumed that no sediment is inter-
mittently stored or reworked along the way from the
source to the basin (delivery ratio = 1). Mme provides
terrigenous material which can be entirely trapped in
the depositional area (trap efficiency· TE=100%,
sedimentologically closed basin). The situation is
different for Mcb ' In hydrologically open systems part
of it (mainly MbJ is used to produce biogenic sedi-
ment, the remainder is lost to neighboring basins or
the open sea. In closed systems part of M cb can fonn
evaporites (Mev)'
The masses of solid and dissolved material can be
converted into specific yields (SY, mass per unit area
and time, e.g. in metric tonsIkm2/a, cf. Sect. 9.2 and
9.3) or rates of denudation, D~e and DR.,b' and rates
of mechanical, biogenic, and evaporitic sedimenta-
tion, S~e' SRbj, SR.v or SR.,b (m3/km2/a or mmIka or
mlMa). All these tenns describe mean values under
the assumption that the masses of mechanical and
chemical denudation and deposition are distributed
evenly over the total drainage and basin areas. In ad-
dition, mean rock densities and sediment densities
have to be known to detennine (linear) denudation
and sedimentation rates (for conversion factors see
Fig. 11.1 b). A method to detennine the volume of
compact (pore-free) sediment from isopach maps is
explained in Section 11.3.6 (Gulf of Califomia).
The principal premise of this approach is that the
mass of terrigenous sediment accumulating in the
basin per time unit is equal to the mass of material
eroded mechanically in the drainage basin. This
premise also applies to open basins with sills at their
outflow or to deep-sea fans of known extent. Then
theofollowing calculations can be carried out:
11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation Systems 483

OPEN: SRme = DR me Ad/A b a Mme + MCh

SR bi + MIOS! = DR ch Ad/A b or DR me + DR ch
TOTAL
CLOSED: SR bi + SR ev = DR ch Ad/A b DRANAGE AREA

TOTAL AREA
OF DEPOSITION
~ I
:

. _____ Ab ,.A
~ ACTUAL BASIN
\ SEDIMENTS
jk-
I

ISOCHRONE (STRATIGR.
SPILL·OVER SEDIMENT VOLUME
BOUNDARY) Fig. 11.1. a Rela-
OF SEDIMENT TO BE DETERMINEO
(TERRIG.AND BIOGENIC) tionship between
mechanical and
chemical denuda-
tion, D~e and
DR~h' in the
dramage area,
Ad,> and sedimen-
Denudation rate DR
(mmlka) b Sediment volume VS (m 3/km2/a)
or sedimentation rate SR"" (mmika)
tatlOn rate, SR, in
the related basin
of the area Ab.
Conversion Conversion Trap efficiency
factor F s factor F s TE= 100 % signi-
Rock Specific Sediment fies that an in-
0.357 density r sediment porosity 1.89 coming sediment
(tim) yield SY n (-) is trapped by the
0,37 (tlkm 2/a) basin. M, mass;
2,8 0.8 1.26
SR me , SR bj ,
2.7 0.7 SRev, mechani-
0,385 0.94 cal, biogenic and
2.6 0.6 evaporitic sedi-
0.4 2.5 0.5 0.73
mentation rate.
See text for fur-
2.4 0.4 ther explanation.
0.417 0,63 b Conversion of
2,3 0.3 mechanical denu-
0.435 2,2 dation rates,
0.2 0.54
D~e' into spe-
(mean grain ciflC sediment
0.455 density 2.65 g/cm') 0.47 yields, SY, as
wen as sediment
volumes or (lin-
Example 1: DR= 2, p= 2.6, n= 0.4 ear) mechanical

rit ~ 5.2 t/km /a ;

sedimentation
SY= ~~ = 2
V s= SY * Fs= 5,2 * 0,63= 3.3 m /km /a
3 2 rates, S~e' of
wet sediment of
Example 2: V s= 25, n= 0.6, p= 2.4 different porosi-
ties
SY= ~ = 12- ~ 27 tJkm2/a ; DR= SY * F o= 27 * 4,17 * 10. = 1.1
2 cmlka
Fs 0.94
484
- For TE=100%, the mean sedimentation rate, S~e'
of terrigenous sediment in the basin is a function of
D~e and proportional to the ratio of the drainage
area and the basin area, AiAb:
(11.1 )
This simple equation is only valid if the bulk densi-
ties of both the eroded rocks and the accumulated
sediments (compacted solid material) are equal. To
find the actual sedimentation rate of porous sediment
the conversion factors listed in Fig. 11.1 b have to be
used.
- Vice versa, the mean mechanical denudation rate in
the source area is
(l1.2a)
D~e may be used as a proxy for the reconstruction
of the topography (relief) and climate of a paleo-
drainage area.
This concept can be used for systems where the sizes of
both the source area and the basin area are known, as for
modem and geologically young denudation-accumulation
systems. In some cases, the source area of sediment (e.g. a
mountain range) is not identical with the drainage area of
the basin which rnay include alluvial plains without any net
erosion or deposition (Fig. ll.la). Similarly, the area of
actual deposition may be larger than a water-filled basin
when additional sediment accumulates on an alluvial plain.
Prograding deltas, particularly in lakes at the foot of moun-
tains, may absorb the majority of incoming sediment and
change the Ar/Ab ratio with time (cf. Section 11.5.2). If
delta prograding cannot be ascertained directly, the mean
sedimentation rate of a basin must be determined from the
(measured or estimated) sediment yield of the entering
rivers and the sedimentation rate in the basin center. Wind-
blown material, as far as it leaves or enters the study area,
is neglected in this method. In most cases the contribution
of eolian sediment to the total sediment budget of various
basins is of minor importance.
A mass balance of terrigenous sediments deposited in
sedimentologically closed water-filled basins may
also aid in evaluating the size of a former source
area. According to equation 11.2 the paleo-drainage
area IS
(11.2b)
To apply this equation, an estimate for D~e is neces-
sary.
The dissolved river load provides elements for
biota producing biogenic sediment and matter for the
precipitation of evaporites in the corresponding ba-
sin. For hydrologically open systems the loss of dis-
solved material, Mlo,t from the basin fill to its under-
ground or to other regions can be calculated ..
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
(11.3)
For this purpose, the masses of mechanical and
biogenic sediments, M",e, M bi, accumulated in a
closed or semi-c1osed basin during a certain time pe-
riod must be known. In addition, the ratio D~/DR:h
(= weathering ratio) in the drainage area has to be
measured. Influx from or exchange of dissolved spe-
cies with an adjacent water body via an outlet is ex-
cluded in this case. Under these conditions equation
11.3 is useful in studies of evaporites which may
have been partially dissolved after deposition (cf.
Sect. 11.4). If there is an exchange of dissolved mat-
ter with a neighboring water body, as for example
known from marine lagoons, mass balances for
biogenic sediments and evaporites based on chemical
denudation in the drainage area of the basin become
problematic.
11.2.2 Simple Steady-State Models,
Clastic Sediments
First, some simple models may demonstrate the influ-
ence of both size and specific sediment yield of vari-
ous drainage areas on the filling of their correspond-
ing sedimentary basins. The models in Fig. 11.2 are
based on the following assumptions:
- The sizes of the drainage and basin areas are con-
stant (similar to the geometrie basin-filling model,
Seet. 11.1).
- The initial elevation of the basin floor eorresponds
with the sea level whieh is held eonstant.
- The sediments are distributed evenly over the entire
basin.
- The subsidenee rate of all model basins has a me-
dium value (50 mlMa; cf. Chap. 8) and is constant
over the entire basin floor through time.
- The time period eonsidered for denudation and
sediment accumulation is 10 Ma.
Over-Supplied Basins
If the drainage area, A d, on land is large compared
with the area ofthe basin, Ab' for example AiAb=10,
the basin tends to be over-supplied with sediment
and remains filled at all times, unless basin subsi-
dence is very rapid. In Fig. 11.2a and d, over-supply
is true for denudation rates >5 mlMa, beeause sub si-
dence is assumed to oceur at a rate of 50 mlMa. In
these cases, the basin fills eonsist entirely of eonti-
nental deposits, mostly fluvial sediments. Surplus
river load not used for basin filling is transported
downstream into other depositional areas. This is a
eommon situation in many graben-like structures on
the continents.
11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation Systems 485

HIGH RATE OF
MECHANICAL DENUDATION
(100 m/Ma)

+0.
c

POTENTIAL.:
SEDIMENT
ACCUMULATION
IN 10 Ma: 10 km CLASTIC
..... SEA LEVEL BIOGENIC
MARINE
100 m SEDIMENTS
SUBSIDENCE 50 m/Ma

LOW RATE OF
MECHANICAL DENUDATION
(10 m/Ma)

POTENTIAL
SEDIMENT
ACCUMULATION
IN 10 Ma:
1.000 m 100 m CLASTICS {.' .................. SEA LE VEL
+ 100 m BIOGENIC SUBSIDENCE 50 m/Ma
COMPONENTS
10m CLASTICS + 100 m BIOGENIC COMPONENTS

Fig. 11.2. Simple scheme demonstrating the
relationship between mean mechanical denudation
rates, ratio Aq/Ab of denudation area, Ad, and basin
area, Ab' and subsidence rate. All rates are kept
constant and the time period for basin evolution is 10
Ma for the different scenarios. The initial basin floor
corresponds to sea level. a High to medium AiAb
(= 10 or 1) values and high to moderate denudation
rates (a,b,d) cause rapid basin filling with fluvial
deposits up to an elevation at which most sediment is
carried away into other regions. With AiAb=O.1 (e,f)
and 1 (e), terrigenous clastics cannot fully
compensate for subsidence: deepening basins. For
Ad/ Ab =0.1 and low terrigenous supply (f),
autochthonous biogenic sediment accumulation (at a
rate of about 10 mlMa) predominates over very low
clastic sedimentation rate. See text for further
explanation

Exceptions from this rule are grabens or rift zones in a small drainage area with slow denudation. In this case, the
stage of initial rapid subsidence (on the order of 200 m1Ma, graben may be partially filled with lake or seawater (for
see Chap. 8.3) which, in addition, have a comparatively example in the East African rift zone, Sect. 11.3.2), or the
486
a RAPID FILLING
OF LAKE
STRONG INFLUENCE
OF LATERAL SEDIMENT
INFLUX
LlMITED INFLUECE OF LOW-RELIEF
OR SM ALL SEDIMENT SOURCE
Fig. 11.3. a Qualitative model showing the influence
of size and relief of denudation area on sediment fill
of neighboring basins. b Holocene sediment distribu-
tion in the Yellow Sea controlled by suspended load
sediment surface may subside below sea level (Jordan
graben with Dead Sea, Sect. 11.3.6; Death Valley in Cali-
fornia).
The modern Yellow Sea between mainland China and
the Korean peninsula (Fig. 11.3b) is an example of an
epicontinental shelf sea oversupplied with terrigenous ma-
terial from major rivers, especially the Huanghe and the
Changjiang (Yangtze, cf. Sect. 9.3). Since post-glacial sea-
level rise had established approximately the present basin
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
MEDIUM SEDIMENT
INFLUX SY RIVER
MC"
LOW -RELIEF ISLAND
RIVER-DERIVEO CLAS TI CS
(MOSTLY FINE-GRAINED)
of the rivers Huanghe and Changjiang; grain size
classification after Folk 1954. (After Lee and
Chough 1989, sand ridge field after Liu Zhenxia et
al. 1989)
configuration about 7000 years ago, the Yellow Sea was
dominated by silicic1astic mud deposition (mainly silty
c1ays and c1ayey silts with minor proportions of sand and
carbonate (Lee and Chough 1989; Alexander et al. 1991).
In the northern portion (Gulf of Bohai), where the influ-
ence of the modern Huanghe River is greatest, the Holo-
cene sedimentation rate attains 30 mika (solid dry mate-
rial); in the central portion of the Yellow Sea, the sedimen-
tation rate is still around 3 mika, and in the south it is 0.5
11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation Systems
to 1 mika. The highest rates were found in prodelta areas
characterized by very gently inc1ined foresets and proximal
bottomsets. All these rates appear to be in good agreement
with the amount of suspended load which the rivers dis-
charge into the sea (Yellow River on the order of 1 x 10 9
tla). Under steady-state conditions, but with a rate of subsi-
dence lower than the mean sedimentation rate, the Yellow
Sea will become filled up with sediments in a very short
geological time period. The effects of land use in the huge
loess region of northem central China are not considered
here.
Basins with Moderate to Low Sediment Supply
Given a ratio of AiAb ~ 1, the denudation rate on
land predominantly controls whether or not the basin
will be filled with continental or aquatic sediments.
High and medium denudation rates (Fig. 11.2b) still
deliver more sediment volume than required for basin
filling due to moderate subsidence (50 m1Ma). A low
denudation rate (Fig. 11.2e) only leads to insufficient
sediment supply and thus to a deepening basin with
lake or marine sediments. In this case, half of the
sediment may be autochthonous, provided the
biogenie sediment production reaches a medium
value of 10 mlMa,
With decreasing Ad/Ab (= 0.1 in Fig. 11.2c and f),
even a high rate of denudation is not able to fill the
basin and compensate for subsidence. To get equilib-
rium between subsidence and sediment buildup (50
mlMa) a denudation rate of 500 mlMa is necessary in
this case. Under the assumptions of (c) only one half
of the resulting marine sediment is terrigenous which
is typical of hemipelagic sediments in the modern
oceans. AdlAb=0.1 in combination with low denuda-
tion eventually leads to predominantly bio genie ma-
rine sediments containing only a small fraction of
land-derived material. This model approximates the
conditions of pelagic sedimentation in large ocean
basins some distance away from a continent (see be-
low).
Influence of Several Sediment Sources
The influence of various terrigenous sediment
sources on basin fills is shown qualitatively in Fig.
II.3a. Rivers flowing through lakes before they
reach the sea deposit their bed load and suspended
load in the lake and therefore carry little material into
the sea. A high-relief mountain range bordering the
sea may exert a strong influence in terms of sedimen-
tation rate, texture, and composition on the filling of
a neighboring basin, even if a medium to major river
from a large hinterland enters the same basin. Low-
relief peninsulas and islands of limited extension
commonly shed small amounts of clastic material
into the sea compared with major rivers draining
487
large areas of differing relief and climate. For this
reason, the existence of islands in large, ancient
ocean basins is often difficult to assess from the ba-
sin fill, unless the island differs significantly in its
petrographie characteristics from the other, volumet-
rically predominating sediment sourees.
Sediment budgets of some closed and half-closed
basins are described below, those of accretionary
wedges are discussed in Section 12.5.
Transition to Dynamic Models
If at least one of the factors controlling basin filling
changes during basin evolution, the steady-state sys-
tem defined above is transformed into adynamie sys-
tem. This occurs, for example when the relief in the
drainage area is enhanced with time by tectonic up-
lift. This will lead to strongly increased input of
terrigenous material (cf. Sect. 9.3) and thus to a
shallowing and ultimately fluvial depositional envi-
ronment (e.g. for AiAb=l; Fig. 11.2e). Simulta-
neously, the proportion of terrigenous material will
increase at the expense of bio genie components (as,
e.g., on the Texas-Louisiana shelf, cf. Fig. 11.32a-c).
On the contrary, a lowering of relief in the denuda-
tion area diminishes the ratio of terrigenous and
bio genie sediment components and causes basin
deepening, provided the subsidence rate remains con-
stant.
11.2.3 Modern Examples of Steady-State
DA Systems
Considering short time periods of some thousand
years (e.g. in the Holocene) changes in the character-
istics of the drainage area (size, relief, climate, etc.)
and basin area (size, subsidence, etc.) can be largely
neglected. Such systems are here referred to as
"steady-state" systems in which sediment yield from
land areas and the mean sedimentation rate of terres-
trial material do not significantly change with time.
Under favorable conditions (e.g. limited erosion and
slow basin floor subsidence) steady-state conditions
mayaiso be assumed for some millions of years. Ex-
amples of quasi-steady-state systems are young lake
basins and some larger basins located either on conti-
nental ernst or adjacent to great ocean basins.
Open Lake Systems
Lake basins originate from different processes (Sect.
2.5). Many of them are small and display negligible
subsidence of their basin floor in relation to the sur-
rounding land areas and compared with the high sedi-
mentation rates in the lakes (often > 1 mmJa). Such
488 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

./
L.Balaton
o 50 100 km
' - Lakes
studied here

Sem i~
arid
__
1
L ______ 1_
Humid
- - - - - -
b
1 Northem I Central Alps
Calcareous 1

Alps 400 1'0

..><:
1
3000m 1 ____ • ____ • __ __ _,.__ ._. _
E
300 E
T -
Lake
200 201'0
E
E

10

o
--- ---

Fig. 11.4. a Locations of some glacier-shaped lakes mentation, S~e and SRbi , in the lakes shown in (a).
of the Alps (L. Balaton originates from rifting). The lakes are grouped according to their drainage
b Rates of mechanical and chemical denudation, areas which are either in the central Alps (mainly
D~e and DReh' or mechanical and biogenic sedi- crystalline rocks) or northem Calcareous Alps

lakes are therefore rapidly filled up with sediment In
tectonically highly active zones (e.g. rift zones) with
subsidence rates of 0.1-1 mmJa, however, lakes can
pers ist for long time periods (Meybeck 1995).
Perialpine lakes. Glacier-shaped and still existing
lakes at the foot of high mountain ranges (perialpine
lakes) belong to the short-lived type of lake basins.
They commonly are hydrologically open, but they
trap almost entirely the incoming solid river load.
Their water levels remain ± constant, but their size is
slowly reduced by prograding deltas. Some examples
of such lake basins have been studied in Austria,
Germany, and Switzerland (Fig. 11.4). The results of
this investigation are summarized in Figure il.4b;
average values for alllakes studied are plotted in Fig.
11.21a.
In all these cases, sedimentation rates for central parts of
the lakes are available (Einseie and Hinderer 1997). Delta
prograding, often dominating the lake filling, was esti-
mated only for Lake Atter and Lake Zürich. For the other
lake'S, mechanical denudation rates were calculated from
11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation Systems
the river loads (bedloads and suspended loads). To deter-
mine the rates of chemical denudation and (biogenic) sedi-
mentation, DR.:h and SReh , the dissolved river load entering
and leaving the lakes as well as biogenic carbonate and
silica production in the lakes were considered. Detrital car-
bonate derived from the drainage areas was added to the
mechanical sedimentation rate.
Lake systems with drainage areas dominated by crystal-
line rocks of the Central Alps (group I) show higher DR me
and S~ but lower DReh and SReh values than lakes with
drainage areas in the Northem Ca\careous Alps (group 2).
The DR,.jDR.:h ratio is 2 to 6 for group I and <I for group
2 lakes. Biogenic carbonate (and also biogenie silica) only
playa minor role in lake filling (10-30% in the centrallake
sediments; much less in delta sediments). Of the chemical
river load, 82-92% passes the lakes. Lake Balaton, a rift-
type lake in Hungary (with low DR'otal and DRrne almost
negligible), is an example for the effects of low relief and
warmer, drier c1imate.
The present-day sediment storage capacity of these
perialpine lakes is limited. Using the data of Fig.
11.4b, the lifetimes of the lakes can be estimated.
They mainly range from ~ 15 to 40 ka.
Mass balances are also available for some glacier-
shaped lakes in British Columbia. The wide range in
their mean sedimentation rates (1-40 mmla) rnainly
results from differences in their ratios of drain-
agelbasin area, but variations in relief and climate
also play a role. The impact of the Ad/ Ab ratio is
shown for two examples, the Lillooet Lake and the
Stave Lake, British Columbia, both of which lie in
the humid zone close the Pacific coast.
About 13% of the Lillooet drainage area are covered by
glaciers (SY=560 t/km 2/a or 225 rnrnIka); the lake (ratio
AjAb:::: 180) is mainly filled by rapid delta prograding
(Owens and Slaymaker 1993; Desloges and Gilbert 1994).
Thus the mean sedimentation rate (dry, related to a con-
stant lake area) is 40 rnrnIa. In reality, the sedimentation
rate in the lake center is only 1.6-3 rnrnIa.
The larger Stave lake (Aj Ab:::: 15) receives less sedi-
ment (200 tlkm 2/a) from a smaller drainage area and there-
fore displays a mean sedimentation rate of 1.2 mrnIa which
is much lower than that of the Lillooet lake.
Adjacent Semi-Closed Basins: The Black Sea
The modem Black Sea (cf. Sects. 4.3 and 9.6) repre-
sents an adjacent (backarc) basin with an opening to
the Mediterranean Sea. It is a gigantic catch basin for
the river discharge of half of Europe and part of Asia
(Fig. 11.5). Degens et al. (1978) have calculated de-
nudation rates from river loads and compared these
values with observed sedimentation rates in the
Black Sea.
The total drainage of the Black Sea comprises an area of
1.98 x 10 6 km2 ; the basin area is 0.45 x 106 km2 and
AjAb=4.4. The shallow and narrow outlet ofthe Bosporus,
connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean, allows
489
all the incoming river sediments to be trapped by the Black
Sea.
The total suspended and dissolved river load transported
into the Elack Sea amounts to 237 x 10 6 tla. The suspended
load is slightly greater than the dissolved load. The Danube
River delivers about 60% of the total river load. The Don
and Kuban rivers discharge into the Sea of Asov, where
most of their material is deposited. The Caucasian rivers
from the east contribute about 20% of the total detritus.
As determined from their chemical and solid loads, the
present-day denudation rates in the principal source areas
vary from approxirnately 10 rnrnIka (drainage area of the
Dnepr River) to 80 rnrnIka (Danube River; average rock
density 2.5 t/m 3). The average denudation rate for the total
drainage system is 50 mmlka or 120 t/km 2/a); if it is only
20 rnrnIka for the lowlands, it increases to 120 mmlka in
the mountainous regions (about 30% ofthe total area).
The estimation of the sediment volume in the Black Sea
is based on data available for the deep part of the basin
(Fig. 11.5) comprising ab out two thirds of the total basinal
area. In the past 5000 years, the sedimentation rate of un-
compacted sediment (70% porosity), including coccolith
ooze, sapropel, and intercalated turbidites, was approxi-
mately 1000 mmlka (cf. Sect. 4.3) or about 300 mmIka for
compacted, solid material. Normalized on the drainage area
(Ad=4.4xA b), this value yields an average total denudation
rate of about 70 mmlka.
The somewhat revised results of this study are shown
in Fig. 11.5 (also cf. Fig. 9.19). The average denuda-
tion rates of 80 and 70 mmlka, determined independ-
ently by applying river load data and sedimentation
rates, respectively, agree fairly well. Most of the dis-
solved river load is probably used up by organisms
and deposited in the basin as biogenic carbonate and
opaline silica. There is, however, also some exchange
of dissolved material via the narrow passage of the
Bosporus, but present-day water outflow from the
Black Sea is greater than inflow (Sect. 4.3).
The denudation rates obtained in this study are characteris-
tic of the steppe vegetation present in large parts of the
drainage area. During times of more extensive forest
growth, denudation was probably reduced by more than
half. During such times, sapropels were preferentially de-
posited in the Black Sea basin. Similarly, in the course of
Pleistocene glacial melting and loess mobilization in the
hinterland, denudation and sedimentation rates increased
considerably and may have reached values of up to about
five times greater than those found for the Holocene.
Longer-term Quaternary sedimentation rates in the
Black Sea were somewhat higher (up to about 1500
mmlka) than in the Holocene. The Quaternary sedi-
ments reached thicknesses up to 2.5 km in the west-
ern and 3 km in the eastern subbasin. For the entire
Tertiary, the average sedimentation rates were lower
than in the Holocene (in the order of 200 mrnIka,
leading to a Tertiary sediment of 11 to 12 km in
thickness; Okay et al. 1994; Robinson et al. 1996).
The basin floor must have subsided at a rate of at
least 200 mrnIka in the Neogene. Thus, the long-term
490
POLAND
100 km
Fig. 11.5. Drainage area of the Black Sea and loca-
tion of sediment cores and DSDP drilling sites (379
to 381) in the deep basin. Shaded areas signify high
evolution of the Black Sea and its hinterland must be
viewed as a dynarnic system which can be main-
tained for tens of millions of years (Sect. 11.3).
Modern Closed Lakes and Larger Basins
These basins are both hydrologically and
sedimentologically cJosed. Their water level reacts
sensitively to cJimate change and, as a result, their
basin areas may vary with time . The latter phenome-
non is particularly pronounced in cases where the
basin is shallow and has a gently sloping, wide mar-
gin.
Some general points concerning the evolution of a
lake from an open to a cJosed lake system, due to
increasing aridity, are depicted in Fig. 11.6a. The
hydrological cJosure of the basin may be delayed by
downcutting of the river at the lake outlet which al-
lows the lake to shrink (from stage I to 2). With the
onset of cJosed conditions, the lake level may fall
from stage 2 to 3, but then rise again to stage 4 with-
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
RUSSIA
mountain ranges. (Modified after Degens et al.
1978). See text for further explanation
out any further change in the water budget of the
lake. The reason for this behavior is the aggradation
of sediment on the lake floor. In addition, minor
short-term (e.g. over decades ofyears) fluctuations in
lake level occur wh ich are not considered here.
The changing lake area is reflected by the varying
extents of the sediment layers of stages I to 4. This
signifies that the ratio AiAb and thus the relationship
between the denudation rate and sedimentation rate,
DR/SR, as discussed above, also changes with the
lake level. A further complication may be introduced
by the presence of topographic sills which, after
emergence, separate the basin into subbasins of
smaller drainage areas (as indicated in Fig. 11.6a), or
the boundaries of the drainage area may shift, for
example by river capture. For these reasons, the cal-
culation of denudation rates or sediment yields from
the accumulated sediment mass in the lake, or vi ce
versa, becomes more difficult than for open lake sys-
tems.
11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation Systems 491

Evolution of
:. ------- - Ad1
a
------
. closed open systems

,,'
.. - - - - - - - Ad2,3.4 systems
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - ~- - - - - - - - - - - -
\
1- - -1----
,,- 'N'~: ~rainage --------- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~2~~; ~~ ~ - - - ~ ~ ~ ~2~ ~ ~ ~ --

- system

115" 11 4' 11 3' 11 2" 111'

b N 0, "
, 50
, 100
, km

42"
t

--
1. VVendover core site l.Ul Maximum extent of
Lake Bonneville
2. Knolls core site
3. Bunnester core si te Exisling lake or playa
4. Saltair core sile
5. S28 core sile
Sill

Fig. 11.6. a General scheme displaying various prob-
lems in the assessment of hydrological budgets and
sediment mass balances for transient lake systems
with chan ging lake level. See text for explanation.
bLake Bonneville and Great Salt Lake basin (after
Spencer et al. 1985; Williams 1994, modified). Note
that both the size of the drainage area and the extent
of lake sediments changed with time. (Lake Sevier is
located south of the map shown here)

The Great Salt Lake and Lake Bonneville (Fig. 11.6b). The average sedimentation rate of this
lake was about 120 mmlka during the past 0.8 Ma;
A well-known example of this type of basin is the the mean denudation rate in its drainage area
Great Salt Lake or former Lake Bonneville in Utah amounted to about 40 rnmIka.
492
Lake Bonneville covered a much larger area (51 300 km 2;
drainage area 95 000 km 2 ) in the pluvial stages ofthe Pleis-
tocene than the present Great Salt Lake (4360 km 2, drain-
age area 21 000 km 2, Fig. 11.6b). During its last highstand
at about 15 ka B.P., the lake level stood -300 m higher and
the lake area was apptoximately 12 times larger than at
present (e.g. Benson et al. 1990). Somewhat later, the out-
let to the Snake River cut a 100 m deep valley into young
sediments at the northern lake margin and caused an ex-
treme flood (Jarrett and Malde 1987). Then the lake level
fell below this datum leading to a closed lake system.
When the lake level had fallen below the sills now separat-
ing the Great Salt Lake basin from the Utah Lake and
Sevier Lake basins, the drainage area of the Great Salt Lake
was reduced to its present size. Aseries ofboreholes (up to
about 300 m in depth) and radiometrie dating of trephra
layers have revealed that the Lake Bonneville basin. per-
sisted at least for about 3.3 Ma (Williarns 1994). The sedi-
mentation rates in central bore locations were 120 to 230
mrnIka.
The mean denudation rate is estimated in the following
way. The sediment accumulated at a mean rate of 120
mmlka during the past 0.8 Ma (the time period documented
best in 5 cores). Half of the lake area (25 000 km 2) during
its highstand was covered with sediment deposited at this
rate. Then the mean denudation rate in the drainage area of
-70 000 km 2 (the total Lake Bonneville drainage area mi-
nus the area of sediment accumulation) is 43 mmlka, corre-
sponding to a specific sediment yield of about 110 tlkm 2/ a
(mean rock density 2.5 glcm 3 ). With AjAb=4.9 ofthe pres-
ent Great Salt Lake basin and the long-term denudation
rate of the entire dr!linage area, the mean clastic sedimenta-
tion rate in the Great Salt lake should be 210 mrnIka. The
measured mean sedimentation rate (max. value) in the lake
basin during the Quaternary was about 170 mrnIka (Oviatt
et al. 1994).
In the larger area of the Great Basin of N orth America,
the mean denudation rate was about 60 mmlka during the
past 100 to 1000 ka (Leeder 1997). It varied ftom lower
values during the humid periods to higher values during
the semiarid intervals such as in the Holocene.
The Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, and Chad Basin
At present, the Chad basin in N Africa, the Caspian
Sea, and the Aral Sea in Eurasia represent closed
basins. They occupy the centers of large topographic
depressions with desert climates and dune fields.
Therefore eolian dust plays some part in the sediment
fills of these basins (Khrustalyov and Artiukhin
1992). Lake Chad lies above sea level, the water
level of the Capsian Sea is about -25 m and that of
the Aral Sea +50 m. In wetter periods during the
Pleistocene, the Chad Lake was larger than today and
had an outflow to the Niger River; the Aral Sea
reached an elevation allowing overflow to the Cas-
pian Sea and the Caspian Sea in turn had an outlet to
the Black Sea (Letolle and Mainguet 1996). The
present-day water budget of the two Eurasian basins
is strongly disturbed by artificial dams and irrigation
measures along the rivers feeding the basins.
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
Chad basin. This basin in the central part of North
Africa, described in detail by Gac (1980), is a com-
pletely closed basin with an internal drainage system
(Fig. 11.7a).
The total drainage area of the lake comprises an area of
approximately 2 x 10 6 km2 , while the area ofthe lake itself
varies in response to dry and wet years around an average
area of 2.1 x 10 4 km2 (hence Ad/Ab=95). Evaporation from
the lake is 2150 mmla. About 6 ka ago, when the climate in
North Africa was more humid, the lake was open with an
outflow to the southwest. Today, the major part of the
drainage area is hot and arid (Sahara Desert). Most of the
dissolved and detrital river load comes from subtropical
highlands to the southeast comprising about 30% of the
drainage area. Their sediment yield is so high that an aver-
age of 10.5 tlkm 2la for the total drainage area is reached.
Mean chemical denudation amounts to 3.6 tIkm 2/ a. These
low rates result from both low relief and dry climate in
large parts of the drainage area as weil as from thick, exten-
sive soil cover on top of crystalline parent rocks.
If both mechanical and chemical river loads were
evenly spread over the present-day lake area, asolid
sediment 1ayer of about 550 rnmJka would result. The
actual thickness of wet Ho10cene sediments (4-6 m in
10 ka), consisting of terrigenous silty clay, carbonate
and biogenic silica, yields an average (uncompacted)
sedimentation rate of about 500 mmlka (compacted
200 mmIka). The modem mechanical and chemical
denudation rates, derived from the river loads, are
DR",e=4 mmlka and DRch=1.5 rnmJka. The longer-
term mean mechanical denudation rate calculated
from the Holocene sediment volume of the lake is 2
mm!ka. The observed lower sedimentation rate in the
lake rnay reflect the larger extent ofthe lake 6 ka aga
and sediment storage along the low-gradient parts of
the river courses.
Aral Sea. This present-day lake basin (Fig. 11. 7b)
rests on old continental basement. Facies and limited
thickness (-2 km) of Mesozoic and younger sedi-
ments indicate long-term slow subsidence and sedi-
ment accumulation in the order of 20 rnmJka. Quater-
nary fluvial and deltaic deposits of the lake reach
thicknesses of 20-140 m (Letolle and Mainguet
1996), corresponding to mean sedimentation rates of
at least 10-70 mmlka.
The modern sedimentation rate is much higher (about 1500
to 2000 mmlka for a sediment density of 1.5 glcm 3). This
value comes from a rnass balance of the river and air-borne
loads (Khrustalyo'v and Artiukhin 1992) and matches dated
sediments in the lake center, containing some carbonates
and evaporites (mirabilite).
The high modern sedimentation rate demonstrates a situ-
ation in which the lake basin is overfed with sediment. This
may result from the continued reduction in lake area with
time. Because the present-day rapid sediment accumulation
cannot be compensated for by subsidence, the entire water
body in the closed basin will be slowly raised in the future
11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation Systems 493

... a
3003
HOGGAR

'\
.:. ~
..
3 41 5

a h a r

10·
NILE
BASIN
")
-",

." '"
10·

Fig. 11.7. a Closed

internal drainage basin
of Lake Chad, eentral
N orth Afriea. The lake
is fed primarily by
rivers from the subtrop-
ieal mountainous re-
gion in the southeast,
while the Sahara desert
in the north eontributes
hardly any water.
(Modified after Gae
1980). b Caspian Sea
and Aral Sea with
mean sediment yields
of their drainage areas
(for spaee reasons indi-
eated only for Caspian
Sea). Note the presenee
of oeeanie erust below
the southern Caspian
Sea
494
(cf. Fig. 11.7a). The future existence of the Aral Sea de-
pends on its water budget which is presently substantially
affected by water subtraction for irrigation. If inflow will
again exceed evaporation from the lake, then the lake will
deepen, extend and finally overflow. Simultaneously, the
sedimentation rate will decrease.
Caspian Sea. This is the world's largest closed lake
basin (Fig. 11. 7b). Its northem part is underlain by 2
km of Mesozoie and Tertiary sediments, resting on
continental ernst. This situation points to a slow
mean subsidence rate similar to that mentioned for
the Aral Sea. The shallow water depth (10 to 15 m)
indicates that sediment influx from the large northem
drainage area, eolian dust input, and autochthonous
sediment production keep the basin more or less
filled. The potential modem sedimentation rate is
higher than necessary to maintain this steady-state
condition. Surplus of sediment derived from the
north can be transported south by wave and current
action.
The middle part of the Caspian Sea is underlain by
intermediate crnst and a sedimentary sequence of
about 10 km in thickness. The present water depth in
the basin center (about 300 m) demonstrates that sed-
iment influx from northem and nearby sources has
not completely filled this portion of the basin.
Based on the present-day river loads or sediment yields of
the various drainage systems (F ig. 11. 7b), the total sedi-
ment influx into the entire Caspian Sea is estimated to be
-500 x 10 6 tJa (summary in Einseie and Hinderer 1997).
Transformed into wet sediment (mean porosity of 0.4, con-
version factor 0.63, Fig. 11.1b) this mass would yield 315
x 106 m3/a. Neglecting subsidence, a time period of -250
000 years would be necessary to replace the water volume
of 78.2 x 10 12 m3 of the modern Caspian Sea by wet porous
sediment. However, this is an unrealistic prediction be-
cause we are dealing with a dynamic system with basin
floor subsidence, particularly so in the southern part of the
basin.
The southern Caspian Sea (Fig. 11.7b) still under-
goes convergence in relation to Eurasia (~7 mmla)
and is further characterized by a large negative free
air gravity anomaly implying continuous subsidence
(Zonenshain et al. 1990). Tectonic activity in this
backarc basin reached its peak in the Upper Pliocene
and Quatemary. This is inferred from the thick sedi-
mentary sequences in the center of the southem
Caspain Sea (up to 6000 m Pliocene and 1200 to
1500 m Quatemary sediments) as weIl as from in-
tense folding (Narimanov 1993). This part of the ba-
sin was and probably still is subsiding at a rate on the
order of 1000 mmlka or even more. For a short time
period, we mayaiso treat this basin as a steady-state
DA system.
The result of a crnde estimation of the overall rela-
tionship between mean denudation and sedimentation
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
in the southem Caspian Sea area is plotted in Fig.
9.16. The data on terrestrial sediment influx confirm
the high sedimentation rates observed in the basin.
Modern sediment influx from the surrounding mountain
ranges enables a sedimentation rate of the same order
(-1000 nun/ka, er. Sect. 9.7) as subsidence, but the consid-
erable water depth of the southern Caspian Sea (average
330 m, maximum about 1000 m) implies that modern sedi-
ment aeeumulation lags behind subsidence. In fact, the
basin appears to have been shallower during most of the
Oligoeene to Plioeene time period.
11.3 Dynamic Denudation-Accumulation
(DA) Systems
11.3.1 Rebound by Unloading and Sediment
Load-Driven Subsidence
Long-term denudation-accumulation (DA) systems,
persisting over time periods of millions to tens of
million years, have to be viewed as dynarnic systems,
even when active tectonic motions have ceased. Then
the processes of isostasy are still generating both
rock uplift in the source area (cf. Sect. 9.6) providing
terrestrial sediment and sediment-load driven subsi-
dence of the basin floor (cf. Chap. 8). A simple two-
dimensional model of this relationship is shown in
Fig. 11.8.
It is assumed that at the begin ofthe development the sedi-
ment souree had been raised by tectonic forees to an eleva-
tion of I km above sea level and had reaehed isostatie equi-
librium. The floor of a dry basin (on stretehed eontinental
ernst), twiee as large as the source area, initially lay I km
below sea level, but was further lowered by 0.4 km after
filling the basin with water (Fig. 11.8a). The areas of both
sediment souree and basin remain eonstant throughout the
time eonsidered.
After a eertain time interval, depending on the denuda-
tion rate, the land surface has been lowered by .:1H=OA km
(Fig. 11.8b). To aeeomplish this lowering, a rock column
of Dj =5 x .:1H=2 km in thiekness had to be eroded to com-
pensate for isostatic rebound (Sects. 8.1 and 9.6, Airy isos-
tasy). The eroded material could form a sediment layer of
hs'= I km in thickness in the basin if it had a bulk density of
p's=2.5 g/cm3 (as assumed for the eroded rocks). In reality,
the mean density of a I km thiek sedimentary column
(mostly fine grained) is lower (about Ps=1.6 g/em3) and the
sediment thiekness i, therefore greater. Autoehthonous sed-
iment production within the basin is negleeted. As a result
of isostatic adjustment to the sediment load, the basin floor
subsides by 0.64 km (Fig. 11.8b).
Ongoing denudation (now at a decreasing rate) has to
remove another 2 km of rocks in order to further lower the
land surface by 0.4 km (Fig. 11.8c). The total thickness of
compacted sediment hs' (p's=2.5 g/cm 3) in the basin in-
creases to 2 km and will amount to h s=2.85 km (mean sedi-
ment density now Ps=1.75 g/cm 3). Although the basin floor
subsides by another 0.64 km, a small amount of the porous
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems 495

SOURCE AREA, A d a
"-, H,r~, ~ \-/\-7"- BASIN AREA, Ab = 2 Ad
~lri=1~;: "-~
~,~ PR = 2.5 ;; SEA LEVEL WATER EXCHANGE
_ .. . ..i.l. "'" \, ._. _~~_ -"'-----------------~
";" \'7,'-Y\ ;-; TRANSPORT
AFTER TECTONIC ZONE i 1.0 TECTONIC
UPLIFT I SUBSIDENCE
---* ~Ö~4-SY -\~\iÄTER-LäÄö-----
STRETCHED CONT. CRUST

Fig. 11.8. Model of a dynamic

denudation-sediment accumula-
AFTER ISOSTATIC tion system initiated by tectonic
ADJUSTMENT forces, but maintained for a
D, = 5'~H, = 2 long time by isostatic adjust-
ment to erosional unloading
and sediment deposition. a Ini-
tial stage: elevation of land sur-
···.... _--_._ ...
.............. - .. ..

c face I km above sea level,

depth of basin floor (air-filled)
I km below sea level. b,c Two
stages of ongoing denudation
and deposition. Continued iso-
static rebound of the land area
(not shown) substantially decel-
erates surface lowering but
SUB = h • Ps-Pw leads to high production of
s P m - Pw terrigenous sediment. The basin
Ps' = 2.50 sediments are displayed in a
Pm = 3.33 compacted (rock density) and
Pw = 1 .00 P in g/cm 3
decompacted state. For further
BEFORE AFTER
explanation see text
Other numbers in km ISOSTATIC ADJUSTMENT

sediment cannot be accommodated in the basin but will be 11.3.2 Variations in Subsidence and
transported elsewhere. Sediment Supply

This elementary exercise demonstrates that rock up-
lift and basin evolution cannot begin without some
tectonic event, but after that the evolution of the DA
system may be controlled solely by denudation, sedi-
ment accumulation and isostasy. Moderate surface
lowering of a relatively small source area is associ-
ated with the erosion of a large volume of sediment
which can fill a basin larger than the source area with
a thick sedimentary sequence. Rock uplift and basin
floor subsidence are maintained for a long time at
decreasing rates. The areas of the sediment source
and basin have not changed through time in this
model scenario. The assumptions of this model are
modified in the following.
The models in Figure 11.9 are still very simple and
therefore barely realistic. The rates of subsidence and
sedimentation are assumed to be equal over the entire
basin area. This is represented either by the basin
center (Fig. 11.9a) or by both subaquatic and conti-
nental parts of the basin. The models demonstrate
two different modes of basin evolution: (1) the sub si-
dence rate varies with constant sedimentation rate (b
and c) or (2) the sedimentation rate varies whereas
the rate of total subsidence remains constant (d and
e).
The interplay between sediment supply (sedimen-
tation rate) and subsidence controls both the
depositional environment (continental or subaquatic)
and the facies of the sediments. Basin deepening oc-
curs during periods in which subsidence operates
faster than sediment accumulation (under-supplied
496 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

SEDIMENTATION RATE
CONST ANT (20 rn/Mal VARYING

SUBSIDENCE RATE
VARYING CONSTANT (50 rn/Mal d
b 10
0,---~~~--~~--~4
20 30 40 Ma o 10 20
o~-.~--~----~--~~
30 40 Ma

MARINE
SEDIMENT
20 m/Ma

2 2
km km Fig. 11.9. Elemen-
tary relationship be-
o c 20 30 40 Ma
tween the rates of
basin floor subsi-
O~~--~~~
-~~"~~--~----~~ dence SUB and mean
S1~~~;~::;\, 20 sedimentation SR
versus time for a
CONTINENTAL ;;;" central location with-
100 "<:>"~~ in the model basin
(a). b,c SR is con-
km
MARINE BA~:i~;:F; ~ä-o stant, but SUB var-
ies. d,e SUB is con-
stant and SR varies.
The model basins are
either partially over-
supplied or under-
supplied with sedi-
ment and therefore
exhibit changes in
RATES VALID FOR their environmental
CENTRAL PART OF BASIN conditions (marine
and continental)

basins, Fig. 11.9b and d). In contrast, basins shallow
when the rate of sedimentation is higher than subsi-
dence. Then the basins may become completely filled
with sediment (over-supplied basins, Fig. 11.9c and
e). These effects can be inferred from vertical sedi-
mentary sections displaying either deepening (fining)
or shallowing (coarsening) upward trends. A deepen-
ing trend commonly allows a long period of
subaquatic (marine) sedimentation, whereas a coars-
ening trend may lead to a
The assumption that subsidence rates remain con-
stant for a long time is not realistic. Even under the
premise that the rates of tectonic subsidence are con-
stant, total subsidence tends to become modified by
the isostatic effects of sediment loads. This is shown
in the model of Fig. 11.10a where linear tectonic sub-
sidence, for example during the initial phase of rift-
ing (Sect. 8.3) is overprinted by the sediment load of
a permanently filled basin. As a result, total subsi-
dence of the basin floor is increasingly magnified
and may reach (under Airy conditions) an amount 2.5
times greater than tectonic subsidence of a water-
filled basin alone. The curve of total subsidence
shows a convex-up shape, because the mean density
of the sedimentary colurnn increases with its thick-
ness. If, instead of sediment filling, the water body of
the basin is removed (e.g. by evaporation as known
from the Mediterranean during the upper Miocene)
the basin floor rises due to isostatic rebound.
These effects have to be taken into account in the
following basin models. Some types of curves for the
tectonic subsidence history of various basins are de-
picted in Fig. 11.10b. All these curves are modified
by sediment load-driven subsidence. Some examples
may illustrate the theoretical considerations of this
Section.
Two East African Lakes: A Comparison
The East African Rift lakes have existed for about 20
Ma (Meybeck 1995) and vary greatly with respect to
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems
active subsidence, basin geometry, climatic condi-
tions, water chemistry, and types and rates of sedi-
mentation (e.g. Reading 1986; Cohen 1989). There-
fore, open as weH as closed lake basins of different
water depths developed. The levels of these lakes
fluctuated by up to several hundred meters during the
past 15 ka and earlier due to climatic change, accom-
panied by drastic changes in sediment influx (e.g.
increased "lowstand shedding", cf. Sect. 7.6). In the
context of this chapter, a comparison of Lake
Tanganyika and Lake Turkana may be of interest (cf.
Fig. 12.4; for more details see Einseie and Hinderer
1997).
Evaluating the rates of subsidence, sediment influx
and mean sedimentation reveals that Lake
Tanganyika is under-supplied with sediment and
deepening while Lake Turkana is over-supplied and
shaHowing.
Lake Tanganyika is at present an open lake with little
outflow. The sedimentation rate varies in the different
subbasins ofthis lake, but is generally in the order of ~200
mmlka for wet material (porosity n:::::: 50%). Thus, sedi-
mentation cannot keep pace with subsidence of the basin
floor (~280 mmlka during the past 20 Ma) because sedi-
ment compaction reduces the initial sediment porosity. The
modem lake is therefore undersupplied and deepening
rather than shallowing (present mean water depth 570 m).
The present-day mean mechanical denudation rate as de-
rived from SRme of sediment cores (AJAb=7.1) is about 4
mmlka (10 tlkm2 /a). It only allows a mean clastic sedimen-
tation rate of -60 mmlka (n:::::: 50%).
Lake Turkana (closed system, mean water depth 31 m).
Thebasin floor is subsiding at a rate of about 130 mmlka,
but the modem mean sedimentation rate (n:::::: 50%) is
-1200 mmlka and indicates that the basin is presently over-
supplied and being filled up rapidly with sediment. The
modem (past 2 ka) mean mechanical denudation rate in the
drainage area (AJAb=9.7) is 93 mmlka or 230 tlkm 2/a.
The contrasting "state of basin filling" of these two
lakes mainly results from the great difference in the
denudation rates of their drainage areas. The AiAb
ratios of the two lakes are almost the same and their
subsidence rates are of the same order of magnitude.
In the catchment of Lake Turkana D~e is higher by
a factor of >20 than in the Tanganyika catchment.
This reflects the presence of young, partially non-
indurated volcanic rocks and volcaniclastics around
Lake Turkana compared with older crystalline rocks
in the catchment of Lake Tanganyika as well as dif-
ferences in climate (serni-arid to subtropical versus
subtropical to tropical).
497
11.3.3 Extensional Basin Models
Rift Basins with Constant Sediment Supply
In the context of this chapter three principal types of
basins are of interest: (1) basins of more or less con-
stant areal extent (Sect. 11.3.1), (2) extensional bas-
ins, and (3) closing basins. The plate tectonic setting
and general evolution of sedimentary basins is dis-
cussed in Chaps. 1 and 12.
The most important representatives of extensional
basins are rift basins, growing ocean basins, and pull-
apart basins (Fig. 11.11a). For all of them their size
increases with time leading to the general trend of
decreasing rates of terrigenous sedimentation. The
simplest case is when the rate of sediment input is
kept constant. Such a situation is demonstrated quan-
titatively for rift basins (Fig. 11.12) with the follow-
ing assumptions (Schlische and Olsen 1990; for fur-
ther details see Schlische 1992):
- The basin represents a continental full-graben or
half-graben and is bounded by planar faults dipping
at equal angles (Fig. 11.12a).
- Uniform extension causes uniform subsidence
along the boundary faults and hence the depth of the
basin increases linearly.
- The outlet of the basin is held at a constant level
with respect to an external datum line.
- The volume of fluvial sediment added to the basin
per unit time is constant; the sediment is distributed
uniforrniy over the entire basin.
This model basin may display the following stages of
evolution (Fig. 11.12a):
Stage 1. Sediment supply is large enough to keep the
narrow basin always filled with fluvial material; ex-
cess sediment and water leave the basin which is
therefore both hydrologically and sedimentologically
open. During this phase, the sedimentation rate is
constant and equal to the subsidence rate.
Stage 2. As the basin continues to grow, a point is
reached at which the sediment input can no longer
completely fill the space made available through sub-
sidence. Consequently, the basin becomes sedi-
mentologically closed and is transformed into a lake
or shallow sea. The sedimentation rate slows due to
the increasing size of the basin. Y ounger strata pro-
gressively onlap the basement rocks of the hanging
wall block.
Stage 3. Further development is controlled by clima-
tic factors and the size of the hydrologic drainage
area of the basin. If water supply into the basin re-
mains high enough to keep the basin water-filled up
to the fixed outlet, the basin deepens and the sedi-
mentation rate continuously decreases.
498 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

Ritt basin
a (Initial subsidence, crustal stretching)

o 10 20 3040
o~~==~~--~r----'----~----'---~f----'----~Ma

E
2
-, 5"--"'---
• ---
-1-_ r
----------

1 84
.
0.69
j
----i;-----_Z
- - 031
'-'=
Air-filled

------
Water-filled

-';-~-l
~
Subsidence rates (m/Ma)
.!: 4 2.15
+-'
C. Amplification
a>
Cl 6 factor

Sediment load-driven subsidence

Fa =2.45
with increasing density of sediment
8 (mainly clay and silt)
basin
10 350

b Subsidence in various types of basin Fig. 11.10. a Subsidence history

of a rift basin. Early (initial) lin-
10 20 30 40 50 60 Ma ear teetonic subsidence of water-
O~-=-=-~-=_=_==_=_-_~------~----~----~------~~
filled basin is increasingly en-
\ -"vForeland~ hanced by the sediment load (am-
\ ,(tect. subs.) plification factor Fa). The model
~2 Ritt b.

-
E
~ . . . -L..,.._
I, Pull-apart b. I
Fmax ... 1.8
t
'---,
, (teet. subs.) basin is always completely filled
with sediment. The mean bulk
. !:4
+-'
C.
.f "-
---,-
I
density, p, of the sediment co 1-
umn grows with its thickness. By
a> contrast, evaporation of the water
Cl 6 Remnant ocean b. I fill causes rebound of the basin
I
I floor. b, Generalized type curves
Sediment ~ of subsidence for various basins
load-driven I I
8
subsidence ~ t

Stage 4. If evaporation from the growing surface area
of the water body exceeds water supply, the basin
also becomes hydrologically closed. Then the depth
of the lake decreases as a function of both the in-
creasing size of the basin and increasing evaporation
loss. As a result, the lake may turn into a playa which
records minor climatic variations.
Deposition in the rift basin can also begin with lake
sediments, if sediment input is small. As long as rift-
ing and subsidence continue at the initial rate, the
sedimentation rate should decrease indefinitely (Fig.
11.12b and d). However, subsidence slows down and
is finally only driven by sediment loading (cf. Sects.
8.3 and 11.3.1). The basin is therefore slowly filled
up until the depositional surface reaches the level of
the outlet. The subsequent sediments accumulating in
the basin will be again fluvial, and their rate of sedi-
mentation will be equal to that of subsidence. This
and similar extensional basin filling models can ex-
plain, to some extent, the tripartite stratigraphic se-
quences observed in numerous continental basins:
- A basal, alluvial fan and fluvial unit indicates
through-going drainage and open-basin conditions.
- After an initial deepening trend, the subsequent
lacustrine or shallow-marine unit may reflect gradu-
ally shoaling upward related to closed-basin condi-
tions.
- Overlying fluvial sediments once again testify to
through-going drainage.
This general trend, however, may be modified by
climatic and various other, mainly regional factors
(see, e.g., Smoot 1991). Conditions sirnilar to those
of short-lived continental rift basins, i.e., graben and
half-graben structures, are also found in many pull-
apart basins (Sect. 12.8).
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems 499

a Types of basin
~------- --,---:- Pure shear grabenI
-~~

Simple shear halfgraben

~
I

Detachrnent fault

...... 1_ _---.JI~ Plan

======! Pull-apart b.
view
Transtensional b.
_ _ _ _ _--'1 .......

Graben filling
b
Stage 1

Higher relief I
smaller
drainage areas
Fluvial sediments

Stage 2

Lower relief I
extended
drainage areas

C Extensional basins
Drainage area A d variable

:---
I
~ = const" -1: Basin area Ad/A b t--- ~ - ~--- .

DR
~

= 100
Ab variable
'C::=J
50 'c - ----I
o
1
4
2
A
1
1
,=------
L./ DR =
1 00
50
~ 2 Fig. 11.11. a Types of
\ __ _
'2
_______ -{:::J 4 extensional basins (over-
25 Q)
1 0.75 ,: 25 view). b,c Changes in the
E I
drainage areas and mechan-
i= ical denudation rates during
8- -0.5- 0.5 - 10 the evolution of rift basins
10
Spreading rate = const.

The results of two-dimensional modeling of a permanently
filled half-graben, continuously growing in size (Fig.
11.l2b), are similar to those found of a full-graben. The
cross section of this model reflects the geometry of the
early Mesozoic Atlantic basin in North America (cf. Fig.
12.7) and its time slices represent 0.55 Ma. If sediment
input balances the space provided by subsidence, the
depositional surface area of the basin ceases to grow. Ac-
celerated tilting of the half-graben causes the basin fill to
shift toward the border fault and young layers to onlap pre-
viously deposited strata as shown in Fig. 11.12e (Stage 2).
500 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

a CONSTANT SEDIMENT SUPPLY

HYDfI9lOGICALLY b
1 =LEVE~~~:. :::::::::::7C-- ~~~~::~ SASIN CENTER

S:O~~~~ .. .... 'iY? 6~;: --- t_ ~~.

2
LAKE SED.
·~~?~.~::-; :.~.,~~.-.:~~;~i71=_~SEDlM~E~
"~~.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'~J CLOSED I
3
(SHAllOW) . ':::.','::::.'::,':' I
~ ~ E .-,;;';;: - - - - - - - - SASIN CENTER

3 I 2 ~------
LAKE SURFACE
-- ----------~-- -- - - ---_. ~ ~::s w!ll 1

~,I~-Jt'SEDIM. ~OGI.
:J ~
INGOF :::E !.l
LAKE SED, - i3 j!: 0
FACIES "",.,:.,.:,.:.,:.,.:,.::.,:.,:.,:.,:.,:.,.:,:..,.:,,:..,;; CLOSED 0 2 3 4 5
--- - -- -- - -- --

-
~';"';"';"':"';":"~...-/-

4 2
~
\
\
- - r-- '
,
\,,/ BASlN CENTER
HYDAOlOG. ~
~ ~1
:J .s
.i!1.~-
V - - -h-SEDIM.
--c:.~- · :::E
:J
BASlN AVERAGE

---
'-r'-~~~~~~-/ E. 200% CLOSED
~ 0
0 2 3 4 5

e
1
~:(b~~o .... BASlN FLOOA
~

d 2
!!!':=~~~§§i~~ON;:LAP ONTO
SUBSIDENCE WATER DEf'TH OF STRATA OF SASIN

I '0
OPEN LAKE

~
w 3
~ LAKE SUBDMSION OF BAStN
1.1 5 SEDIMENT THICKNESS
BY ADDmONAl FAULTS

~
w
o
--rv FIWNG EOOAlS SUBSIDENCE

o ~----~~--~----~----r_----
4
NEWARK BASIN (TRIASSIC· JURASSICI
0.8 - - 0.833
PRESENT·DA Y SITUATION AFTER

0.6
:?
E 0.4
.s. 0.2
o LACUSTRINE DELTAJC
o 5 '0 '5
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems
Modeling the situation of the early Mesozoie Newark
basin (shown on map in Fig. 12.7), Schlische and Olsen
(1990) found a fairly good agreement between their model
(Fig. 11.12c,d) and the gross stratigraphie and depositional
development of this basin (Fig. 11.12e, Stage 4). In order
to apply the more simple full-graben model to the basin,
the half-graben cross section of the basin was transformed
into a full-graben. The subsidence rate was inferred from
the sedimentation rate of time intervals during which both
rates were equal. Over long periods, the cumulative sedi-
ment thickness and the sedimentation rate of the model ap-
proximates the true values. Major discrepancies between
model and nature were caused by vo1canic activity and cli-
matic change.
A somewhat different, more quantitative approach to
the longer term evolution of a rift basin is demon-
strated in the model in Fig. 11.13. Both the
terrigenous sediment supply (global mean value of
mechanical denudation DR.nc=50 nun/1m) and the rate
at which the rift or ocean basin is widening are still
assumed to be constant.
The rate of extension is 0.25 cmla for a narrow basin (be-
ginning with 50 km width) in its early stage of evolution,
or it is 2.5 cmla for a wider ocean basin (500 km). In both
cases the time period needed for a doubling of the basin
width is 20 Ma. The initial tectonic subsidence history is
linear, but later, due to crustal cooling, it shows a concave-
up curve (cf.Sect. 8.3 and Fig. 11.10b). Both the early and
late portions ofthis subsidence curve are stro!\gly modified
by the increasing sediment load which, in this example,
completely fills up the basin for a long time.
The model starts with a drainage area two times larger
than the basin area (Fig. 11.13a, left-hand side). The sedi-
mentation rate SR",e for solid matter (p=2.5 g/cm3) is there-
fore twice as high (100 mmlka) than DR me (Fig. 11.l3b).
The actual sedimentation rate for porous sediment with
lower bulk density is of course higher as shown in the dia-
gram. Due to basin widening, SR mc decreases with time and
the average sediment density simultaneously grows with
the thickening sedimentary fill. Surplus sediment which
cannot be accommodated by the basin is bypassed to other
regions. After a time period of about 40 Ma the incoming
sediment cannot fill up the basin any more, i.e. it is trans-
formed into a lake or shallow sea. Then subsidence pro-
ceeds more slowly than it would do for a completely
sediment-filled basin (Fig. 11.13b).
Fig. 11.12. Model of extensional rift basin filling
with the assumptions of constant sediment input and
uniform subsidence. a Full-graben filled with fluvial
and lake deposits under hydrologically open (1 to 3)
and closed conditions (4); E extension (%). b Two-
dimensional model of progressive, complete fill of
half-graben growing in size; cumulative sediment
thickness in total basin (average) and basin center,
and declining sedimentation rates through time.
501
Rift Basins with Varying Sediment Supply
So far, achanging input of terrigenous material has
not been considered. As discussed in Section 9.3, the
specific sediment yield of drainage areas can greatly
vary and, in addition, their areal extent can change
significantly with time. These effects are indicated in
Fig. 11.11 b,c where an elongate basin (e.g. a graben
structure) receives river sediment from several sides.
During the initial phase of tectonic basin formation,
both the relief and the river gradients are commonly
high causing enhanced specific sediment yields. In
the course of time, the sediment yields may decrease
due to the lowering of the landscape. On the other
hand, the drainage areas of some of the feeder SYSc
tems grow with time as a result of headward river
erosion preventing a significant decrease in sediment
influx. In addition, climate change may have some
influence on the sediment supply. Taking into ac-
count all these factors (changes in relief, drainage
area, climate), the sediment supply may vary by at
least one order of magnitude during the history of an
individual basin.
A rift basin model where the terrigenous sediment
influx and thus also the mean mechanical sedimenta-
tion rate varies on two occasions by a factor of 2 is
shown in Fig. Il.l4a.
In contrast to the previous model (Fig. 11.13b and c), the
rates of subsidence and sedimentation (instead of sediment
thickness or depth) are now plotted over the time scale.
The sedimentation rates decrease along the solid curves in
the figure.
The rate of total subsidence reaches a maximum at
the transition from continental to marine deposits and
thereafter decreases because then the mean sedimen-
tation rate in the widening basin lags behind subsi-
dence. Both the response time (since the starting
point of the model) and the time interval after which
the subsidence rate has reached a maximum, increase
with the sedimentation rate operating at the onset of
basin evolution.
If the period of subsidence of a graben or
halfgraben is limited and the rate of total subsidence
starts to decrease early (Fig. l1.l4a, lowermost
curve) the basin filling sediments often exhibit the
tripartite sequence as mentioned above. This is
c Transformation of half-graben into full-graben to
apply full-graben filling model (d) based on data
from Triassic-Jurassic Newark basin (see Fig. 12.7).
e Adjustment of deposition to asymmetric, uniform
basin subsidence (1), accelerated tilting (2), addi-
tional faultin~ (3), and (4) situation after further tilt-
ing and erOSiOn. (After Schlische and Olsen 1990;
e4 from Manspeizer 1988b)
502 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

Extensional basin a Closing basin

Observation point
Ad Ab~

Ad/~:~';~'~'~ ~,:\~ ..~~.~~.~.~.~.:~.-' T~~~~.

e.9. 3000/1000 km 2 . ':"~'
or elongate basins
and land areas
600/200 km wide

b Ritt basin
-E
(Rate of extension 0.25 cm/a; W j = 50 km,
or 2.5 cm/a; Wj = 500 km)

-CO 200 3
~

--E
~
2
CIl
CIl
Q)
c:
CI)
~
E
a: ()
.s::.
Cf)
p"'1.92 I-
c: ----\"------------
CO
Q) p=2.5 g/cm
3 ) -------------------------

~
30 40 50 60 Ma
~ 0.5
Water depth
O~~~TJ'7~~~T/~_r/'7i~~~~I:~

2 _ Initial tectonic____________ ~
.s::.
+-' subsidence
a. (50 m/Ma)
Q)
o 3
,
I
~--- Surplus of sediment (bypassing) - - - - - - - -- ---.>I
4 not completely 4
sediment-filled --,
Fig. 11.13. Sediment filling of rift basin; basin evo- tion rates, SR",c' of fully compacted (p=2.5 g/cm3)
lutIOn begins with basin widths of W=50 km or 500 and porous Sealment (lower mean bulk density, in-
km and Ai
Ab =2; rates of extension 0.25 or 2.5 cm/a, creasing with accumulated sediment thickness). The
respectively. a Cross sections of elongate extensional mechanical denudation rate is D~e=50 mmlka
and closing model basins (basin area Ab) and their (global mean). c Tectonic and thermal subsidence
drainage areas (Ad). b Mean mechanical sedimenta- enhanced by sediment load

shown for a relatively low mechanical denudation
rate of 25 mmlka controlling the SR25 curve in the
diagram.
Short-term variations in the mechanical denudation
rate and the related sedimentation rate (decreasing
with time) are envisaged in Fig. 11.14b which resem-
bles Fig. 11.13b.
To completely fill the widening basin with sediment, the
sediment thickness in the basin should grow as indicated
by a broken line (same curve as that for complete basin
filling in Fig. 13b). This can be accomplished for a long
time period when sediment influx is high (DR me=50 curve).
With lower sediment influx the continental phase of the
basin fill becomes shorter as mentioned above.
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems 503

a Extensional basins
~
co
-....
\ SR so corresponds to
\ SR,,, DRme = 50 (mm/ka)
Q)§ 400 but p<2.5 g/cm 3
(JC
Co
Q) . -
:s! ~ 300
Cf)...,
Ritt b ., ocean basin
..c c - -- Marine b. , deepening - - - -
::JQ)
_._
Cf)E 200

0"0
Q)
Cf) Cf)
~"O 100
COc
a:::co

o 5 10 20 30 40
Cent .
A d /A=-
b
8-- 4----- 2 - ------------ 1-------- - - - 0.66

Extensional basin b Necessary for complete _

Drainage area A d and ß = const. basin filling _-
Mechanical denudation rate DR .... = variable (m/Ma) '\. - .,..-.,..-..... 4
,200 111 "'~."w. )........ E
e
IJ)
Potential mean thickness of IJ)
Q)
accumulated porous sediment c:
~
(J

.s::
2 :::
E c:
a:: Q)
Cf)
25 Accumulated E
c: sediment "0
co Q)
Q)
::;E / Cf)

o '0 20 30 40 50 60 Ma

2 - - Ad/A b- - - --- 1 - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - 0 .5

Fig. 11.14. Extensional basins with varying sediment
supply. a Rates of subsidence and mean clastic sedi-
mentation SR vs. time. After 20 Ma, the basin width
is W=50 km (rate of extension 0.25 cmla) or 500 km
(2.5 cmla); the changing A,jAb ratio is shown at base
of diagram. The curves of SR correspond with differ-
ent denudation rates DR (e.g. SR JOo with DR JOo) but
take into account changing sediment porosities. Both
the continental phase of basin evolution and the oc-
currence of the maximum rate of subsidence are con-
trolled by SR. A short-lived basin with lirnited SR
may first display continental deposits followed by
marine beds and finally again continental conditions.
b as Fig. 11.13b, but with short-term changes in
S~e and thus also in S~e' This may cause interrnit-
tent complete basin filling (point I) or facies change
in marine deposition (point II). At a later stage (point
III), only long-term increased terrigenous sediment
supply only can restore continental deposition
504
a DISTANCE FROM RIFT AXIS
0 1000
2000 1000
I b
I I
.. I
S.AMERICA
CALCAREOUS OOZE
OR LIMESTONE
Fig. 11.15. a Extension of South Atlantic through
time and generalized chronostratigraphic cross sec-
ti on of its sediments between Brazil (Brazil basin)
and Angola margin according to results from Deep
Sea Drilling Project. Note that vertical drill holes
appear as oblique lines in diagram. Calcareous oozes
are almost restricted to mid-Atlantic ridge (rift axis),
As long as the basin remains shallow, i.e. shortlyaf-
ter the transition from the continental to the aquatic
phase, a short-term increase in sediment supply (e.g.
caused by climatic change) can cause areturn to con-
tinental conditions. This is demonstrated for the
D~e=25 curve (Fig. 11.14b, point I). Later, a short-
term increase in sediment supply (point II) can only
bring about a minor change in the persisting marine
or lake environment. Only a drastic and relatively
long-lasting increase in sediment supply can lead to
significant shallowing of the basin or again to conti-
nental sediments, provided extension and subsidence
of the basin floor continue.
Rift-Drift Transition and Growing Ocean Basins
If the rift stage of a basin is followed by sea-floor
spreading, the extension of the basin commonly con-
tinues at an accelerated rate. For example, if a full-
graben of 50 km width is formed during a time pe-
riod of 20 Ma, the average rate of basin extension
(but not crustal extension) is 0.25 cmla (cf. Fig.
11.13b). In contrast, ocean spreading frequently op-
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
2000 km
0 SEDIMENT ATIO N
RATE OF CAR-
BONATE -FREE
0
., MATERIAL
~ ITREND OF
w BASIN MEAN)
(!)
« 0
60
TERRIGENOUS
CLAY - SILT
80
100
120
10 20 30 m/Ma
while sediments at greater distance from rift axis
were mostly deposited below CCD (cf. Sect. 5.3.2).
Asymmetry of sediment distribution is caused by cir-
culation system. b Trend of carbonate-free sedimen-
tation rate to diminish with increasing extension of
ocean. (After Van Andel et al. 1977)
erates at a rate of 1-5 cmJa. Hence, the average sedi-
mentation rate of an extensional basin passing from
the rift to drift stage should drastically decrease. This
is to some extent the case, but does not apply to the
sediment accumulation on shelves. In large ocean
basins most of the incoming sediment is deposited on
the shelves and continental slopes and therefore can-
not be distributed uniformly over the entire basin as
assumed for the simple models discussed so far. Nev-
ertheless, it can be expected that the silicic1astic sedi-
mentation rate of deep growing ocean basins dec1ines
with time. Similarly, the river supply of dissolved
species necessary to produce biogenie carbonate and
silica will decrease per unit area in the growing
ocean basin. (Nutrient supply by mineralization of
organic matter and recycling in the basin itself is dis-
cussed in Sects. 5.2 and 5.3).
South Atlantic. The sedimentary history of the
South Atlantic, for example, shows this expected
trend (Fig. 11.15).
During its early stage of rifting the narrow basin displayed
sedimentation rates for carbonate-free material of about 30
mlMa (3 cmlka) and was therefore dominated by
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems
terrigenous deposits (Van Andel et al. 1977). With contin-
ued sea-floor spreading in the late Mesozoic and early Ce-
nozoic, the sedimentation rate of clastics dropped to values
mostly under 10 mlMa along the margins and to 2 to 5
mlMa on the Mid-Atlantic ridge (Fig. 11.15b). In contrast,
the in situ biogenic carbonate production and preservation
did not show such a distinct trend, but rather was con-
trolled by changes in the oceanic circullition system.
North Atlantic. Similar to the South Atlantic, the
North Atlantic shows sedimentation rates of
terrigenous material which were generally high dur-
ing its early history and then declined with the wid-
ening of the basin up to the early Miocene (Ehrmann
and Thiede 1985). However, this rate increased again
from the middle Miocene up to. the Quatemary as a
result of climatic change and glacial action in high
latitudes regions and high mountain ranges.
An approximate mass balance of the present-day denuda-
tion on land and overall sedimentation in the Atlantic
Ocean between 50 0 N and S yields the following results.
The total drainage area in North and South America, Eu-
rope, and Africa is 30 x 10 6 km2 and the basin area 75 x 10 6
km2• Hence the AjAb ratio is 0040. Assuming the modem
global mechanical denudation rate of 50 mlMa (Sect. 9.3)
for the entire drainage area, the average sedimentation rate
of clastic material in the Atlantic is about 50 x 004 = 20
mlMa (solid, water-free material). Compared with Figure
11.15b, this value appears to be realistic. However, this
estimate does not take into account that much sediment is
deposited on the shelves ofthis ocean basin.
As regards chemical denudation, the global rate is 16
m1Ma, and approximately 12% of the dissolved river
load is Ca2+ and 10% is Si02 • Calcium denudation of
~2 m1Ma may lead to a calcium carbonate sedimenta-
tion rate (factor 2.5) in the Atlantic of 2 x 2.5 x 0.4 =
2 mlMa or 2 mmlka (AiAb = 0.4). This value is
lower than the actual rate observed above the CCD,
but higher than that found below the CCD where car-
bonate is largely dissolved. The present-day river
supply of calcium is insufficient to maintain the high
oceanic biogenic carbonate production. The defi-
ciency of the ocean in calcium causes carbonate dis-
solution below the CCD (cf. Sect. 5.3.2). Similarly,
the river-bome Si02 enables an average sedimenta-
tion rate of 1.6 mlMa or 1.6 mmlka. This value is too
low to provide enough silica for the ongoing produc-
tion of siliceous skeletons by diatoms, radiolaria, and
sponges. Hence, most oftheir skeletons are dissolved
in the water column (Sect. 5.3.5).
11.3.4 Closing Basin Model
The most important group of closing basins are re-
lated to subduction and plate collision. The general
principles introduced for extensional basins can also
be applied to closing basins which therefore are dis-
cussed only briefly.
505
For the model of a closing basin (Fig. 11.16) both
sediment supply and the size of the drainage area, A d,
are assumed to be constant as for the previous mod-
els of extensional basins (Fig. l3a). Subsidence fol-
lows the rule found for aging, cooling oceanic crust
and is enforced by the increasing sediment load.
With A d= constant, the AiAb ratio of the closing
ocean basin increases rapidly once it has become al-
ready narrow (remnant basins, Fig. 11.l3a). Then the
mean mechanical sedimentation rate and thus the
accumulating sediment thickness increase exponen-
tially with time and lead to rapid filling of the ini-
tially deep basin (Fig. 11.l6a and b).
Initially, the remnant basin is deep and its rates of sedimen-
tation and subsidence, controlled mainly by cooling of the
underlying oceanic crust, are slow. Approaching the
subduction zone, the oceanic crust tends to be flexed, lead-
ing to increased subsidence of the basin floor. Simulta-
neously, the sedimentation rate grows and thus compen-
sates for subsidence. Finally, the sedimentation rate greatly
surpasses subsidence causing rapid and complete basin
filling. This can be frequently observed in orogenic belts
where flysch sequences pass upward into shallow-water
and continental deposits. As a result of subduction and the
increasing sediment load, the top of the oceanic crust may
become deeply buried. This is also known from passive
continental margins below prograding marine deltas (e.g.
the Niger delta) or below the head of large deep-sea fans
(e.g. the Bengal fan, Sect. 11.5.5). Uplift of the magmatic
arc and an increasing sediment supply from the arc region
would further accelerate basin filling.
11.3.5 Foreland Basin Model
Foreland basins in front of overthrust belts (Fig.
11.17a; cf. Sect. 12.6) are in many ways more com-
plex than the previous examples of basin evolution.
The elementary model of Fig. 11.17 shows a first,
pronounced phase of overthrusting and the resulting
increase in erosion and basin filling.
The model is based on the following assumptions: (1) the
size or width ofthe basin area and its drainage area remain
constant (AjAb=I). The mean mechanical sedimentation
rate, SR",e (here for compact sediment), in the basin is
therefore equal to the mean mechanical denudation rate,
DR.ne, in the drainage area. (2) SR me increases from 10 to
250 mmlka during an active phase of overthrusting and
decreases thereafter. (3) The subsidence history of a certain
location in the basin resembles that observed in actual fore-
land basins. It is mainly controlled by flexural downwarp-
ing of continental crust in response to the loads of the
overthrust sheets and the accumulating sediments (cf.
Chap. 8). (4) After overthrusting has ceased, erosion con-
tinues at a reduced rate causing so me rebound (uplift) of
the denudational area. This also affects to some extent the
basin area.
Prior to the approach of the overthrust belt, the basin
is shallow-marine (or continental), slowly subsiding
506 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

I
Closing basin I E
a Rate of closure 5 em/a
I
I
4~

IJ)
A d = eonst. I IJ)

200 Sediment supply = eonst. / 3 ~

I ~
/ u
CI) / ..c
E / 2...--.... 1-
ce /
CI)
100 ..- ./
c ----"'-SR me
co _ _ .,..--
Q)
50 p"" 1.6 --- I
~ p=2.05 2

20 30 40 50 Ma

b
I
I
I
4 Water depth
I
I

-S6 II
a.
Q) I
Cl I
7 I
Thermal subsidenee of oceanie erust I Flexure of crust
(5 em/Ma, intermediate phase) - ~~ - approaehing subduction-
8 zone

Completely sediment-filled =16.5 km

9
Fig. 11.16. Sediment filling of closing basin (model,
initial basin width W=3000 km, rate of closure CR=5
emla, ef. Fig. 11.13a). a Mean mechanieal sedimen-
tation rates, SR".e' of porous sediment (mean bulk
density increasing with sediment thickness) and ac-
V~
cumulated sediment thickness with time. b Thermal
subsidence enhanced by sediment load and flexure of
the oceanic crust as 1t approaches the subduction
zone. Note rapid basin filling and high sediment
thickness shortly before basin closure (collision)

and slowly filled (Fig. 11.17c). With the onset of
crustal flexure the basin deepens until terrestrial sedi-
ment influx overcomes subsidence. At this tuming
point the basin can reach its maximum water depth
which may lead to flysch deposits. Then the basin is
rapidly filled up with shallow-marine, deltaic, and
finally various continental sediments (alluvial fans,
fluvial and lake deposits). A second phase of
overthrusting may generate a further sedimentary
eycle of marine and continental deposits.
Although these general results are in agreement with the
evolution of many foreland basins in nature, one should
bear in mind that the model quantitatively displays the de-
velopment at one loeation in the basin only. In a more dis-
tal region (away from the mountain belt) both subsidenee
and sedimentation operate more slowly than at a proximal
position, but the general trend shown in Fig. 11.17e is
maintained.
Modifications of the model results are caused by
changes in the size of the denudation area andlor in
the temporal development of the mean denudation
rate during basin evolution. Both effects can lead to
drastic variations in the sedimentation rates with time
(cf. Fig. 11.20b; Sect. 12.6). After a first phase of
overthrusting, the denudation area and thus also the
AiAb ratio tend to increase. Simultaneously, the
rates of denudation and sedimentation cease to accel-
erate and finally decrease until relief and
denudational processes are rejuvenated by a second
tectonic phase.
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems 507

Foreland basin (Early to intermediate stage;

,,
W ± constant, sediment supply variable)
Forepulge a ----'"""\,

- High relief ,

-
f- ,,
CO 200 Passive margi 3
'SRme

,,
\ Cf)
~ sediments I '. Cf)
I \ CD
E \, 2 ~
(I)
I "........ U
ce.
Cf)
E
100 b I
I " ..c
I-
...-J
c p<2.5 g/cm 3 ) .... /-'" sediment
CO 50
Q) .,,/"y'"
~
o 10 20 30 40 50Ma

30
E1
..:-,&.
Passive margin
..c sediments I
+-' I
0..2 I 2
Q)
Cl I
I
3 I I
-- --*- Onset of crustal-+-- Overthrust---,~
I flexure load 1-"-----:--
Relaxl'Itlon

Fig. 11.17. Model of subsidence history and sedi- ied. b Change in SR,..,e and total sediment accumula-
ment fiIling of foreland basin during one phase of tion with time. c SÜbsidence history (tectonic and
overthrusting. AiAb=l; S~e (compact)=D~e' total subsidence) and basin filling. See text for fur-
Idealized cross seetion; arrow mdicates location stud- ther explanation

11.3.6 Pull-Apart Basins The Dead Sea

Model curves of rapid initial subsidence (during
some 100 ka) of continental puIl-apart basins are
shown in Figs. 11.10b and 12.35d, where other char-
acteristics of such basins are summarized. In spite of
a very high constant sedimentation rate (1 mlka), re-
sulting from a high AiAb ratio, the basin first rapidly
deepens and then becomes slowly filled up with sedi-
ment. Further subsidence is mainly driven by the in-
creasing sediment load. This model demonstrates that
the sedimentary history of this type of puIl-apart ba-
sin tends to begin with a lake or marine phase unless
terrestrial sediment influx is very high. Later, as a
result of both waning subsidence and increasing
drainage area (cf. Fig. 11.11 band c) the depositional
environment may become continental. The foIlowing
two modern examples display situations where such
a continental phase is not or only partiaIly realized.
The Dead Sea-Jordan rift is a modern example of a
trans form zone which also experienced some exten-
sion (transtensional basin system, cf. Sect. 12.8).
Within this elongate rift system, several specific puIl-
apart basins developed, some of which are filled with
sediment but two still exist as lakes. Lake Kinneret in
the north is an open freshwater system, the Dead Sea
is closed and hypersaline, and its level lies about 400
m below sea level. The entire rift system is clearly
under-supplied with sediment. In this section the me-
chanical denudation-accumulation system of this area
is considered.
Most of the general characteristics of pull-apart basins de-
scribed in Sect. 12.8 are also realized in the Dead Sea-Jor-
dan rift (Fig. 11.18a) which is usually cited as an exarnple
of a complex salt deposit (cf. Sect. 2.5.2). The evaporites of
the 400 km long, narrow rift zone interfinger with fan del-
508
tas fluvial sediments, laeustrine limestones and marls in a
series of strike-slip-indueed depressions (e.g. Manspeizer
1985' Kashai 1988; Niemi et al. 1997). In the northem part
of th~ transform zone, gabbroid to basaltie flows eontribute
to the graben fill. The basin fill of the Dead Sea reaehes a
thiekness of 8 to 10 km. The following interpretation is
mainly based on a previous synthesis (Zak and. Freut:d
1981), weil logs (e.g. Kashai 1988), and reeent radlOmetne
dating (Steinitz and Bartov 1992) of plateau basalts and
lava flows. However, there are still many uneertainties, for
example, in the dating of sediments, teetonie events,. and
subsidenee history. The preliminary geohistory analysIs of
Fig. 11.18e somewhat deviates from the Dead Sea basin
history summarized by Garfunkel (1997) who ~sumes an
earlier (Late Mioeene) onset of aeeelerated subsldenee than
shown in Fig. 1l.l8e.
In the Mioeene and early Plioeene, a sort of shallow de-
pression (protorift, eomparable to that of the Gulf of Cali-
fomia; see below) seems to have existed with low to me-
dium relief in its drainage area. This is doeumented by flu-
vial deposits of varying thiekness (Haveza and Biro-Lido
Fms. of some 200 m or more in thiekness) at the base and
at plaees along the margin ofthe graben fill. The long time
period (around 10 Ma) and the size of the drainage area
(possibly five times that of the depositional area) proyi~ed
mueh more elastie material than neeessary for the eXIstmg
sediment volume. Consequently, the protorift system was
sedimentologieaUy open to the west or south, and its floor
layabove sea level.
During the Early Plioeene (most !ikely after the
Messinian "salt erisis" in the Mediterranean (Fig. lU8e),
subsidenee ofthe Jordan rift and the Dead Sea basin aeeel-
erated in eonjunetion with rapid strike-slip motion. The
formerly eontinental basin beeame a salt lagoon eonneeted
(in the northwest) with the Mediterranean. Continued rapid
subsidenee lowered the basin floor deep below sea level
and provided aeeommodation spaee for a thiek marine
evaporite sequenee deposited in a very short time period
(Fig. 11.18b and e). After the eonneetion to the Mediterra-
nean had been interrupted, the basin beeame both
hydrologieally and sedimentologieally elosed. Terrigenous
elasties and non-marine evaporites (Amora Fm. and other
time-equivalent and younger strata, ineluding dissolved
and repreeipitated older salts) on top of the marine roek
salt eould not fill the basin up to the niveau of sea level any
more. This signifies that mean denudation in the total
drainage area of the graben system was !irnited; even the
newly ereated high relief along the graben shoulders eould
not provide suffieient sediment to fill the further subsiding
basin. The suspended load of the Jordan River was trapped
by lakes to the north of the Dead Sea.
A erude estimate of the terrigenous sediment influx is
possible for the late Pleistoeene Lisan Fm. deposited in a
lake eovering most ofthe Dead-Sea Jordan graben during a
time period of about 50 ka (Fig. lU8a). The drainage area
ofthe graben (A d=40 000 km 2) had beeome wider than be-
fore due to headward river erosion; it was about 13 times
larger than the lake area (A b=3000 km 2). If the mean thiek-
ness of the Lisan Fm. is 100 m (whieh is uneertain, poros-
ity n ~ 30%) and one half of it eonsists of elasties (elose to
alluvial fans it is two thirds, e.g. Reid and Frostiek 1993), a
mean meehanieal denudation rate of ~55 mmlka (=135
tlkm2 /a) is found for the drainage area. The modem sedi-
ment yield of the upper Jordan River entering Lake
Kinneret seems to be only 44 tlkm 2/a (Inbar 1982).
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
The relatively high mean mechanical denudation rate
(in the order of 50 mmlka) for the drainage area of
the Lisan Fm. is sirnilar to that of the Great Salt Lake
basin (43 mmIka, see above). It reflects the increased
relief of the elevated graben shoulders as well as the
somewhat wetter climate of the last pluvial period. It
would lead, if valid for a longer time period, to an
overall clastic sedimentation rate of about 700 mlMa
in the entire graben system. However, even this en-
hanced sediment supply would not have been suffi-
cient to completely fill the subsiding basin during the
past 5 Ma.
The Gulf of California
The Gulf of Califomia is a young oceanic basin
formed by strike-slip movements and therefore
shows a complicated morphology with a number of
srnall deep basins separated by higher areas (cf. Figs.
4.5 and 12.37a, Sect. 12.8). The balanced drainage
and basin areas shown in Fig. 11.19b have a ratio of
Ad/Ab=1.4. The sediment volume ~fthe gulfha~ be~n
deterrnined for the last 4 Ma (Emsele and Nlemltz
1982), i.e. for the so-called post-rift sediments which
were deposited after the initiation of ocean spreading
(Fig. 11.19a; Curray and Moore et al. 1982a).
Prior to the building of artifieial dams, the northem gulf
was fed with substantial amounts of sediment by the Colo-
rado River draining a large hinterland. In the south the gulf
has a wide, deep opening to the Paeifie Oeean. To assess a
hemipelagic sediment budget, the influenee of the Colo-
rado as a souree of terrigenous material was exeluded by
ehoosing some gulf islands as the northem boundary of the
studied basin area (Fig. 11.19b). These islands aet as a bar-
rier whieh traps the Colorado sediments. In the south and
southwest the boundary !ine of the study area separates a
gulf region still influeneed by hernipelagie ~edim.ents fro~
the deeper oeean floor, where pelagie deposlts (wIth a sedi-
mentation rate ofless than 20 mmIka) prevail.
Prior to 4 Ma ago, a "protogulf" existed, in whieh sedi-
ments of eonsiderable thiekness aeeumulated, partieularly
below the eastem shelf of the present gulf (Fig. 11.19a and
d). The protogzilj sediments rest on subsiding eontinental
ernst, while the younger, post-rift sediments were deposited
either on new oeeanie erust in the deep main part of the
gulf, or on top of protogulf sediments separated by an un-
eonformity.
Based on seismie reeords and holes drilled during Leg
64 ofthe Deep Sea Drilling Projeet, an isopaeh map for the
post-rift sediments eould be drawn, whieh sho:ws ~xtremely
varying sediment thieknesses (EinseIe and Nlemttz 1982).
In order to ealculate the sediment volume of the
depositional area, the different ~ediment thieknes~es were
subdivided into slabs of equal thlekness and POroSlty. Wet,
uneompaeted sediment volume was the!? eon~erted into
volume of eompaeted, solid (dry) rnatenal (Flg. lUge)
using the porosity/depth relationship found in the bore-
holes (Fig. lUge).
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems 509

a
MIOCENE: PROTOR1FT

'~~--\
MEDITERRA- (OPEN SYSTEM, THROUGH-GOING DRAINAGE)
NEAN SEA
w E
-~-r --- - ,----- - - - ---- 0
~. RAINF~~~~\ RIVER GRADIENT .. FLUVIAl-lACUSTRINE
c;y.! .i > 500 mm/a .)
( :i ,,/'
~ l\ !

I~; \
PLIO-PLEISTOCENE: YOUNG RIFT/PULL-APART BASINS

'/
(SEMI-ClOSEo SYSTEM)
~ -- oRAINAGE AREA - - -
l- HIGH RELlEF - i
__($$_~~b.
l ~
1

i : DEAD SEA
J :
/ : ,." '"
L
PLEISTOCENE -i
I
!• !
J
LlSAN LAKE i/ /'
(.> .-
i
,Ji /"~._./;
\I'\...
DRAINAGE
PRESENT : CONTINUED SUBSIDENCE (DEAD SEA STAGE)
(HYDROlOGICALLY AND ~- --- - - - - - - - - - - - -
AREA OF SEDIMENTOl OGICALl Y k- HIGH RELIEF - -+! __i!#!~"'!:'?
/ -" .... .i ~
i l,J DEAD SEA
AND JORDAN
CLOSED SYSTEM) I

I I RIFT - - - -==::--
\ .I
i
.
b
I 50 km
\
'._.JI

c PROTOR1FT
(OPEN SYSTEM, lOW RELIEF _ ______ ~ ~ (SEM 1- ANo FUllY ClOSED,
YOUNG RIFT

AND LlMITED SEDIMENT YIELD) I PARTL Y HIGH RELIEF}

SLOW SUBSIDENCE ANo SEDIMENT DEPOSITION MARINE DEPOCENTER
Ma ~o 10 IN;8ES.SION M1GR. -N
o
o _ __ L_~.:--::-~---:'::'::-==,::. ;':"'::' :.:.:: .::::::.:.:>:.;:.:::~:;,.;: ... I "1
HAVEZA FM.
E (lNCL. RED BEDS)
DEAo SEA FM .
~
I LlSAN FM.
tw AMORA FM.

BI RA-LIDO FM .
5 5
:: " km
AND BASALT FlOWS . ::-..:..:..::.....

20 Ma
- ...1 - - - - - - - - -
PL. BASALT, VAllEY INC1SION 0 2:'~LlSAN FM .
DR me " 55
E.& M . MIOCENE I L. MIOC. MES;N I PLiOCENE r QUAT, ' mm/ka

Fig. 11,18. The AD system of the Dead Sea-Jordan semiclosed marine salt lagoon to a deep, closed puli-
Rift. a Lisan Lake and its drainage area (present situ- apart basin system. c Tentative geohistory analysis of
ation). b Cartoons showing the evolution of the Dead Sea region. See text for further explanation and
transform fault zone and its sediment filiing in three references
stages from an (open) protorift depression via a
510 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

POROSITY (%1
40 80

\\
200 \
c
\
\
\
400 \
\
\

800
TRANSFORM.
OF WET SED.
\
THICKNESS
\ INTO DRY

l
800 1---1f---'_'-\SOLID SED.
THICKN . \
OF WET \
1000 SED. \
m ~~~~~~--r+
o 100 2"00 300 400 500 600 m
SPREADING
THICKNESS OF SOLID MATTEIl
CENTER

e
SLABli OF EQUAL
'THICKNESS
o 10 20 km

:1_~
: \--~WETSED=
SW IV

40 10 20 km

f DENUDATION
RATE IN -
=========2)
MOUNTAINS
750 ml Ma

810-
GENie

ON
. COAST AL PLAIN

TERRIGENOUS
(rn/Mal
Fig. 11.19. Sediment budget ofthe central and south-
em Gulf of Califomia. a Evolution of the gulf from a
shallow-marine protogulf stage on continental crnst
to a transtensional narrow gulf with deep oceanic
spreading centers. b Drainage area, limits of the stud-
ied depositional area, and special sections (1- V)
across the gulf. c Porosity/depth relationship repre-
sentative of major parts of the gulf and conversion
from wet to solid sediment thickness as shown in (e).
~!~~~~~~~,i
d,e Sections 11 and IV of b with thicknesses of wet
(uncompacted, porous) sediment (vertical exaggera-
tion x5), converted in e to dry (compacted, solid)
sediment (shown only for part of the section, vertical
exaggeration x50). f Average sedimentation rates in
the studied gulf area and derived mean denudation
rate in the corresponding drainage area. (After
Einseie and Niemitz 1982)
11.3 Dynamic Denudation Accumulation Systems 511

0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100

1~--~~-4~----r-~--LI~'~,~'----+I--~I~----~'--~I

a Ad/Ab~
b ?~ 2
Ad/A b
5

2 2
co
E
E 5

-
ca
5
0:
U)
E
10 :ro,
~ C
11
-
E
10-k----
~
co
20 1I Iin
~ (In
E
Q)

20 -,
a:
ii~:! cJ"
\\ D 11
Cf) Global av.© ~ o.~Ulf of 50
11
c -~ 1'&1') California 100
11
ca iS' 'o ' ,,~ .," V
50
~
CI)
. I ~~/ >0~ Locall'y

/ ____ ~:_ Xi9~~ ~ ::-~: 70 _200 ~

", " r
100-k---
ST-i, I --1_ _ ::- ~ ....

I
engal fan Rhone ~"'<. Slack Sea
fan I:',-~: Lake-D
-- --
200
" ~" ........--
---, Chad
""
'.....
- __ C70 7. ---

500 - iS'~
;Qo6
Q
V
-- -
IMiss. fan ----
".
Nile fan
Yellow' --------
1000 Sea ~V­
,~casp;an, Se,
2000-
7Q
Vo = Perialpine =.
5000- lake. _~
10000J___- L__~~____l __ __L~~_L_ _~~_ _~-L~L---~

Fig. 11.20. Interrelationship between the ratio of
drainage and basin area, Ai
Ab' and the mean me-
chanical sedimentation, SKme' of various basins
(summary). a Trends in the development of
extensional and closing basins (arrows) as weH as
results from some young basins and deep-sea fans.
(Ihe Xigaze forearc basin is Cretaceous; cf. Sect.
12.5.3, Fig. 12.27; b Trend of SR..,e in foreland basin
affected by two phases (1 and II) of overthrusting.
Stage A Overthrust beit still submerged. B Rising
mountain belt. C Increasing drainage area; D:
Stillstand, lowering relief

The average sedimentation rate for dry solid post-rift
deposition was found to be 25 mlMa for the young
gulf and 50 mlMa for its eastem shelf, where the
young sediments lie on protogulf deposits. When the
areal extents of both depositional areas are taken into
account, the average sedimentation rate becomes 36
mlMa (Fig. 11.l9t). Because 11 of the 36 mlMa are
made up of biogenic silica, carbonate, and organic
matter, only 25 mlMa originate from the influx of
terrigenous material (Fig. 11.19b). Ihis average
value for the post-rift gulf does not take into account
that the areal extent of the basin increased during the
last 4 Ma. At present the basin is about three times
larger than 4 Ma ago when it mainly comprised the
512
eastern shelf area. Consequently, the sedimentation
rate decreased during the past 4 Ma as is characteris-
tic of an extensional basin. Applying a mean ratio of
AiAb= 1.4, an average denudation rate of about 20
rnIMa for the past 4 Ma was determined. If the sedi-
ment vo1ume is only related to the mountain ranges,
the denudation rate becomes higher (about 50 rnIMa).
The limited drainage area and its relatively low aver-
age denudation rate as well as rapidly operating tec-
tonic movements explain why the Gulf of California
is still a deep ocean basin.
11.3.7 Summary (DA Basin Models)
The interplay between the source areas, A d, of
terrestrial sediment and various basin types (area
Ab) and their subsidence history is demonstrated
by a number of simplistic model basins.
- Clastic basin filling is largely controlled by the
AiAb ratio and the mean rate of mechanical de-
nudation, D~e'
In extensional basins, the mean mechanical sedi-
mentation rate, S~e, decreases with time, in
closing basins it increases (Fig. 11.20a). The
filling of foreland basins is accentuated by
pulses of overthrusting (Fig. 11.20b, land 11)
and drastic changes in sediment input and Srme .
11.4 Chemical Sediments (Evaporites)
in Basin Filling
11.4.1 General Aspects
Chemical sediments or evaporites play a significant
part in the filling of rnany basins. They form either
by evaporation of sea water in coastal lagoons and
larger basins connected with the ocean, or they occur
in closed lake basins fed by river water. Marine salts
usually accumulate rapidly and generate thick se-
quences in very short time intervals (cf. Sect. 6.4). A
mass balance for these evaporites, which includes the
sediment source, is not possible, however, because
the salt reservoir of the oceans is practically unlim-
ited.
The situation is different for closed lake basins
with certain drainage areas which deliver dissolved
material released from various rock types by weath-
ering (cf. Sect. 9.2). Provided the basin floor is im-
permeable (which is not always the case), then the
incorning dissolved matter remains entirely in the
lake basin and can form evaporites. Therefore it is
possible to establish mass balances for modern lakes,
the source areas of which are known, similar to the
balances discussed above for terrigenous sediments.
Some of the problems and results of this approach
Cbapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
Part of the mountain-derived material was deposited on
alluvial plains before it reached the gulf, but even the denu-
dation rate calculated for the mountainous area appears to
be rather low. The drainage area ofthe gulflies in the tran-
sition zone between the hot dry c1imate to the northwest
and the semiarid and increasingly wet c1irnate of the low-
lands and mountain ranges of mainland Mexico, the Sierra
Madre Occidental, in the southeast. Here, some rivers drain
regions of high relief, consisting largely of Cenozoic
volcanics. It can be assumed that the size of the drainage
area has not changed significantly during the last 4 Ma.
The models predict periods of deepening and
shallowing basins as well as transitions from
continental to aquatic environments and vice
versa.
Simplistic models of entire basins cannot ac-
count for various complications realized in na-
ture, such as differential subsidence and non-
uniform sediment distribution, or lateral facies
changes within the basin (two- and three-di-
mensional effects). Nevertheless, such models
can help to better understand the evolution of
more complex basins.
are briefly mentioned here. Biogenic sediment pro-
duction is neglected. A general overview of the sedi-
ments of closed lake basins is given in Sect. 2.5.
11.4.2 Mass Balances of Closed Lake Systems
(One Rock Type)
For simplified chernical budgets of lakes, it is as-
sumed that the dissolved constituents are precipitated
inorganically and form solid, pore-free layers in lake
basins. These models simulate to some extent the
situation in salt lakes (Sect. 2.5.1) which are, how-
ever, not devoid of biota and terrigenous material.
Some results of such a model are shown in Fig. 11.21
for three different types of rock exposed to weather-
ing in the drainage area of the lake.
In the model in Fig.l1.21 thedepositional area of the lake
remains constant and makes up one tenth of the denudation
area feeding the lake with river water. Water depth and
subsidence of the lake basin floor are sufficient to take up
sediments during a time interval of at least I Ma. The cli-
mate in the drainage area of the lake is predominantly
semiarid to humid, in the lake area itself it is arid. The rock
types in the denudation area may be either granitic, ba-
saltic, or carbonates. The average chemical denudation
rates are assumed to be on the order of 5, 10, and 30 m/Ma,
11.4 Chemical Sediments (Evaporites) 513

Fig. 11.21. Model of

chemically precipitated
lake sediments derived
from chemical weathering
in the drainage area of a
c10sed lake system and
deposited in 1 Ma. The
NaCt
ratio of drainage area, All'
100
and lake area, Ab' lS
CaS04
AiAb=lO and kept con-
<ii stant; the c1imate in the
35 Mg C03 ~
drainage area is semiarid
~4. 50 to temperate, around the
a:
u lake it is arid. The rocks in
Vl the drainage area consist
BASALTS
0 altematively of carbonates,
CaC03 DR = 10 m/ Ma basalts, or granites and
thus cause differing chemi-
230 GRANtTtC cal denudation rates, DRGI.t.
OTHER SALTS ROCKS
DR = 5 m/ Ma Note that part of the seOl-
5 ments may be biogenic and
7 that MgC0 3 commonly is
18 used to form dolomitic
limes tones and dolomites.
33 See text for further expla-
nation
Si02 28
8 ...... . . .

respectively. (The values for granite and basalt appear to be
relatively high, but they reflect the groundwater chemistry
of these rock types which, in addition to the uptake of at-
mospheric CO 2 , also largely controls the chemistry of river
water; Sect. 9.2). With the aid of these denudation rates
one can calculate the thicknesses of the major chemical
sediments precipitating in the lake per time unit.
Provided all the dissolved material is reprecipitated
in the lake, this model yields total sediment thick-
nesses ten times greater than the denudation rates.
This signifies that under the conditions of the model,
lake sequences of 50, 100, and 300 m accumulate in
a time period of 1 Ma. The thicknesses ofthe individ-
ual sediment types are not only a function of the dif-
fering denudation rates, but also vary significantly in
relation to the rock types. In terms of sediment vol-
urne, calcium carbonate is the most important lake
sediment derived from a calcareous and basaltic
drainage area, followed by magnesium carbonate
which normally combines with calcium carbonate to
form dolomitic limestones or dolomite. As the solute
concentration in the lake water grows, minor propor-
tions of gaylussite and mirabilite may form (cf. Sect.
2.5, not shown in Fig. 11.21). Granitic rocks tend to
deliver more silica than other constituents, but cal-
cium carbonate takes the second position in this case
also.
The highest silica supply comes from basaltic rocks, while
carbonates deli ver only small amounts, unless they are rich
in opaline silica. Both calcium and silica may be used up to
a large degree by organisms to form skeletal carbonate and
opaline silica. Another important sink of silica and cations
is the regradation of the incoming, weathering-degraded
clay minerals as well as the formation of new clay minerals
(not shown in Fig. 11.21, cf. Sect. 2.5).
Likewise, the precipitation of various other salt minerals
containing sulfate, carbonate, and chloride (referred to as
"other salts") is not quantified. Their formation also de-
pends on the concentrations of hydrogen carbonate and
sodium in the lake. The thicknesses of the gypsum and ha-
Ufe layers produced in the model basin vary only slightly
with rock types. In coastal areas, the rain water may be
richer in NaCI and thus produce higher Na + and Cl· con-
centrations than found in the groundwater analyses used as
standards for the model.
The model basin demonstrates the orders of magni-
tude for evaporite generation as related to chemical
denudation rates, the drainage/lake area ratio, and
time. U sing the data of Section 9.2 and varying the
AiAb ratio, other scenarios may be devised in order
to evaluate the potential chemical sediment budget of
closed lake-drainage systems.
514
11.4.3 Evolution of Closed Lake Basins
(Mixed Rock Types)
A more realistic, modem approach is the use of geo-
chemical computer programs (e.g. The Geochemist's
Workbench; Bethke 1996) to study water-rock inter-
actions and mineral successions in lakes. These pro-
grams are based on thermodynamic equilibria be-
tween solutions (inflowing water and lake water) and
solid phases (precipitating minerals including
backreactions with pre-existing minerals). If the
chemistry of inflowing waters and the hydrological
budget of a closed lake basin are known, one can
simulate the past or future evolution of the basin. The
validity of backward modeling can be checked by
investigating the sediments present in the lake. The
mass of authigenic lake sediments, including their
porewater composition, allows independent estab-
lishment of a mass balance of the dissolved matter
influx for a certain time period. Provided these tests
are possible and turn out satisfactorily, the modeling
can be extended to predict the lake development in
the future.
Figure 11.22 shows examples of this type of
foreward modeling for two modem closed lakes,
Lake Qinghai in Tibet and Lake Turkana in East Af-
rica. Some data about the characteristics of these
lakes and their drainage areas are listed in Table
11.1.
Lake Qinghai, Tibet, lies in a rift depression (mainly sedi-
mentary rocks) and has existed since the early Pleistocene
(Yan 1999; Yan et al. 2000). The simulation of this lake is
based on its development during the Holocene (10 ka)
when the lake became increasingly salty.
Lake Turkana, East Africa, lies in the eastem branch
ofthe East African rift zone (cf. Fig. 12.3) and has evolved
since about 4.5 Ma. It has a complex history (e.g. Cerling
1986). The data used below refer to the development dur-
ing the past 4 ka. The northem drainage area of this lake,
which delivers 80-90% of the inflow, is characterized by
young basalts whereas in other parts granitic and metamor-
phic rocks also occur.
By extrapolating the mean sedimentation rates of the
lakes into the future, the lifetime of the lakes up to over-
flow was determined. Furthermore, the storage capacities
of the basins and their subsidence was taken into account
(Lake Qinghai 200 mmlka, Lake Turkana 230 mmlka).
Lake Qinghai was found to persist for about 300 ka, Lake
Turkana for 100-150 ka. These time periods were taken as
limits for the forward modeling.
Fig. 11.22. Simulation of the future evolution of two
naturallakes, L. Qinghai, Tibet, and L. Turkana, East
African rift. (After Yan 1999, modified). The two
hydrological models meet both reduction in water
volume and leakage ofthe lake basins. The solute input
(in 10 16 g) is based on modem measurements and gives
the masses for 300 ka and 100 ka, respectively). The
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
The influx of dissolved matter was taken from chemical
analyses of river water and mean chemical denudation rates
in the drainage areas (Lake Qinghai 20 mmlka, Lake
Turkana 7.5 mmlka).
For both lakes two different scenarios are assumed:
(1) the salt concentration increases with time due to
influx and, in addition, the initial (present-day) water
volume, VI' of the lakes is reduced to the ultimate
volume V E=O.l VI (additional evaporative concentra-
tion), or (2) VI remains constant with time (VE=VI)
and the salt concentration solely increases due to in-
flux.
The input of dissolved species has to be subdi-
vided into solutes derived from rocks and others
coming from the atmosphere (mainly HC0 3 and Cl).
Only part of the atrnospheric HC0 3 is used up for
mineral precipitation, the remainder is again released
into the atmosphere or stored in the lake. Due to the
various losses (part of HC0 3, leakage, regradation of
clay minerals, sulfate reduction) the mass of minerals
and solutes remaining in the lake and its sediments is
less than the solute input. This is particularly so in
Lake Turkana. The succession of salt minerals and
their mean sedimentation rates in the two lakescan
be seen from Fig. 11.22.
Lake Qinghai is slightly leaky (loss of 25% of the
inflowing Na and Cl to groundwater) and Lake Turkana is
very leaky (75% loss). As a result, the salt concentration
increases faster in Lake Qinghai and in model (I) of Lake
Turkana than in model (2) ofLake Turkana with the result
that, even after a time period of 100 ka, the salinity is not
high enough for precipitation of highly soluble minerals.
With less leakage, model (2) of Lake Turkana would pro-
duce a mineral succession similar to that ofmodel (I).
Ions consumed by the regradation and neo-formation of
clay minerals are not considered in Fig. 11.22. In Lake
Qinghai they make up around 6% of the influx (80% of
K+), in Lake Turkana 25% of the influx. In Lake Qinghai,
Ca- and Mg-carbonates will be precipitated during the first
20 ka ofthe simulation. Primary magnesite will be replaced
by dolomite during early diagenesis. After this phase,
gaylussite (Ca-Na~carbonate) will form but, due to further
solute influx, the precipitation of calcite and magnesite
continues at a somewhat reduced rate. After 60 to 80 ka,
mirabilite (Na-sulfate) starts to precipitate along with the
carbonate minerals. Saturation with respect to halite (NaCl)
is reached after about 130 ka (model I) or 220 ka (model
2). Sylvite (KCI) only forms in model I at the very end of
the lake evolution.
It should be noted that in reality the various salts do not
precipitate simultaneously as indicated in the diagrams.
masses precipitated as authigenic minerals and left in
lake water are reduced by leakage, ion uptake by
weathered clay minerals and release of CO 2 into the
atmosphere. Note that second and following minerals
react with formerly precipitated minerals and thus
reduce their sedimentation rate. See text for further
explanation
11.4 Chemical Sediments (Evaporites) 515

1
P = PRECIPITATION HYDROlOGICAl MODELS
E = EVAPORATION
QIN =INFLOW
'bw =TO GROUNO (1) VE=O. 1 ~ E
WATER ~P
- - - - - -1- - - - - --
'I

SOlUTEINPUT
64
L. QINGHAI. TIBET (300 ka, 25 % 01 Na and CI lost by leakage)

41 KCI
NaCI AUTHIGENIC
- N~S04
::~~ N~C03 / ' MINERAlS _________

MgC03

SOlUTES ENRICHED
IN LAKE WATER
/ 3.0
0.3 ,Na t:=:"::3O Na
CI
' CI

SALINITY (g/kg)
~--------~----~~---r400
200
SYLVITE
Cl
ro HAllTE ~
Cl
~ MIRABILITE
E 200 >
E 100 GAYLUSSITE t:
.r. z
rr.u CALCITE AND ::J
(f) MAGNESITE <!
(/)
(DOLOMITE)
0
0 90 i80 270 0 90 180 270
TIME (ka)
55.2
L. TURKANA, EAST AFRICAN RIFT
(100 ka, 75 % of Na and CI lost by leakage)

AUTHIGENIC MINERALS SOlUTES ENRICHED

lmilmm~ S~: ~.76 /"' ~13.6 IN LAKE WATER

","i'i "I"I' -f-- \ Na

I I 1 11 HCCL = 31 9 1 Na ~CI
, I I 11 "3 . ~CI ~S04
,111 1 FROM HC~
,11'1 ATMO·
111 I I SPHERE

11 11 ' :
1 II11 1-
I1 1I1 ~ ~ 200
SOLUTE ~

I
INPUT

x10 16 g 0
~.r.
~t '11111111~i
J
100
0
20 40 60 80 100 o 20 40 60 80 100
o
TIME (ka)
(= 10'0 metric tons)
516 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

Table 11.1 Characteristics ofLake Qinghai (Tibet) and Lake Turkana (East African rift zone) and data rele-
vant for modeling the future lake evolutIOn (after Yan 1999, simplified, rounded values)
L. Qinghai L. Turkana

Drainage area A d (km2) -30000 123000

Dominant rock types sdst. and limest., some young basalts (main
metamorphic rocks, grani~es source of water)
and diorites granitic rocks, alluvium
Lake area Ab (present-day, km2) 4340 7560
Ratio AiAb 7 16
Mean water depth (m) 16 31

Climate in drainage area semi-arid mixed: semi-arid to

humid subtropical
Annual precipitation
in dramage area (mm/a) 350-550 400-1400
in lake area (mm/a) 350 200

State oflake closed since 15 ka B.P. c10sed since 3.5 ka B.P.

slightly leaky strongly leaky
Total dissolved matter
in inflow (present-day) 0.35 g/l (pH 8.3) 0.12 g/l (pH 7.1)

Lake water chemistry (present)

Total dissolved species 14.1 g/l (pH 9.2) 2.5 g/l (pH 9.3)
Dominant species Na,CI Na, HC0 3, Cl, rich in Si02
Saturated with respect to aragonite, hydro-magnesite, calcite
± mirabilite

Characteristics of Holocene black, organic-rich carbonate mud calcareous c1ay (70 % c1ay
sediments (authigenic low-Mg calcite, minerals, (5-10% auti-
aragonite and dolomite) genic carbonate)

Average sedimentation rate,

pore-free (mm/a) 0.2 (Holocene) 0.4-0.8 (past 4 ka)

Chemical denudation rate (mm/ka) -20 -7.5 ?

Influx of dissolved matter derived
from sediment mass in lake 2 X 10 12 g/a 6 x 10 12 g/a (past 4 ka)

Accumulated in lake water <10 Mg, 10-20 K, Na and S04' 40 Cl, 10 Na, 20 Cl,
in % of influx depleted of Ca, HC0 3 and Si02 all other ions 0-2
Removed by mineral precipitation,
pore water, leakage in % ofinflux -95 ~98

Total storage capacity of lake basin

up to overflow (km3) 500 1350
Lifetime of lake (ka) 200-450* 100-150*

*Higher value takes into account subsidence

Instead, oversaturation may prevent precipitation of a cer-
tain mineral for some time and thus lead to delayed, very
rapid and discontinuous deposition of relati vely pure layers
of this mineral. In other words, the simulation only shows
the ranges of saturation and mean deposition rates of the
various minerals. In addition, older salt minerals may be
partly dissolved and used up during the formation ofyoun-
ger minerals.
In Lake Turkana (modell) it takes more than 80 ka to
come to the gaylussite stage and the subsequent mirabilite
and halite precipitation. In model 2 (V j= constant) the car-
bonate stage of the lake persists throughout the entire time
(up to 100 ka) offorward simulation.
11.5 Clastie Sediment, Distribution
The evaporites (including authigenic carbonates)
contribute about one half of the total filling of the
Qinghai basin and about 10% of the sediment fill of
Lake Turkana. In the latter, the precipitates are
strongly diluted as a result of the relatively high me-
chanical denudation rate (~50 mmlka). Due to the
moderate chemical denudation rates in the drainage
areas, the overall chemical sedimentation rates in the
lakes (around 150 mmlka in Lake Qinghai and
mostly ;:; 100 mmlka in Lake Turkana) are limited.
They cannot compete with the often extremely rapid
11.4.4 Summary (Evaporites in Basin Filling)
- Using the DA concept (Sect. 11.2.1) and known
rates of chemical weathering, the contribution of
evaporites (and biogenie carbonates and silica)
to the filling of closed lake basins can be esti-
mated.
- Closed lake basins need long concentration
times (in the order of 50-200 ka) to achieve satu-
ration with respect to high-soluble salts, such as
halite.
- In contrast, evaporite basins connected with the
open sea have a huge reservoir of salts and can
accurnulate thick evaporite sequences in a very
short time span (cf. Sect. 6.44).
- The accumulation rates of lacustrine evaporites
increase with the growing AJAb ratio (cf. Sect.
11.5 Distribution of Clastic Sediments in
Water-Filled Basins
11.5.1 Introduction
In the previous sections on denudation-accurnulation
systems it was mostly assumed that the incoming
sediment is distributed evenly over the entire basin
area. This assumption is useful for the assessment of
overall sediment mass balances but it is, of course,
unrealistic for studies into sedimentary facies and
stratigraphie architecture of entire or partial basin
fills. One rule is valid in all basins, including fluvial
ones: more sediment tends to accumulate in areas of
relatively strong subsidence than, for example, along
the basin margin.
Distribution of terrestrial sediment in water-filled
basins is more complex and less predictable than that
in fluvial systems (cf. Sect. 2.2). Fundamental differ-
ences between these two groups of depositional envi-
ronments include:
- Fluvial basins never trap all the incoming sediment.
The gradient of the channel system and the turbulent
517
rates of salt deposition known from pre-concentrated
brines of deeper marine basins (cf. Sect. 6.4). When
AiAb is much greater than in the lake example (~7
and ~ 16, respectively, Table 11.1), then of course the
rates of chemical sedimentation become higher.
The fate of the dissolved river load entering the
sea and i'iS significance in geochemical cycles is dis-
cussed in special volumes, such as Holland (1984)
and Gregor et al. (1988).
11.2.1) and depend on the lithologies in the
drainage areas. With Ad/Ab ~ 10, rates in the
order of 100-200 mm!ka are common.
- Long-term, the ratio between clastic and
evaporitic sediments in hydrologically com-
pletely closed lakes (no leakage) reflects the
mechanical and chemical denudation rates in
their drainage areas.
- Leakage of lake basins delays or even prevents
the precipitation of well-soluble salts (e.g.
gaylussite, mirabilite, and halite).
- Sulfate reduction and regradation of clay miner-
als play a significant role in controlling the
types and successions of evaporite minerals.
river flow maintain sediment transport through the
basin, at least intermittently. Generally, the relatively
coarse grained bed load tends to settle whereas the
suspended material is easily exported to areas down-
stream. The proportion of coarse and fine sediment
deposited in the basin greatly depends on the accom-
modation space provided by subsidence or change in
base level (cf. Sect. 7.6).
- Water-filled basins norrnally trap both the bed load
and the suspended river load. The modes of sediment
distribution, reworking and redistribution, however,
rnay significantly differ from basin to basin. AI-
though one can apply some rules (cf. Chaps. 3
through 5), the current systems operating within the
basin as well as specific bathymetric features of the
basin can greatly modify the "normal" sediment dis-
pers al.
It is mostly assumed that the rate of deposition sys-
tematically declines from the mouth of a river (or
several rivers in line) towards the basin center (Fig.
11.23, broken lines).
518 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

a SHALLOW LAKES
(LOW ENERGYI
DELTA PROGRADING
RIVER
GRADIENT

SEDIMENT DEPOSITED
PER TIME UNIT

DEPOSITION

b EPICONTINTAL SHALLOW SEA

(iNTERMEDIATE TO HIGH ENERGYI
± MINOR DELTA
PROGRADING
---------------------------------r
--~ :=-.::;.
~---::;..;..:.::-- ± EQUILIBRIUM PROFILE
- - CONTROLLED BY WAVES

\'- -- - - - -',
- ,'. ;;.::..::': - -DIFFERENTIAL AND CURRENTS
, SUBSIDENCE

BYPASSIN~_ ~- - - -
.. --~ I

. ~ . :i"

C SHELF - DEEP SEA

(HIGH ENERGY) ± DELTA PROGRADING
------- ----------------------7~--~----

~~~~:::~=:~1]t;~::~~ OISTRIB~ION
DEEP-SEA FAN,

=:r:~~.::.:;;@fi!i.L ~ :.~.~.~~.~~ ..
PROGRADING SLOPE \ _ - - -:

Fig. 11.23. General principles for the distribution of
river-bome terrigenous sediment in water-filled bas-
ins; relative sea-Ievel changes are not considered. In
all cases, sediment supply keeps pace with overall
subsidence; the potential sediment thicknesses de-
crease more or less exponentially from the river
mouth toward the basin center. However, the actual
sediment thicknesses for a certain time unit, shown
below the basin cross-sections, are controlled by pro-
cesses operating within the basin. a Shallow, low-
energy lake basin. The incorning sediment contains a
high proportion of coarse-grained material (e.g.
1 <:=J
perialpine lakes); subsidence is neglected. Most of
the sediment influx bypasses the subaerial delta and
is deposited along the delta slope. b Epicontinental
shallow sea of intermediate hydrodynarnie energy.
Waves and currents maintain a certain equilibrium
profile of the basin floor. Sediment thicknesses are
therefore mainly controlled by differential subsi-
dence causing bypassing from the foreshore zone to
deeper water. c Shelf-slope-deep sea setting. Sedi-
ment rnainly accumulates on the (prograding) slope
or on deep-sea fans. Bottom currents mayaiso redis-
tribute sediment in the morphological basin deep
11.5 Clastic Sediment, Distribution
This is also one of the assumptions (diffusion algorithms)
used for computer programs simulating sediment accumu-
lation and stratigraphie architecture in basin cross-sections,
but this assumption is only true of speciflc cases. As known
from many modern examples, the directions of sediment
transport in aquatic systems often differ from the straight
land-sea relationship. In studies on ancient basin flUs, sole
marks and other sedimentary structures can reveal the for-
mer current systems (paleocurrent analysis). This method is
useful for some depositional environments (e.g. deep-sea
fans), but it is problematic in regions of frequently chang-
ing current directions (e.g. in shaUow seas). . factors: (1) increasingly more sediment is required to
A straightforward, more or less exponential decrease
in sediment supply can be observed in lakes where
little sediment redistribution takes place (Fig.
11.23a). However, the site of most rapid deposition
below the delta front migrates toward the far end of
the basin with time. Alpine and perialpine lakes,
which receive a great proportion of sandy and
coarser grained bed load, are mainly filled by
prograding delta sediments. These often make up 50
to 90% of the total basin fill.
In shallow, low to medium energy marine basins
(epicontinental seas), the basin floor may maintain a
certain equilibrium profile generated by the hydrody-
namic regime ofthe basin (Fig. 11.23b).
When more sediment is supplied than can be accom-
modated by subsidence, the surplus sediment is trans-
ported into deeper water (sediment bypassing). As a
result, the sediment thicknesses deposited during a
certain time unit are mainly controlled by differential
subsidence. Long-term sedimentation rates in areas
elose to the coastline therefore tend to be slow,
whereas the depocenter with the highest sedimenta-
tion rate may be located far away from the coast.
Shelf-slope-deep sea settings of high energy and
differential subsidence (Fig. 11.23c) exhibit a behav-
ior similar to that of shallow-marine basins. The site
of most rapid deposition here is the slope or a deep-
sea fan fed by turbidites. Even deep-sea sediments
can be frequently redistributed by bottom currents
(cf. Sect. 5.5).
The models in Fig. 11.23b,c demonstrate that sedi-
ment distribution in common marine environments
does not follow a simple rule. In addition, relative
lake or sea-Ievel changes may considerably modify
the local or regional situation (cf. Sects. 7.3 and 7.4).
These complications are only briefly mentioned here.
Some further problems will be addressed below by a
number of modern examples dealing with the transfer
of river sediments to deltas, prograding coastlines,
and deep-sea fans.
519
11.5.2 Transfer ofRiver Sediments to
Marine Deltas
Out- and Upbuilding of Sediment from a
Point Source
Given a point source (river mouth) with large and
constant input of sediment into a deepening basin,
the progradation of the deltaic sediment wedge slows
through time (Fig. 11.24a,b). This results from two
form fore sets of the same thickness on the inelined
basin floor; (2) more sediment is needed with time to
build out a three-dimensional sediment body at a
constant rate. Falling sea level causes accelerated
seaward pro gradation, while rising sea level may
result either in coastal retreat or continued, but re-
duced seaward progradation, depending on the rates
of both sea-Ievel rise and sediment supply (Fig.
11.24c and d). Further influences of sea-Ievel
changes on deltaic systems are discussed in Sect. 7.4.
The main question addressed in the following exam-
pIes is: what proportion of the incoming river load is
used up for the prograding of deltas and wider coast-
lines, and how much sediment is transferred to
deeper and more remote parts ofthe basin?
Delta Prograding into Low- to Medium-Energy
Marine Basins
The Holocene was aperiod in which marine deltas
began to prograde seaward due to the deceleration of
sea-Ievel rise after the last glacial lowstand (Stanley
and Warne 1994). The following examples are taken
from this time period.
Several medium to major rivers enter the Mediter-
ranean Sea and generate prograding, more or less
wave-dominated or mixed river- and wave-dominated
lobate deltas, such as the deltas of the rivers Nile,
Rhöne, Ebro and others (cf. Sect. 3.5). The tidal
range of the semi-elosed Mediterranean is very low
and wind-generated waves and currents are normally
of low to medium energy. Similarly, the prograding
of the Danube delta into the Black Sea and that of the
Volga delta into the Caspian Sea is moderately af-
fected by waves and currents. Here, some further,
well-studied examples are described.
Po delta and Tiber delta, Italy. With the aid ofhis-
torical marks, the late Holocene development of
these deltas and their adjacent coastlines has been
established. This allows an estimate of the partition
of the river-borne sediment into portions stored either
in the delta area or deposited in deeper water.
ThePo River drains part of the Alps and, to a minor de-
gree, the Apennines and builds a delta out into the shaUow
northern Adriatic Sea (Fig. 11.25a). Using the weU-dated
520
a c
SEDIMENT
SUPPlY. 55
OUTBUILDING
~ IN SEA LEVEL
~ oE- ~
Fig. 11.24. a-d Simple theoretical models of delta
outbuilding and upbuilding during constant (a,b) or
rising sea level (c,d). Outbuilding from a point
source slows due to both increasing water depth and
paleo-coastline of 2500 years B.P. (Bondesan et al. 1996)
the river-dominated delta front prograded at a mean rate of
about 10 mlyear and the adjacent coastline to the south of
the delta at a rate of about 4 mlyear (Fig. 11.25b). Assum-
ing a 15 m deep prograding sediment body, the sediment
mass deposited between Chioggia (south of Venice) and
Cervia (south of Ravenna) is about 37 x 10 9 t (mean poros-
ity 0.4). This corresponds to -15 x 10 6 t1a. The modem
sediment discharge ofthe river Po is 13 X 10 6 t/a (Milliman
and Syvitski 1992), but some smaller rivers (Adige, Brenta
and Reno) also deliver sediment to the coast (on the order
of 10 x 10 6 t1a). It thus appears that at least half of the river
load is used for prograding of the delta and the adjacent
coastline.
The Tiber River originates in the Apeninnes, crosses
Rome, and enters the deep Tyrrhenean Sea (Fig. 11.25a).
After the last glacial sea-Ievel lowstand, the sea trans-
gressed and almost reached its present position about 5000
years BP (Bel10tti et al. 1994). Since that time the delta
prograded seawards which is interpreted as a 5th order
highstand systems tract (Fig. 11.25e). The last 2500 years
of this development are weil documented by dated beach
ridges and historical marks (e.g. the location ofthe old har-
bour of Rome, Ostia Antica; Fig. 11.25c), indicating that
the delta front prograded at a mean rate of almost 2 mla.
(The actual rate was higher than average during the last
500 years.) A rough estimation of the sediment mass de-
posited during the highstand systems tract, i.e. undemeath
the Tiber delta plain and on the continental shelf, yields a
total volume of 20-25 km 3 for the last 5 ka. This amount
includes lagoonal deposits behind the migrating delta front.
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
SLR>SS
-t------- - ~~~==7
RAPID RISE
__L__ ~~~~~
TOPSET BEDS
FORESET SEDS
BOTTOMSET SEDS
UPSUILDING
SLR<SS
lateral sediment dispersal (b). Outbuilding during
rising sea level SLR can be maintained only by high
sediment supply SS (d)
The modem suspended and bed load ofthe river Tiber is
15-20 x 10 6 t1a. Compared with the sediment volume de-
posited during the past 5 ka (sediment density 1. 7 g/cm 3), it
appears that about one half of the incoming sediment has
been stored in the delta and prodelta area. The remainder
has been conveyed into deeper water. The principal site of
deposition is the upper prodelta slope which is subjected to
Iimited current action and is not affected by wave rework-
ing (Fig. 11.25c and d). On the lower slope and outer shelf,
the sedimentation rates decrease significantly.
The examples of thePo and Tiber deltas indicate that
during the Holocene sea-Ievel highstand approxi-
mately one half of the incoming river sediment was
stored on the delta plains, prodelta slopes, and along
the adjacent prograding coastlines. The proportion of
river sediment deposited in the coastal areas may be
even greater because the measured modem river
loads are probably too high.
The RhOne delta, France, and the Ebro delta,
Spain, prograded during the late Holocene sea-Ievel
highstand (since 6 and 7 ka BP) at rates similar to the
Tiber delta (2.5 and 1.5 mla; Gensous et al. 1995;
Somoza et al. 1998: also see Sect. 11.5.4).
The rules derived from individual river deltas
(point sources ) can also be applied to situations
where several rivers in line enter the sea (linear sedi-
ment sourees). These enable prograding of wide
11.5 Clastic Sediment, Distribution 521

,
I
I
I J
, c
\ I
\ OUTER', I

,, SHELF 'I PRODELTA

WAVE ~ :
APPROACH

~
~•
J

,,
J
I

,
I
I
J
•
b: 0
'", 0
I 0 ~
SHELF
BREAK
\
\
5 km
~

..
RATES OF DEPOSITION
CONT.
SLOPE
OUTER
SHELF
PRODELTA
SLOPE
DELTA
FRONT
d
"
",

__ '~~~~~'__ ~~'~~~~JO
BEACH RIDGES o
N
o
o
~
0..
<XI
rn
Ir
e
DELTA FRONT N >-

PRODELTA
SLOPE ...........
0 .8 · 1·

,
,

200 m
30 km 10 km

Fig. 11.25. Holocene pro gradation oftwo lobate del-
tas with their adjacent coastlines in Italy. a Location
map of river Po, some of his tributaries, and river
Tiber. b Development of Po delta during the past
2500 years (time period for mass balance); older and
younger coastlines are not shown; the modem Po
delta formed during the last 250 to 400 years. (After
Bondesan et al. 1995, modified). c Tiber delta, dated
historical sites and beach ridges as weIl as (general-
ized) hydrodynamic regime of the pro delta area.
d Site of most rapid deposition on pro delta slope.
e Cross-section of Tiber delta demonstrating Holo-
cene transgressive and highstand systems tracts. (Af-
ter Bellotti et al. 1994, modified)
522 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

b RELATIVE SEA LEVEL

150 100 50 0 -50

0
D..
m 2
Vl
a:
«
w
4
>-
0 6
0
0
8
x
BEG IN OF
DELTA GROWTH
10

12
... ---.:.
DEGLACIATI ON
10 km

d
-5

-10

mt.:.:.:.:i====
-15

Fi~. 11.26. Progradation of the Fraser river delta,
Bntish Columbia, in the Holocene. (After Hart et al.
1995 and 1998, modified). a Location map (over-
view). b Change of relative sea-level since the last
glacial period. eDelta plain and thieknesses of
prodelta sediments (simplified). d Generalized longi-
tudinal seetion through delta plain and prodelta. e,
Uppermost part of delta plain displaying time lines of
upbuilding and outbuilding. (Modified after Williams
and Roberts 1989)

eoastal zones as weH as the formation of overlapping
fan deltas or deep-sea fans as known from a number
of modem and aneient examples including basin fiHs
adjacent to mountain ranges or magmatic ares (e.g.
foreare basins and foreland basins, cf. Sects. 12.5
and 12.6).
Deltaie Sediments in High-Energy Marine Basins
High-energy marine environments, including tidal
currents, often prevent the prograding of delta fronts
and eoastlines in spite of signifieant sediment supply.
In these environments, wave- und tide-dominated
delta eomplexes form (Seet. 3.5), and the ineoming
sediment is widely distributed on the adjaeent
11.5 Clastic Sediment, Distribution
shelves and slopes or carried into deeper water. Nev-
ertheless, some examples of modern deltas demon-
strate that even under high-energy conditions a large
proportion of the incoming sediment is stored in the
coastal and prodelta zones elose to the river mouth.
Fraser River delta, British Columbia. The Holo-
cene Fraser River delta progrades into the more than
300 m deep Strait of Georgia between mainland Brit-
ish Columbia and Vancouver Island (Fig. 11.26a).
The delta front is not directly exposed to the large
waves of the northeastern Pacific, but affected by
strong tidal currents, wind-generated currents,
estuarine circulation, and fresh-brackish water
plumes during river floods (Hart et al. 1995). The
evolution of the delta is influenced by the specific
bathymetry of the marine strait and sea-Ievel change
strongly modified by post-glacial rebound (Fig.
11.26b).
At the transition from late Pleistocene to Holocene, the
relative sea level stood higher than today because the land
was depressed by a heavy ice load in the Rocky mountains.
Between 10 and 8 ka B.P. the relative sea level had
dropped 10-15 m below the present datum as a result of
rebound after the melting of ice. Then the sea level started
to slowly rise to its present position. During this time pe-
riod, the Fraser River delta grew westward into the Strait of
Georgia at a mean rate of about 2 mla (Fig. 11.26e; Wil-
liams and Roberts 1989) and formed a subaerial delta plain
of about 1000 km 2• Outbuilding and upbuilding (5 to >10
mmla, behind the delta front 2 to 5 mmla) of delta sedi-
ments occurred simultaneously. The Holocene sediments
rest on glacial drift deposits with an irregular surface (Fig.
11.26d). Shallow banks in front of the delta are covered by
tidal marsh.
Seismic studies enabled the drawing of an isopach map
of the Holocene prodelta sediments (Fig. 11.26c,d, Hart et
a1. 1998) which reach 100-150 m in thickness over large
areas, and locally more than 200 m. Large slope failures
(slope angles typically 2-3°), submarine channels, and the
dominating northwest directed currents create much spatial
variability in the sediment thicknesses.
Based on simplified cross sections of the isopach
map, a crude estimate of the sediment masses depos-
ited during the Holocene yielded the following re-
sults:
Prodelta slope in front of the tidal marsh:
~55 x 109 tllO ka
Subaerial delta including the tidal marsh:
~45 x 109 tlI0 ka
Total: ~100xl09t110kaorlOxl06t1a.
The modern sediment load of the Fraser River 42 km
upstream of its mouth (drainage area 234 000 km2) is
17.3 X 106 tla and therefore ab out 1.7 times higher
than that found from the delta sediments. The ratio
between sediment deposited on the delta plain and in
523
the prodelta area during the Holocene is about 0.8;
the modern data indicate a ratio of about 0.6.
The higher modem sediment discharge may result from
both neoglaciation since about 4 ka and human activities.
A minor portion of the river load possibly reaches areas
beyond the prodelta investigated. The modem river load
consists of 35% sand, 50% silt, and 15% day. Ofthese 6.4
x 106 t/a (i.e. 37%) are deposited on the subaerial delta.
Using Cesium-137 fallout stratigraphy (the radioisotope
generated by nuclear tests with a peak in 1964) the sedi-
mentation rate in wide areas of the prodelta area was found
to have been 1-2 cmla (average for the past 30 years, Hart
et a1. 1998). The prodelta sediment mass (4.0 x 10 6 t/a) de-
rived from this data is less than expected from the mea-
sured modem river load or from the estimate of Holocene
prodelta deposition. It is possible that part of the incoming
sediment could not be identified by the Cs method.
In the previous examples from the Mediterranean,
i.e. from areas farther away from the regions of for-
mer inland ice, the Holocene eustatic rise in sea level
was not substantially reduced by rebound of the crust
following deglaciation; thus, many former lowstand
deltas were flooded and the rivers had to build new
deltas adjusted to the present sea level (Fig. 11.23c).
Niger delta, West Africa. This is an example of
long-term delta outbuilding. The delta started to form
after the separation of Africa and South America
during the Cretaceous (Fig. 11.27a). Today, it repre-
sents a lobate, mixed fluvial- to wave-dominated
delta (Sect. 3.5) including moderate tidal influence.
The general history of the Niger delta and other aspects of
its sediments are weil documented by many publications
(summary in Shannon and Maylor 1989; also see Cohen
and McClay 1996; Roubyand Cobbold 1996). The delta
developed in a crustal depression (Benue Trough) and
prograded at a very slow mean rate of about 4 mmla over
the boundary between the continental and oceanic crust. Its
huge sediment body reached a thickness ofup to 12 km.
Using the information summarized in Fig. 11.27, vol-
urne and mass of sediment below the delta plain and in the
prodelta urea deposited since the Eocene (40 Ma) were es-
timated: 380 000 km 3 or 7.5 x 10 14 t. To accumulate this
mass an annual average of ~ 19 x 10 6 t/a is needed. The
present-<lay sediment dis charge of the Niger River (drain-
age area 1.2 x 10 6 km2) is about 40 x 10 6 t/a (Milliman and
Syvitski 1992).
A comparison with the modern river load indicates
that ab out one half of the incorning sediment is
stored in the delta area. However, it is possible that
both the drainage area and the sediment dis charge of
the river significantly changed during the long time
period considered. In any case, loss of sediment to
the deep sea is documented by the existence of the
Niger deep-sea fan. Other marine deltas associated
with deep-sea fans are discussed in Section 11.5.4.
524 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

a
r Niger Delta
(Present) Tripie
~ BENUE
;. TROUGIl. (I
-... ~):'
Junction ;, ..•.... '. " '- . •

E. CRET.

----
- - ... "..... Oligoc .

--" I· · •.
"
Fig. 11.27. Long-term evolu-
tion of Niger delta. a Loca-
50 km tion of delta shortly after the
breakup of Africa and South
America. b Plan view of
delta; isochrones indicate
prograding. c Section through
Continental sands
NNE delta plain and prodelta. Note
~~=,-o enormous thickness of delta
wedge and depressed base-
Cretaceous km ment. (After Rouby and
-t- + -t- -r -.-- 10 Cobbold 1996; Cohen imd
Continental Basement
v r-t-TT--r-t- McClay 1996, simplified)
100 km Paralic and marine
and shales (Agbada Fm.) 20

Unfortunately, volume and age ofthe relatively small Niger
deep-sea fan are poorly known. Aeeording to a erude esti-
mate based on fan length (180 km) and the relationship of
length and fan deposition rate (Wetzel 1993), the deposi-
tion rate ofthis fan may have been in the order of 10 x 10 6
m3/a or 15 to 20 x 10 6 tla. This estimate supports the above
eonclusion.
Mexico (e.g. Komar 1976). Here, the sand is almost
entirely delivered by longshore transport.
Barrier-Iagoon system Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
This example demonstrates the situation for a micro-
tidal regime (mean tidal range 0.5 m).

Winds predominantly blow trom the northeast and generate

11.5.3 Sediment Accumulation in
Barrier-Lagoon Systems
The depositional systems described here are not di-
rectly related to a major river shedding large amounts
of sediment into the sea. Instead, coastal sediment
accumulation and pro gradation is controlled rnainly
by longshore transport of sediment delivered by a
number of small rivers or transferred from the sea to
the coastal zone. Due to the highly energetic hydro-
dynamic regime, including large waves and high
tides, sediment can accumulate only in protected
zones behind island chains, promontaries, or in bays.
The following two examples demonstrate either
coastal prograding during the late Pleistocene (Atlan-
tic coast of southem Brazil) or sediment buildup dur-
ing Holocene transgression (The Netherlands and
northem Germany). A further, frequently cited exam-
pIe is the prograding sand barrier (~1 mla during the
past 3.5 ka) of Galveston Island along the Gulf of
4-7 m high waves (annually and onee in 30 years, respee-
tively). The Pleistoeene sea-level ehanges during the past
400 ka eaused repeated regressions and transgressions and
have left behind four barrier-lagoon systems superimposed
on eaeh other (Fig. 11.28; Villwoek and Tomazelli 1995).
The present-day barrier-lagoon system between Porto
Alegre and Rio Grande is 60-80 km in width and about 500
km in length (in total 33 000 km 2). A number of small
rivers direetly feed this depositional system. The rivers
drain uplands of 200-500 m in altitude whieh eonsist either
of Preeambrian erystalline rocks (in the south) or basaltie
terrain (in the north). The climate is temperate with 1000-
1500 mmla rainfall. The maximum thiekness of the sedi-
mentary wedge along the outer barrier is ~ 100 m and its
volume, including foreshore and inner shelf sediments
down to a water depth of 100 m (Fig. 11.28b and e), is
-3300 km 3 (about 6 x 10 12 t).
Considering a drainage area of 175 000 km2, the
mean denudation rate necessary to provide a sedi-
ment rnass of3300 km3 would be about 35 mm/ka (or
85 t!km2/a). However, the modem river loads mea-
sured in this area only amount to 20-30 tlkm2/a
11.5 Clastie Sediment, Distribution 525

v V b

I
I
I
/

I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
I I
I I 100 km
\

.... ......... -- -------

C~
·-·100m :·: .
... :-.: . <::... ...

d OLDER
BEACH RIDGE
BEACH RIDGES AND
EOLIAN DUNES

Fig. 11.28. Barrier-lagoon

complex at the coast of Rio
Grande do Sul, Brazil,
prograded during the past
COASTAL PLAIN 400 ka. a,b Location and
(MARSH) \ simplified map of study
area. c Generalized cross-
section of barrier-lagoon
complex used for mass bal-
ance estimation. d Facies
model displaying three hy-
pothetical sequence bound-
aries (ravinement surfaces)
overlain by transgressive
parasequences. (Modified
after Villwock and
Tomazelli 1995)

LAGOONAL DEP . RAVINEMENT

(Instituto de Pesquisas Hidraulicas 1992). Whether
increased denudation during the Pleistocene has pro-
vided the surplus sediment volume from the hinter-
land is uncertain. It is more likely that the major part
(around two thirds) of sediment accumulated in the
barrier-lagoon system has come by longshore trans-
port from the north. Here, high cliffs in Mesozoic
basalts of the Parana basin point to the fact that con-
siderable volumes of rock have been eroded along
the coast.
Barrier-Iagoon systems of the North Sea. The ex-
ample from the Netherlands and northwestem Ger-
many (Fig. 11.29) shows coastal sediment aggra-
dation for a meso- to macrotidal, high-energy wave
regime of the southem North Sea (tidal range 1.5 up
to 4 m).
Detailed investigations in these regions have allowed a
relatively reliable estimate of the sediment mass accumu-
lated in the coastal zone during the late Holocene trans-
gression (DJ. Beets in Streif 1996; Hoselmann and Streif
1997; also see Oost and Boer 1994). About 7500 years
526 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
MASS BALANCE FOR HOLOCENE COASTAL SEDIMENTS

NORTH
SEA

25

COASTAL SEDIMENT
AGGRADATION SINCE
7500 YEARS B.P.

SEDIMENT VOLUME (km l )

Fig. 11.29. Holocene
50 km ,
(7.5 to 2 ka B.P.) sedi-
ment aggradation in
barrier-backbarrier
NORTH SEA ISLANO systems along the
N orth Sea coast. The
cross-section is from
the German coastal
area. (After Beets
1995; Hoselmann and
Streif 1997, simpli-
fied)

B.P., the sea level stood at -25 m below the present level,
and the landward migrating barrier coast line had approxi-
mately reached the present-day coast or barrier islands. As
a result of the slowing relative sea-Ievel rise (from 6 to l.5
mIka), the barrier system became stabilized and the accom-
modation space in the back-barrier zone could be more or
less filled with sediment in the time period up to about 2 ka
B.P. In this way further coastal retreat was largely pre-
vented and finally replaced by some prograding. Behind
the barrier extensive peat swamps evolved.
The late Holocene sediment wedge in the Netherlands
has a volume of 200-250 km 3, and along the North Sea
coast of Gerrnany about 25 km 3 • It consists of about 70%
sand, 25% mud, and 5% peat. Most of the sand is derived
from Pleistocene deposits in the North Sea.
The marine transgression has operated like a sort of
bulldozer pushing marine sand landward. Rivers
have contributed only about 10% of the sediment
young coastal sediment (along the German coast up
to about 35%). The sedimentation rate was in the
order of 1 to 5 mlka. The examples from the North
Sea coast show that not only longshore sediment
transport, but also landward directed sand transport
in conjunction with relative sea-level rise can signifi-
cantly contribute to sediment accumulations along
coast lines.
11.5.4 Transfer of River Sediments to
Deep-Sea Fans
In high-energy environments a major part of the in-
corning sediment is transported to adjacent coastal
areas or into the deep sea. The question is, which
proportion of the incoming sediment is conveyed to
deep-sea fans directly fed by rivers (cf. Sect. 5.4.2)?
11.5 Clastic Sediment, Distribution 527

90° a
60°

20°

150° 120°

5000
b
--.....
ctI TRANSFER RATIO (%) 10 20 50 100 Fig. 11.30. a Location
of selected modem
Ö 2000 deep-sea fans of
/ / BENGAL known age and volume
~ 1000 AMAZONO / / /
(or mass). b Deposi-
o tion rate (fan
o
«
o
500
INDUS 0- MISSISSIPPI
mass/age) of deep-sea
fans (a) vs. sediment
~ discharge of rivers
..J
a:: 200 MAGDALENA .o
w feeding the fans. Sedi-
> 100 / NILE
ment volumes in m3
1i: ZAIRE o/ / / are converted into met-
o 50 ric tons by using a fac-
w RHONE tor of 2 (mean porosity
o -0.25). Transfer ratios

V
zw 20 ;~ITINAT {FRASER) (deposition rate/river
a... / / 0 LAURENTIAN discharge, in %) range
(J)
10 from <10 to >100%.
=>
(J)
,RO AtTORIA (COLUMBlA)
See text for further
explanation. (After
0,2 0.5 1 2 5 '1 0 20 50 100 200 5001000 Wetzel 1993, modi-
DEPOSITED ON FAN (x 106 t/a) fied)

This proportion may be expressed by the term "transfer
ratio" (mass of fan sedimentJriver load, e.g. in percent). To
determine this ratio, data for both the mean river load per
time unit and the overall deposition rate in the fan area
(e.g., rnass of fan sedimentJage of fan) are needed. This
information is available for a number of modem deep-sea
fan systems, but it should be noted that rates of fan deposi-
tion, in contrast to the river load data, mostly represent
long-term mean values (for the past one to several Ma). For
slope-fed deep-sea fans (slope aprons), the transfer ratio is
more difficult to determine.
Fig. 11.30a shows the 10cations of aselected number
of young deep-sea fans which have generated a dis-
tinct morphological expression on the present sea
floor. All these fans formed in front of the mouths of
medium to large rivers, the modem suspended load
of which has been measured (cf. Sect. 9.3). The
transfer ratios of these systems are plotted in the or-
der of increasing river loads and deposition rates on
the fans (Fig. 11.30b). Although the number of reli-
able data is still limited, one can draw the following
conclusions from this graph and other information
about the individual fan systems (Wetzell993):
- The transfer ratios vary from less than 10% to
about lOO%; for some specific fans they are even
greater than lOO% when reworking of older sedi-
ments contributes to fan deposition. Low transfer
ratios are found if only a small fraction of the river
load has reached the deep-sea fan.
528
In zones of stable c!imate, such as the tropics, approxi-
mately one fourth of the river load is deposited on the cor-
responding deep-sea fan. For time periods of > 1 Ma, the
Pleistocene sea-Ievel changes have not significantly af-
fected the transfer ratios. Reduced sediment supply to the
fans during sea-Ievel rise and highstands has been more or
less compensated for by increased supply during sea-Ievel
fall. An intermittent surplus of fan sediment in comparison
to the average river load can be caused, for example, by
reworking of older glacial deposits (as known of the Lau-
rentian fan and Astoria fan).
A prominent example of low sediment transfer is the
Amazon fan receiving !ittle terrigenous material from the
Amazon river during the ptesent-day sea-Ievel highstand.
About one third of the fluvial mud is deposited in the low-
ermost reaches ofthe river before entering the sea (Vital et
al. 1998), and most of the mud arriving in the ocean is
driven northward by currents (Nittrouer et al. 1986). The
fact that the long-term (16.5 Ma) transfer ratio of this sys-
tem is also very low indicates substantial lateral sediment
transport on the shelf even during lowered sea-Ievel stands.
A very low present-day transfer ratio (2%) is also known
of the Ebro (Valencia) fan in the Mediterranean. However,
during the past 4.8 Ma about 22% of the incoming Ebro
sediment reached the deep-sea fan while 45% remained on
the shelf and 33% on the slope (Nelson 1990).
A transfer ratio> 100% seems to have been realized for
the Nitinat fan, representing amiddie to late Pleistocene
(0.6 to 0.8 Ma B.P.) sediment body of the Fraser River.
This fan was deposited in the open deep northwestem Pa-
cific (in contrast to the modern Fraser delta prograding into
the Strait ofGeorgia discussed above). Its mean deposition
rate (11 to 15 x 10 6 mJ/a or about 20 to 28 X 10 6 tla, poros-
ity -0.3) was somewhat greater than that determined for the
Holocene Fraser delta. This finding appears to be reason-
able because during glacial periods sediment supply was
probably higher than in the late Holocene.
- Fluvial-dominated and lobate deltas store a higher
proportion of the incoming sediment by prograding
than wave- and tide-dominated deltas. Especially del-
tas with deeply incised canyons in front of their river
mouths seem to convey a high amount of the river
load to the deep sea.
This is true, for example, of the Rhöne fan in the
western Mediterranean and, to some extent, also of
the huge Bengal fan in the Indian ocean.
Bengal fan. About 50% of the rock material eroded in the
Himalayas during the past 20 Ma has been deposited on the
Bengal fan (Figs. 11.30b and 11.31). Even with the
present-day sea-Ievel highstand, a large proportion of the
incoming sediment is funneled to the deep sea via a deep
canyon cut into the shelf and fan head (Kuehl et al. 1989;
Hübscher et al. 1997; Weber et al. 1997, Kudrass et al.
1998). Storm-induced and tidal currents transport sediment
from the inner shelf into the head of the canyon. The upper
subaerial Bengal delta in northeastem Bangladesh seems to
have subsided at an average rate of 1.2 mika during the last
few millions ofyears (Worm et al. 1998).
Mississippi fan. If the deposition rate of this fan is re-
lated to the modern suspended river load reduced by dam
sites upstream, then the transfer ratio would be about 60%.
Considering a sediment balance of the major part of the
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
Gulf of Mexico for the past 2.3 Ma (Hay et al. 1989;
Wetzel 1993), however, the average transfer ratio is only
35%.
Columbia and Zaire fans. The Columbia fan (off the
US Atlantic coast) and Zaire fan (off central West Africa)
presently receive 11 and 15% of their river loads, respec-
tively.
- The sediment transfer ratio to deep-sea fans seems
to be independent ofthe size ofthe fan (Fig. 11.30b).
On the other hand, relatively small fans close to
coastal mountain ranges, tend to have high er propor-
tions of sand and gravel than the large, mud-domi-
nated deep-sea fans (e.g. Reading and Richards
1994; Reynolds 1994). One can expect that the trans-
fer ratios of coarser grained fans are higher than
those of mud-dominated fans, hut quantitative data
are not yet available.
The sum of all deposition rates known from modem
deep-sea fans (Wetze1 1993) is about 650 x 106 m3/a
or -1.2 x 109 tla. Assuming that these examples
cover about one half of all fans existing in the
present-day oceans, one finds that approximate1y 15-
20% of the global river load reaching the oceans
(Sect. 9.3.2) is transferred to deep-sea fans. This is a
surprisingly low proportion, but it supports the con-
clusions on sediment storage in delta areas and
prograding coastlines. In addition, a significant part
of the river-borne sediment must come to rest outside
of delta complexes and river-fed deep-sea fans, i.e.
on shelves, slopes, slope-aprons, and basin plains
beyond the range of deep-sea fans (cf. Sects. 11.5.5
and 11.5.7).
11.5.5 Mud Deposition on Continental Shelves
Significant proportions of the river-borne terrigenous
sand and mud are not deposited in the corresponding
delta and prodelta areas or directly transferred to
deep-sea fans as discussed above. Sand can be trans-
ported alongshore over long distances away from the
mouths of rivers and either be stored in the coastal
zone, or become trapped in the heads of distant sub-
marine valleys funneling sediment into the deep sea.
Mud commonly accumulates at some distance sea-
ward from the coastline on the middle and outer
shelf, depending on the hydrodynamic regime of the
area and river mud supply (cf. Sect. 3.3). Shelves in
front of mud-rich rivers, such as the Amazon River,
can become mud-dominated and store large propor-
tions of the incoming fine-grained sediment as men-
tioned above. High-energy environments, for exam-
pIe the Pacific coast of North America, allow mud
deposition only at water depths greater than about 50
m.
Such an example has been reported from the Ca!ifomian
coast elose to the delta of the Eel River (Sumrnerfield and
11.5 Clastic Sediment, Distribution
Nittrouer 1999). High wave- and current action do not al-
low the outbuilding of a delta lobe, and a large proportion
of the modem terrigenous influx is collected by the Eel
Canyon. However, episodic floods carry mud to the adja-
cent shelf where it accumulates seaward of the 50 m
isobath at mean rates ofO.5 glcm 2/a (~ 4 mmla; according
to Pb-21O and Cs-137 dating). Toward the shelfbreak, the
accumulation rates decrease. About 20% ofthe total fluvial
mud supply are deposited on the shelf.
11.5.6 Sediment Distribution in a Basin Chain
Several lake basins (Sect. 2.5) and basins of larger
dimensions may be connected and form a basin chain
displaying distinct trends in their sedimentary fills. A
well studied example in Central Europe is the young
(Neogene) basin chain including the Vienna basin,
the Transcarpathian basins, the Pannonian basin, and
the Black Sea (cf. Sect. 12.7.3). These basins re-
ceived terrigenous material mainly from the north
(e.g. from the precursor of the Danube River) and
were successively filled up with sediment. At pres-
ent, only the Black Sea is left as a water-filled basin
at the end of the chain.
Himalayas-Bengal fan. The largest young example
of a basin chain ranges from the Sub-Himalayan
foredeep (foreland basin) via the Bengal basin of
Bangladesh (remnant basin, foredeep) to the huge
Bengal fan in the Indian ocean. The successive fill-
ing of these basins during the past 20 Ma can be ap-
proximately reconstructed by applying the DA-ap-
proach introduced in Section 11.2 (Fig. 11.31;
Einseie et al. 1996). A sediment mass balance for the
past 20 Ma, supported by the independently deter-
mined mass of erosion in the Himalayas (Fig.
11.31 b), reveals that about 17% of the total mass
(about 19.5 x 10 15 t) remained in the Sub-Himalayan
foredeep, 28% in the Bengal basin (including its
prograding delta area), and 55% accumulated on the
Bengal deep-sea fan (Fig. 11.31 c-e).
In pre-Miocene times, the Sub-Himalayan foredeep repre-
sented a marine foreland basin which received limited
amounts of river-borne sediment from northern, distal parts
of the evolving mountain complex. In the early Miocene,
thick overthrust sheets (the present-day High Himalayan
chain) moved southward on top ofthe Main Central Thrust
and gained in altitude (Fig. 11.31 b). As a result of in-
creased sediment supply, the foredeep was transformed into
a fluvial basin (Siwalik Group) and has remained so up to
the present. The precursors of the Ganges and Brahmaputra
rivers then transported their surplus sediment to the Bengal
basin which was successively filled by prograding delta
and prodelta deposits. Westward overthrusting of the
Indoburman Ranges narrowed the Bengal basin and pro-
moted delta prograding toward the Bay of Bengal. Sedi-
ment (mostly mud) not deposited in the delta area and on
the prodelta slope was transferred to the Bengal deep-sea
fan by gravity flows and turbidity currents over a distance
ofup to almost 3000 km.
529
With the aid of the sediment masses and grain size frac-
tions present in the individual basins, the average grain size
distribution of the Himalayan river loads can be roughly
determined (Fig. 11.3lf; Einseie 1996). This estimate
shows that the Himalayan rivers carried about 30% sand
and 70% silt and clay. Approximately 20% ofthe total sand
supply and 80% of the mud supply reached the Bengal fan.
11.5.7 Long-Term Sediment Distribution Along
Passive Continental Margins
Terrigenous sediment escaping from deposition on
delta fronts, prodelta slopes, and deep-sea fans is
often widely distributed on adjacent shelves, conti-
nental slopes, and in the deep sea. The processes in-
volved in this sediment dispersal are briefly de-
scribed in Sections 5.2 and 5.3.1. Their importance is
here underlined by two examples from areas where at
least a semi-quantitative approach is possible due to
extensive seismic studies and deep-sea drilling.
Gulf of Mexico: Coastal Progradation and
Marine Sediment Accumulation
The frequently described drainage system of the Mis-
sissippi River delivering its sediment load into the
Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 11.32a-c) is a classic example
of the interplay between processes in the source area
and deposition along a passive continental margin
(summarized, e.g., by Matthews 1974; mass balance
see Ray et al. 1989).
In the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous, terrigenous sediment
supply to the basin was limited. This allowed the growth
and prograding of an extensive carbonate platform. With
the onset ofuplift ofthe Rocky Mountains and the Appala-
chians in the upper Cretaceous, terrigenous sediment input
into the gulf increased significantly. The river-derived ma-
terial was distributed over a wide shelf and slope region
and formed a huge clastic wedge. This wedge migrated
about 200 km seaward since the upper Cretaceous (average
rate ~0.25 crnla). Uniform outbuilding was, however, mod-
ified by sea level fluctuations and regional differential sub-
sidence in response to the increasing sediment load and
diapirism of Jurassic salt. Cenozoic clastic sediments reach
a thickness of up to 15 km. Mass baian ces indicate that
extensive areas of the Rocky Mountains and High Plains
have been uplifted as much as I to 3 km since the late Plio-
cene. On the western Florida shelf, which is an area outside
of the influence of the Mississippi river, carbonate sedi-
mentation continues to prevail up to the Present.
Using the present-day chemical and mechanical de-
nudation rates of the Mississippi River for the other
drainage areas of the Gulf of Mexico, one can esti-
mate the average sedimentation rate in the gulf. The
gulf covers an area of about 1.5 x 106 km2 , the drain-
age area of the rivers approximately 4.5 x 106 km2 ;
hence the A d/ Ab ratio is about 3. The drainage of the
530 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

a b
MEAN RATES OF DENUDATION (past 20 Ma)
CHEMICAl D. MECHANICAL O. ENTIRE

----- ...... ----- --- ',7 J . .. 350 ':·-:'·:>1___ ~~~~:~_~~:. .,.

TIBET. PLATEAU "

--- --- ' j{.--
___ ,.- -,/31w09

';/ uf\\, i
-..J

"~~%
.: :;
<;.

(~
I~
: !~
I );:::- NICO-

d
( 0 Site 718 : ;/
"--\ .: ~ BAR FAN 's'
500 km
i======d
OCEANIC :-'.. ,-'.%' BENGAl FAN
~~~~----~~----------------~~~----~--o
RIDGE ~ '----- ;::

f GRAIN SIZE PARTITIONING

S F S F S F
10 90 50 50 85 15 SILT &
CLAY km

SAND &

~
.:: GRAVEL
11
. . ::' ~ c-
:?, 1'5-20 [Bh':: ::.
e
", 30
::: : :: 3 HIMALA YAS , ERODED ROCKS
L..---L-...--4

B. FAN B. BASIN FORE- HIMAl. (in the past 20 Mal

& DELTA DEEP RIVERS A = 20.4

MASS BALANCE TO
INOUS SYSTEM
OF EROSION (5 10 0 Ma )
AND DEPOSITION B = O.B

PENINSUlAR
INOIA
SUBHIMALAYAN
E FOAEDEEP 3.3
2.5
OISSOlVED 1.2
(FROM HIMAlAYAS) '.7

==:> SOLIDS MASSES TO BE COMPARED

~ OISSOLVEO
ERODED IN THE HIMALAYAS (A - BI: 19. 6
ACCUMULATED IN BASINS (TOTAL + G - C - F: 20.6
ALL VALUES INDICATE x 10'5 t (METRIC TONS)
11.5 Clastic Sediment, Distribution
Mississippi River alone is 3.27 x 106 km2 • With a
mechanical denudation rate of 48 mlMa (cf. Fig.
9.16), the average siliciclastic sedimentation rate
(solid, pore-free sediment) in the gulfshould be -145
mlMa. This rate does not represent the actual situa-
tion in the basin because the sediment is not distrib-
uted evenly. The average sedimentation rate of
biogenic calcium carbonate (15 mlMa) calculated
from the present-day river load is about equal to rates
found for pelagic carbonates in other ocean basins
above the CCD (Sect. 10.2).
In fact, the basin was fi1led irregularly by several point
sources of variable efficiency. Most of the incoming sedi-
ment accumulated on the prograding continental slope. In
its late history (some Ma B.P.), about 35% ofthe sediment
load of the Mississippi River was stored in the Mississippi
deep-sea fan (Sect. 11.5.4). Here, the sedimentation rate
can reach values up to 1000 mJMa (cf. Sect. 5.4.2).
The chemical denudation rate in the drainage area is 15
mlMa, but only part of the dissolved river load is deposited
in the basin. About 15% of this load is Ca 2+ (cf. Fig. 9.8,
Mississippi and Rio Grande rivers), corresponding to a Ca
denudation rate of around 2 mJMa. After conversion into
CaC0 3 (factor 2.5) and using AjAb=3, one obtains a
(biogenie ) calcium carbonate sedimentation rate of approx-
imately 15 mJMa. Calcium carbonate deposition in the
gulf, however, is diluted too much by silic1astic material to
generate carbonate-rich sediments, apart from some shelf
regions (western Florida, Yucatan). Finally, it should be
mentioned that part of the dissolved river load is ex-
changed with sea water flowing into and out ofthe gulf.
Northwestern Atlantic:
Shelf-Slope-Deep Sea Deposition
The Atlantic is a mature ocean basin which has
grown mainly since the middle Jurassic (cf. Sect.
12.2). Huge amounts of sediments have accumulated
along its margins including the continental slope and
rise. Architecture and stratigraphy of these sediments
are relatively well known due to seismic work and
deep-sea drilling. The US Atlantic margin is a thor-
oughly studied part of this margin and therefore used
as an example of wide and uneven sediment distribu-
tion. Isopach maps and sediment mass balances for
both the source and depositional area have led to re-
sults which also characterize other sections of mature
continental margins (Fig. Il.32d and e).
Oll!(
Fig. 11.31. Mass balance of denudation and sediment
accumulation in the Himalaya-Bengal fan system for
the past 20 Ma. a Catchment areas of rivers draining
the Himalayas and part of peninsular India; extent of
Bengal deep-sea fan. b Mean denudation rates in the
Himalayas during the past 20 Ma. c Isopach map of
molasse sediments in the Himalayan foredeep and
location of Bengal basin (foredeep), present-day
delta and prodelta. d Longitudinal section of Bengal
fan. e Mass balances of denudation (solids and
531
The depositional area comprises the Baltimore canyon
trough and Hatteras basin, and the drainage area a major
part of the Appalachians (Grow et al. 1988; Poag and
Sevon 1989; Pazzaglia and Brandon 1996; cf. Sect. 9.5 and
Table 9.1).
The majority of terrigenous sediment, entering the
basin via point sources, bypassed the coastal plain
and inner shelf and accumulated on the outer shelf,
continental slope and rise (cf. model basin Fig.
11.23c). The sediment thicknesses are largely con-
trolled by the rates of (differential) subsidence and
the tendency of the basin to maintain a certain shelf-
stope morphology. As a result of slowing subsidence
of the shelf (on transitional crnst), the depocenter
migrated from the outer shelf (Jurassic) to the upper
rise (Cretaceous) and ultimately to the deeper rise
(Neogene). The overall mean rate ofterrigenous sedi-
mentation was in the order of 60 mlMa for the past
175 Ma, but the rates varied enormously from loca-
tion to location as well as with time.
11.5.8 Global Marine Sediment Distribution
The results of regional studies are also supported by
estimates about the global distribution of post-rift
sediments (deposited after the breakup of Pangea,
-120 Ma ago). Ofthe total sediment mass existing in
the present-day oceans, about 70% accumulated on
the continental slopes and continental rises, 17% on
the shelves, and the remainder in the deep sea (Em-
ery and Uchupi 1984). Other workers have stressed
the great differences in the accumulation rates of
terrigenous sediments in various parts of the oceans
(e.g. Lisitzin 1991). In the large ocean basins some
distance off the coasts, these rates are very low (1-10
mlMa). In limited areas close to the coasts, the rates
reach values of 100-1000 mlMa. Extremely high
rates of ;:: 1000 mlMa occur at the upper portions of
large deep-sea fans where sediment thicknesses of
10-15 km have been recorded.
dissolved matter) in the Himalayas and part of
peninsular India as well as sediment accumulation in
the basin chain from the Himalayan foredeep to the
Bengal fan. f Grain size partitioning of Himalayan
riverine sediment supply along basin chain: I
proportions of sand (S, sand and gravel) and fines (F,
silt and clay) present in individual basins; 11
percentage of total river load (S= 100% and F= 100%)
left behind along basin chain. (After Einseie et al.
1996, simplified)
532 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

BAl TIMORE CANYON TROUGH, CROSS SECTION 50 km

o ------------------------- --- --- ---- ---

-=-==-~~;;;::;.::..~ P + Q
~~~~~~
+-+ -I- SYN-RIFr.. ·:··~.:~,:
10 + BASINS t ';'
km.j.. !- ... ~ ..

JUR.-lOWER CRET U.CRET ,- PlEISTOGENE c

CARBONATE SHElF GLASTIG WEDGE (1- 4)

'0

20
km GRUST AND
PAlEOZOIG SED .
500 km
- ISOPACHS (km)

Fig. 11.32. a Present-day Mississippi drainage area.
b Prograding of Cretaceous to Recent deposition into
the Gulf of Mexico forrning a huge clastic wedge. c
Cross-section of b. (After Matthews 1974, modi-
fied). d Isopach map of Jurassie to Recent sediments
along the US Atlantic passive margin with
depocenter in Baltimore canyon trough. e Cross-sec-
tion thrOUgh Baltimore canyon trough. (After Grow
et al. 1988; Pazzaglia and Brandon 1996, simplified)
11.6 Consequenees for Stratigraphie Sequenees
11.5.9 Summary (Sediment Distribution)
- The assumption of an exponential decrease in
the sedimentation rate from a point source to-
ward the morphological center of a water-filled
basin is only valid for some specific cases.
- In medium- to high-energy shallow-marine bas-
ins, sediment bypassing is common; even in
deep basins great proportions of sediment may
be redistributed by bottom currents. As a result,
sediment thicknesses are largely controlled by
the hydrodynamic regime of the basin and dif-
ferential subsidence.
- Holocene (sea-Ievel highstand) up- and out-
building of delta plains and prodelta slopes into
low- to medium-energy marine environments
has often occurred at rates of several m/a, in-
cluding prograding of adjacent coastlines. This
process has consumed at least one half of the
incoming river sediment. The same applies to
some lobate marine deltas subjected to high er
energy conditions. The same degree of sedi-
ment partition mayaiso be valid for longer time
periods. The (upper) prodelta slope is the site of
most rapid deposition.
11.6 Consequenees for Stratigraphie
Sequenees and Facies Associations
(Overview)
11.6.1 Vertical Facies Evolution:
Three Principal Types
Summarizing the results of the interplay between
denudation and depositional areas, sedimentation,
and subsidence, three principal alternatives for the
vertical facies evolution in sedimentary basins can be
distinguished:
(1) Vertical sediment buildup ~ subsidence (over-
supplied basins): shallowing basin, transition from
marine or lake deposits into fluvial or eolian sedi-
ments. Decrease in the proportion of biogenic sedi-
ment components. In the case of carbonates: increase
in benthic and reef-derived carbonate.
(2) Sediment buildup ::; subsidence (sediment-
starved conditions): deepening basin, transition from
continental or shallow-marine into deep-marine envi-
ronment. Increase in the proportion of biogenic sedi-
ment components, except for water depths below the
lysocline (dissolution of carbonate and opaline sil-
ica).
(3) Sediment supply and vertical buildup approxi-
mately compensates for subsidence ("balanced" bas-
ins): long-persisting identical morphological basin
533
- The prograding of barrier-Iagoon systems
along high-energy co asts seems to be largely
fed by longshore sediment transport or material
derived from the shallow sea. This is shown
for Holocene and late Pleistocene examples.
- The transfer of river sediment to deep-sea fans
varies widely (transfer ratios from <10 to
100%). Fluvial-dominated and lobate deltas
tend to convey a lower proportion of the in-
coming sediment to the deep sea than tide-
dominated deltas. The latter also transfer sedi-
ment to fans during sea-Ievel highstands. The
long-term sediment transfer is essentially con-
trolled by terrigenous sediment supply and is
little affected by sea-Ievel changes.
- Apart from deltas, prodeltas, and deep-sea fans
(which may migrate), a large proportion of the
river-borne sediment is widely dispersed on
shelves and in deeper basins. Along passive
continental margins, terrigenous sediments are
preferentially deposited on the outer shelf, con-
tinental slope and upper continental rise.
configuration, maintenance of deep-marine, shallow-
marine, or continental facies. No long-term drastic
change in the proportions of terrigenous and biogenic
sediment components.
Basins Over-Supplied with Sediment
Over-supplied basins are short-lived, but well repre-
sented in the geologic record. Their facies types are
dominated by clastic sediments and show a shallow-
ing-upward trend. This category of basins comprises
deep-sea to continental basin settings and environ-
ments, including
- Graben structures and rift basins with fluvial de-
posits (examples of Sect. 12.1).
- Lakes fed by rivers from high-relief regions (Sects.
2.2.2 and 2.5.1) and proglacial lake deposits (Sect.
2.1.1 and Sect. 11.2).
- Marine deltas and deep-sea fans (Sects. 3.5, 5.4.2,
and 11.5).
- Rernnant basins with turbidites (Sect. 12.6.1).
- Foreland basins with flysch and molasse deposition
(Sect. 12.6.2).
- Forearc and backarc basins with high supply of
volcaniclastics and other clastic material (Sects. 12
5.3 and 12.5.4).
534
- Pull-apart basins in areas of high relief (Sect.
12.8.2).
- Some adjacent seas with high terrigenous sediment
input (e.g. the northem Gulf of Califomia (Sects. 4.3
and 11.3).
Sediment-Starved Basins
Sediment-starved basins evolve far away from effi-
eient, mostly high-relief terrigenous sediment
sourees. Their upward-fining and thinning vertical
facies successions indicate deepening basins, and
their slowly deposited sediments tend to become in-
creasingly rich in bio genie material, and sometimes
also in organic matter. Typical examples include
- Central parts of large oceanic basins and smaller
basins in the vicinity of mid-oceanic ridges (Sects.
5.3.2 and 5.3.3).
- Isolated submarine highs and platforms (Sect.
5.3.7).
- Epicontinental seas surrounded by lowlands.
- Arid adjacent seas with drainage areas of low sedi-
ment yield (e.g. the present-day Red Sea (Sect. 4.3).
- Closed lakes receiving little terrigenous sediment
(e.g. the Dead Sea, Sect. 11.3).
Basins with Balanced Sediment Supply
These basins tend to maintain their depositional envi-
ronment for considerable time periods. Long-term
shallowing- or fining-upward trends are absent.
Characteristic examples are
- Siliciclastic shelf seas of moderate subsidence, a
surplus in terrigenoUs sediment influx is often re-
moved by sediment bypassing into deeper water.
- Carbonate shelves and carbonate platforms tend to
adjust their vertical buildup to relative sea level, with
and without various types of reefs (Sect. 3.4). Excess
biogenie carbonate production is transferred by cur-
rents to deeper water.
- Some shelf areas affected by upwelling water
masses and high organic productivity (e.g. the mod-
em shelves off Peru and South Africa, Sect. 5.3.4)
maintain these conditions for long time periods.
- Epicontinental seas with moderate influx of
terrigenous sediment and slow subsidence.
- Some foreare and backare basins with limited sedi-
ment supply.
- Subsiding lake basins with limited sediment sup-
ply.
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
Modifying Factors
The three principal trends mentioned above may be-
come modified in many ways by changes in oceano-
graphie and climatic conditions, and by variations in
organic productivity due to the faunal and floral evo-
lution through time. In addition, sea-level fluctua-
tions and synsedimentary tectonism (such as exten-
sion, convergence, strike-slip etc.) play an important
part. The great variety of sedimentary facies through
time is mainly a result of these modifying factors
which obscure the simple basic principles.
Why Are Shallow-Marine Deposits So Common?
It is surprising that shallow-marine deposits consti-
tute a great proportion of the total sediment volume
in present-day environments as weIl as in the fossil
record. One would expect that the principle condition
(3), i.e., a balance between sediment supply and sub-
sidence, is rarely realized for a time period of some
geological significance. Hence, long-persisting
shallow-water conditions should be an exception.
However, the present-day, high-energy shelf environ-
ments demonstrate that the hydrodynamic conditions
of the sea prevent aggradation of sediment up to sea
level (Fig. 11.23b and c). Instead, the incoming
terrigenous sediment is widely distributed over the
entire shelf area and some is bypassed into deeper
water (cf. Sect. 3.3). Significant outbuilding of the
coastline is normally restricted to zones of very high
sediment influx.
Thus, long persistence of shallow-marine condi-
tions in the sedimentary record testifies to the fact
that the former basin was probably oversupplied with
sediment most of the time, but has lost part of its sed-
iment influx to deeper, more poorly supplied regions.
Similarly, fluvial basins are commonly filled up to
the level of their stream gradient. Any excess in river
supply is carried farther downstream; thus a balance
between sediment aggradation and basin subsidence
is established· for a significant time period. Such a
process provides thick fluvial records. The examples
in Chapter 12 further illustrate the principles briefly
discussed here.
In contrast to shallow-marine sediments, deep-sea
sediments are under-represented in the fossil record,
because they were largely subducted at convergent
plate boundaries and transformed intometamorphic
rocks.
11.6 Consequences for Stratigraphie Sequences 535

11.6.2 Vertical and Lateral Facies Associations Moderate clastic input Low clastic input
(Overview)
Abyssal plain Deep-sea pelagic
Facies and Facies Change (General Aspects) sediments
Deep-sea fan Deeper marine
As described in Part 11 of this book, sediments de- hemipel. sediments
posited in special environments have distinct charac- Shallow marine Shallow marine
teristics, i.e., texture, sedimentary structures, mineral- c1astics (below wave base)
ogical and chemical composition, preserved remains Delta and lake Coastal-marine
of their original fauna and flora, trace fossils, etc. All sediments (above wave base)
these characteristics are summarized under the term Braidplain Delta, lagoon,
(sediment) ''facies ", which is discussed in more detail tidal flats
in many textbooks (e.g. Dunbar and Rodgers 1957; Alluvial fan Alluvial plain
Krumbein and Sloss 1963; Blatt et al. 1980, and oth-
ers). The facies of a sediment may indicate its partic-
ular depositional environment that· distinguishes it The examples of shallowing environments display
from other facies in the same or another basin. either silicic1astic or carbonate-dominated systems
Changing sedimentary environments cause facies and begin with deep-sea conditions (bottom of col-
changes both in vertical and lateral directions. One of umn):
the basic mIes in sedimentary geology is that a spe-
cial facies type can "migrate" obliquely through Siliciclastic Carbonate sediments
space and time, whereas the facies types change both sediments
in horizontal and vertical directions (Walter's Law,
see, e.g., Teichert 1958; textbooks mentioned above). Fluvial plain Alluvial plain
This means that a specific environment, producing a (red beds)
certain sediment facies, is established at different Delta plain, lake, Coastal sabkha
locations and times during the basin evolution. marsh
Individual facies types are combined in character- Coastal, tidal- Carbonate lagoon,
istic vertical facies successions or, more generally, in lagoonal evaporites
vertical and lateral facies associations. The principal River mouth bar Reef and reef
morphological evolution of ancient sedimentary bas- sands detritus
ins can be reconstructed mainly with the aid of such Prodelta, c1astic Deeper carbonate
fades associations and their architectural elements shelf platform
(cf. Sect. 1.4.3). Large-scale phenomena and trends Deep-sea fan Carbonate slope
are mostly superimposed by smaller scale features Basin plain Slope apron
caused by relative sea-Ieve1 changes or base level carbonates
cyc1es (stacking patterns, minor sequences, Deep-sea carbonate
parasequences, systems or facies tracts, and rhythmic
bedding; Chap. 7). The identification and interpreta- Frequently, only part of these successions is realized
tion of facies associations of a basin fill are one of in a particular basin (cf. Part 11, e.g. Figs. 2.13 and
the most important aims in sedimentary geology. For 2.14, 2.28b, 3.15, 3.28a,b, 3.34 and 3.35, 4.6, 6.5e
this reason, the major groups of large-scale facies and 6.9).
associations are briefly mentioned here; smaller-
scale trends in the facies evolution of specific
depositional systems are described in Part IL Minor vertical facies associations inc1ude:

- Pelagic to hemipelagic shales, marls, limes tones,

Vertical Facies Successions
The first two columns of facies associations demon-
strate deepening environments evolving from fluvial
(bottom) to deep-sea conditions:
and black shales (cf. Sect. 7.9.3).
- Pe1agic carbonates, carbonaceous siliceous shales
and chert, red shales, mostly associated with oceanic
cmst (cf. Sect. 5.3, Figs. 5.4 and 5.5).
- Skeletal lag deposits, consisting of cephalopods,
crinoids, gastropods, etc., phosphorites, glauconitic
minerals, cmsts and nodules of iron and mangane se
oxyhydrates (condensed sections).
- Red and green shales and various evaporites (cf.
Sect. 6.4).
536
These and many other minor facies assoeiations de-
scribed in Part 11 are particularly useful for the iden-
tification of depositional environments.
Lateral Facies Associations
Successions similar to those mentioned above also
occur as lateral facies associations:
- Alluvial fan - braidplain - (playa) lake ± eolian
sands (cf. Figs. 2.8 and 2.32).
- Alluvial plain - tidal flats (lagoon) - shallow ma-
rine - deeper marine.
- Alluvial plain (red beds, eolian sands) - coastal
sabkha - lagoonal carbonates and evaporites - reef -
forereef - carbonate slope - slope apron (partially
shown in Fig. 6.8e).
- Clastic shelf - slope and slope channels deep-sea
fan- basin plain
(cf. Fig. 5.18).
- Mid-oceanic ridge - deep-sea pelagic and
hemipelagic environments (below and above CCD)-
deep-sea trench - accretionary wedge with slope bas-
ins. (Sect. 12.5, Fig. 12.19).
Proximal-distal trends in relation to the sediment
souree also lead to distinct lateral facies associations,
for example:
- Slope channel deposits - upper and lower deep-sea
fan - overbank deposits - basin plain, displaying
channel, proximal and distal turbidites (Sect. 5.4.2,
Fig.5.18).
- Lava flows - pyroclastic flows and ignimbrites -
ash falls with decreasing grain size - fluvial-trans-
ported tephra - ash turbidites in lakes and in the deep
sea (Sect. 2.4.2, Fig. 2.24).
- Relatively coarse fluvial sand - fine eolian sand -
eolian dust (loess, Fig. 2.1).
Further examples of facies aSSOCIatlOns in various
tectonically defined basin types are described in
Chapter 12.
11.7 Preservation and Recycling
of Older Sediments
11.7.1 Tbe Survival Rate of Sediment
A general, global problem is the preservation and
recycling of sediments in the geological record. Due
to uplift and erosion as weIl as subduction at conver-
gent plate boundaries, only part of the ancient sedi-
ments still exists. Old mountain ranges, such as the
Caledonian and Hercynian fold-thrust belts, are
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
largely stripped of their sedimentary cover and ex-
hibit their "roots" at the present land surface. By con-
trast, pre- and synorogenic sediments of younger
orogenic belts are still in the process of being rapidly
eroded. Considering the state of erosion of present-
day mountain ranges, we observe that, for example in
the Himalayas, Paleozoic metamorphic and non-
metamorphic rocks as weIl as Mesozoic and some
Tertiary sediments are presently exposed to coeval
weathering and denudation. In the Alps, Triassic to
Cretaceous sediments as weIl as older metamorphic
rocks of the central crystalline zones are widely sub-
jected to present-day erosion, but some Tertiary sedi-
ments also contribute to the modem sediment yield
of this region.
These examples and the fact that mountain ranges
have sediment yields about two orders of magnitude
greater than lowlands demonstrate that modem sedi-
ments are derived from rocks of a wide range in age.
Their terrestrial proportion mainly consists of recy-
cled older sediments including metamorphic rocks.
One can define a kind of mean residence time of sed-
imentary rocks, i.e. the time span between their for-
mation and erosion. Similarly, the "half-life" ('"&"50) of
sediments of a certain time period can be determined
which is the time after which 50% of the initial sedi-
ment volume has been eroded (Fig. 11.33a).
A rough estimate for the sediments of Alpine orogenie
belts renders a mean residenee time on the order of 200 to
300 Ma. Immature orogenie belts exhibit a sediment half-
life of 78 Ma, mature orogenie belts with exhumed "roots"
one of -350 Ma (Veizer et al. 1989). Aetive margin basins
tend to be rapidly destroyed ('50 = 25 Ma), whereas the
sediments of passive margins live longer ('so = 75 Ma).
Sediments on eontinental platforms reaeh a half-live of
-350 Ma. For the post-Devonian time, the average half-life
of all types of sediment was found to be 130 Ma (Gregor
1985). For all ages ofsediment, including the Preeambrian,
the half-life is longer. Total sediment produetion for the
last 3000 Ma is estimated to have been about 5 to 6 times
the mass· of the presently existing sediment. The average
sediment yield of the Phanerozoie was probably in the or-
der of7 to 10 x 10 9 tlyear (Gregor 1985; Tardy et al. 1989;
see also Wold and Hay 1990).
To define the remaining sedimentary mass of an
older time period, the term "survival rate" was pro-
posed (e.g. Gregor 1985). This is the present-day
surviving mass (or volume) of sedimentary rocks of a
given time span per unit time of deposition (e.g.
tonsIMa). The volume of sediments preserved from a
certain time period, including some metamorphosed
material, generally decreases with their age. For the
Phanerozoic this decline in sediment mass can be
approximated by an exponential curve (Fig.
11.34a,b). However, the masses of preserved Pre-
cambrian rocks are greater than predicted by this
rule, because they are predominantly cratonic. Even
in the Phanerozoic, there are many deviations from
11.7 Preservation and Recycling ofOlder Sediments 537

Mass of initial sediment Sediment

I!/J
Recycled into sediment
of next time unit
cycling
!/J
ttI
E
.....
c Sediment of t o a
Q) ...
E ::....: preserved

::..:
"0
Q)
Cf)
:.:
..
Time
units

3x
Fig. 11.33. Simplistic
b models of global sediment
recycling as controlled by
2x both the time since onset
of sediment production
and the half-life (here
equal to 1 time unit) of
the sediment type consid-
ered. Recycling propor-
1x Recycled tionality constant, Ö, is 050
or 1/2 per time unit (for-
New ward modelling). a Ero-
sediment sion of the initial sedi-
, 2, 3, .. Sediment eroded during t o-t 1 , t 1-t 2 , t 2 -t 3 ment column (10) with
time. b After each time
unit half of the pre-exist-
Time units ~ Total sediment of each ing sediment, i.e. half of
each sediment category
(Tso) I time unit
(primary or recycled) is
t1 --------------
destroyed and incorpo-
c rated into the sediment
body of the next time
unit. Yield and deposition
of sediment are assumed
to remain constant
through time. c The pro-
portion of recycled mate-
rial in the total existing
sediment volume in-
creases with the number
of cycles
o

the general trend (e.g. variation in the original sedi and Mackenzie (1971), Veizer and Jansen (1979), Tardyet
ment production, changing denudation rates and sedi- al. (1989), Veizer et al. (1989), and others. In spite ofthese
ment yield in relation to relief and climate, etc.). efforts, the uncertainties in the detennination of initial sedi-
ment volumes and sediment yields of older time periods are
still substantial.
Regional and global data on the volumes ofpreserved sedi-
mentary rocks have been collected by many authors (e.g.
Ronov 1982). The processes of sediment recycling have
been addressed and simulated to some extent by Garrels
538 Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill

s, ~
4
:21:'log S

I
I

t 1 0
Time units B.P.
t
a
b
10

BE
m
I/J
c
0
6;-'
0
.-
4-
Cf)
Q)
.....
2 ~
volcanic free K T m
>
0';;
6 5 4 3 _2 1 o :; Cf)
Time B.P. (x 100 Ma)

c
- Caledon.-+- Hercyn.+-- Alpine ---- 10
r--.., r-'"
I I Average m
E d d-.L
ro e I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
rate of
deposition
r-
1K Benc
::E
Fig. 11.34. a Semilogarithmic plot of sedi-
--1-.---+.. __I . --I-J. -_. - .1_-"I/,4~ o
..... ment, St, preserved after time t In relation to
I ""'-"1.. I I - the initial sediment rnass So (backward mod-
I I 1"1 1 rJ "'
6'0 elling). k slope in the diagram. b Sediment
I : I I L : survival rates of Phanerozoic sediments. (a
General I I I I I - L..-;:-l
I ~ 0 15 10 l e i p IR and b after Gregor 1985, modified). c Sedi-
Cf)
I
trend "I c: I 1 I I I I ment survival rates as b, approximated by an
I I I1 I
4 ~
....
CI)
exponential curve. Estirnates (broken fines)
Preserved I I indicate the original sediment yields (derived
sedimenlt~_]I~~~~~ from runoff data in conjunction with the
paleo-position of the continents) as weH as
the average sediment yield during the
Phanerozoic. (After Tardy et al. 1989, modi-
600 500 400 300 200 100 fied)
Time B.P. (Ma)

11.7.2 Recycling of Sediment
Relatively young sediments partly consist of material
which has been recycled several times. The number
of cycles increases with time after the onset of sedi-
ment production and with decreasing half-life ('t"50) of
the sediment type in question (Fig. 11.33b,c).
The simplistic model of this relationship is based on the
assumption that all rock types of the previous time unit are
equally exposed to erosion. Sediments transformed to
metamorphic rocks also contribute to the production of
new sediment. The model demonstrates, for example, that
after a time period of 4 half-lives, 63% of the total young
sediment consist of material recyc1ed 2 to 3 times; 6% have
been recycled 4 times.
Repeatedly recycled sediments tend to mature chemi-
cally and mineralogically as well as texturally (cf.
Sect. 9.1). Some sediment types, such as easi1y solu-
ble evaporites and to some extent also carbonates, are
destroyed faster than shales, sandstones, and vol-
canogenic rocks. This selective sediment destruction
leads to shorter half-lives of the soluble rocks. This
explains why their proportion of the existing total
mass of sedimentary rocks tends to increase in young
geological periods (Mesozoic and Cenozoic),
whereas· they are largely gone in old sedimentary se-
quences. In very old sequences, the most resistant
rocks tend to become relatively enriched (e.g.
quartzitic sandstones and chert, ironstones).
11.7.3 Sediment Loss Along Subduction Zones
A factor hardly evaluated in earlier mass balances is
the loss of sediment along subduction zones. Gener-
ally, one should distinguish between sediment depo-
sition and erosion on (1) stable and extensional tec-
tonic settings and (2) processes on convergent plate
boundaries.
11.7 Preservation and Recycling of Older Sediments· 539

Global mass balances

(all va lues for solid sediment or rock in l<.m 3 /a, Modern total sediment yield 7.5
values of subduction zone for past 30 Ma) (Modern mean denudation rate 50 mm/ka)

Magmatic are Erosion

are 0.6
-i.
(a) Frontal accretion
_.~ ~
<.... -
.
--~
~•••••••••• ,••• :;u:;::::==

1- , +

O
Fold-thrust belt ,
+ + + + + +: Older
+ + Continental + I cont.
" core
+ '} + +. growth 1.5-2.0 +
+ + + + + +
+ + D
v '\ +
t
Decollement Uplift

Juvenile igneous
rocks 1.65
(c) By-passing sediment .
1.0 Past 30 Ma: a+b+c = 1.9
Modern: cycling of non-
subducting sediment c. 5.5
(d) Subduction erosion: 1.1 (long-term 0.9) not considered
(Long-term rate of subcrustally subducted sediment: b + c + d 1.6)

Fig. 11.35. Processes operating alon~ subduction
zones and global mass balance calculatlons for sedi-
ment loss by frontal accretion, subcrustal
underplating and sediment by-passing to the mantle.
All numbers are in km3/year for the past 30 Ma.
Subduction erosion is not considered (see text).
Growth rates of the continental crust and the produc-
tion of juvenile igneous rocks are listed for compari-
son. (Based on von Huene and Scholl 1991)

- The major part of the globally existing clastic sedi-
ment is stored in rift zones and intracratonic basins,
on passive continental margins, marginal and
epicontinental seas, fore land and coastal basins, and
on deep-sea fans. As far as these sediments were up-
lifted and exposed to weathering and denudation,
they underwent recycling as indicated above. The
mean residence time or half-life of sediments of
cratonic and marginal basins, especially those of ini-
tially deeply buried strata, is normally longer than the
half-life of orogenie and oceanic sediments.
- A significant part of the oceanic (deep-marine) sed-
iments is consumed along subduction zones of con-
vergent margins and ultimately contributes to the
growth of continents and/or it is incorporated into the
mantle (Fig. 11.35). Principally, there are two types
of subduction zones: Accreting margins and non-
accreting margins. Along accreting margins the in-
coming sediment is partially used to form an
accretionary wedge, the remainder is stored
subcrustally (accretion by underplating), or it by-
passes this zone and is conveyed to and absorbed by
the mantle. At non-accreting margins all the incom-
ing sediment is subducted and, in addition, part of
the rocks on top of the decollement surface may be
removed subcrustally (subduction erosion).
In their overview about the processes operating along the
modem subduction zones, von Huene and Scholl (1991)
have shown that 24 500 km out of the total length of the
global subduction zones (43 500 km) belong to the first
category, and 19 000 km to the non-accreting margins. Tbe
results of their mass balances are summarized in Fig.
11.35. Evaluating relatively "modem" data (for the past 30
Ma), about 1.9 km 3/year solid sediment (consisting of
about 60% terrestrial and 40% pelagic material) reach the
subduction zone. For frontal accretion, 0.35 km 3/year (out
of 1.9 km 3/year) are used; 0.45 km 3/year are used for
subcrustal underplating, and 1.0 km 3/year are absorbed by
the mantle. Tbe values reported by Leeder (1997), mainly
based on the same sources, are of the same order of magni-
tude.
Compared with the present-day global sediment yield
derived from solid river loads (7.5 krn3/year, equiva-
lent to a mean global denudation rate of 50 mmlka,
cf. Sect. 9.3), the total sediment 10ss along the
540
subduction zones is about one fourth of the global
modem river load. In times not affected by human
activities (global sediment yield about 3 to 4
km3/year) about one half of the river load may have
been absorbed by subduction zones and about one
fifth was probably removed by frontal accretion and
subcrustal underplating. Long-tenri (pre-30 Ma) val-
ues for the total amount of subducted sediment ap-
pear to have been lower (around 1.0 km3/year) than
the post-30 Ma values. In any case, sediment
subduction explains why only small proportions of
old (>50 to 100 Ma) deep-sea sediments are pre-
served.
Sediment accreted by underplating and absorbed
by the mantle may have contributed to the slow
growth of the continents (in the order of 1.5 to 2.0
km3/year) as weIl as to the generation ofnew magma
and juvenile igneous rocks (about 1.65 km3/year).
11.7.4 Summary (Global Sediment Recycling)
A major part of the preserved sediment masses
of medium to young ages consists of recycled
older sediments.
- The present-day existing fraction from the ini-
tial total mass of older sedimentary rocks, de-
posited in a certain time unit, is defined as the
survival rate. This rate generally decreases with
the age of the initial sediment.
- The residence time or half-life of the sediments
of particular basins increases from active via
passive margin basins to intracontinental basins.
For the post-Devonian time, the average half-life
of all types of sediment was -130 Ma. After this
Chapter 11 Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
The magma of the volcanic arcs seerns to be fed only
to a very small part by subducting sediment. Conti-
nents can also shrink in areas where subduction ero-
sion is significant (global long-term average about
1.0 km3/year).
All these data are subjected to modifications in line with
the progress in our knowledge. Nevertheless, the presently
available data are useful for an understanding and prelimi-
nary evaluation of the processes of sediment recycling.
This processes exert a profound influence on the (chang-
ing) composition of sediments with time and they are im-
portant in studies on geochemical cycles. The latter, such
as the areal and temporal distribution of certain elements
and element ratios in turn can support, refine, or modify
our present-day knowledge about long-term sediment recy-
cling. Basin filling and basin destruction play, in combina-
tion with tectonic processes and isostasy, a great part in the
evolution of the continents and the entire globe.
time, half of the original sediment mass was
eroded.
Easily soluble evaporites and carbonates are
destroyed faster than shales, sandstones, and
volcanogenic rocks.
The most resistant rocks (e.g. quartzitic sand-
stones, chert, and ironstones ) are relatively en-
riched in very old sequences.
A significant part of the oceanic (deep-marine)
sediments is consumed along subduction zones.
It ultimately contributes to the growth of the
continents and/or it is absorbed by the mantle.
Part IV

Basin Evolution
12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

Contents (Overview)

12.1 Rift Basins................................................................................................ 543

12.2 Continental Margin and Slope Basins...................................................... 561
12.3 Mega-Rifting and Mesozoic Sediments in Europe (Overview)............... 571
12.4 Intracontinental Sag Basins ..................................................................... 574
12.5 Deep-Sea Trenches, Forearc, Backarc and Retroarc Basins.................... 579
12.6 Remnant and Foreland Basins.................................................................. 606
12.7 Collision-Related Basins.......................................................................... 622
12.8 Pull-Apart Basins..................................................................................... 630
12.9 Basin-Type Transitions (Polyphase Basins)............................................. 637

12.1 Rift Basins described adequately by an idealized type basin. On

the other hand, a limited number of type basins is
12.1.1 General Introduction to Basin Evolution needed for a better understanding of the true nature
12.1.2 Rift Basins: Structural Styles and of the basin under investigation. In the following, the
Other General Aspects structural styles of idealized type basins, their evolu-
12.1.3 Sediments of Rift Basins tion with time, and in particular their sediment fills
General Aspects are discussed. A number of examples from various
Facies Models for Asymmetrie Rift Basins regions may supplement the application of the model
12.1.4 Examples ofYoung Rift Zones basins.
12.1.5 Older Rift Zones A relatively simple tectonic basin classification
12.1.6 Rift Basins along Continental Margins and other aspects of basin classification have been
North Atlantic introduced in Chap. 1. In this chapter we mainly fol-
General Trends low the classification of Sect. 1.2 with some modifi-
Other Rifted Continental Margins cations. The processes controlling basin subsidence,
12.1.7 Summary (Rift Basins) including the subsidence history of some basin types,
are discussed in Chap. 8 (see also Sect. 11.6).

12.1.1 General Introduction to Basin Evolution
Basin evolution is a very broad interdisciplinary and
complex topic in earth sciences. To study and under-
stand .basin evolution, the co operation of geophysi-
cists, structural geologists, stratigraphers, and sedi-
mentary geologists is needed. In addition, petroleum
geologists contribute considerably to our knowledge
about basin evolution. Having in rnind the fact that
some hundred to thousand sedimentary basins, young
and ancient, exist all over the world, it is obvious that
even aseries of volumes would be required to de-
scribe the most important evolutionary trends of all
these basins. Many basins have been studied in some
detail, and it is evident that each basin has some
characteristic, individual features. In other words, the
evolution of a certain sedimentary basin can never be
More information on the tectonics of sedimentary basins is
found in some monographs and textbooks (e.g. Price 1989;
Allen and Allen 1990; Busby and Ingersoll 1995) and in
many special articles and volumes of international joumals
(e.g. Tectonophysics v. 215, 226, and 300; AAPG Mem-
oirs; Journal of Geophysical Research, series B; Basin Re-
search; Marine and Petroleum Geology).
12.1.2 Rift Basins: Structural Styles and
General Aspects
Rift basins are very common in the modem world
and in the ancient record. They occur on all conti-
nents as well as on thinned continental crust beneath
the sea. Y oung rift basins are mostly narrow and top-
ographically expressed as grabens, partly filled with
water andlor sediment. Older, so-called failed rift
544 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

a PURE SHEAR
BR ITTlE
b SIMPLE SHEAR

DUCTllE ~ ~ CONVECTING
STRETCHING- II ASTHENOSPHERE
AND INTRUSION

AlBIAN-APTIAN
c
o - r - - -_____

.. .
E ~

30~--~--~--------~ Fig. 12.1. a Pure shear

:::. and b simple shear as
I TUCANO BASIN ATlANTIC r- GABON BASIN----, alternative models for
~ (BRAZll) I ATlANTIC EASTERN crustal extension and
W +COAST formation of rift basins.
o 0 ~-- -J-' -~" "~D-"NI.: -_~=~ -':!:,:"=:-::::r~---__-_-_-_-......__:o=.~ (After Tankard and
Welsink 1988). c Sche-
matic section across
~ -" - O~ANIC -r~<,~ lower Cretaceous basins
of the South Atlantic
30~- ~----~~-------- CRUST POST- RIFT· ... - - - - - ' - -
SEDIMENTS continental margins and
adjacent Tucano basin
(Brazil) and eastern
Gabon basin (Africa).
d All basins are assumed
HALF- GRABEN HANGING WALL BASIN SAG BASIN to result from one major
extensional detachment
zone. Note the lateral
separation of the rift
boundary fault from the
basins produced by
thermo-tectonic sub si-
dence after continental
breakup. (Kusznir et al.
1987). d Different styles
S TYPE e A TYPE of sedimentary basins
developed from exten-
sion at various crustal
levels. (Blundell et al.
1989). eS-type (limited
extension) and A-type
shear causing large ex-
tension (modified from
Artyushkov and Baer
1989)
EXTENSION = [ 6L/l (%)

zones (including aulacogens) are often widened to
larger basins and buried below younger sediments.
"Successful" rift zones along passive continental
margins signalize the initial stage (or rift stage) in the
formation of a new ocean basin (drift stage).
Pure shear. The simple models of rift basin evolu-
tion and subsidence (Sects. 1.2 and 8.3) are based on
the classical rift structures generated by pure shear
(Fig. 12.la). This mechanism implies instantaneous
and uniform extension; if the basin reaches the drift-
ing stage, the center of the rift graben opens and co-
incides with the later spreading axis of the growing
ocean basin.
12.1 Rift Basins
Simple shear. Many recent investigations of rift
zones have revealed that crnstal stretching is accom-
plished by slip along an intra-crustal detachment
surface (simple shear, Fig. l2.1b). In the detachment
model, extension is nonuniform and decreases in the
direction of shear. Simple shear allows the lateral
separation of the zone of initial rifting and the zone
of magma upwelling which may initiate ocean
spreading (Fig. l2.lb and c). Low-angle detachments
can also explain the coeval initiation of different ba-
sin types (Fig. l2.1d).
The principal differences between the basins result-
ing from pure and simple shear can be demonstrated
best by defining their end members (Friedmann and
Burbank 1995):
- End members of pure shear (intracontinental rifts)
evolve in old, thermally equilibrated crnst of normal
thickness and are mostly accompanied by alkali to
tholeitic magmatism. Crnstal extension is limited (10-
25%), and the normal geometry of the basin and
subbasins is that of asymmetric grabens or half-
grabens bounded by steeply dipping (45-60°) normal
faults. The basin centers subside deeply (6-10 km),
and their depocenters tend to develop along the ac-
tive main boundary fault. Examples: East African rift
and Baikai rift (see below).
- End members of simple shear on top of detachment
zones (supra-detachment basins) form in widely ex-
tended terrains at high rates of extension. The initial
crnst seems to have been young, relatively hot and
thick promoting rapid extension and low-angle fault-
ing. The volcanism of these basins is typically calc-
alkalic. The bounding faults of these basins dip
gently (15-35°) forcing the depocenters to develop
distal to the main bounding fault. The basin fills are
relatively thin (typically 1-3 km) and frequently inter-
rnpted by unconformities. Cratonward individual rift
basins of this type tend to lack post-rift subsidence.
Their underlying crnst is still thick and not addition-
ally heated by upwelling mantle material (e.g.
Tucano basin in Brazil, Fig. 12.1 c; Karner et a1.
1992). Many basins display characteristics of both
end members.
Detaehment zones were first postulated for the Basin-and-
Range Provinee of the western United States (Wernieke
and Burehfiel 1982; Wernieke 1985) and eonfirmed by
deep seismie refleetion profiling in many other regions, for
example on the Atlantie eontinental margins (e.g.,
Enaeheseu 1987; Boillot and Winterer 1988; Benson and
Doyle 1988; Manspeizer 1988b; Tankard and Welsink
1988).
To reeoneile the hypotheses of simple shear and pure
shear, Barbier et al. (1986) proposed eombined shear, i.e.,
a meehanism eomprising thinning of the erust by both pure
shear and simple shear (see also Ziegler 1988). Modified
eoneepts taking into aeeount the strain- and time-dependent
meehanieal behavior of the upper and lower erust have
545
been put forward, e.g., by Bassi et al. (1993) and Gartrell
(1997). Neugebauer (1987) emphasizes that lithospherie
thinning is eontrolled not only by one prineipa1 parameter,
but by severa1 independent processes. Dome, rift, and basin
struetures represent stages of the thinning proeess and thus
form a genetie sequenee. Long-term, slow thinning may be
superimposed by short-term episodes of inereased tectonic
and magmatie aetivity.
Today, an enormous body of new information on mod-
em and aneient rift basins has beeome availab1e (e.g.
Landon 1994; Friedmann and Burbank 1995). These re-
sults show that many rift basins are more eomp1ex and that
their evolution is less predietab1e than was earlier assumed.
Other structural features deviating from the c1assical
rift model include:
- Rifts are not necessarily continuous features as il-
lustrated in small-scale maps; they may be broken
into special segmentsby transverse struetures (trans-
fer or accommodation zones, Fig. 12.2a and d). The
evolution of drainage systems and the direction of
their sediment transport tend to change from one rift
segment to the other. However, at the transition from
rifting to drifting, as e.g. in the Red Sea, older irregu-
lar rift structures are abandoned and replaced by lat-
erally continuous depocenters and high-angle normal
faults (Fig. 12.2f).
Transfer zones in extensiona1 regions displaya wide range
of geometries from diserete fault zones to zones of broad
warping (Morley et al. 1990). The direetion of asymmetry
may alternate between neighboring segments, as observed,
for example, in the region of Lake Tanganyika, East Afriea
(Burgess et al. 1988). Transfer zones are often preferred
sites of volcanism (Maek and Seager (1995). The smaller
the seale of observation, the more eomplex rifts beeome.
Individual segments vary in their struetural style and thus
also in their basin fill. However, such rift struetures may
evolve into a full symmetrie graben (Woldegabriel et al.
1990).
- Rift zones frequently evolve along pre-existing lin-
eaments in the crnst and may display a substantial
strike-slip component (Fig. 12.2c,e; cf. Sect. 12.8).
As long as extension exceeds strike-slip, the term
"rift basin" is still commonly used.
- Many rifts are not symmetrical, with the deepest
basin floor 10cated in the center, but display the pro-
nounced asymmetry of a half-graben (Figs. 12.1e and
12.4)
- Rifting along a rift zone does not necessarily occur
simultaneously, but may proceed from one end to the
other, as found in the East African rift zone (see be-
low).
- One may find both thermally induced rift zones
with initial updorning (Fig. 12.3b), as well as other
rifts caused, for example, by continental collision and
escape, which lack an early phase of uplift.
546 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

a LlNKED HALF-GRABEN b BRANCHED RIFT STRUCTURE

(BASS STRAIT , BETWEEN AUSTRALlA
(LAKE TANGANYIKA) AND TASMANIA)

d GRAND BANKS
C HIGH ATLAS RIFT ORPHAN BASIN ORPHAN CElTIC SEA BASIN
KNOll
TECTONIC
r---+---:-J-:---:::::~~t::j, TRANSPORT
~
_-+.or-ACCOMM .
I,.....~....\ ZONE '

km
l'IU--..,..--t" 0

20
JEANNE
D'ARC
BASIN FlEMISH CAP

e JEANNE D' ARe BASIN CENTRAl RIDGE

SUBSEQUENT
BREAKUP
40

f RIFT-DRIFT TRANSITION
(RED SEAl REueT BASIN

~~---- ____~______________~__-L~~
12.1 Rift Basins
Rift volcanism. Some of the rift zones and their sedi-
ments are strongly influenced by syn-rift volcanism
(Fig. 12.3), others not. Some authors even hold the
opinion that extensive rifting and continental breakup
is initiated by large mantle p1umes (hot spots) as,
e.g., postulated for the central Atlantic (Wilson
1997). When continental lithosphere is thinned by
stretching, the upwelling asthenosphere decom-
presses and generates partial melt (White 1989). The
hotter the asthenosphere, the more melt is generated
and the more up1ift of the crust can occur. Relatively
small variations in temperature cause major differ-
ences in the volume of magma generated. Large vol-
umes of magma are produced if the lithosphere is
underlain by abnormally hot mantle material (form-
ing plumes or "hot spots"). The partial melt is buoy-
ant and rises to be added to the overlying crust or to
extrude at the surface. The phase prior to rifting may
be characterized by widely extended flood basalts.
Later, the rift valley can be fi1led by lava flows and
tephra of variable composition, or volcanic structures
are built up in the graben zone separating it into
subbasins.
Subsidence. The principal mechanism of subsi-
dence in rift zones is not always c1ear. The widely
used stretching models (cf. Sect. 8.3) are not gener-
ally applicable. According to Artyushkov and Baer
(1989), there are two main modes of stretching (Fig.
12.1 e): (1) S-type (synthetic) stretching, in which the
fault blocks are not or only slightly tilted toward the
down-thrown side of a boundary fault; and A-type
(antithetic) stretching, in which the blocks are mark-
edly tilted and separated by listric faults. Substantial
subsidence due to significant crustal thinning can be
attained only by A-type processes. If S-type rift bas-
ins exhibit great subsidence but limited extension,
the lowermost crust may have been altered or re-
placed by asthenospheric upwelling and injection of
mantle-derived material. This process is also referred
to as "basification" of the lower crust (e.g., Ziegler
1988). Then, the altered, moderately thinned crust
may break into wide blocks under tensile stresses and
subside isostatically along normal faults.
Fig. 12.2. a Rift zone composed of half-grabens with
alternatin~ polarities. Adjacent half-grabens are sepa-
rated by mterbasinal ridges oblique to the rift axis
(transfer zones). Model of Lake Tanganyika (cf. Fig.
12.3a; Rosendahl et al. 1986). b Cretaceous branched
rift structure of the Bass Strait region between Aus-
tra1ia and Tasmania. (Etheridge et al. 1987). e Model
of Triassic rifting in the High Atlas, Morocco. Com-
bined syndepositional extension and strike-s1ip dis-
placement. Pre-existing N700E faults are reacbvated
by strike-slip motion and produce secondary N300E
normal faults within the graben structure.
(Beauchamp 1988; cf. Fig. 12.6). d Simplified model
547
12.1.3 Sediments of Rift Basins
General Aspeets
The great variety of structural style and depositional
environments mentioned above makes it difficult to
define a specific facies evolution for rift basins.
However, a succession from (1) fluvial deposits, (2)
lake deposits with a tendency towards playa condi-
tions, and finally (3) areturn to fluvial deposits has
been frequently identified in relatively small, simple
rift structures (cf. Sect. 11.3.3). Rift systems along
evolving continental margins, receiving less
terrigenous material, often develop deeper marine
environments with upward deepening and shallowing
sediment successions. Deltaic and shelf facies may
pass into slope and foot-of-slope facies and later re-
turn to shallow-marine sediments in response to ac-
tive and reduced phases of rifting. Varying rates of
subsidence can lead to changes in the sediment ac-
commodation space and thus to prograding or
backstepping facies belts. Rifting below sea level on
thinned transitional crust and at great distances from
the continents may create, at least for some time,
sediment-starved basins with marine sequences of
limited thickness (cf. Fig. 12.14).
Larger, complex continental rift systems often
show less predictable sedimentary successions with
or without significant contributions of volcanic mate-
rial. Pre-rift topography controls the positions of ma-
jor rivers, which may or may not enter the basin and
thus govern its hydrological and sedimentological
budget. Some simplified facies models are discussed
in the following section.
Facies Models for Asymmetrie Rift Basins
Some idealized facies models for half-graben basins
exposed to various depositional environments are
shown in Fig. 12.4. All of them indicate a markedly
asymmetric basin fill caused by differing sediment
supply and depositional processes on the two sides of
the basin, particularly if most of the material is sup-
p1ied from the flanks of the half-graben. Sediments
of rifted continental margin between Newfoundland
and Iberian Meseta, Spain (cf. Fig. 12.7a,c) prior to
ocean spreading. e Model of the development of a
secondary detachment in Jeanne d'Arc basin, Grand
Banks off Newfoundland (see d). Superposition of
detachment above and perpendicular to previous
extensional regime generates substantial dip-slip
movement along listric faults and thus strike-slip par-
allel to boundary fault ofextensional basin. (d,e Af-
ter Tankard and Welsink 1988). fRift-drift transition
in the Red Sea. Older basins are abandoned and the
evolving new basin is laterally continuous. (After
Bosworth 1994)
548 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

300 4\AFAR"',": "...-' a

ADDIS ABAB~) / ',. -./ ' ....
EAST AFRICAN
ETHIOPIAN DOME RIFT SYSTEM

f b
/"-. \ ~~TURKANA QUATERNARY

J,'
O'-V~o
..g l.MOBUTU CALDERA VOLCANO E
1fT KENYAN DOME
L.EDWARD
f~ J NAIROBI ./
fti..KIVU I .:

~
l.VICTORIA ( MOMBASA
~ I \ .:.. .LATE PLIOCENE
LAKE :. ~ _~TRACHYTE'BASALT
TANGANYIKA DAR ES . -r I ~.,.~ ___
~h
I , \

,0" 1/ . SALAAM.,

EARLY PLIOCE NE
~-r-
50 km
Fig. 12.3. a,b Sim-
plified map of East
African rift zone
different stages of

---
LATE MIOCENE rift evolution and
l.MALAWI~ volcanic activity in
PHONOUTE Eastem (Gregory)
\ I , Rift. (After W1I-
liamson and Savage
1986; Uemura and
Mizutani 1984,
c d (2) SLOW EXTENSION
based on Baker et
al. 1978). c Rio
Grande rift, North
America, controlled
by Miocene clock-
wise rotation of
Colorado Plateau.
(After Chapin and
Cather 1994,
strongly simpli-
fied). d Model of
facies architecture
in the central Rio
Grande rift affected
by episodic exten-
sion, block tilting,
and changing trans-
port directions .
(Modified after
Cather et al. 1994)

on the steep wall (footwall) of the boundary fault
tend to be coarse grained and form alluvial fans, fan
deltas, and debris flows in deeper water. Sediments
entering the basin from the gentler hanging wall usu-
ally come from more distant sources and are finer
grained. If the basin is filled predominantly by a
through-flowing axial river or by an axial delta lobe
in conjunction with a prograding submarine fan, both
the main trunk of the river and the submarine fan
tend to shift towards the boundary fault. In a marine
carbonate regime, the hanging wall represents a ramp
setting where reefs and their associated facies may
develop and finally create a morphology similar to
that along the boundary fault.
In rnany cases, these "pure" facies associations
will not persist throughout the entire evolution of the
12.1 Rift Basins
basin. For example, widening and deepening of the
half-graben may lead to a deepening-upward facies
succession (Fig. 12.4a-c) or, with slowing sub si-
dence, to a shallowing-upward succession. Similarly,
axial through-drainage may be followed by internal
drainage (Fig. 12.4, transition from a to d; cf. Sect.
11.3.3 and Fig. 11.11). Regional subsidence rnay al-
low the sea to enter and to turn a semi-arid to arid
continental environment into a marine carbonate ba-
sin (Fig. 14.4d,e). Uplifted basin margins, as known
from the modem Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, divert
the river drainage pattern away from the basins and
thus prevent significant terrigenous sediment influx.
Other complications are brought about by
basinward migration of the active boundary fault and
minor tectonic structures (e.g. horst-and-graben fea-
tures) within the rift zone (Fig. 12.4t). Inthe first
case, the relative uplift of early rift deposits (e.g. al-
luvial fans) can lead to their rapid erosion and
redeposition. Similarly, uplifted and often tilted
blocks within the graben rnay lose part of their early
rift sediments by erosion. Thus, truncated sediment
sections (with unconformities) may occur elose to
complete sections thickened by rift-interior sediment
redistribution. A similar scenario is shown in Figure
12.3d where, in addition, episodic rapid subsidence
caused interrnittent topographie basin elosure and
playa deposition, later followed by through-going
fluvial drainage.
Such phenomena have been described from many rift bas-
ins (e.g. Smoot 1991; Frostick and Stee11993; Leeder and
Jackson 1993; Cather et al. 1994; Cohen et al. 1995;
Bosence et al. 1996; Nichols and Watchorn 1998; Ravnas
and Steel 1998). WeH exposed middle Jurassic to early
Cretaceous rift basins of eastern Greenland represent excel-
lent examples of half-graben fiHings consisting of alluvial
fans, fan-deltas, shallow-marine sediments, and deeper
marine fan to basin associations (Surlyk et al. 1981).
Volcanic activity is neglected in the above facies mod-
els, but may significantly modify them.
12.1.4 Examples of Young Rift Zones
Many young rift basins all over the world have been
studied in some detail and are still under investiga-
tion. Of these, only a few can be briefly described.
The following examples inelude some of the elassical
rift structures, but there are possibly some better
suited cases than those
presented here.
The East African rift zone. The most prominent
and frequently described present-day rift zone, the
4000 km long East African rift, is an example of the
enormous variability of rift basins and their sediment
fills. It lies within a large, elongated dome structure
(the Kenyan and Ethiopian dome) which has risen
549
ab out 1800 m since the middle Tertiary (Fig. 12.3a).
The narrow Western Rift is occupied by lakes ar-
ranged en echelon (cf. Fig. 12.2a) and displays a re-
lief of approxirnately 3000 m between the rift shoul-
ders and the floors of the deepest lakes (Lake
Tanganyika and Lake Malawi). Here, volcanic activ-
ity is virtually absent. The 50 km wide Eastern Riß
(or Gregory Rift) exhibits lower relief, and is subdi-
vided by trans verse ridges into several srnall, shallow
basins, partially occupied by lakes. The Eastern Rift
in particular was strongly affected by pre-rift and
syn-rift volcanism of basaltic to more felsic and
alkali-rich nature (Fig. 12.3b). The dip direction of
the detachment zone varies from east to west and is
marked by "off-axis" volcansism (Bosworth 1987).
Where the volume of volcanic products exceeded the
space created by rifting, the rift zone was totally
filled by volcanic flows and volcaniclastic sediments.
In the main Ethiopian Rift, six major volcanic episodes
were recognized from the late Oligocene to the Quaternary
(Woldegabriel et al. 1990; see also Uemura and Mizutani
1984; Frostick et al. 1986; Foster et al. 1997). Extruding
carbonatitic magmas are at least partially responsible for
the extreme\y high alkalinity (pR up to 10.3) and chemistry
of sodium carbonate lakes of the Magadi-type in the
Gregory Rift (Eugster 1986). The present-day climatic con-
ditions of the East African rift zone range from a tropical,
high-rainfall belt to desert areas. Open lake systems with
fresh water alternate with closed lake basins where
evaporites accumulate. The sediments of these basins have
been described, e.g.m by Tierce\in and Faure (1978),
Pickford (1986) and many others.
The East African rift basins displaya large variety of
alluvial fan, fluvial, and lake deposits. The latter re-
flect changing elirnatic conditions through time and
from basin to basin. Diatomites and black shales oc-
cur in the more humid regions, while arid zones are
characterized by playa lakes with evaporites, inelud-
ing sodium carbonate and lacustrine chert. The rift
basins of the Eastern Rift in particular contain abun-
dant volcanielastics of varying composition. Re-
peated ashfalls favored the preservation of footprints,
soft-bodied organisms, and all kinds of organic rel-
ics. Sedimentation rates in this rift zone range from
about 10 cmlka up to several 100 cmlka.
The Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. To the north, the
East African rift system continues and forms the Red
Sea basin. The evolution of this basin started 70 Ma
aga and is more advanced than the East African rift
zone. One can distinguish four phases of develop-
ment (e.g., Guennoc et al. 1988): (1) A Cretaceous to
Eocene pre-rift stage, (2) Oligocene rift formation,
(3) Miocene subsidence (Red Sea depression), and
(4) Pliocene to Recent sea-floor spreading. The sedi-
mentary history of this basin is briefly discussed in
Section 4.3.3. The Miocene evaporites were depos-
550 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

MARINE GULF
FAN DELTA
,-
,-
COASTAL -MARINE
FOOTWALL SUBMARINE FANS

AXIAL DELTA LOBE

(WITH TECTONIC
TRANSGRESSION)

AXIAL
INTERIOR DRAINAGE THROUGH-
DRAINAGE
d
SYNSED-FAULT

ISLAND

FAN LOBES (FAR -

DISTANCE SOURCE) EXPOSURE
SURFACE

UPLIFTED BLOCK WITH , CARBONATE

OLDER GRABEN ENVIRONMENT
SEDIMENT

f SEDIMENT REDISTRIBUTION
DURING ADVANCED RIFTING
12.1 Rift Basins
ited prior to the onset of sea floor spreading. Their
changing thickness reflects a basin with nonuniform,
locally rapid subsidence.
Rifting in the Gulf of Suez started in the early
Miocene. This part ofthe Red Sea is an example of a
rift basin which, apart from a very short initial fluvial
and lacustrine phase, was inundated by the sea
throughout its history (Schütz 1994). Since the be-
ginning of the Miocene, the central parts of this basin
have subsided 6-7 km, and the uplift of the rift shoul-
ders amounts to 2-3 km.
The Afar depression between the southernrnost Red Sea
and Ethiopia, at the northem end of the East African rift
(cf Fig. 12.3a), is a very interesting exarnple ofthe propa-
gation of rifting from the Gulf of Aden into this area, the
breakup of thinned continental crust, and the opening of a
new ocean basin (Manighetti et al. 1998).
Rio Grande rift. This large, segmented rift system
of North America extends over a distance of about
1100 km from Colorado via New Mexico to western
Texas (Fig. 12.3c). It evolved since the late
o ligocene between the craton on the east and the
Colorado Plateau on the west which underwent a
c10ckwise rotation of 1.5°. As a result, the extension
of the rift system increased from north to south from
about 10% to 30-50% (Chapin and Cather 1994).
The rift system displays several phases of increased
tectonic and volcanic activity (e.g. Keller and Cather
1994; Cather et al. 1994; Mack and Seager 1995).
The earlier phase is characterized by rhyolitic and
basaltic/andesitic volcanism, the products of which
were sufficient, at least in parts of the rift, to bury the
developing fault block topography. Later, block up-
lifts and complementary basins deve1oped, and older
basin fills were disrupted by normal faults. Intensi-
fied subsidence led to topographic c10sure and playa
deposits which were later overlain by alluvial fans
and ultimately by the axial river system of the Rio
Grande (Fig. 12.3d). Basaltic volcanism was reacti-
vated in the MiocenelPliocene during a further major
pulse of extension. Several transfer (or accommoda-
tiOI~) zones of the rift acted as preferred sites of vol-
camsm.
Upper Rhine Graben. The Rhine graben in central
Europe, along the border between France and Ger-
many, was regarded in the past as an example for a
c1assical rift basin generated by pure shear and char-
...
acterized by distinct rift shoulders (Fig. 12.5a,b).
Fig. 12.4. Simplified facies models ofhalf-graben fill
under continental (a,d) and coastal-marine conditions
(b,c,e). The tectonic structure of the basins may be
more eomplicated, and more synsedimentary faults
are common. Lakes and the axial river tend to shift
toward the boundary fault. e Half-graben morphol-
551
However, this rift system is also affected by left-Iat-
eral strike-slip motion and an asymmetric detachment
zone at a depth of about 15 km (Meier and Eisbacher
1991). The zone of maximum subsidence migrated
from south to north (Fig. 12.5d, subsidence curves
are shown in Fig. 8. 12b). The simplified sections
(Fig. 12.5c,d) demonstrate the vertical and lateral
variations in the facies and thicknesses of the strati-
graphic units present in this basin whieh may be re-
garded is an example of the complexity of rift basin
sediments.
The Upper Rhine graben is part of a wider ex-
tended structure, whieh is re1ated to the deve10pment
of the Alpine orogen and its northern foredeep
(Sissingh 1998, see below).
The Rhine graben is well explored by numerous drill holes
(summaries by Roll 1979; Pflug 1982; Geyer and Gwinner
1986; Plein 1993). Rifting began in the early Eocene and
continued to the present. The vertical section (Fig. 12.Sc)
reflects numerous changes in the depositional environment.
Greenish to reddish marls, lacustrine limestones and
dolomites, and various evaporites including potash salts
characterize the more arid playa lake and lagoonal inter-
vals. Discontinuous bituminous shales are probably associ-
ated with more humid lake periods, but mayaiso have ac-
cumulated during times of marine ingressions, which are
normally recorded by gray marls and fossil-bearing sandy
limestones and sands near the basin margin. The upper part
of the section contains some layers of brown coal, indicat-
ing a general tendency towards a more humid climate. Vol-
canic activity during the Oligocene and Miocene was mod-
erate and characterized by ashes of alkaline and bimodal
mafic-felsic composition. With the onset of longitudinal
drainage by the Rhine River, fluvial deposits accumulated
in the entire graben. As a result of continuing differential
subsidence, the youngest deposits show significant varia-
tions in thickness along strike .
Other Examples. Other young rift zones inc1ude the
north-trending central European Cenozoie rift system
crossing the continent from the Mediterranean to the
North Sea. It developed on cold, rigid erust and is
represented by the Rhöne-Bresse system and the Up-
per Rhine graben which splits at its northern end into
two branches, the Lower Rhine graben and the
Hessian depression or Leine graben (e.g. Sissingh
1998). The Oligoeene-Miocene, northeast-trending
rift structures in southwestern Europe formed on
more he<.ted erust and are affeeted by widespread
calcalkaline volcanism (Bois 1993). They appear to
be associated with the opening of the Tethys Oeean
and the boundary between the European-Iberian and
Afriean-Apulian phites .
ogy in shallow-marine carbonate environment may be
modified by reef buildups. and abundant reef detritus
on both sides. (After Leeder and Gawthorpe 1987).
f Redistribution of older rift-graben sediments due to
fault migration, uplift and rotation of internal blocks
552 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

PERIvIIAN
JURASSIC

PALEOGENE 10 km
NEOGENE & aUATERNARY

RHINE
FRANKFURT GRABEN
[j llitmiillillii illilllllllillb.. ::Js
b
,,:::::::::::::::rm..

\ Fig. 12.5. a Approxi-

rnately symmetrie "clas-
sie" cross section of
Upper Rhine graben,
Central Europe, indicat-
ing pure shear (cf. Fig.
12.1a); no vertieal ex-
aggeration. b In reality,
cross sections of this
structure are more corn-
plieated and commonly
c asymmetrie with chang-
ing polarity. Graben
BRACKISH -LIIvIN IC -HYPER-
SALINE LAKES /LAGOONS
-1- -l- d rnorphology, variations
in the thickness of the
g
• FLUV IA L
I LI lvI NIC
aUATERNARY N graben fill, and the geo-
I 0 logieal structures of the
I PEAT graben shoulders (not
II shown here) indicate a
E left-lateral strike-slip
0
0 IvIAINLY eornponent. c Sirnpli-
0 IvIARLS fied and idealized verti-
6'"' cal facies sequence.
0
0 d Schematic longitudi-
'"I UJ
z
UJ
EVAPORITES
nal section of Rhine
I 0
0 BITUIvI . SHALE graben fill. (After Pflug
I Cl
:::; 1982; Geyer and
I 0 LlIvINIC LlIvIEST . LOWER OLiGOCENE, Gwinner 1986; also see
I 6UJ BASAL CLASTICS EoeENE
Illies and Greiner 1978;
..1-
IvIARINE
IvIESOZOIC ROCKS Fuchs et al. 1981)
INGRESSIO NS IvIARGINAL FACIES

The reiatively old (30-40 Ma) and still active
Baikai rift in Central Asia is occupied by the very
deep Lake Baikai (cf. Sect. 8.3.1). A considerable
nurnber of rift basins in China is briefly described in
Hsü (1989).
A number of smaller, but interesting young rift structures
exists in the area around the eastern Mediterranean. The
Gulf of Corinth in Greece represents an example of a seg-
mented rift graben, the eastern part of which is filled with
sediment while the western part is entered by the sea
(Gawthorpe et al. 1994). Several young graben structures
of western Turkey, rimning parallel to the North Anatolian
transfonn fault, reflect the extensional regime of the
Aegean Sea (Cohen an al. 1995). The Jordan-Dead Sea rift
in Middle East is related to the Red Sea rift system (see
above) splitting up at its northern end into two branches.
The Jordan rift shows a strorig left-Iateral strike-slip com-
ponent and rapid young subsidence (cf. Sect. 8.3.1). Its
sediments are discussed in Sects. 11.3.6 and 12.8.
12.1 Rift Basins
12.1.5 Older Rift Basins
A large number of greatly varying rift basins was
formed during the Triassic and early Jurassic as a
result of the breakup of the Pangea supercontinent
prior to the formation of the Atlantic and Indian
oceans. These rift basins are mostly buried below
younger, post-rift sediments of passive continental
margins (cf. Sects. 12.1.6 and 12.2), but some are
also exhumed as a result of subsequent uplift.
In N orth Africa and Arabia, for example, older rift
structures along the southem rnargin of the Tethys
ocean were folded and inverted during Senonian time
(Guiraud and Bosworth 1997).
Many ancient rift zones which evölved into pas-
sive margins were later incorporated into orogenic
belts by convergent plate movements. Widely ex-
tended intracontinental basins frequently started as
rift basins which are now deeply buried as, e.g., in
the Paris basin or below the North Sea (cf. Sects.
12.4 and 14.3.3).
Good examples of ancient rift basins have been described
from the Alps (Winterer and Bosellini 1981; Lein 1985;
Eberli 1987; Lemoine and Trümpy 1987; Loup 1993). Rift-
ing in the Alps occurred in the early and middle Jurassic
and pre-dated the opening of the Ligurian Tethys ocean by
spreading and transform movements. Tbe rift basins are
bordered by normal faults with throws up to a few kilome-
ters. However, these are often difficult to identify because
of subsequent intensive deformation. Tbe best evidence for
former rift basins is therefore their basin fill, which is fre-
quently characterized by megabreccias, olistostromes, and
turbidite fans of limited extent. In addition, such basin fills
display marked lateral changes both in facies and in thick-
nesses.
The High Atlas: an inverted rift zone. An out-
standing example of an ancient, relatively short-lived
failed rift zone is the High Atlas in northwestem Af-
rica. It was affected by strike-slip (transtension, cf.
Fig. 12.2c) and inverted by post-rift transpression
and uplift to an intracratonic mountain belt bordered
by elevated plateaus, the Saharan craton to the south,
and Gran Meseta micropiate to the north (Fig.
12.6a,d). The pre- and syn-rift evolution and sedi-
mentary fill of this structure, which was inundated
early by the sea, is summarized in Figure 12.6b,c. It
shows a highly variable depositional history con-
trolled by tectonism, eustatic sea-level fluctuations,
and climatic changes documented in continental and
shallow-marine sediments.
Tbe development of this structure may have resulted from
northward directed crustal detachment (Fig. 12.6b) associ-
ated with the breakup of Pangea during the Triassic after a
period of erosion and peneplanation. Rifting was accompa-
nied by strike-slip motion; the rift zone extended from the
Triassic proto-Atlantic to the Tethys ocean over a distance
of more than 1000 km (see, e.g., Beauchamp 1988;
Jacobshagen 1988; Froitzheim et al. 1988; Gomez et al.
553
1996; Beauchamp et al. 1996). Tbe sedimentary fill of this
structure has been described, e.g., by Wurster and Stets
(1982), Warme (1988), Trappe (1991) and others.
During the first phase ofrifting (from the late Triassic to
early Jurassic), the rift graben of the High Atlas accumu-
lated continental red beds and evaporites, and was affected
by syn-rift basaltic volcanism. Due to continuing rifting,
subsidence, and eustatic high sea-level stands, the sea en-
tered the rift zone several times both from the west (proto-
Atlantic) and the east (Tethys) during the Jurassic, Creta-
ceous and Tertiary. In the central High Atlas, the widening
and deepening rift basin was subdivided by a central deep
carbonate platform and bordered by narrow carbonate
shelves (Fig. 12.6c). Tbe northern and southern troughs
were partially filled with turbidites and other rnass flow
deposits.
Beginning with the Toarcian high sea level, amiddie
Jurassic thick rnarly sequence was deposited in the central
to eastern regions of the High Atlas. Several shallowing-
upward cycles and unconformities indicate continued dif-
ferential subsidence and tilting of blocks within the rift
zone. Periods of rapid subsidence and basin deepening al-
temated with phases in which the basin was filled up and
the depositional environment changed from marine to con-
tinental. During the Paleogene, biogenic carbonates and
reworked phosphorites accumulated in a marine, bay-like
ramp setting in the western regions.
Subsequent transpression caused uplift (basin inversion)
and steep-angle overthrusting and gravitational gliding of
rift sediments, locally including their basement, onto
molasse-like Tertiary sediments of the northem and south-
em Subatlas zones (Fig. 12.6d;
12.1.6 Rift Basins along Continental Margins
North AHantic
In recent years a great number of buried rift basins
have been detected by geophysical surveys and drill-
ing below the present continental shelves, for exam-
pIe in the northem Atlantic (Fig. 12.7, cf. Fig.
12.2d). These basins result from the breakup of
Pangea and the stretching and thinning of a 500 to
1000 km wide zone of continental crost during the
Mesozoic prior to continental breakup and sea-floor
spreading. Basins of this type are found below the
shelves of all passive continental margins. Some of
these basins are exposed on land where they com-
monly display simple structures and relatively short
time periods of basin filling, as described in Sects.
11.3 (Fig. 11.12) and in the facies models for half-
grabens (Fig. 12.4). In the following we distinguish
between rift basins related to initial rifting and 10-
cated distal to the younger ocean (cratonward) and
younger rift basins below the continental shelves 10-
cated more oceanward. Basins of the first group are
emerged on land, those of the second group are
mostly drowned below the sea.
Emerged early rift basins. The late Triassic-early
Jurassic rift basins along the Atlantic coast of North
554 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

~ TRANSPORl OF CLASTICS INVERSED RIFT

OF HIGH ATLAS
~ JNGRESSION OF SEA

d
ALTITUDE UP TO
4000 m A.S.l.
STEEP-ANGLE
OVERTHRUSTING

L ATE TRIASSIC -EARLY JI,JRASSIC

TERTIARY RED _BEDS , BASALTS, AND
EVAPORITES (BLACK)

IN WESTERN HIGH ATLAS :

c
BAJOC,fBATHONIAN BEDS OF MID-CRETACEOUS S
N TRANSGRESSION :t PALEOGENE SHEL F
"""t:i2i~;lZ~lI!a:S;;:;;::-- CONTINENTAL BEDS CARBONATES
SHALLOWING-UPWARD
..... ~......""- GREEN MARLS

E TRIAS.SIC-EARLY lIASSIC
.REDBEDS, EVAPOR ITES,
BASAUS

b
ORAN N. SAHARAN
MESETA SHELF N. CENTRAL HIGH S. SHELF CRATON
DEEP S. DEEP

Fig. 12.6a-c. Evolution of High Atlas rift zone from
extensional to compressional (transpressional) phase.
a Paleogeographic reconstruction for the late Trias-
sie, overview. (Beauchamp 1988). b Simplified cross
section of High Atlas rift zone showing possible in-
terpretation of structural features according to simple
shear model with low-angle detachment. c Idealized
stratigraphie cross section drawn on a Domerian-
Toarcian datum (peak of transgression). Note that
younger sediments (Middle Jurassie, in the western
High Atlas, to Turonian) indicate continued subsi-
dence (b and c after Warme 1988). d Simplified
block diagram of ,present structure of High Atlas
caused by compresslOn (transpression ?) and uplift of
the central rift zone (inverted failed rift). (After Stets
and Wurster 1982; Wurster and Stets 1982;
Froitzheim et al. 1988)
12.1 Rift Basins
Ameriea (in the regions of the former Appalachian
orogeny) belong to this group (Fig. l2.7b). They rep-
resent the western end of a wide detachment zone
and experienced no post-rift subsidence. The syn-rift
phase of these basins was characterized by rapid sub-
sidence and fluvial-laeustrine sediments (Manspeizer
1988b; Schlische and Olsen 1990; cf. Sect. 7.7.1).
Sediment supp1y eould not always keep pace with
subsidence, but the water depth of these basins
(mostly lakes) was limited and subjeeted to c1imatie
change. The Tucano basin in Brazil is another exam-
pIe of this basin type (cf. Fig. 12.9d; Karner et al.
1992).
An example of a partly emerged rift basin on the
European side of the Atlantie is the Lusitanian basin
in western Portugal (Fig. 12.7a). From the late Trias-
sie to the Cretaeeous this basin experienced four
phases of rifting, beginning in the central and south-
ern part as symmetrieal grabens and half-grabens
(Rasmussen et al. 1998). Early Jurassie evaporites
were later transformed into salt structures. Rifting
ceased during the early Cretaeeous and was foHowed
by regional subsidenee and the deposition of rela-
tively uniform marine muds.
The third (Oxfordian) rifting phase is weil documented on
land because the eastern part of the Lusitanian basin was
uplifted and exhumed during the Miocene (basin inver-
sion). Here, the syn-rift sediments consist of continental
siliciclastics (alluvial fans, fluvial sandstones and red beds)
and marine muds and sands inc\uding turbidites (Ravnäs et
al. 1997). Increasing rates of subsidence and block rotation
caused backstepping and deepening-upward facies in the
basin; slowing tectonic activity was followed by
prograding facies, return to a fluvial environment, and ero-
sIOn.
Drowned rift basins below present-day shelves.
Most of the ancient rift basins of the North Atlantie
are buried under late Mesozoie and Cenozoic post-
rift shelf sediments (Fig. 12.7c). They experienced
longer and more complicated depositional histories
than the emerged basins caused by initial rifting:
- First phase of rifting in the late Triassic. The fiHing
of these basins started with continental siliciclastics,
mostly red beds, but most of them lay in regions of
low relief, were inundated by the sea, and accumu-
lated evaporites of varying thickness. This phase was
terminated before any oceanic crust was generated.
In the middle Jurassic, slow, thermal subsidence
(Fig. 12.8a) led to the formation of a wide epeiric sea
and predominant deposition of shallow-marine shales
and limestones.
- The second phase of rifting in the North Atlantic
began in the late Jurassie and lasted approximately
50 Ma until the Aptian. After an initial episode of
uplift aeeompanied by erosion and valley cutting,
extension of a wide zone of crust was accomplished
555
along a low-angle detachment (cf. Figs. 12.2d and
12.8a,b). This mechanism reactivated pre-existing
basins, for example the Jeanne d'Arc basin on the
Grand Banks of Newfoundland (Fig. 12.8e), and
generated a number of new basins. Fault-eontrolled
synsedimentary subsidence ereated special depo-een-
ters separated by sills. The sediment wedges in these
basins consists predominantly of shallow-water lime-
stones and shales with interbedded sandstones and
organic-rich layers.
- At the c1imax of rifting in the 1ate Jurassic, basins
near the continent or adjacent to uplifted blocks were
partially fi1led with fluvial and deltaic deposits.
- The late-rift evolution is charaeterized by decreas-
ing local subsidence and a transition into regional
thermal subsidence (cf. Fig. 8.14). However, further
adjustments of the broken, brittle upper crust to con-
tinuing extension and aehanging stress field (cf. Fig.
12.2d,e) led to local variations in the sedimentary fill
of the basins. A basal Cretaceous transgression cre-
ated a widespread uneonformity. The subsequent
sediments inc1ude shallow-water limestones and are
affeeted by additional unconformities.
- Breakup uneonformity. The last and weH devel-
oped uneonformity during the Aptian is associilted
with the breakup of the stretched continental erust
and the separation of Eurasia with Galicia Bank and
the Iberian peninsula from the North American plate
(Fig. 12.8b). This breakup uneonformity indicates
that up to this time the individual blocks of the eonti-
nental erust had rotated, subsided differentially, or
were uplifted and eroded.
- Rifting and breakup in the North Atlantic
prograded from south to north with time. In the
Norwegian-Greenland Sea rifting started in the latest
Cretaceous and early Tertiary and was followed by
extensive basaltic magmatism in the Paleo-
cenelEocene. This was eaused by the presence of a
large mantle plume generating the North Atlantic
Igneous Province (Fig. 12.9a,b). Sea-floor spreading
began in the Eoeene (e.g. Price et al. 1997). Contin-
ued magmatism on. the Greenland side and some
compression led to the uplift of East Greenland and
minor deformations on the Norwegian side of the
ocean.
In spite of the great differences in their subsidence histories
and sedimentary fills, the Mesozoic North Atlantic rift bas-
ins share a number of "sedimentological events" (Fig.
l2.8a) These features include more or less coeval hiatuses
and periods of condensation. Unconformities are associated
with the deposition of coarse-grained clastics. The rift
phases in the Triassic and upper Jurassic are characterized
by high rates of subsidence (50-100 mlMa, up to 250 mlMa
in some basins). "Pulses" of extension and similarities in
the evolution of these basins result from their common
origin by intracontinental rifting and subsequent separation
ofEurope and North America.
For further information see, e.g., Manspeizer (l988b),
Tankard al'.d We\sink (1988), Ziegler (1988) Welsink et al.
556 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

RIFT BASINS, NORTH ATLANTIC

AQU, AQUIT AN BASIN SOCAM, SORIA-

CAMEROS B.
a
AST , ASTURIAS B.
WA , WESTERN
BR.CH, BRISTOL APPROACHES B.
CHANNEL B. WE , W ESSE X B. IV'V"V'-",",,-

CAN, CANTABRIAN B. GA , GALICIA BANK

I
,. OCEAN-
i CONTINENT
BOUNDARY

Fig. 12.7. a Jurassie and early Cretaeeous basins on
rifted eontinental ernst of the North Atlantie oeean.
(After Hiseott et al. 1990). b United States Atlantie
eontinental rnargin between Nova Seotia and north
Florida showing loeation of late Triassie to early Ju-
rassie rift basins (blaek) exposed on land, rift basins
below younger shelf sediments, and Mesozoie-Ceno-
zoie basins along the shelf edge. (Modified from
Hutehinson and Klitgord 1988). c Rift basins of the
Grand Banks shelf off Newfoundland, based on seis-
mie and gravity data. Note sub division of Grand
Banks by transfer (strike-slip) faults and ehanging
orientation of normal faults on southem Grand
Banks. (After Tankard and Welsink 1988; Welsink et
al. 1989)

(1989), Hiscott et al. (1990), Gradstein et al. (1990), General Trends

SincIair et al. (1994), and also Winterer and Hinz (1984).
As ernstal extension in the North Atlantie pro-
gressed, the zone of aetive rifting tended to migrate
toward the axial zone of the wide rift strueture. This
oeeurred at the expense of peripheral graben and
fault systems, whieh beeame inaetive. The rifting
12.1 Rift Basins 557

PROCESS BASIN EVOLUTION a

FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF SHELF SEDIMENTS
MAINLY AFFECTED BY:
>- VARIATIONS IN CLIMATE AND OCEANIC MAJOR EVENTS IN
a:: CIRCULATlON, FAUNAL EVOLUTION
<{ MESOZOIC RIFT BASINS
i=
a:: POST· OF NORTH ATLANTIC
w RIFT
t- .CENOZOIC MESOZOIC
TH:RM. 50 (FROM Hlscon ET Al. 1990)
SUB·
SID.
r- APT. DEFORMATION
AN) MULTlPLE HlATUSES
w I
!;(
...J
I BARR. CONDENSED SECTIONS
CI)
::J
@-
UNCON·
FORMITY
SEA LEVEL
CHANGES
I HAUT. FINING UPWARD··
TRANSGRESSION
0
~ TRANS·
I VAL.
~ ITION

t
0
~ BERA.
a::
<{ REGRESSION
w TITH TRANSGRESSIONS
-w EX·
TENS.
. AN) REGRESSIONS

150 KIMM. VALLEY CUTTING AND

~ FILLING LOCAL,ABRUPT
...J
~
0- \ OXF. : DEEPENING
iii \ : WIOESPREAD HIATUS
CI)
<{~
. LAKES. LAGOONS. SHALLOW-MARINE \ CALL- :
~ THERM. OV.
,- SUB·
SID. LIMEST.
~
a::
<{
w 200 DOLOMITE ( ABOATED RIFTl
Ma
f--
RIFT -SEA LEVEL
~
CI) ING
<{ EXTENSION
11:
t-
EVAPORITES CONTINENTAL RED BEDS. FAN DELTA

b
c UPPER CRET.
UMEST. AND
BQNAVISTA
PLATFORM
JEAf'..NE 0 ' ARC
BASIN
FLEMISH
CAP
GAUCIA
BANK I8ERIA
MUDST.

10 SYNDEPOSITIONAL
UPUFT. REWORKING
SALT
20 BASEMENT
km TRANSFORM FAULT
TRIASSIC RED BEDS

Fig. 12.8. a Principles of Mesozoic rift basin evolu-
tion in the North Atlantic. b Idealized cross-section
between N ewfoundland and Iberia showing bound-
ary fault of aborted Triassie rift basin and Callovian-
Aptian extension of continental crust along low-an-
gle detachment. Size of listric faulted blocks and as-
sociated basins increases in direction of shear (distal).
c Structure and sedimentary fill of Jeanne d'Arc basin
based on seismic interpretation (cf. Fig. 12.3d,e).
(Based on Tankard and Welsink 1988; Hiscott et al.
1990).
558
stages of both aborted rifts (without crustal separa-
tion) and fully developed rifts (followed by sea floor
spreading) lasted from about ~50 Ma to more than
200Ma.
Along the margins of the Atlantic and other ocean
basins resulting from the breakup of Pangea, the syn-
rift sediments are mostly of Triassie to Jurassie age;
some are older and/or younger. They consist predom-
inantly of fluvial sediments (often red beds), lake
deposits, evaporites, and some shallow-marine sedi-
ments of variable thickness and lirnited extent. Vol-
canic material may be present in large quantities. Pa-
leozoic and Tertiary syn-rift sediment successions of
passive continental margins are commonly character-
ized by fluvial, lacustrine, and. shallow-marine se-
quences. Uplift and erosion of the rift shoulders at
passive margins mayaiso affect former shelf sedi-
ments and lead in the basin to offlapping
(prograding) stratal patterns. When the rift shoulders
are largely eroded and subsidence of the shelf contin-
ues due to crustal cooling, the associated sediments
begin to onlap (Van BaIen et al. 1995).
In the post-rift phase of the Atlantic, subsidence
continued at a slowing rate. Decreasing siliciclastic
sediment supply led to a fining-upward trend and a
shift from hernipelagic to pelagic deposits. The shelf
sediments of the post-breakup, mature ocean phase in
the late Cretaceous and Tertiary were dominated by
pelagic carbonates or silty clays. The major factors
now controlling marine sediments were long-term
climatic change, faunal evolution, oceanic
thermohaline eirculation, variations in the carbonate
produetion, and eustatie sea-Ievel variations.
Other Rifted Continental Margins
A eomplex tectonic and stratigraphie history sirnilar
to that ofthe North Atlantic is also known from other
passive eontinental margins. They show repeated
regional rifting episodes and possibly more than one
phase of breakup, for example the Campos basin of
Brazil and the Gabon basin of West Africa (Edwards
and Santogrossi 1990). In northwestern Australia
Fig. 12.9. a Position of Ieeland hot spot (circle; man-
tle plume) after the onset of sea-floor spreading in
the North Atlantie (magnetie line M 23) and voleanic
margin along East Greenland. Ds, Davis Strait; VP,
V0ring Plateau; RB, Ratton Bank. (After White
1989). b Physiographie elements of the Norwegian-
Greenland Sea, generalized. Note the variable width
of the eontinental margin (shelt), continental plat-
form of the Barents shelf, submarine plateaus, and
rift structures along the eastern margin. (After
Birkenmajer 1981; for more details see Eldholm et
al. 1989). c Conjugate margins in the North Atlantie
during the late Jurassie (magnetic line M-25) and
major Mesozoic-Cenozoie marginal basins. (Jansa
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
several deposWonal wedges were built out into the
evolving marginal basin (Boote and Kirk 1989).
Rifting between South Africa and South America
started as early as in the Permo-Carboniferous, i.e.
160 Ma prior to the onset of drifting and formation
of the South Atlantic ocean. The orientation of Trias-
sie eontinental rifts (obliquely to the axis of the
South Atlantie) was still dictated by crustal structures
older than the Atlantic rift zone (a kind of orogenie
eollapse), whereas the younger rift zones (since the
rniddle Jurassie) followed the Atlantic trend (Fig.
12.ge; Uliana et al. 1989; Tankard et al. 1995). The
long his tory of the South Atlantic rift zone basin is
reflected by three mega-sequences, separated by un-
conforrnities and interrupted by extensive flood bas-
alts in the Triassie, Jurassie and early Cretaceous.
The Permo-Carboniferous Karoo supergroup in Namibia is
characterized by glacial, fluvial, lacustrine and deltaic sedi-
ments. Continental Triassie and Jurassie sediments with
intercalated flood basalts reflect thermal uplift of the rift
shoulder and a permanently overfilled rift basin. Volcanic
activity continued in the lower Cretaceous when the South
Atlantic progressively opened from south to north
(Stollhofen 1999; see also Clemson et al. 1997).
The pre-drift separation of Madagascar from East Africa
also took place during a long time span from the early
Permian to the middle Jurassie (Wopfuer 1993; Hankel
1994). Here, the evolution ofthe rifted margin was affected
by middle Triassie uplift and erosion subdiving the basin
fills into an intracratonic Karoo unit and a "pericratonic"
transitional unit. The sea invaded this area several times.
and Wiedmann 1982). d Conjugate basins in the
South Atlantic (cf. Fig. 12.1 c). Basin arrangement is
asymmetrie, and the sediment thicknesses increase
from west to east (Gabon basin). The depoeenters
and major faults of the Tucano basin change their
positions and post-rift sediments are rnissing, while
the offshore Sergipe-Alagoas basin experienced sig-
nificant post-rift subsidence (After Karner et al.
1992). e Change in the orientation of rifts in south-
ernmost South America and South Africa from the
Triassie (northwest, related to older orogenie belts)
to the Middle Jurassie (north to northeast, opening of
the Atlantic). (After Uliana et al. 1989)
12.1 Rift Basins 559

200 km

e
SOUTH
AFRICA

500 km
560
12.1.7 Summary (RiftBasins)
- Rift basins result from crustal stretching, either
by pure shear (old continental crust of normal
thickness, steeply dipping bounding faults) or
simple shear along an intra-crustal detachment
surface (younger, hotter crust).
- Supra-detachment basins with gently dipping
bounding faults are COlnmon on continental
margins passing from a long rifting stage to
breakup and the formation of oceanic crust. Here,
the syn-rift basin tills are buried under
continental margin sediments.
- Rift basins are frequently segmented along strike
by transfer zones acting as preferred sites of
volcanism.
- Syn-rift sediments strongly vary in relation to
their position close to or far away from effective
terrigenous sediment sources in different climatic
zones. During early rifting, many basins are
overfilled with fluvial siliciclastics from proximal
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
and distal sources, but may later become
underfilled (lacustrine or marine). Multi-phase
rifting and tilted crustal blocks lead to erosion
and sediment redistribution within the basins,
unconforrnities, and wedge-like half-graben
tillings.
- Many rift basins favored the establishment of
oxygen-restricted lacustrine ormarine conditions
and thus the formation of hydrocarbon source
rocks of limited lateral extent. In addition,
structural traps (e.g. along tilted fault blocks)
and seals were frequently realized.
- Although some general trends in the evolution of
rift basins can be identified, each basin should
be regarded as an individual case.
- Post-rift sediments often overly syn-rift
sediments with an unconforrnity and tend to be
more uniform and cover wider areas (see below).
12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
12.2 Continental Margin and
Slope Basins
12.2.1 Structural Types ofContinental Margins
12.2.2 Basin Geometry and Sediment Accumulation
(Overview)
12.2.3 Sediment Successions ofCoritinental Margin
Basins
Sediments of Atlantic-Type Margins
Sediment-Starved Marginal Basins and
Submarine Plateaus
12.2.4 Sediment Successions on Continental Slopes
Modern Slope Deposits
Ancient Slope Deposits
12.2.5 Summary (Continental Margin and Slope Basins)
12.2.1 Structural Types of Continental Margins
A rift system evolves into a eontinental margin basin
when two divergent plates are separated by a spread-
ing center, ereating new oeeanie ernst. Crnstal exten-
sion and rifting (syn-rift stage) are then followed by
drifting (post-rift stage), but subsidenee of the
thinned, wedge-like eontinental ernst eontinues due
to eooling of the lithosphere and inereasing sediment
load. Syn-rift and post-rift sediments are frequently
separated by a more or less distinet breakup uncon-
formity eaused by differential movements of the
ernstal blocks at the onset of drifting. Higher ele-
vated blocks may undergo subaerial or submarine
erosion. Three different classes of passive margins
have been identified (Fig. 12.10; e.g. Roberts et al.
1984; Hinz et al. 1987):
- Nonvolcanic passive continental margins (Fig.
12.10a). Lithospherie deformation is dominated by
block faulting over a broad zone (100-300 km) and
volcanie aetivity in the upper ernst is of minor impor-
tanee. Examples: Red Sea, eastem United States,
nortbwestem Afriea, Galieia Bank off Iberia, Goban
Spur to the southwest of Ireland, northwestem Aus-
tralia (see also below). These margins show all tran-
sitions from being sediment-starved (;;;1-2 km post-
rift sediments) or heavily sedimented (up to <:10 km
post-rift sediments).
- Volcanic passive margins (Fig. 12.l0b). The
boundary between eontinental and normal oeeanie
ernst is eharaeterized by a thiek zone of seaward dip-
ping volcanie units overlying eontinental ernst. Mar-
gins of this type are narrower than nonvolcanie mar-
gins, and some of them appear to be assoeiated with
marginal plateaus. Examples include the Norwegian-
Greenland Sea (Rockall Bank, V",ring Plateau, Fig.
12.9a,b; e.g. Eldholm and Grne 1994; Larsen and
Dunean 1996) and parts of the South Atlantie (off
southem Brazil and Namibia; e.g. Gladezenko et al.
1997).
- Riß-transform margins (Fig. 12.l0e), whieh origi-
nate from extensional deformation, including a sig-
nifieant strike-slip eomponent. It is assumed, for ex-
ample, that the early development of the South
Ameriean and southwest Afriean margins was af-
fected by transtension. A younger example is the bor-
derland off southem Califomia (cf. Fig. 5.1 Ob).
The following examples of basin evolution deal pre-
dominantly with the first and most eommon eategory
of eontinental margins. The fact that most margins
are segmented along their length on ascale of several
hundred to more than a thousand kilometers (cf. Fig.
12.7e, Canadian shelf) is not further dealt with here.
While the strueture and subsidenee his tory within
individual segments appear to be relatively uniform,
they may differ signifieantly from one segment to
another.
12.2.2 Basin Geometry and Sediment
Accumulation (Overview)
The width of eontinental margin basins is mainly a
funetion of the eontinental ernst, whieh was sub-
jeeted to rifting prior to drifting. The eireum-Atlantie
basins are typieally 200 to 300 km wide, but some
are mueh narrower or eonsiderably wider (see over-
view in Fig. 12.17a). In many eases, the present shelf
edge ot base of slope eorresponds approximately
with the boundary between subsided eontinental
erust and oeeanie ernst. Narrower shelves may result
from large bounding faults (<:4 km throw) near the
shelf edge and a rapid transition from normally thiek
eontinental ernst to substantially thinned ernst
(Davison 1997). In other eases, strong oeean eurrents
preventing sediment aeeumulation (e.g. the Gulf
Stream off Florida) or insuffieient sediment supply
and heavy storms (e.g. along the margins of islands
exposed to the open sea) ean keep the shelves nar-
row. Then the subsided ernst forms marginal pla-
562 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

NON-VOLCANIC MARGIN a SYNRIFT SEDIMENTS

100·300 km I

• +
.... +++++ ...... +++ ..... +++.++
....... ++ ........... + .......... -t .... -t++ ..
+++ ..... + + + + .... +++++
1
THINNED, SUBSIDED _ _>1<__ UNSTRETCHED
PRERIFT CONTIN. CRUST 1 CONTlNENTAL
SEDIMENTS CRUST

VOLCANIC MARGIN
b POSTRIFT
~ 5O·150km 50· 300 km SEDIMENTS

. ..... + +-
... ... ...
. ... +- ......
... ... ...

VOLCANIC SUCCESSION CONTlNENTAL CRUST

AT CONTlNENT-OCEAN BOUNDARY

TRANSFORM MARGIN C
r--- 50 - 100 km- - - ; - - - - 100· 150 km- --t-- 50 • 150 km ----1 Fig. 12.10. Three
principal classes of
passive continental
margins. a Non-vol-
canic. b Volcanic.
c Rift-transform
margin. (Report of
Second Conference
on Scientific Ocean
THIN, SUBSIDED Drilling 1987, Euro-
CONTlNENTAL pean Science Foun-
CRUST. dation, Strasbourg,
MARGINAL France)
FRACTURE ZONE

teaus, the surface of which lies several hundred to
more than a thousand meters below sea level. Con-
vergent margins are normally characterized by nar-
row shelves (cf. Sect. 12.5).
The present-day topography of many shelf basins
on passive margins is, in addition, strongly influ-
enced by sediment accumulation. Young continental
margins with a limited sediment supply tend to have
narrow shelves and to exhibit relatively thin sedimen-
tary sequences. In contrast, the sediments on mature
passive continental margins, such as those of the
present-day Atlantic Ocean, can frequently store sed-
iments more than 10 km thick. The accumulating sed-
iments may show both upbuilding and outbuilding
(cf. Figs. 12.11a and 12.14c), but they are frequently
trapped by structural highs, reefs, or other dam-like
structures at the outer margin (Fig. 12.11b,c).
Detailed descriptions of the structural features, strati-
graphie sequenees, and the hydroearbon prospects of the
Atlantic eontinental margins have been published in nu-
merous articles and several volumes (e.g. Birkenmajer
1981; Emery and Uchupi 1984; Poag 1985; Sheridan and
Grow 1988; Walsh 1988; Ziegler 1988; Eldholm et al.
1989; Tankard and Balkwill 1989; Edwards and
Santogrossi 1990; Gradstein et al. 1990; Eldholm and Grue
1994).
12.2 Continental Margin and Siope Basins
12.2.3 Sediment Successions of
Continental Margin Basins
Sediments of Atlantic-Type Margins
The post-rift sediments of continental margins over-
lie the older rift basin fills (in places characterized by
a breakup unconformity) and cover wider areas than
individual rift structures. The rates of post-rift subsi-
dence decay exponentially with time and are com-
monly lower than those of syn-rift subsidence of the
former rift basins (Sects.8.3 and 8.4).
The sediments of Atlantic-type mature continental
margins, which are fi1led with sediments up to near
sea level (present water depth 100 to 200 m), can be
subdivided into four groups (Fig. 12.11; Kingston et
al. 1983):
(1) Silicic1astic sediments formed by upbuilding and
outbuilding. The subsiding continental margin accu-
mulates predorninantly silicic1astic sediments at mod-
erate, seaward increasing rates. The isochrones show
wedge-like sediment bodies resulting from both
upbuilding and outbuilding of sediment. The deepest
basin floor (basement top) is commonly found below
the continental slope or rise. The zone of maximum
thickness (depocenter) of a certain stratigraphic unit
tends to migrate basinward with time (cf. Fig.
l2.1la).
The modem margins of southwest Africa, southern Mo-
rocco, and the northem Gulf of Mexico provide examples
of this basin type. High-latitude continental margins have
accumulated Quaternary glacio-marine deposits of consid-
erable thickness as known from the Barents shelf off north-
ern Scandinavia (cf. Sect. 9.5).
(2) Carbonate buildups. Large portions of the modem
and ancient continental margins are built up of
shallow-marine carbonates (cf. Sect. 3.4). If the shelf
edge is dammed by reefs (thereby forrning a rimmed
carbonate shelt), the slope can become very steep.
Basinward of the reef front, the slope can prograde
due to the accumulation of reef talus (Fig. 12.l1b)
and debris flows, or she1f and terrigenous material
may spill over the shelf edge. Fine-grained, muddy
carbonates produce gentle prograding slopes (2-4°),
frequently characterized by erosional gullies, while
coarser grained debris forms steep slopes (10-12°, up
to more than 30° in the upper part; e.g. Kenter 1990).
The latter commonly exhibit increased slumping, de-
bris flows, and bypassing of sediment via canyons
(Fig. 12.12a).
Modem examples of carbonate shelves include the conti-
nental margin off Florida, Yucatan, and the Senegal coast.
The upward growth of the Blake Plateau in the western
Atlantic was largely terminated by the Gulf Stream, how-
ever (cf Sect. 5.3.7, Fig. 5.10). The marginal Mazagan pla-
563
teau off Morocco shows an early, syn-rift phase of Jurassic
carbonate buildup which was terminated due to insufficient
subsidence in the early Cretaceous and then followed by
post-rift hemipelagic and pelagic deposition (cf Sect.
5.3.7).
Isolated carbonate platforms on continental or interme-
diate crust as, for example, the present-day Bahamas Archi-
pelago, result entirely from carbonate accumulation. How-
ever, the previously held view that carbonate buildup was
accomplished predominantly by stationary upward growth
has to be modified (Schlager and Camper 1986; Eberli and
Ginsburg 1987 and 1989; Leg 101 Scientific Party 1988).
Seismic records and drilling have shown that this bank-
and-basin archipe1ago was characterized by periods of lat-
eral expansion and retreat as weil as by phases of deeper
water carbonate deposition (Fig. 12.12b-d). Upbuilding in
the 1ate Jurassic and early Cretaceous was followed by
drowning and retreat during the mid-Cretaceous and by
renewed lateral expansion in the Cenozoic.
Lateral, discontinuous prograding of carbonate p1at-
forms (500-1000 m in thickness) has also been described
from the Triassic of the Dolomites in northern Italy
(Bosellini 1984). The effects of sea-level changes on car-
bonate buildups and carbonate slopes are described in Sect.
7.5 (cf. Figs. 7.24 and 7.35).
(3) Prograding deltaic sediments. High sediment in-
flux from a major river delta causes continuous fill-
ing of the subsiding marginal basin and rapid
pro gradation of the slope beyond the continen-
talloceanic crust boundary (Fig. 12.llc). As a result,
the zone of maximum sediment thickness of a mod-
em delta may lie landward of the present coast line.
The low strength of muddy, underconsolidated sedi-
ments leads to the formation of growth faults, roll-
over structures, and mud diapirs.
Prominent examp1es are the she1f off the Niger delta in
West Africa (Doust and Ornatsola 1990, cf. Fig. 14.9), and
the northern margin ofthe Gu1f ofMexico with the Missis-
sippi delta (cf Sect. 5.4.5; Figs. 5.21 and 13.12) which is
also rnodified by sa1t diapirism.
(4) Continental margins affected by salt structures.
The growing sedimentary wedge of a marginal basin
can be strongly affected by halokinesis of underlying
salt (Fig. l2.l1d; cf. Sect. 6.4.4). Salt diapirs act as
darns for shelf sediments which in turn are deformed
by subsidence in special troughs and uplift over the
rising salt structures.
This type of continental margin basin is very common
around the Atlantic. It is known, for example, from the
Gu1f of Mexico, the she1f of Nova Scotia (Scotian basin)
and the conjugate margin ofWest Africa (Essaouira-Agadir
basin and Aaiun-Tarfaya basin, Fig. 12.9c; e.g., Jansa and
Wiedmann 1982) or the Gabon basin (Fig. 12.9d, Kingston
et al. 1983; Teisserene and Villernin 1990).
Many basins on passive continental margins exhibit a
combination of two or three of these end-member
basin types. In the marginal basins of northwest Af-
564 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

aNORMAL UP AND OUTBUILDING OF CLASTICS

MIGRATION OF
DEPOCENTER
CONT. RISE CONT. SLOPE COAST POSTRIFT SED.
o

10

b CARBONATE BANK DEPTH

km
o

10

BREAKUP UNCONFORMITY PRERIFT EROSION

C PROGRADING MAJOR DELTA DEPTH

DELTA FRONT FLUVIAL PLAIN km
o

o Fig. 12.lla-d. General-

ized architecture and
MUD DIAPIRS GROWTH FAULTS sediment successions of
Atlantic-type passive
continental margins
d SALT TECTONICS (end-members). Syn-rift
sediments are predomi-
o nantly continental, post-
rift sediments marine.
(After Kingston et al.
5 1983). See text for ex-
planation
10

rica, for example, Triassie and Liassic salt may be
overlain by Jurassie shelf carbonates and reefs, fol-
lowed by early Cretaceous prodelta elastics. Gener-
aIly, the successions of post-rift sediments reflect the
elimatic and oceanographic history of the region, as
weIl as the impact of the evolution of rock-forming
calcareous microorganisms and eustatic or relative
sea-level changes.
Conjugate marginal basins which originate from
one common basin or lay elose together prior to
ocean spreading (Fig. 12.9c,d) may exhibit more or
less identical depositional histories.
For example, the Scotian basin along the North American
margin and the Essaouira-Agadir basin off northwest Af-
rica show the following common characteristics (from base
to top of the basin fill):
- Late Triassic syn-rift graben infillings consisting of conti-
nental red beds and alkaline volcanics.
- Early Jurassic evaporites and dolomites, and some alka-
line volcanics (late rifting stage, reduced subsidence at
least locally).
- Mid-Jurassic latest rift sediments or early post-rift sedi-
ments consisting of clastics, deltaic sediments, red beds,
and a first reef phase on the African side.
- Late Jurassic post-rift carbonate platforms with reefs
(second reef phase followed locally by renewed rapid sub-
sidence).
12.2 Continental Margin and Slope Basins 565

a EROSION
(BOX CANYONS)
PLATFORM
BAHAMA
b
PLATFORM

TURBIDITES
3

----i
~--
2
TURBIDITES
\

')LUMPS,
DEBRIS FLOWS ~~-
THIN TURBIDITES ~ -=

SLOPE SEDIMENTS d
WSW PROGRADING STRAITS
A ~_'t,::= _ _____ LI _______
_ _MARGIN BIMINI BANK iL _OF
__ ANDROS - i
_ _ _ - - - - -ANDROS BANK ~~~

Fig. 12.12. a Model of lateral progradation and "seIf-
erosion" oflimestone escarpments in the Bahamas and
Marshall Islands. Note oversteepening and various
types of erosion with increasing vertical buildup (1,2,3;
angles of upper one-third of slope up to about 30°).
(Schlager and Camber 1986). b-d Location and internal
structure ofthe northwest Bahama Bank displaying two
buried banks (Bimini Bank and Andros Bank) with
completely filled former trough (Straits of Andros) in
between. Lateral pro gradation of the Birnini western
margin (by 20 km) resulted from sediment accretion on
slope. Vertical upbuilding since the rnid-Cretaceous is
about 2 km (lower correlation horizon); earlier
platform consists of carbonates and evaporites. Vertical
exaggeration about l2x. (Derived from seisrnic
profiles, ocean drilling, and dredge hauls on the
exposed flanks; Eberli and Ginsburg 1987; Schlager et
al. 1988).

- Early Cretaceous platfonn drowning, "Wealden"-type
fluvial clastics and marine prodelta deposits.
- Mid-Cretaceous siliciclastics and limestones and, on the
African side, black shales and cherts resulting from coastal
upwelling.
- Late Cretaceous to Paleogene hemipelagic sediments
characterized by slow sedimentation rates and high propor-
tions ofbiogenic material.
During mid-Cretaceous time, the central Atlantic had al-
ready reached the size of a large ocean basin and the
depositional environments on the opposite margins of this
ocean became increasingly dissimilar. This asymmetrie
evolution is documented by the mid-Cretaceous black
shales in the Essaouira-Agadir basin, as weIl as by late
Cretaceous shelf construction in the Scotian basin, while
the marginal basin on the African side was characterized by
shallowing and the onset of emergence. In addition, the
northwest Atlantic basins drifted into a region of increas-
566 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

SW GOBAN SPUR TRANSECT NE

b ----4--4--
I i
- ----- - - ~- - .-:---- ---- - ---- ...... -----
:ALBYA'N FAULTS I NEOGENE
o

I I ~A:PkT;IA~~Bf _ _ -=::;i;;"Aft.~?i
I I -l 2
I 1
I !
1 ~~v,,~.
I ..;:;;:;~:;;:;::;;:;;;;:;;;::;::;;:;
I 4

LATE
CRET . 6
CHALK CONT. CRUST
(HERCYNIAN km
OCEANIC TRA NSITIONAL BARR.-HAUT. BASEMENT)
CRUST CRUST SHAllOW -WATER
MAR l S:AND LlMEST.

o
44

WNW BAJA CALIFORNIA d ESE

RIFT GRABEN 2
o
2
4

Fig. 12.13. a,b Sediment-starved passive continental margin of the southem Gulf of Califomia. (After
margin of the eastem Atlantic. (After de Graciansky Currayet al. 1982a). Note the different vertical and
et al. 1985). c,d Young, rapidly subsided passive horizontal scales. See text for explanation

ingly cold climate and subarctic ocean currents, while the
northwest African basins more or less remained in a zone
ofwarm, relatively dry climate.
The eastern margin of the Grand Banks in the north-
western Atlantic and the Galicia Bank margin of Spain dis-
play a similar Mesozoic-Cenozoic tectonic-sedimentary
history (Grant et al. 1988; cf. Sect. 12.1.6 and Fig.
12.7a,c). Another, weH described example of conjugate
marginal basins is the Campos basin of Brazil and the
Gabon basin of West Africa (Edwards and Santogrossi
1990); one basin is the mirror image of the other.
As a result of differential subsidenee and/or uplift of
the landward side of the stretehed eontinental erust,
many Atlantie-type eontinental margin basins beeame
partially emerged. These parts of the basins are re-
ferred to as coastal basins. The sediments of these
12.2 Continental Margin and Siope Basins
basins strongly reflect the characteristics of their hin-
terlands, the climate, and relative sea-Ievel changes.
Sediment-Starved Marginal Basins and
Submarine Plateaus
All the basin types discussed so far have in common
the tendency for being more or less continuously
fi1led with sediments up to the water depth of the
continental shelves and slopes. A surplus in sediment
supply will bypass the shelf and settle on the slope or
in deeper water (see below). This case is common
during late basin evolution, when subsidence slows.
In contrast, periods of rapid subsidence (during early
drifting) or insufficient sediment supply (e.g. to bas-
ins far away from terrigenous sources ) lead to
sediment-starved basins. This situation is demon-
strated by a two examples from young ocean basins
and one example from the older Atlantic continental
margin (Figs. 12.14 and 12.15a,b).
Baja California passive margin. Sea-tloor spreading at
the southem end ofthe GulfofCalifomia began 4 Ma B.P.
and caused the passive, rifted continental margin adjacent
to the tip of Baja Califomia to subside by about 2 km (Fig.
12.13c,d; subsidence curve cf. Fig. 8.12a). The present,
post-rift sediment cover on top ofthe stretchedand sunken
continental crnst is only 100-200 m thick, although the
sedimentation rate for diatomaceous ooze on this slope was
relatively high (30-80 mlMa; Curray et al. 1982b).
East Sardinia continental margin. Deeply subsided, sedi-
ment-starved continental margins also occur in the Medi-
terranean (Burollet et al. 1978). The young, recently drilled
passive margin of Sardinia subsided rapidly with the onset
of sea-tloor spreading in the late Miocene or early Pliocene
(Fig. 12.14a,b; Kasten, Mascle et al. 1988; Savelli 1988;
Argnani and Savelli 1999). It borders the Tyrrhenian Sea,
which is interpreted as a backarc basin with young oceanic
crnst generated during two spreading episodes (7 Ma and
1.9 to 1.3 Ma). The center of magmatism migrated trom
northwest to southeast and formed the presently active
Eolian Islands, Strombo1i, and the volcanoes of central
Italy.
The syn-rift sediments of the sunken Sardinian conti-
nental margin (Site 654, Fig. 12.14a) partially show a typi-
cal transgressive sequence beginning with subaerial con-
glomerates, overlain by oyster-bearing sands and marine
marls. During the Messinian (latest Miocene) desiccation
of the Mediterranean, the landward margin accumulated
nannoplankton-bearing clays interbedded with larninated
gypsum, while the seaward, more rapidly subsiding margin
apparentlY stood higher, as indicated by subaerial and lac-
ustrine facies. The post-rift sediments are about 200 m
thick and consist of nannofossil ooze with minor propor-
tions of calcareous mud, volcanic ash, and sapropel.
Goban Spur southwest of Ireland. Parts of the old conti-
nental outer margin of the eastem Atlantic as, e.g., the
Goban Spur, subsided to bathyal depths without sufficient
sedimentary cover (Fig. 12.13a,b; de Graciansky and Poag
1985). Seismic profiles and drilling of this sediment-
567
starved margin have revealed a half-graben within the con-
tinental crnst subjected to rifting since the Triassic. Conti-
nental breakup occurred in the early Cretaceous prior to the
Albian (Colin et al. 1992). The sediment succession dis-
plays two major hiatuses, one in the late Jurassic and an-
other one in the Turonian. The late syn-rift sediments of
early Cretaceous age consist of shallow-water marls and
limestones. The post-rift development began in the Albian
above an unconformity. Bathyal to abyssal chalks indicate
rapid subsidence subsequent to the onset of sea tloor
spreading. The further development is characterized by mi-
nor modifications due to a tluctuating CCD and periodic
intlux of terrigenous detritus, especially in the Cenozoic.
The total thickness of the post-rift sediments ranges trom
0.5 to 1.5 km and is thus in striking contrast to the huge
depositional prism ofthe opposing North American margin
(e.g. ~ 10 km in the Baltimore Canyon Trough).
The Galicia Bank off the Iberian peninsula shows a
similar situation, with a very thin, incomplete post-rift sedi-
ment cover.
Submarine plateaus, -1000-3000 m below sea level,
occur in all large ocean basins. They are more or less
separated from terrigenous sediment sources and
their sediments show characteristics similar to those
of sediment-starved outer margins mentioned above
(cf. Sect. 5.3.8).
Submarine plateaus of the southwest Pacific. The
Ontong-Java Plateau at the equator, several rises between
Melanesia and Australia, and some plateaus east of New
Zealand occupy broad areas of the sea tloor (Kennett and
von der Borch 1986). The tops ofmost ofthese plateaus lie
well above the CCD. They are usually covered by relatively
thick Paleogene to Neogene calcareous foraminiferal
nannofossil oozes, which are little to not affected by car-
bonate dissolution. Deeper portions of the plateaus may
have been affected by CCD tluctuations and therefore show
distinct layering. They indicate the changing climatic and
paleoceancgraphic conditions in the late Mesozoic and Ce-
nozoic (e.g., Berger et al. 1991).
Exmouth Plateau off northwest Australia. This subma-
rine plateau represents an old passive continental margin of
the Indian Ocean. It lost part of its syn-rift Jurassic sedi-
ment cover due to uplift in conjunction with block faulting.
After breakup of the Gondwana continent and the onset of
sea-tloor spreading in the early Cretaceous, the entire
Exmouth Plateau subsided below sea level. Outer parts of
the marginal basin (e.g., the Wombat Plateau) became
sediment-starved and therefore display only a thin post-rift
sequence, including condensed horizons, pelagic lime-
stones and black shales at the Cenomanian-Turonian
boundary (Leg 122 Shipboard Scientific Party 1989; von
Rad et al. 1989).
568 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

o BASALT CALC. MUD

MARLY
NANNO-F OSSIL NANNO-
+ SOME SAPROPEL FOSSIL
200 AND VOLC. ASH __ OOZE
GYPSUM ~ - "-- +SAPROPELS
AND MARL, DOLOM.
400 MARINE . SANDS"
m
CONGLOMERATE
a
··1
.c:-_~

C_OßI'!A~.!:I~ .!~RB~~E____ ~A'y~Q _B~§.I~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0

CENTRAL656
65~
2

4
-oE - - THIN ,. SUBSIDED CONT. CRUST - - -*-oC. CRUST- ~
km

~",VRRHENIAN SEA, MEDITERRANEAN

CALABRIA
1.3 Ma - REGENT
o
b(2) 2
4
L-________~~~~~~~======~--~~~~~~~~~~~km
QUAT. SED. METAMORPHIC·CRYSTALLINE
SARDINIA CALABRIA BASEMENT

tföiJ1F ~~
> B Ma B. P.
b (1) 1<+:.
km
SLOPE SEDIMENTATION
SHELF AND SLOPE SUBJECT TO SEA LEVEL
CHANGES (EROSION AL UNCONFORMITIES)
c

COARSE CLASTICS
I
SLOW, RAPID
SLOPE PROGRADATION
1
EROSION CAUSED BY
CONTOUR CURRENTS I
L SEA LEVEL CHANGES
~ -- - NEGLECTED --"?j
J
SLOPE AND BASIN FLOOR FANS

Fig. 12.14. a Cross section of young, sediment-
starved 'passive continental margin off Sardinia in the
Tyrrheman Sea, western Mediterranean, with some
drilling results. (After Kasten, Mascle, et al. 1988).
b Sections similar to (a) displaying two stages of
basin evolution and several magrnatic episodes. (Af-
ter Savelli 1988). c Theoretical model demonstrating
principal types of outbuilding and upbuilding of
slope sediments: 1 Mainly vertical aggradation with
stratal onlap behind "darn" ; 2 rapid slope
'progradation due to high sediment influx including
mfillings of slope channels and coarser grained rede-
posited material on lower slope; 3 slow slope
progradation; 4 current-eroded and oversteepened
slope with gravity rnass flows and contourites; 5
prograding slope affected by sea level changes (cf.
Chap. 7.4). Note that several phenomena may be su-
perimposed. (Based on von Rad and Wissmarm
1982; Sheridan 1981; Pickering et al. 1989; Vail et
al. 1990)
12.2 ContinentaI Margin and Slope Basins 569

a OFF MOROCCO (CAPE BOJADOR)

NW RISE 397 I S~~~E I SHELF SE

-------------l--------T--------------- 0

CONTINENT AL SLOPES,
W. AFRICA

HEMIPELAGIC
DRAPE 2

CONTOURITES.
DISTAL TURBID. 3
TURBIDITES
VOLCANICL.
RAPID FILLING ......:::~52!t~~5~~P~ 4
BY DEBRIS _ _
FLOWS, ETC .
5
LT. OLIGOC. TO km
E. MIOCENE
EROSION

b OFF MOROCCO (UAD CRAA)

W E
- ---- -------- --------------------------------- o
CH. CHANNELS

3
FAULTS km
WITH GIANT
APTlAN· ALBIAN ROLLOVER
STRUCTURES

Fig. 12.15. Large-scale multi-phase erosion and mass b Uad Craa, Morocco; schematic cross sections. (Af-
wasting on continental slope off a Cape Bojador and ter von Rad and Wissmann 1982)

12.2.4 Sediment Successions on Both siliciclastic and carbonate slopes accumulate

Continental Siopes
Modern Siope Sediments
Present-day siliciclastic continental slopes, leading
from the shelf edge to the continental rise and deep
sea, commonly have very gentie gradients of a few
degrees and therefore widths of 50-150 km. Hence,
prograding slopes and slope aprons (cf. Figs. 5.3 and
5.12) constitute a significant part of continental mar-
gin basins. The slopes of carbonate buildups can be
much steeper (see above and Sect. 7.5.5), but they
also cover wide areas in front of or between reef
structures.
sediments transported either in suspension from
coastal areas or coarser particles which have rni-
grated over the shelf or are derived from the shelf
edge or reef front. In addition, upper slope sediment
is frequently redeposited on the lower slope.
Slopes mayaiso undergo long-term nondeposition
or erosion. Nondeposition is found on slopes af-
fected by ocean currents at medium depths. Bottom
currents (e.g. contour currents, cf. Sect. 5.5), intensi-
fied during sea-Ievellowstands and high temperature
gradients between the poles and the equator, can
erode the foot of the slope and trigger large mass
movements.
570
Thus, we can distinguish between constructional
and destructional phases of slope deposition. Some
features of these two phases are summarized in Figs.
l2.l5c and 12.16 for mainly siliciclastic material (for
carbonate slopes see Sects. 12.2.3 and 7.5.5). Slopes
dammed by structural highs, volcanic structures,
reefs, salt or mud diapirs tend to remain sediment-
starved until the shelf basin behind the dam is filled.
Progradation of the slope may proceed either rapidly
or slowly in relation to the influx of terrigenous or
biogenic sediment. The upper slopes on modem con-
tinental margins are frequently characterized by sedi-
ment bypassing and local sediment ponding,
pro gradation, and the filling of channels and gullies.
The outbuilding slope sediments therefore frequently
reflect the composition of the shelf deposits and their
variation through time. The lower slope or slope
apron preferentially collects slides, debris flows, and
turbidites.
Seismic lines along the slopes of the western Atlantie off
the United States, for example, have revealed that
terrigenous material was transported aeross the early Creta-
eeous eontinental shelf to form several large shelf edge
deltas (Poag et al. 1990). Eaeh delta supplied sediment
gravity flows to slope aprons and deep-sea fans on the
lower slope and eontinental rise. In the northern Hatteras
basin, one of these sediment distributory systems extended
500 km basinward.
Mid-Cretaeeous to Cenozoie multi-phase slope destrue-
tion is demonstrated by two examples from the margin off
northwest Afriea (Fig. 12.15; von Rad and Wissmann
1982). Undereutting of the slope at various levels ereated
long hiatuses and angular uneonforrnities in the strati-
graphie reeord. Mass wasting was partieularly aetive during
12.2.5 Summary (Continental Margin and Slope Basins)
- Passive continental margins are either nonvol-
canic or affected by extensive volcanism and/or
strike-slip. They are commonly segmented and
display various widths.
- The sediment successions of continental mar-
gins result from both upbuilding and outbuild-
ing and their architecture is often modified by
outer margin highs (e.g. reefs) and salt struc-
tures.
- Atlantic-type mature margins have commonly
accumulated thick sedimentary piles which re-
flect long-term changes in climate, ocean circu-
lation, and the evolution of marine organisms.
Parts of the outer margin are sediment-starved;
sunken submarine plateaus, and young margins
mostly exhibit a thin sediment cover.
Conjugate passive margins of the same ocean
basin often exhibit a striking similarity of their
syn-rift sediments, but differ in their post-rift
sedimentary evolution.
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
the mid-Mioeene and the late Pleistoeene. These proeesses
were aceompanied by the ineision of major slope eanyons.
At least part of the displaeed sediments is redeposited on
the eontinental rise. Here, debris flow deposits and huge
olistostromes interfinger with eontourite drifts.
The eross seetions in Figure 12.15 also display anti-
thetie growth faults with giant rollover struetures, forming
a "slope antieline", and mud diapirs. These struetures are
eommon in rapidly aeeumulating thiek sedimentary se-
quenees, as represented here by lower Cretaeeous prodelta
deposits.
Ancient Slope Deposits
The identification of ancient slope sediments in ex-
posures of limited extent can be difficult. They may
be characterized by predominantly siliciclastic, hemi-
pelagic, or bioclastic carbonate sediments. Useful
criteria are slope scars and gullies on the upper slope,
canyons fills and mass flow deposits on the lower
slope. The foot of the slope may display features of
undercutting and erosion. Contourites may inter-fin-
ger with redeposited sediments (cf. Sect. 5.5). In any
case, the knowledge of the large-scale facies associa-
tion of the basin fill is useful for the identification of
slope sediments. In addition, faunistic criteria can
indicate the paleo-waterdepth.
If slope successions are incorporated into sub-
duction and collision-related deposits, their identifi-
cation is even more problematic. Slope sediments
preserved due to rapid subsidence and burial under
thick younger sequences tend to be affected by re-
gionallow-grade metamorphism.
Margin successions dominated by siliciclastics
form wedge-like sediment bodies. The depo-
centers of certain time periods tend to migrate
basinward with time. Prograding deltas may
build shelf edges and slopes beyond the
continent-ocean crustal boundary. The slope
sediments often display growth faults, rollover
structures, and mud diapirs.
The sediments of gentle continental slopes can
cover wide areas; carbonate slopes are partially
steeper. Slopes are characterized by construc-
tional and destructional processes, the fills of
slope gullies and canyons, slide scars, and re-
deposited material at their foot.
As a result of ocean closure, subduction and
collision, most of the sediments of old passive
continental margins were incorporated into
accretionary wedges and orogenic belts where
they underwent deformation and metamor-
phism.
12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
Mega-Rifting in Europe and
Intracontinental Sag Basins
(12.3 and 12.4)
12.3 Mega-Rifting and Mesozoic Sediments
in Europe (Overview)
12.3.1 Intracontinenta1 Basin Evolution
(Mega-Rifting)
12.3.2 Mesozoic Sediments
12.3.3 Summary (Mega-Rifting in Europe)
12.4 Intracontinenta1 Sag Basins
12.4.1 Occurrence and General Characteristics
12.4.2 Tectonic Evolution and
Subsidence History
12.4.3 Sediments
12.4.4 Summary (Intracontinental Sag Basins)
12.3 Mega-Rifting and Mesozoic
Sediments in Europe (Overview)
12.3.1 Intracontinental Basin Evolution
(Mega-Rifting)
This section is thematically related to the previous
and following sections (Sects. 12.2 and 12.4). It is
intended to give abrief overview of the Mesozoic
extra-Alpine sedimentary history of wide areas in
Europe. Some knowledge about a classical region
mayaiso be useful for the interpretation of the geo-
logical history of areas outside of Europe.
During the late Permian and Triassic, the Pangean
supercontinent became increasingly unstable due to
the reactivation of peripheral rift zones and the de-
velopment of new interior rift systems. From the Tri-
assic to the rniddle Jurassie, two principal, multi-di-
rectional rift systems transected the former Variscan
fold belt and its fore land: from the north, the
Norwegian-Greenland Sea rift prograded southward,
and the Tethys rift system prograded from Asia west-
ward. In the central and north Atlantic, these two
mega-rift systems interfered with each other, but the
neighboring areas, including western and central Eu-
rope, were also strongly affected by this plate reorga-
nization or "mega-rifting". Pre-existing Permo-Car-
boniferous fracture systems were reactivated, and
wide areas around the future continental rnargins un-
derwent extensional stresses. These caused differen-
tial subsidence and thus basin fills of varying thick-
nesses between zones of higher elevation and moder-
ate uplift.
The depositional environments and histories of
these basins were affected by many local factors and
therefore vary from basin to basin. Nevertheless,
some general trends can be recognized which rnay
also characterize other basins of sirnilar origin. This
is exemplified by the evolution of the European Me-
sozoic basin association between the growing Tethys
Ocean in the south and the N orth Sea in the north.
The effects of short-term sea-Ievel changes and mi-
nor clirnatic cycles are not discussed here (cf. Chap.
7).
Central and western Europe, including its continental she1f
and the North Sea, are characterized by a considerab1e
number of sedimentary basins which developed since the
Permo-Triassie and persisted through the Mesozoic or Ce-
nozoic time. These basins represent well-known examples
of intracontinental basins, the evolution of which was initi-
ated by rifting and complicated by block faulting and
wrench tectonics (Ziegler 1982, 1988). In all these cases,
rifting did not lead to the formation of new oceanic crust
(failed rifts). However, during and subsequent to rifting,
these basins experienced long-lasting thermal subsidence
simi1ar to passive continental margins. Some of these bas-
ins may be regarded as continenta1 sag basins (Sect. 12.4),
although their development spans less time than that of
typical sag basins.
12.3.2 Mesozoic Sediments
Triassie. As a result of the northward drift of
Pangea, Europe moved out of an equatorial position
held during the late Carboniferous, reached the
northern trade-wind belt, and reached a zone of dry,
hot climate.
Western Tethys, Alps. During the Triassic, the large
shelf areas in the western Tethys Ocean were charac-
terized by extensive carbonate platforms, some
evaporite basins, and intervening troughs accumulat-
ing deep water carbonates and shales (Fig. 12.l6a;
e.g., Bechstädt et al. 1978; Brandner 1985; Ziegler
1988; Elmi 1990). The extensive, thick carbonate
buildups of the eastern and southern Alps and other
Alpine regions in southern Europe document sub-
tropical clirnate and the efficiency of shallow-water
572 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

b LATE JURASSIC
SH.-MAR.,
MAINLY ~~"".:l§::-:,i-I'
SHALE:.::S~~~W

i
CLIMATE
100 SHALLOW -MARINE INCREASING
~ ARID HUMID SHALES, MARLS, AND
I ~ -- ~
CARBONATE CONlENT
W SANDSTONES (:: OPAlINE SIlICA)
a: I
Ü I

c
I
PARTIALLY BRACKISH
1.. ~:;.;;:.'=---:;ri!::~:":!:71 EVAPORITES

SHALLOW-MARINE LlMEST.,
150 REEFS, OOllTES, AND MARLS
Ü
Ci)
(/) SHALES, SANDST.,
~ .JRON OOllTES
a:
....,
::>
PROTECTED
BACK-BANK
SHALLOW RAMP
I
200 MARLY ! (CRINOIDAL)
LAYST. I OPEN MARINE
CARBONATE CYCLES
Ü
Ci) FLUVIAL
/T
I .ll
. WITH TEMPESTITE'S

(/) _ ____________ ...J ;! } -EVAPORITES

<t:
Ci: ~~~;~~~~;::~ -MUSCHELKALK (MARINE) 1 MARLY CARBONATES
I- - --- --- ~ - """' :: PROTECTED
BUNTSANDSTEIN :....... ' , ' . : : CYCLIC
250 -',("BUNTER" _~ ~ .'
z Ma , RED ~ .....
S~NDST.)g
SILCRETE PALEOSOLS
,
<t:
:E
a: VOLCANIC'- "',.:ti FLUVIAL CYCLES
(BRAIDED AND MEAN-
w EVAPORITES FLUVIAL AND EOllAN " DERING SYSTEMS,
0..
(ZECHSTEIN) CLASTICS (RGTlIEGEND) IN PLACES COASTAL
12.3 Mega-Rifting and Mesozoic Sediments in Europe
carbonate production in keeping pace with the subsi-
dence of the continental margins.
Germanie facies province. The fully marine facies in
the Alpine-Mediterranean Triassic was replaced by
predominantly continental clastic sediments in the
Gerrnanic facies province, i.e., on the western and
northwestern Tethyan shelves and in the
intracontinental basins of central and western Europe
(Fig. 12.16a; e.g., Schröder 1982). During the Perm-
ian, red beds, evaporites, and volcanics were depos-
ited in narrow intramontane troughs of the former
Variscan fold belt. With the onset of the Triassic the
relief was largely peneplained, but differential subsi-
dence (20 to 50 mlMa) of wide basins and uplift of
large blocks continued. The total thickness of the
Triassic sequence in the Germanic facies frequently
ranges from 800 to 2000 m, but is less adjacent to the
uplifted massifs. The thickness of the carbonates ac-
cumulated on the Tethyan shelves is much greater.
The term Triassic is derived from these regions, because its
sequence can be subdivided into three distinctly different
subunits(Fig.12.l6c):
(1) The lower Triassic continental Buntsandstein clastics.
The basins were filled by alluvial fans and extended red
sands tones and claystones, which accumulated in braided
and meandering fluvial systems (Tietze 1982; Mader 1985;
Perez-Arlucea and Sopena 1986). Locally, playa sediments
with evaporites were deposited. Fluvial cycles and
paleosols with silcrete and pedogenic carbonate reflect
short-term climatic variations and changes in the drainage
systems.
(2) Middle Triassic marine Muschelkalk carbonates and
evaporites. The marine environment in Central Europe is
associated with a long-term eustatic sea-level rise allowing
the Tethys Ocean to enter this area through two graben
systems, one to the east of the Bohemian massif and the
other between the Bohemian massif and Massif Central in
France (Fig. l2.l6a). To the north the basin was connected
with the Arctic Ocean by a seaway between Greenland and
Fennosarmatia. Warm and comparatively arid climate fa-
vored the production ofbiogenic carbonate and the precipi-
tation of sulfate and halite. The carbonates show distinct
lateral facies changes ranging from open marine ramp set-
tings to marginal banks and protected, hypersaline back-
bank regions (Aigner 1985). Mud flats and channels indi-
cate moderate tidal activity (Schwarz 1975). Long-term
trends were superimposed by sea-level changes (Röhl
...
1990).
Fig. 12.16. Triassic to Jurassic riftlsag basin (mega-
rift) evolution in Central Europe, overview. a,b
Paleotectonic and paleogeographic situation during
the middle Triassic (a Muschelkalk) and late Jurassic
(b). Abbrevations for land masses (massifs): AM
Armorican; BM Bohemian; EH Ebro High; IBM
Iberian; IM Irish; LBM London-Brabant; RM
Rhenish. (Simplified from Ziegler 1988). c Greatly
generalized Permian to lower Cretaceous sedimen-
573
(3) Upper Triassic continental beds 0/ the Keuper Group.
Most of the time huge playa lakes occupied the cemtral
parts of the basins in which red and greenish clayey marls
altemating with thin carbonate beds and some sabkha-type
evaporites accumulated, interrupted by short-term marine
ingressions. Massive, red silty clays in the uppermost part
of the sequence containing irregular layers of pedogenic
carbonate nodules are interpreted as fossil clay dunes (Sect.
2.3.3). Throughout this development, the neighboring
highlands shed sand and gravel into the basin from various
sources, but mostly from Fennosarmatia southward.
Basin fills similar to those in the central European area are
present, for example, in the Aquitaine basin, the Bay of
Biscay rift, the Paris basin, and the Celtic Sea basin (cf.
Fig. 12.l6a). These basins as well as the Gibraltar and At-
las rifts were affected by Tethyan transgressions (Ziegler
1988). In most of these basins, the Triassic sequences are
characterized by red beds and evaporites, Muschelkalk-
type shallow-marine carbonates, and Keuper-type playa
lake/continental deposits. In Spain, for example, the Trias-
sic sequence is quite similar to that in Central Europe
(Garcia-Mondejar et al. 1986).
Jurassie. During the Rhaetian and early Jurassic, the
pre-existing rift systems remained active, and differ-
ential subsidence in central and western Europe con-
tinued. This development led, in combination with
long-term rising sea level, to a long-Iasting seaway
between the Tethys and Arctic Oceans (Fig. 12.l6b;
Ziegler 1988). Ocean spreading in the Tethys
prograded westward and connected the Tethys with
the evolving central Atlantic.
In Rhaetian time, the sea again invaded the central Euro-
pean basin and established normal marine, epicontinental
conditions until the end of the Jurassic and, in smaller ar-
eas, throughout the Cretaceous and part of the Tertiary.
Due to the influence of both the mixing of colder Arctic
water with warmer Tethys water and the increasingly hu-
mid and cooler climate, the sediments of the lower and
middle Jurassic are predominantly shales with minor con-
tributions of fine sand and carbonate (Fig. l2.l6c). Sea-
level oscillations led to widespread submarine erosional
unconformities characterized by reworked limestone and
siderite concretions, re.deposited iron ooids, and some lay-
ers containing glauconite and phosphorite.
The marked Hettangian and Toarcian transgressions
favored the formation of relatively thin, but extensive black
shale horizons. With the onset· of increasing biogenic car-
bonate production in the upper Jurassic, possibly associ-
ated with a trend towards a warmer climate, marls, lime-
stones, and reefal carbonates were deposited.
tary succession in· relation to long-term sea level
changes and climatic trends. (Based on Wurster
1968; Krömmelbein 1986; Anderton et al. 1979;
Schröder 1982; Geyer and Gwinner 1986; Haq et al.
1987; Schwarzbach 1974; Frakes 1979). Note that
long-term trends are superimposed with shorter vari-
ations in climate and sea level, generating various
cyclic phenomena. See text for further explanation
574
At the same time, the Viking and Central graben sys-
tems in the North Sea became active and established com-
paratively deep water environments. The Kimmeridgian
and Tithonian organic-rich shales are regarded as the prin-
cipal hydrocarbon source rocks for the North Sea oil (cf
Sect. 14.3, Fig. 14.11). In contrast, the late Jurassic ofthe
Lower Saxonian basin in Northern Germany is character-
ized by clasticsediments and evaporites indicating aridity.
Cretaceous. A land bridge, running frorn the
London-Brabant massif to the Bohemian massif, and
wrench faulting in the N orth Sea and north of the
land bridge led to marked differences in the upper
Jurassie and early Cretaceous basin evolution in cen-
tral Europe.
While, for example, the southern (Franconian) basin went
dry at the end of the Jurassic, subsidence continued in the
Lower Saxonian basin, in the North Sea, and in the Paris
basin. Evaporite accumulation ceased due to a change to
more humid climate.
12.3.3 Summary (Mega-Rifting in Europe)
The Mesozoic sedimentary history of European
basins is strongly influenced by intracontinental
mega-rifting between the North Sea and the
western Tethys as weH as coeval c1imate change
from warm and arid to temperate and humid.
This led, at least in part, to strikingly similar
and easily corre1atable sediment successions in
various basins, particularly in the Triassie dom-
inated by continental deposits outside the Alps.
Differential subsidence continued in the Juras-
sie and Cretaceous. The predominantly shaHow-
marine sediments (resulting from general sea-
12.4 Intracontinental Sag Basins
12.4.1 Occurrence and General Characteristics
Intracontinental sag basins (or interior cratonic bas-
ins, intracratonic basins) are large, slowly subsiding,
long-lived basins (cf. Sect. 1.2). Some of them have
been referred to as aulacogens (cf. Sect. 1.2).
Intracontinental sag basins are known from all conti-
nents (Fig. l2.17a) and may accumulate thick (up to
~ 10 km), undeformed or little deformed sedimentary
successions over long periods of time (on the order
of 200 to 800 Ma). Many basins have a saucer shape,
and they range in size mostly from 2xl05 to 2xl06
km2 •
An overview and detailed discussion of these basins has
been given by Leighton et al. (1990) and Leighton and
Kolata (1990). Basins of this type with late Proterozoic to
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
The lower Cretaceous Wealden facies represents sandy
to clayey nonmarine, brackish, deltaic, or coastal-marine
deposits. The overlying shallow-marine sediments consist
mainly of shale, sand, and minor proportions of carbonate
and opaline silica, but may vary significantly due to the
influence of local sediment sources. In conjunction with
the mid-Cretaceous sea-Ievel rise, and the evolution of car-
bonate secreting microorganisms, the sediments became
increasingly rich in carbonate.
The Jurassie sequence varies in thickness from about
400 to 600 m in southern Germany to approximate1y
1000 to 1800 m in northwestern Germany. The Cre-
taceous sediments in the Lower Saxonian trough may
reach more than 1500 m in thickness. If regions with
high sediment thicknesses are taken into account, the
average rate of Mesozoic subsidence was on the or-
der of 25 mlMa.
level rise) of this time span were still affected
by structural highs, apart from c1imate change
and the establishment of new seaways.
- The thicknesses of the Triassie in Germanic
facies and those of the Jurassie and Cretaceous
largely vary in Central Europe. The average
rate of Mesozoic subsidence in the depocenters
was -25 mlMa.
Long-persisting intracontinental mega-rift bas-
ins represent a kind of transition between indi-
vidual rift basins and intracontinental sag bas-
ins described below.
middle Paleozoic sediments have been described, for exam-
pie, from northeastern Asia, around the Siberian platform,
and the southern Urals (Artyushkov and Baer 1986). The
largest basin in Asia is the western Siberian basin occupy-
ing an area of 3.4 x 10 6 km2 • Other, mostly Precambrian to
Paleozoic sag basins are known from Africa, Australia, and
North America (e.g., the Paleozoic Illinois, Michigan, and
Williston basins, with -3-6 km of sediments; Klein and
Hsui 1987; Fisher et al. 1988; Leighton and Kolata 1990).
The largest basin in South America is the Parami basin ex-
isting since the early Paleozoic. Several, relatively small
basins ofNorth Africl,l, including the Tindoufbasin in Mo-
rocco, the western and eastern Erg (Ghadames) basins in
Aigeria and Tunisia, as well as the Murzuk and Kufra bas-
ins in Libya, developed in the early Paleozoic, and some of
them continued to subside until Neogene times (e.g.
Echikh 1998; Fekirine and Abdallah 1998; Ricbe and
Charpal 1998). The Paris basin began as a rift basin in the
late Paleozoic and is mainly filled with Mesozoic and Ter-
tiary sediments (e.g. Perrodon and Zabek 1990).
12.4 Intracontinental Sag Basins
"Modem" examples of intracratonic sag basins include
the slowly subsiding, continental Chad basin in northern
central Africa and the Eyre basin in Australia (Mitchell and
Reading 1986). The North Sea, the Baltic Sea (part of the
Baltic basin), and Hudson Bay in Canada are old sag basins
inundated by the sea.
12.4.2 Tectonic Evolution and
Subsidence History
The erustal proeesses forming these basins are not
well understood. Most basins laek major extensional
faulting, apart from early rifting as observed in many
eases. Thus, long-term thermal eontraetion and/or
eclogitization of the lowermost erust, or intraplate
stress seem to be the major meehanism in generating
subsidenee.
Lateral tensile deviatoric stress appears to have been insuf-
ficient to overcome rock strength and cause brittle fracture
(e.g., Allen and Allen 1990). Instead, intraplate stress is
mentioned by some authors, causing long-wave-Iength
undulations in the continental crust (e.g. in Asia; Nikishin
et al. 1993). This mechanism can also explain irregularities
and shortcomings of thermal models of post-rift basin sub-
sidence (Cloetingh and Kooi 1992). In any case, post-rift
subsidence appears to be much longer than that which can
be attributed to a rift-produced thermal anomaly (Quinlan
1987). In the absence of significant stretching and thinning
(or shortening) of the crust, a slow gabbro-eclogite trans-
formation in the lowermost crust or uppermost mantle
could be the principal mechanism causing subsidence (cf.
Sect. 8.1.3). Other authors (e.g., Finlayson et al. 1989)
emphasize that the earlier history of the crust (prior to the
evolution ofthe sag basin) plays an important role in deter-
mining the subsidence and structure of this type of basin.
Klein and Hsui (1987) assume that the North American
cratonic basins resulted from the breakup of a late Precam-
brian supercontinent similar to the Triassic-Jurassic
breakup ofPangea mentioned in Sect. 12.3.
The initiation and "eyclic" evolution of many
intraeontinental sag basins seem to be assoeiated
with the breakup of super-eontinents (Pan-Africa,
-600 Ma B.P. and Pangea in the Triassic-Jurassie; ef.
Seet. 7.8). Some old, formerly intracontinental basins
were split up by subsequent rifting and ocean spread-
ing and now represent craton margin sag basins. The
North Afriean examples of sag basins are loeated on
a re1atively "mobile" erust and possibly not the best
representatives of this basin type. They display, how-
ever, two distinct "super-cycles" in the Paleozoic and
Mesozoie-Cenozoic, each beginning with a rift stage
and ending in a long sag stage (Macgregor 1998).
The tectonic evolution of the various intra-conti-
nental basins was not always slow and steady. Many
of them show a multi-phase evolution (Fig. 12.17b)
indieated by the upward termination of major faults
and/or large erosional uneonformities. This develop-
ment is also refleeted by subsidenee curves display-
575
ing re1atively short periods of increased subsidenee
altemating with long-term slow rates (Fig. 12.17d).
Both, maximum total subsidenee and the history of
subsidence ean markedly differ in adjaeent sag bas-
ins. Average rates of subsidenee in intraeontinental
sag basins vary from less than 10 to 25 mlMa, in-
cluding periods of nondeposition and erosion.
The huge western Siberian basin, 2300 km in length, was
initiated by Paleozoic rifting and later affected two times
by moderate tectonism (horst-and-graben structures and
volcanism in the Triassic, further structures in the Neo-
gene; Khain 1994).
The subsidence rates varied markedly at different 10cations
within the basin and with time. The Timan-Pechora basin
in northeastern Europe, located to the west ofthe Ural fold
belt and including part the Barents Sea, accumulated 7-8
km sediment since the early Paleozoic. Here, subsidence
proceeded in several distinct steps (lsmail-Zadeh et al.
1997).
The Parana basin in South America subsided >5 km
since the Silurian in three distinct steps (Zalän 1990). Sub-
sidence in the Permo-Carboniferous may have been accel-
erated by the ice load of the coevel continental glaciation; a
further pulse of subsidence was probably caused by the
heavy load ofthick and extensive volcanics.
The central parts of the Michigan basin in North Amer-
ica subsided steadily at an average rate of 24 mlMa over a
time span of 200 Ma (Fischer 1975). Differing subsidence
in neighboring basins was observed, for example, in basins
on the Saharan platform in North Africa, to the north ofthe
Precambrian massifs of Tibesti, Hoggar, and Eglab. The
western Erg basin subsided -5 km in -250 Ma in the Pa-
leozoic, the eastern Erg basin subsided in three steps up to
10 km in 500 Ma in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Tertiary
(Ricbe and Charpal 1998).
12.4.3 Sediments
Although the intracontinental sag basins are large,
their terrestrial sediment supply and authoehthonous
sediment produetion eould eommonly keep pace with
the slow subsidenee of their basin floor. As a result,
the sediments of sag basins tend to be continental,
shallow-laeustrine, or shallow-marine. Overfilled
basins display pronounced stratigraphie gaps. Many
sag basins were intermittently eonnected with the sea
and therefore reeord major eustatic sea-Ievel ehanges
(Fig. 12.17c), prograding and baekstepping facies
associations (offlapping and onlapping units), and
phases of nondeposition or erosion. Pronounced un-
eonformities have been used to distinguish several
mega-sequences in these basins and to establish a
stratigraphie eorrelation between basins of different
continents.
The stratigraphic chart ofthe Illinois basin in North Amer-
ica, for example, was used by Sloss (1963) to define four
mega-sequences, which are today regarded as 2nd order
sequences (cf. Sect. 7.8). These mega-sequences are sepa-
rated by prominent unconforrnities (smaller ones are omit-
576 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

ATLANTIC-TPY
BASINS

b . TWO-CYClE SAG B. ~ ILLINOIS BASIN

~:[~~l~
WllLiSTONE BASIN
MICHIGAN BASIN
HUDSON BAY BASIN
PARIS BASIN
-6~---------------------------------~ BAl TIC BASIN
PETCHORA BASIN
~- THREE-CYCLE SAG B. ~....L.../....L.._ _-I WESTERN SIBERIAN B.
a..
UJ ERG BASINS
o PARANA BASIN
CARPENTARIA B.

d Ma B.P.
c o
T Q
n:
r--r::c:
(/)Z (J)
« S~N
~
Z III ...........
«

::::=--
~
E2
~RMITV
-----
------
-------
.:,L

w
---------
3
---------
-=-----=---------
--------
-=-----~
SHAlE U .
Z
~. 4
AAA7:: .......
~- ü)
..J
üi ~ 3 5
I--
:>
(J)
I-
oO · ~ 6
Ir
SARBONATES ~ TOTAL SUBSIDENCE
o ~ (CORRECTED FOR
I-- « COMPACTION) =
lIla -;
o
CI)
Ocaca =
~ ~ ~ ~
9
ca
~ §: §:~~
,- 1-.- .<11
~
10~~(/)~~~~--L-C~~~~~~----
12.4 Intracontinental Sag Basins
ted in Fig. 12.17e) and eharaeterized by inereasing hiatuses
from south to north. The reason for this asymmetry in the
stratigraphicehart is that the southem end ofthe basin was
situated closer to a rift zone eonneeted with the sea and
emerged later than the northem part of the basin which was
filled with sediment more rapidly. Tbe rift-stage sediments
of the Illinois basin are siliciclastics; the post-rift sediments
contain roughly 50% dolomites and limestones, 25% sand-
stones, and 25% siltstones and shales.
Due to their long lifetimes, most of the intracon-
tinental basins experienced significant changes in
their paleolatitudes and climate. Many ofthem record
changes from arid to humid conditions (reflected by
evaporites and coals). Lacustrine and restricted ma-
rine phases led to the formation of black shales;
reefs, prograding coastal and fluvial sands created
source rocks. Some of the early Paleozoic sediment
fills reflect the evolution of land plants and rock-
forming marine organisms from the Proterozoic era
to Phanerozoic times. Several basins in the southem
hernisphere contain tillites of the Permo-Carbonifer-
ous and older glacial periods. The high contribution
of late Jurassic/early Cretaceous basaltic rocks in the
filling of the Parana basin in South America, which
is related to the opening of the South Atlantic, is a
sirnilar phenomenon is the hot spot of Iceland and
East Greenland mentioned above.
Climate contrasts are particularly pronounced during the
existence of Pangea from the middle Carboniferous to the
middle Jurassie. The center of the Permo-Carboniferous
glaciation moved from South America via South Afriea,
Fig. 12.17. a Global distribution of intracontinental
sag basins (overview). Main zones of Atlantic-type
continental margin basins and zones of basins associ-
ated with plate convergence (Mesozoic-Cenozoic
mega-sutures) are indicated for comparison. b Princi-
pal features of two- and three-cycle sag basins. (Af-
577
India and Antaretica to Australia. At the same time, peat
fonned in low latitudes and evaporites in higher latitudes
ofthe northem hemisphere (e.g. Francis 1994). A long-dis-
tance high-resolution stratigraphie correlation of basins on
the northem hemisphere was proposed by Ross and Ross
(1995) for the Perrnian. An improved numerical time scale
for the Perrnian and Triassie
has shown, for example, that the average duration of eaeh
Zechstein evaporite cycle was about 1 Ma (Menning 1995).
Tbe sedimentary fill of some basins may exemplify the
wide range in the depositional environments of sag basins:
Western Siberian basin. Tbis huge basin is known for
its rieh hydrocarbon reserves. It accumulated mainly conti-
nental and volcaniclastic deposits during its first cycle. Tbe
Jurassie is rich in coal-bearing strata and bituminous
shallow-marine shales. In total, 7-8 km of sediment were
deposited in the central part and 10-12 km in the northem
and northeastem part ofthe basin (Khain 1994).
Michigan basin, North America. This basin collected
sediments from the Cambrian to the Jurassie, and then
again in the Quatemary, but it also experienced periods of
erosion and sediment starvation (Fisher et al. 1988). After
an initial stage of continental and shaIlow-marine deposi-
tion, the basin displays two upper Silurian, 600 m thick
evaporite-carbonate cycles, which are replaced along the
margins by reefs and skeletal shoals, while on the slopes
and in deeper water pinnacle reefs occur (Schreiber
1988b).
Murzuk and Kufra basins, North Africa. Tbe fiIls of
these basins are only 2 to 3 km thick and consist predomi-
nantly of fluvial deposits (Nubian sandstone ), which were
transported in northerly directions (SeIley 1985a). In the
late Cretaceous and early Tertiary, the basins were flooded
bythe sea.
ter Kingston et al. 1983). c Mega-sequences sepa-
rated by major unconformities, Illinois basin, USA,
simplified, post-Permian development not shown.
d Subsidence history of Illinois basin. (a,c,d After
Leighton and Kolata 1990)
578
12.4.4 Summary (Intracontinental Sag Basins)
- Intracontinental sag basins result from large
ernstal depressions which display little extension.
They subsided slowly but non-linearly over long
time periods (mostly 200-600 Ma). The principal
process controlling long-tenn subsidence is either
thermal contraction, eclogitization of the lower-
most ernst, and/or intraplate stress.
- Many sag basins show two or several phases of
tectonic and sedimentary evolution (e.g. an initial
"rift cycle" followed by one or two "sag cycles").
- The depositional environments of sag basins are
commonly continental, lacustrine or shallow-
marine. Most sag basins experienced drastic
climate changes during their long his tory, reflec-
ted by coal, carbonates, evaporites, and tillites (in
some cases).
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
- The thick basin tills (mostly several up to 10 km)
can be subdivided into megasequences (2nd
order sequences) generated by relative sea- or
base-level changes. The megasequences display
prograding and backstepping facies belts and are
bounded by major unconformities. Retined
stratigraphy (including modem sequence and
cyclostratigraphy) allows intercontinental correl-
ations.
- Many intracontinental sag basins contain large
amounts of recoverable hydrocarbons due to
intercalated widely extended blaek shales,
stratigraphie traps, adequate seals and burial
depths, and limited teetonic defonnation.
12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
12.5 Deep-Sea Trenches,
Foreare, Backare, and
Retroarc Basins
12.5.1 Plate-Tectonic Overview
12.5.2 Deep-Sea Trenches and Accretionary Wedges
General Characteristics and Sediment Sources
Trench Fills and Sediment Accretion
(Qualitative Aspects)
Trench fills, Accretion and Subduction
ofSediment (Quantitative Aspects)
Sediment Budget ofModem Subduction
Complexes
Conclusions for the Sediment Budget
Specific Structures and Other Phenomena in
Accretionary Wedges
Tectonic Deformation
Melange, Wildflysch
Mud Diapirs and Mud Volcanoes
Examples of Arc-Trench Systems
Summary (Deep-Sea Trenches and
Sediment Accretion)
12.5.3 Forearc Basins
Basin Types and General Characteristics
Basin Evolution, Sediment Sources,
and Tectonic Overprint
Sediment Successions ofForearc Basins
Examples ofForearc Basins
Modern Forearc Basins on Continental Margins
Modern Intraoceanic Forearc Basins
Ancient Forearc Basins
Summary (Forearc Basins)
12.5.4 Backarc and Retroarc Basins
General Characteristics
Sediment Successions ofBackarc and
Retroarc Basins
Retroarc (Retro-Foreland) Basins on
Continental Crnst
Backarc Basins on Oceanic Crnst
Examples ofModern Backarc Basins
Summary (Backarc and Retroarc Basins)
12.5.5 Preservation and Recognition of
Ancient Subduction-Related Basins
12.5.1 Plate-Tectonic Overview
Arc-trench systems result either from the breakage of
a previously intact oceanic plate or from the activa-
tion of a passive continental margin (cf. Fig. 1.2, A
and B subduction). Intraoeeanie voleanogenie are
systems have oceanic lithosphere in both the forearc
and backarc regions. The island arc can be entirely
volcanic (e.g., present-day Tonga-Kermadoc Islands
and Mariana Islands) or comprise a continental sliver
(e.g., Japan). "Normal" subduction of oceanic plate
beneath an island arc is directed toward the continent
following behind the island arc and backarc basin;
reversed subduction (polarity reversal) affects
backarc basins, whose oceanic crust is subducted
oceanward, i.e., away from the continent. The mini-
mum distance between arc and trench is ab out 100
km in modem oceanic arc systems; trenches are com-
monly smoothly arcuate, as for example the Sunda
trench (see below).
In contrast, the edges of rifted continental margins
tend to bt: jagged and to exhibit offsets and projec-
tions (Fig. 12.18a). Here, the subducting oceanic
plate cannot trace an these irregularities but tends to
adjust to the points of the crustal projections on the
continental block. Hence, oceanic and transitional
crnst is caught between the projections. The presence
of such thin, trapped crustal slivers is probably a pre-
requisite for the deep-water environment andJor large
subsidence and sediment thickness within the forearc
region. Similarly, backarc basins on oceanic or tran-
sitional crust have a higher potential for subsidence
and sediment accumulation than basins in the region
of continental crust: Additional subsidence may be
caused by crustal extension or compressional down-
faulting.
The plate-tectonic evolution of arc-trench systems
is normally defined by two-dimensional cross sec-
tions (Fig. 12.18b,c). This is suitable for many cases
because of the wen developed longitudinal continuity
of these structures. However, oblique subduction and
irregularites in the subducting crust (e.g. oceanic
ridges or seamounts) may cause considerable compli-
cations.
The basic principles governing the structure and evolution
of arc-trench systems have been outlined by many authors
(e.g., Dickinson and Seely 1979) and are treated in many
modern text books on geodynamics (see also Busby and
Ingersoll 1995). The highly variable geotectonic settings of
580 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

b INTRA-OCEANIC ARC-TRECH SYSTEM

VOLCANOGENIC ISlAND ARC
(OR CONTIN. S~IVER) FOREARC
CONT.
CRUST BACKARC BASIN \ BASIN TRENCH

C CONT. MARGIN ARC-TRENCH SYSTEM

CONT. CRUST VOlCANIC ARC

:!:BACKARC FOlD-
THRUST BELT
(CONTRACTEO
MARGIN, INCREASE
IN SUBSIDENCE)

Fig. 12.18. a Plan view of intraoceanic arc-trench
system (upper halt) with transition into continental
margin arc-trench system (lower halt). Note that the
pre-existing rifted continental margin may be jagged
and trap parts of the subducting oceanic crnst.
b Intraoceanic arc-trench systems with (1) the volca-
nie island arc consisting of a sliver of continental
crnst and/or (2) a spreading center developing in the
backarc region, possibly giving rise to reversed
subduction. c Continental arc-trench system with a
fold-thrust belt in the backarc region, possibly lead-
ing to a "contracted" margin and causing additional
subsidence.

these systems cannot be described here. The following dis-
cussion of sedimentary sequences in deep-sea trenches,
forearc and backarc basins will concentrate on some gen-
eral principles and a few characteristic, weIl studied exam-
pIes.
12.5.2 Deep-Sea Trenches and
Accretionary Wedges
General Characteristics and Sediment Sources
Deep-sea trenches represent the deepest morphologi-
cal features on Earth and reach water depths of 6-11
km. They evolve at the front of a subduction com-
plex, where the sedimentation rate cannot balance the
loss of sediment to the accretionary wedge and
subduction. In regions with very high sedimentation
rates, the site of a potential deep-sea trench remains
permanently filled and resembles morphologically
the lower slope or continental rise of a passive mar-
gin. Then, sediments delivered to the trench can spill
over the outer trench margin and rest on the flat
deep-sea floor (Fig. 12.19a, left-hand side). Deep-
marine trenches collect sediments from different
sources (Fig. 12.19a):
- Lateral injlux of predorninandy siliciclastic mate-
rial from the side of the magmatic arc (inner slope
and forearc region) via submarine canyons or gravity
mass movements. These sediments mainly accumu-
late as trench fans along the inner side of the trench
(Fig. 12.19b). Submarine fans remain in the confines
of the trench, as long as the trench is not completely
filled, and therefore finally distribute their material in
an axial direction.
- Axial transport of mainly siliciclastic material
along the trench from distant effective sediment
sourees. Clastic supply from one end of the trench is
often dominating and controls the sediment charac-
teristics over long distances. This mechanism can be
active as long as the trench has a morphological ex-
pression and the sediment is distributed within the
confines of the channel. Sediment transport is ac-
complished by a channel system with levees (Fig.
12.l9b, cf. Sect. 5.4.2) which may display depo-
12.5 Deep-Sea Trenches
sitional and erosional phases. In the downcurrent
direction, the basin fill can become "sheeted" (Fig.
l2.19d), as in distal fluvial plains, where fine-grained
materials predominate. Contour currents can rework
and redeposit some of these materials.
- Lateral migration of oceanic sediment on top of the
subducting plate to the site ofthe trench. These sedi-
ments may consist of pelagic calcareous andJor sili-
ceous oozes, red c1ay, and hemipelagic silts and
c1ays. In regions adjacent to the deltas of major
rivers, turbidite successions may rest on the incoming
oceanic plate.
- Pelagic and hemipelagic sediments directly settling
from the overlying water body to the trench floor.
However, this sediment source is comparative1y in-
significant, because of the low sedimentation rate of
pelagic and hemipelagic sediments in a basin whose
sediments are permanently consumed by subduction.
Trench sections with high sediment input (over-sup-
plied systems) become fi1led and have a wide cross
section (Fig. 12.19a,b). Ifthe deposits of a submarine
fan spill over the outer trench margin, trench sedi-
ments are overlain by the sediments of a deep-sea fan
association (Seet. 5.4.2). In eontrast, sediment-
starved trenches form narrow, ponded basins (Fig.
12.19a,f).
Seamounts, oeeanie ridges and faulted erust ap-
proaehing the trench may ereate major irregularities
in the treneh fill and the ensuing subduetion process
(Fig. 12.20).
Trench Fills and Sediment Accretion
(Qualitative Aspects)
The considerations in the previous section and the
assumption that a kind of equilibrium between sedi-
ment supply and sediment loss to aecretion is estab-
lished in are-treneh systems (see below), lead to the
qualitative models shown in Fig. 12.19b-g:
(1) Oversupplied trenches. Sediment fills tend to be
sheared off along a deeollement within the young
treneh fil!. Failure by thrusting may be faeilitated by
inereased pore pressures of the rapidly aceumulated,
underconsolidated sediments. As a result, the se-
quenee within a slice of the aeeretionary wedge is
built up entirely of treneh sediments. These mainly
represent the axial ehannel system and fan deposits
from the foot of the landward treneh slope (Fig.
l2.l9b,e). In this ease, the sediments within a slice of
the subduction eomplex have ab out the same age, but
may eontain some isolated, displaced older material
transported by mass wasting from the landward slope
into the trench.
(2) Trenches with low to medium sediment supply,
moderate convergence rate (3-5 em/a). These
581
trenches usually develop medium-size sediment
wedges with diseontinuous turbidite basins. The
subduetion deeollement commonly develops below
the young treneh fill in pelagie or hemipelagie strata
of the ineoming oceanic plate (Fig. 12.19d,e). In
eases where the pelagie sediment cover on the oce-
anic erust is scraped off, the idealized stratigraphie
sequence within a little-disturbed slice of the
accretionary wedge coarsens upward from older pe-
lagic to hemipelagic to younger trench fill sediments
(Fig. 12.1ge). This sequenee may represent a com-
paratively long time period.
(3) Sediment-starved trenches which receive little
material from both the landward side and the incom-
ing subducting plate are narrow, diseontinuous, and
displaya partially almost empty axis. Modem exam-
pIes ofthis type inc1ude trenehes associated with vol-
canie island arcs in the western and southwestern
Pacifie. Starved trenehes need a very long time span
to build up an aceretionary wedge of some size. Con-
sequently, the deformation front progrades slowly,
and the landward slope tends to steepen. In this ease,
thrust faults may propagate along weak zones in the
upper oeeanic erust and scrape off slices of basaltic
erust, pelagie sediments and isolated bodies of
ponded treneh fill (Fig. l2.19f,g). Such settings al-
low the study of basal deep-water sediments on top
of aeereted oceanic erust in the subduction complex.
(4) Tectonic erosion. When the subdueting oeeanic
plate haf> a marked relief and the total sediment sup-
ply into the trench is low, sediment from the upper
plate (accretionary wedge) ean be scraped off and
subducted as, for example, off southern Peru and
northern Chile or in the northern portion of the Japan
treneh (Fig. 12.20) and along several arc-treneh sys-
tems in the western Pacifie. This proeess is referred
to as "tectonic erosion" which plays a major role in
global sediment mass balanees (cf. Seet. 11.7). It ere-
ates stratigraphie gaps, reduces the volume of the
accretionary wedge, and may finally lead to the co 1-
lapse and retreat of this complex.
Off northwestern Peni, the edge of the continenta1 crnst
may be as elose as 20-40 km to the trench axis (Fig.
12.20b). Here, the subducting oceanic p1ate has scraped off
the underside and edge of the adjacent continenta1 crnst. It
has been suggested that intense tectonic erosion is followed
by episodes of strong explosive volcanism and arc uplift
(LaBemand 1996). In a transect of the Midd1e America
trench off Costa Rica, deep-sea drilling has shown that the
entire incoming sediment section is being underp1ated (Si1-
ver et al. 1997).
The bui1dup and composition of accretionary wedges as
weB as tectonic erosion have been topics of great interest
(see, e.g., Moberly et al. 1982; Lash 1985; von Huene
1986; Cadet, Kobayashi, et al. 1987; von Huene and
Lallemand 1990; von Huene and Scholl 1991; and many
others).
Sedimentary processes in deep-sea trenches have been
described, e.g., by Thornburg and Kulm (1987), Le Pichon
et al. (1987), Okada (1988,1989), Macdonald (1993).
582 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

a SEDIMENT SOURCES OF DEEP-SEA TRENCH

OVER-SUPPlIED,
FILLED TRENCH, AXIAL LATERAL FROM VOLC. ARC AND
SPILL-OVER TO FLAT ACCRETIONARY WEDGE

---
OCEAN FLOOR

-.-
--. --.
--.-.

·LATERAL
FROM SUBDUCT-
IIiG. OC~~NIC
PLATE WITH THICK
CLASTIC SEDIMENTS

SEA MOUNT WITH SPECIAL

SEDIMENTS ON TOP AND FLANKS
PELAGIC TO HEMIPELAGIC SEDIMENT

TRENCH FILLS AND ACCRETION

b PROXIMAL TRENCH FAN C

OCEANIC PLATE

d DISTAL SHEETED BASIN e

PELAGIC
HEMIPELAGIC
(DEPOSITED ON
OCEANIC PLATE)

f DISTAL (SEDIMENT -STARVED)

PONDED BASIN

Fig. 12.19. a Various processes controlling the fill-
ing of deep-sea trenches ranging from over-supplied
to sediment-starved systems . An approaching
seamount may cause large irregularities in the trench
filling and the accretionary wedge. b Cross section of
axial channel system elose to the sediment source.
d,f More distal trench sections with "sheeted" basin
fill (d) or sediment-starved, narrow ponded trench (f)
receiving sediment mainly from the pelagic and
hemipelagic "rain" and the subducting ocean plate.
The couplets b,c, d,e, and f,g indicate the relation-
ship between the mode oftrench fill, the depth of the
decollement zone, and the resulting lithofacies suc-
cessions within the accretionary wedge. (Mainly after
Thomburg and Kulm 1987; Pickering et al. 1989)
12.5 Deep-Sea Trenches
Most ancient subduction complexes, whose internal
structure has been exposed on land by deep erosion
following uplift, are much more complex than may
be inferred from the simple models described above.
Besides packets of bedded sequences, in which strati-
fication is preserved in spite of faulting and folding,
other, once deeply buried portions of the accretionary
wedge display pervasive metamorphic fabrics which
indicate low temperature and high pressure condi-
tions. Zones of intensive shearing creating a scaly
fabric are common.
Trench FiUs, Accretion and Subduction
of Sediment (Quantitative Aspects)
Residence Time and Vo/ume olTrench Fills Accreted
The sediments in a deep-sea trench have little chance
of being preserved in their original position, because
they are continuously scraped off by the overriding
accretionary wedge and incorporated into the
subduction complex. Principally, one can distinguish
between two or three possibilities (end members) for
the fate of sediments at subduction zones:
(1) The sediments of the trench and incoming oce-
anic plate are predominantly or entirely incorporated
into the accretionary wedge (frontal accretion). This
process is favored by thick trench sediments, a slow
subduction rate, and a low angle of subduction.
(2) All sediments are subducted and entirely or par-
tially used for underplating (cf. Fig. 11.35). This
mechanism seems to prevail in settings with thinner
trench fillings, relatively rapid and steep-angle
subduction.
(3) In addition to sediment, material of the oceanic
crost is accreted in the upper plate. This is facilitated
by a "rough" (e.g. faulted) surface of the subducting
oceanic crost. Then the total volume of accreted and
subducted material can exceed the volume of trench
and incoming pelagic sediment.
Here, particularly case (1) is considered. In a first
approximation, the residence time of sediments in a
deep-sea trench is a function of the convergence rate,
eR, and the width, W, ofthe trench.
Given, for example, an axial sediment source, the sediment
wedge would be widest and thickest near the source and
diminish distally (Fig. 12.19a). The maximum residence
time of a sediment layer in the trench is W/CR. Sediment
deposited in a 20 km wide trench subject to a convergence
rate of 5 cmla would have a maximum residence time of
400 ka. The following calculation also takes into account
the dip angle of subduction (Thomburg and Kulm 1987).
In the meantime, more sophisticated models have been
worked out (e.g. von Huene and Scholl 1991; Gaedicke
1995; Mountney and Westbrook 1996; von Huene et al.
1998).
583
The general processes operating along subduction zones,
including frontal accretion and underplating of sediment,
have been addressed by many authors (e.g. Le Pichon et al.
1993; Lallemand et al. 1994) and references listed below.
The relationship between new sediment accumulation
in the trench and sediment loss to frontal accretion is
demonstrated by the models in Fig. 12.21a,b. If the
sedimentation rate in the trench and the convergence
rate of the subduction process are kept constant,
steady-state conditions at the front of the accre-
tionary wedge can be achieved. This signifies that the
sedimentation rate exactly balances the rate of sedi-
ment attrition caused by the seaward migration of the
deformation front.
Sediment accretion here includes sediment lost to
subduction; changes in the porosity of the accreted material
are neglected. In spite of these !imitations, this approach
demonstrates the order of magnitude in this type of sedi-
ment transfer.
The sedimentation rate, SR, can also be expressed as a
function of the convergence rate, CR, and the angle of dip,
ß, ofthe subducting oceanic plate:
SR = CR' tanß, (12.1)
as can be seen from simple geometric considerations (Fig.
12.21b). In this case, SR is independent from the width, W,
ofthe trench and the thickness, T, ofthe trench sediments.
Examples given by Thomburg and Kulm (1987) for the
Chile Trench yield the following results for a dip angle of
the subducting plate of 3° and a convergence rate of 10
cmla:
a) Sediment-starved trench off central Chile (width W=1O
km, thickness T=O.5 km).
b) Sediment-filled trench off south Chile (width W=30 km,
thickness T=1.5 km).
For both examples, SR is found to be about 0.5 cmla (5000
mlMa), which appears to be extremely high, particularly
for the relatively sediment-starved central Chile trench.
Hence, it is assumed that, in addition to trench material,
incoming sediment from the subducting oceanic plate is
being incorporated into the accretionary wedge (Fig.
12.21c). This assumption has been confirmed for several
active subduction zones by seismic records and ocean drill-
ing.
The vo/ume 01 sediment derived from newly depos-
ited trench deposits and incorporated into an
accretionary wedge per unit time depends on the
width of the trench fill (the dip angle of subduction
and the convergence rate being the same as above).
This means that trenches oversupplied with sediment
provide more sediment for accretion (and
subduction) than narrow trench fills, even when their
sedimentation rate is equal.
The volume of accreted trench sediment, V" per unit time
and length of the trench is
584 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

a N. JAPAN
TRENCH
~

50 km Fig. 12.20. a North-

em Japan trench and
its juncture with the
b PERU TRENCH , T ECT ONIC EROSION
Kuril trench at Erimo
Seamount located on
FOREARC BASIN
COASTAL transform fault. Note
BATHOLITH VOLCANIC ARC
HEMIPELAGIC collapse of lower
SEDIMENTS .
slope due to tectonic
DEFORMED
erosion of overriding
plate. (Cadet,
Kobayashi, et al.
1987). b Model of
subduction-related
tectonic erosion off
Peru, causing conti-
nental crust to ex-
tend almost to the
deep-sea trench.
ME~;OZ'OIC SEDIMENT (Moberly et al. 1982)

VI = W' CR = W' CRtanß (12.2)
and for aeeretion ofboth treneh and oeeanie sediment (Fig.
12.21e)
VI+oc = W' CR' tanß+ CR' Toe (12.3)
Toe is the thiekness of sediment seraped off from the oee-
anie plate. Part of the aeereted sediment is used for the sea-
ward advanee of the aeeretionary wedge, the other part for
the thiekening of the wedge (and subduetion). Sediments
below the deeollement zone are atop basaltie oeeanie erust.
Sediment Budget of Modern Subduction
Complexes
As an initial approach, the rate of sediment uptake of
an accretionary wedge can be estimated from the av-
erage thickness of the accretionary prism, its average
porosity, and the subduction rate. This is demon-
strated by some examples.
Makran wedge. This very large aceretionary wedge
evolved along the aetive margin off southwestem Pakistan
and is fed by c1astie detritus from high mountain ranges
nearby. Here, the Arabian oeeanic plate is subdueting at a
rate of 5 emla (50'kmlMa) beneath the Eurasian plate and
ereates an aecretionarywedge about 7 km thiek. The thrust
sheets eonsist mainly of turbidites and show two phases of
deformation. Using the method mentioned above, a sedi-
ment mass aeeumulation of around 350 km 3/Ma for a 1 km
wide strip along strike was found (White and Louden 1982;
see also Fruehn et al. 1997).
Cascadia Subduction Zone. A more preeise ealeulation
was earried out for the Caseadia subduetion zone in the
northeastem Paeifie Oeean off British Columbia (Fig.
12.22). The present~day treneh strueture has no topo-
graphie expression but is kept filled as a result of both high
sedimentation rate in the treneh itself and high sediment
input to the aeeretionary prism by the obliquely subdueting
oeeanie plate. The aeeretionary prism is built against the
baekstop of a volcanie terrane (Creseent backstop, Fig.
12.22d) and earries on its landward side the sediments of a
foreare basin.
The mass of the accretionary wedge was balaneed for
two time periods: the Pleistoeene aecretionary prism (1.8
12.5 Subduction Complexes 585

SEDIMENT TRANSFER FROM

TRENCH TO ACCRETIONARY WEDGE

a
NEWLY DEPOSITED
TRENCH SEDIMENT 2I V DEFORMATION FRONT OF
ACCRETIONAAY WEDGE
~~E=z=riEz=~~
........... .... SEDIMENT ADDED TO

--
ACCR. WEDGE
~'"
DECOUEMENT '
BELOW TRENCH FIL1.
CR, CONVERGENCE RATE

b
-_....__..-SR, SEDIMENTATION RATE
..........._._-_._ ...._._-_._._ .............................-;
i

-:~~~~-~-~-~~....J!*~~~
-
SUBDUCTING OCEANIC :'.LATE -----
WlTH PELAGIC AND HEMIPELAGIC SEDIMENTS
CR

DEFORMATIONFRONT
c / ACCRETED SEDIMENT
Fig. 12.21a-c. Sediment budget of
! USED FOR ADVANCE OF accretionary wedges as a function of
SR ! DEFORMATION FRONT
the sedimentation rate SR in the
trench, the convergence rate eR and
HEMIPELAGIC~'7',,-'<Z.;~!22'ZZ:tz:zzzzzz;~~... AVAl1A8LE FOR angle of dip ß of the subducting oce-
AND PELAGIC " INCREASE IN HEIGHT anic plate. W is width of the trench.
SEDIMENT OF -- OF ACCR. WEDGE In a,b trench sediments only are con-
OCEANIC PLATE \ __ _
- SEDIMENT sidered. c Trench sediments and part
""--__ I FROM OCEANIC of incorning sediment cover of oce-
- ____~ PLATE ADDED TO anic plate are incorporated into
ACCR.WEDGE accretionary wedge. T()(' thickness of
OCEANIC :;ediment scraped off from the

-
BASALT - . } UNDERPlATING OF
subducting plate. See text for further
OCEANtC 8ASAl.T
:tSEDlMENT explanation
CR

Ma) and the pre-Pleistocene prism which began forming in
the Eocene (Davis and Hyndman 1989). The geometry of
the accretionary wedge is relatively weil known from seis-
mic records and the position of earthquake hypocenters
(Fig. 12.22c,d). The decollement zone is situated at or near
the top of the underlying oceanic crnst, thus indicating that
almost all ofthe incoming sediment is scraped off.
At the deformation front, the pre-Pleistocene section
consists of fine-grained hemipelagic sediments about 1.5
km thick overlain by a 1.7 to 2 km thick Pleistocene
turbidite sequence, which was drilled and sampled during
the Deep Sea Drilling Project. The high Pleistocene sedi-
mentation rate of approximately 1000 mJMa results from
the high-relief glaciated hinterland in the Rocky Moun-
tains. The pre-Pleistocene/Pleistocene boundary can be
traced in seismic records within the accretionary prism. In
this way, the Pleistocene portion of the sediment wedge
could be determined (about 170 km 3/km length). Taking
into account an average sediment porosity of 15 to 20%,
the volume ofthe solid fraction is about 140 km 3.
The total supply of incoming sediment from the trench
and the oceanic plate was estimated from a subduction rate
of 4.5 cmla (=80 km of convergence during the Pleisto-
cene). At the same time the deformation front advanced
about 25 km seaward (60 km in pre-Pleistocene time), thus
yielding a relative total convergence of 105 km.
Assuming an average porosity of 35% for the incoming
sediment, a section abotit 2 km thick (1.3 km of solid mate-
rial) is neerled to build up the volume of solid material esti-
mated in the accreted Pleistocene wedge. This calculated
average thickness is within the range between the present
sediment thickness at the deformation front (3.5 km) and
the thickness at the beginning ofthe Pleistocene (about 1.5
km).
The sediment balance for the pre-Pleistocene proportion
of the accretionary wedge yielded a 0.9 km thick sediment
section (with 45% porosity), which was permanently
scraped off during the subduction process since the
Eocene. Fluid expulsion occured mainly in a zone 20-30
km landward of the deformation front (Hyndman et al.
1995).
Using the increased relative convergence rate of 105
km/1.8 Ma (= 58.3 kmlMa) the total transfer ofporous sed-
iment to the accretionary wedge in the Pleistocene was
about 170 km 3/kmlMa (for pore-free sediment about 110
km 3/kmlMa). This balance supports the observation from
586 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

a CASCADIA
ACCRETIONARY WEDGE
b SEA LEVEL

c DEfORMATION
FRO'IT
TOFINO
BASIN
CQAST
UNE
VANCOUVER
ISLAND
GEORGIA
STRAIT
COAST
RANGE

km

OLYMPIC
d
DEfORMATION
FRO'IT MOUNTAINS
-<>
3"
E
:.
J:
I-
a..
w
o

km

e BARBADOS RIDGE DEFORMATION FRONT

BARBADOS RIDGE COMPLEX \ OCEANIC PLATE

w ACTIVE LATE THRUSTS STEEPE .... '" CF

._""
54;-r-
i
EARLV PACKAGE
FORWARD AND UPWARD
F'RQPAGA TlNG
E
4 1:ARLV THRUSTS BOUNOING I THRUSTS
67 54 1 INQIPIENT
I ~COlLEMENT
• ZONE
5

6
km
BELOW SEA
LEVEL CRUST VERT . E)(AGG. 2x

Fig. 12.22a-d. Northern Cascadia subduction zone,
sediment budget. a Map view indicating general plate
tectonic setting, age of subducting oceanic plate,
changing width of accretionary wedge, and position
of cross section shown in band e. b Multichannel
seismic reflection line across the deformation front;
travel time transformed to depth below sea level.
e,d Generalized cross-sections through Cascadia con-
tinental margin along two lines (e shown in a; d 150
km to the southeast through Olympic Mountains).
(After Davis and Hyndman 1989). e Northern Barba-
dos Ridge, Caribbean Sea. Schematic cross section at
deformation front as reconstructed from seismic re-
cords and ocean drilling. Note relatively shallow
decollement zone on top of thicker, underthrust late
Cretaceous to Oligocene strata, steepening of early
thrusts in accretionary wedge, upslope formation of
secondary thrusts disrupting early thrusts, and thick-
ening basal shear zone. (Shipboard Scientific Party
1988, Leg 110; after Moore and Byrne 1987)
12.5 Subduction Complexes
seismic lines that, due to the deep positton of the
decollement zone, most of the incoming sediment was in-
corporated into the accretionary prism during the Pleisto-
cene.
These results should not be extrapolated to other sec-
tions of the North American convergent Pacific margin.
The Oregon-Washington margin, for example, is affected
by strike-slip, transport and rotation of forearc blocks, and
change from seaward to landward vergence of structures
developing at the front of the accretionary prism (e.g.
MacKay 1995: Wells et al. 1998).
The dip angle of the subducting oceanic plate normally
increases landward or arcward (Fig. 12.22c,d). The
Cascadia example demonstrates that the relatively steep dip
(~18°) of the subducting plate beneath the Vancouver is-
land margin prevents the buildup of a highly elevated
ridge. In contrast, the Olympic Mountains farther to the
south (Fig. 12.22d) owe their existence to a more gently
dipping subduction zone ( ,,;11°), as weil as to a particularly
high sediment supply at the accretionary wedge front.
Aleutian trench. The thickness of undeformed sediment
being underthrust with the subducting oceanic plate varies
considerably. Along the central Aleutian trench it is 1 km
(McCarthy and Scholl 1985). Sediment accumulation in
this trench is also rapid, and the convergence rate reaches 8
cmla. Evaluating a new seismic section across the eastern
portion of the arc-trench system, von Huene et al. (1998)
have found a total sediment input ofabout 130 km 3/kmIMa
(average for the last 3 Ma to the subduction zone. One
third of this mass is underthrust at the deformation front
and two thirds are underplated. Here, the young trench fill
consists of sandy and muddy turbidites, overlying a Ter-
tiary deep-sea fan. The dewatering of the accretionary
wedge is briefly mentioned in Sect. 13.8.3.
Northern Barbados ridge. This active accretionary
wedge in the region of the Lesser AntilIes has a conver-
gence rate of 2 cmla and displays only an indistinct depres-
sion instead of a deep-sea trench. The zone of decollement
at the deformation front is shallow (about 300 m below the
sea floor, Fig. 12.22e). Here, Neogene hemipelagic sedi-
ments are detached from thicker (about 600 m), little de-
formed Oligocene to Campanian underthrust strata. The
rate of sediment accretion amounts to about 24 km 31km1Ma
(von Huene and Scholl 1991).
Japan trench and Nankai trench. At the northern Ja-
pan trench, the sediment beneath the accretionary wedge is
1 to 1.5 km in thickness (Cadet and Kobayashi et al. 1987).
Here, the surface of the oceanic basement is rough due to
faulting (cf. Fig. 12.20a). Further south in the Nankai
trench, 400 to 500 m thick oceanic sediments are
underthrust (Karig 1986), but deeper below the ac-
cretionary prism the decollement zone moves down to the
top of the oceanic crust (cf. Fig. 12.24d; Taira et al. 1988).
For a subduction rate of 3.2 cmla, a mass balance has
shown that total accretion amounts to 44 km 31km1Ma, of
which 70% are consumed by frontal accretion and 30% by
underplating (Gaedicke 1995). The sediments of frontal
accretion consist of about 13 km 3/km!Ma of trench and
slope material and 17 km 3/km!Ma of incoming oceanic sed-
iment.
587
Conclusions for the Sediment Budget
Von Huene and Scholl (1991) have summarized data
from all present-day subduction zones, in total about
43 000 km in length. They found that ~57% of this
length is characterized by accretionary prisrns and
~43% by non-accretion or very limited accretion. At
accreting margins with large prisms (ab out 20% of
all margins), roughly 70% of the incoming trench
floor section is used for frontal accretion seaward of
a resistive rock buttress (backstop ). Prisrns of small
to medium size reflect scenarios where only 20% of
the incoming sediment goes into frontal accretion.
The remaining sediment subducts beneath the but-
tress (underplating, uplift of the overlying rocks) or
reaches greater depth. It should be noted that rnass
balances of sediment accretion are valid only for in-
dividual cross sections through subduction zones.
The amounts of accretion can greatly vary along
strike.
The seaward advance, thickness, and elevation of
an accretionary wedge are controlled mainly by the
rate of incoming sediment (in terms of volume) and
the dip of the underthrusting oceanic crnst (Davis et
al. 1983). Gently dipping subduction and a low con-
vergence rate favor frontal accretion. Detachment
zones preferentially evolve at some depth below the
trench fills where low sediment permeabilities have
led to excess pore pressure and decreasing shear
strength (cf. Sect. 13.1).
Specific Structures and other Phenomena
in Accretionary Wedges
The internal structure of modern accretionary
wedges is poorly known. Better opportunities for the
study of specific phenomena offer uplifted older
accretionary wedges creating nappes in orogenie
belts. In this section, the formation of melange, lique-
faction phenomena, mud diapirs and mud volcanoes
is addressed.
The best studied modern examples of accretionary wedges
include the Barbados Ridge in the Caribbean Sea, the
Cascadia accretionary prism off Oregon and Washington,
the Aleutian arc-trench system, the Nankai trough off Ja-
pan, and the Peru-Chile trench (see above). These exam-
pies were explored by various seismic methods, detailed
topographic mapping (side-scan sonar, swath mapping),
deep-see drilling, submersibles, and special devices for
recording venting fluids, measuring pore pressure and
chemical properties in drill holes, etc.
Tectonic Deformation
The drilled cross sections of accretionary prisrns,
such as the Barbados Ridge, can display two genera-
588
tions of landward-dipping thrust faults which tend to
steepen with increasing distance from the deforma-
tion front (Fig. 12.22e). Strata may be disrupted even
in porous sediment within 10-20 km of the deforma-
tion front. The second generation of thrust faults dis-
rupts the older thrust faults and thus prornotes further
deformationof the accreted sediments. Initial fault
surfaces are abandoned and deformation propagates
into adjacent undeformed sediment. This is caused
by sediment strengthening along the faults due to
dewatering and release of excess fluid pressure. As a
result, the fault and shear zones thicken andcontrib-
ute to the intensive deformation of a tectonic
melange. Underplating of sediment is often associ-
ated with the formation of duplex structures. Small-
scale structures inelude scaly fabric, cataelastic shear
zones, and disrupted veins.
Melange, Wildjlysch
Other portions of the subduction complex consist of
a mixture of various rock types ineluding large solid
blocks in a more uniform, but sheared matrix. Such
chaotic zones are referred to as melange. Principally,
one can distinguish between several types of melange
(Orange and Underwood 1995):
- Gravitationally induced lateral spreading of near-
surface sediment within the slope apron of an
accretionary wedge.
- Large-scale gravity-driven debris flow deposits
(olistostromes, cf. Sect. 5.4.2).
- Diapiric sediment movements (diapiric injection,
see below).
- Tectonic deformation within shear zones at the
front, the base (decollement zone), or within the
accretionary wedge. Melange can also form by vis-
cous flow of poorly lithified sediments in wedge-
shaped "channels" of the decollement. The brec-
ciation of carbonate-capped seamounts approaching
the subduction zone (collisional collapse) has been
quoted as a further mechanisms generating a
polymictic melange (Kanmera and Sano 1991; Taira
1993/4). Melange may contain exotic metamorphic
blocks (greenshist and blueshist metamorphism) de-
rived from deeply underplated sediments.
Fig. 12.23. Sunda arc-trench system. a Map view
with Bengal and Nicobar deep-sea fans accumulating
sediments from the Himalayas; such material also
migrates along the Sunda trench axis as far as Sunda
Strait. At present, forearc basins and the outer arc
ridge trap sediments from the island arc (Sumatra and
Java). b-d Cross sections of arc-trench system from
northwest (Andaman Islands) to southeast (Java).
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
The thickness of the disrupted zones in accretionary
wedges grows with progressive deformation. It is
frequently difficult to decide whether a melange re-
sults entirely from tectonic processes within the
subduction complex, or whether it represents one of
the other processes mentioned above. Mass flow de-
posits at the foot of the slope or diapiric structures in
front of the accretionary wedge are later incorporated
into the subduction complex and modified by tec-
tonic deformation.
Furthermore, it occurs that material from the
accretionary wedge is transported again into the
trench and thus recyeled within the arc-trench sys-
tem. Where a genetic interpretation of a chaotic de-
posit isdifficult, the descriptive term wildjlysch may
be used.
Mud Diapirs and Mud Volcanoes
In addition to these major structures, deep-sea
trenches, the lower slopes of accretionary prisms, and
some forearc basins may show a variety of medium
to large-scale sedimentary structures. They inelude
seepages on the sea floor (cf. Sect. 13.8.3), mud vol-
canoes and mud diapirs, wet sediment intrusions
such as vertically and laterally injected sand dikes,
and thick and widely extended "chaotic layers" gen-
erated in semi-lithified rocks. The latter can easily be
misinterpreted as debris flows or tectonic melange
zones. The elasts of mud volcanoes, for example
those of the Mediterranean Ridge, can be ~ 1 m in
size and come from great depth below the sea floor.
These phenomena result from liquefaction or
fluidization of water-rich, overpressured sediments
andJor the release of methane from gas hydrates act-
ing as driving force for the uplift of the liquified sed-
iment.
Mud volcanoes in the deep sea and in coastal areas are
known from many locations, e.g. the Caspian Sea, the
Black Sea, the Mediterranean and the Makran coastal re-
gion of Pakistan (Makran wedge), the Nankai prism, and
the Indonesian are (Cita et al. 1996; Ivanov et al. 1996).
Mud volcanoes and flattened "mud-pies" can also occur on
the seaward side of accretionary wedges as described, for
example, from the Barbados wedge (Lance et al. 1998).
For further information about aIl these phenomena see,
e.g., Hsü (1974), Raymond (1984), Cowan (1985), Moore
and Byrne (1987), Shipboard Scientific Party (l988b, Leg
Note decreasing thickness of sediment on subducting
oceanic plate, decreasing width and elevation of
outer arc ridge, increasing water depth of forearc
basins, and change in sand provenance from distal
Himalayas to more local sources from the arc. See
text for further explanation. (After Moore GF et al.
1982).
12.5 Subduction Complexes 589

SUNDA TRENCH AND

FOREARC SYSTEM
SEOWENT 0ISPERS.l'
PATH
~PEBBLy
~ MUD

.1-~~::::-
-,-.-.- 1 SlLT

a QUAT. ··· . .
TIEJ. ......
... ....
SAND

U. MIOC./PUOC.

EOC./M. MIOC.
0---
- - - - ---_
- ---
PEtAGIC AND
HEMIPEV.G1C
MUD

SAND PAOVENANCE
PALEOG.
CRET. HIM Hlt.llAl..AYAS
S SUMATAA
'" J JAVA
L. LOCAl
ANDAMAN ISLANDS

o b-.- _..... -. ..,- _J> _ __ _ _ _ ... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...... _ _ _ .. _ _ _

ANDÄM~N SEA
(BACKARC BASIN)

10 DEEP-SEA FAN
km PUOC/QUAT.

U. MIOG../PlIOC.

SUMATRA
o ~-

~ ~:::: PUOC/QUAT.

--
10
km JAVA

so km FORARC BASIN
I
10 VERT. EXAGG. 5x
km
590
110), Aalto (1989), Moore et al. (1991), von Eynatten et al.
(1993), Liu and Einseie (1996), Hasebe et al. (1997); A
summary of these features is given by Pickering et al.
(1989).
Examples of Arc-Trench Systems
Aneient examples of subduetion complexes have
been described from many regions (e.g., Leggett
1982), but many ofthem are not sufficiently exposed
and therefore not weIl understood. Apart from the
modem aeeretionary wedges mentioned above, we
here discuss two further, relatively young arc-trench
systems. The first one is outstanding beause of its
huge size and some general important trends, the sec-
ond exarnple demonstrates a number of smaIler-scale
features which can be observed at many other loca-
tions.
The Sunda Arc. A partieularly instructive and large,
mainly oceanie arc-trench system is the Sunda arc
between Burma and the Sumba Island to the east of
Java (Fig. 12.23). It represents a 5000 km long
subduction zone of the Indian oceanic plate beneath
the Eurasian plate, which has been interrnittently ae-
tive sinee the Perrnian. The youngest active phase
began in the late Oligocene. During the Neogene, the
northem part of this system was dominated by detri-
tus from the Himalayas which was dispersed by mass
flows and turbidity currents on the huge submarine
Bengal fan, the Nicobar fan, and along the axis of the
Sunda trench.
Whereas sediment supply to the Nicobar fan was cut off in
the mid-Pleistocene as a result of the eastwardly migrating
Ninetyeast Ridge, a major submarine channel still trans-
ports sediment today over the long distance from the north-
ern end ofthe trench to the southeast into the region ofthe
Sunda Strait (Moore GF et al. 1982; Velbel 1985). In the
northwest, i.e., the Andaman section, transport of large vol-
umes of material down the trench axis is indicated by a
wide and relatively shallow trench floor (water depth about
3000 m, Fig. 12.23b). West of Sumatra, the trench floor is
still broad, but narrows and deepens to about 5000 m off
Nias Island (Fig. 12.23c). South and southeast of Java, the
trench is forrned by narrow, isolated basins at water depths
of6000 to 6500 m (Fig. 12.23d).
Subduction is oblique in the eastern and particularly in
the northern part of the arc (Fig. 12.23a). This has lead to
significant deforrnations in the forearc region, including the
right-lateral Great Sumatra fault and the opening of the
Sunda Strait (e.g. Baroux et al. 1998). The Banda arc, be-
ginning at the eastern end of the Sunda arc, represents one
of the rare modern examples of continent-arc collision (cf.
Sect. 12.6; e.g. Charlton 1997).
Sediments on the subducting plate are thus primarily
thiek turbidite sequenees in the northwestem and
eentral portions of the system, but only thin (200 to
400 m) pelagie and hemipelagic sediments off Java.
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
Consequently, accretion of thick Neogene fan and
trench sediments created a wide, high outer are ridge
in the northwestem and eentral trench portions, while
the ridge is narrower and less elevated in the south-
eastem part (Fig. 12.23c,d). Since this outer ridge
forrned, sediments from the volcanic arc, i.e., from
Sumatra and Java, are trapped in aseries of forearc
basins and therefore can no longer reaeh the trench.
Prior to the rnid-Tertiary, volcanic1astic material from
the arc eontributed signifieantly to the trench
sediments and the buildup of the accretionary wedge.
The forearc basins between the arc and the outer
ridge are 150 to 500 km long and 50 to 100 km wide.
In Burma, about 8 km of marine, deltaic, and fluvial
sediments accumulated from the late Cretaceous to
the Plioeene. Off Sumatra, water depths in the basins
are 500 to 2000 m, while off Java the basins are 3500
to 4000 m deep. Each forearc basin is fed by a num-
ber of submarine canyons. The sediment fills attain
thicknesses of up to 6000 m. Beeause the basins are
separated from each other by transverse strnetural
highs, the fill of each basin differs in eomposition
from adjacent basins. The sediments in the forearc
basins are derived primarily from the arc terranes and
are dispersed by submarine slope eanyons and small
deep-sea fans. Off north Sumatra, quartzose sedi-
ments accumulate, whereas off Java, volcanic1astic
sediments predominate in the forearc basins.
ShaIlow-water carbonates and their detritus also play
a role.
The Shimanto belt in Shikoku, Japan. This is one
of the best known examples of a Cretaceous to Mio-
cene accretionary prism (e.g. Taira et al. 1988; Taira
and Ogawa 1991). It lies landward of the Nankai
trench (Fig. 12.24) and resembles in its structure and
sedimentary facies this modem subduction complex.
The deeollement of the young accretionary prism
takes place above the pelagie and hemipelagic sedi-
ments of the downgoing oceanic plate within muddy
sediments of the outer trench fill (Fig. 12.24c,d).
Hence, the sediments of the young accretionary
prism are dorninated by muddy and sandy flysch
from the trench fill. However, at a depth of ab out 5
km below the slope, the decollement zone moves
down to the top of the oceanic ernst and forms du-
plex structures into which sediments of the oceanic
plate are incorporated. Thus, the older thrust slices
may contain two basic units:
- Melange consisting of basalt slivers, pelagie and
hernipelagic sediments, and fine-grained matrix from
the treneh fill.
- Flysch units from the trench fill (Fig. 12.24d).
Intaet sections of pelagie and hemipelagic sediments
show characteristic vertieal facies successions depos-
ited on pillowed basalt of the subducted oceanic plate
12.5 Subduction Complexes 591

c SHIMANTO BELT, JAPAN

NANKAI
TROUGH
14 Ma GRANITE PLlO·PLEISTOCENE S.C .

~-...----"'--------------'~-...,...-----' '-----,,----"
5 JURASSIC GRETA. S.G. TERTIARY
S.C. S.G.
50 km - - - SHIMANTO BELT - - -
OCEANIC BASEMENT

e STRATIGRAPHY OF
d MELANGE UNlT
(IDEALIZED)
MELANGE UNIT GLASTIG DIKE
FLYSGH
UNIT SLATY CLEAVAGE TURBIDITES AND
SHALES
(TRENCH FILL)
VARIGO l ORED HEMIPEL.
SHALE AND AGIDIG TUFF
RED PELAGIG SHALE
BEDDED
GEANIG RADIOLARIAN
GRUS'T CHERT
DUCTILE FOLD
OLLEMENT
RED PELAGIG SHALE
AND/OR NANNO·LlME.
SCALE FOLIATION STONE
BASALT SllVER OGEANIC BASALT

Fig. 12.24. Cretaeeous to Mioeene aeeretionary
prism of the Shimanto belt, southeastem Japan.
a,b Loeation maps. c Cross seetion from modem
Nankai trough to Shikoku island, showing inereasing
age of subduetion eomplexes S. C. d Idealized eross
seetion through aeeretionary wedge, displaying prin-
eipal features observed in Shimanto belt. e Idealized
stratigraphie seetion of melange zone. On top of oee-
anie erust, sulfide and/or manganiferous hematite
deposits may oeeur. (After Taira et al. 1988)
592
(Fig. 12.24e). With inereasing distanee from the
modem treneh, inereasingage and overburden pres-
sure, the rocks ofthe thrust sheets deve10p sealy foli-
ation, slaty cleavage, and are finally subjeet to meta-
morphism.
Summary (Deep-Sea Trenches and Sediment
Accretion)
- Deep-sea trenehes eolleet large volumes of
sediment from the side of the are, the ineo-
ming subdueting oeeanie plate, and sometimes
from distal sourees.
- The proportion of sediment ineorporated into
the aeeretionary wedge is high when a treneh
is entirely filled, the eonvergenee rate is slow,
and the angle of subduetion is gentle.
The major part of these sediments is used for
frontal aeeretion and underplating below a
solid backstop.
- The sediment sueeessions of aeeretionary
wedges refleet, as far as they are still intaet,
the treneh fills (mainly turbidites and mass
flow deposits) and the ineoming pelagie sedi-
ments of the subdueting plate.
Dewatering and struetural deformation above
the deeollement zone inereases with the di-
stanee from the wedge front.
Melange zones (ehaotie struetures) may result
from different processes (gravity-indueed
mass movements on the foreare slope,
subduetion-related tectonic deformation, and
liquefaetionlfluidization.
12.5.3 Forearc Basins
Basin Types and General Characteristics
Between a deep-sea treneh and its eorresponding
magmatie are several types of foreare basins ean be
distinguished (Fig. 12.25a-e):
- Aeeretionary basins (mostly slope basins). These
basins evolve at the top of the aeeretionary wedge
and their sediments lie uneonformably on older, de-
fonned strata. A major part of these sediments eon-
sist of mass flow deposits and turbidites derived from
the uplifted subduetion eomplex or the are massif.
They refleet a eomparatively deep marine environ-
ment. The basin fills may be defonned mainly by
eompressional forees exerted during the eontinuing
growth of the underlying aeeretionary wedge.
- Residual basins. These basins aeeumulate sedi-
ments on oeeanie or transitional ernst trapped be-
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
tween the are massif and the subduetion zone (Fig.
12.25a).
- Construeted basins (Fig. 12. 25b). This basin type
develops on both the are massif (inner side of the
basin) and defonned strata of the aeeretionary wedge
(outer side of the basin). Its sediments lie uneon-
formably on the basement of the are and aeereted
sediments of the subduetion eomplex.
- Composite basins (Fig. 12.25e).
- 1ntramassiJ or intra-are basins. The sediments of
these relatively small basins are derived from the are
or baekare region and lie uneonformably on rocks of
the island are or eontinental margin are. The
intramassif sediments of island ares tend to be pre-
dominantly marine, whereas those of eontinental
margin ares are eommonly nonmarine. Basins evolv-
ing during a later stage of an are-indueed orogenie
belt are ealled intramontane basins (cf. Figs. 1.2b and
1.3a) and deseribed further in Seet. 12.7.2.
The residual and eonstrueted or eomposite foreare
basins are most important and diseussed further in
the following seetion.
The basin classifieation used here was introdueed by
Diekinson and Seely (1979). Foreare basins in the modern
oceans show different stages of evolution (Fig. 12.25d).
Sloped foreare regions (e.g., along New Britain, the Solo-
mon Islands, and the south New Hebrides) may develop
some small slope basins on top of the aeeretionary wedge,
but do not providc larger basins for sediment aecumulation.
Similarly, terraeed foreare regions, as known from the
northeastem Pacifie off Oregon and Washington, cannot
aeeumulate sediments of substantial thickness on top of the
subduction eomplex. Baek-tilted foreares (south Tonga,
Mariana Islands, northem New Hebrides) are eharaeterized
by a partially submerged volcanic are (Fig. 12.25d) and a
kind of intra-are basin direetly adjaeent to the are. Foreare
basins on continental crust. Several basins along the Pa-
eifie eoast of South America evolved on eontinental or
transitional ernst. Off Pern, for example, tectonic erosion
along the subducting oeeanic plate prevented the formation
of a substantial aeeretionary prism. As a result, ernst with
continental affinity extends to the shelf edge or lower slope
of the margin (cf. Fig. 12.20b, Moberly et al. 1982; Ship-
board Seientific Party 1988e, Leg 112). After an earlier
period of uplift, aseries of elongated, narrow, eoast-paral-
leI foreare basins evolved on top of this ernst, i.e., on the
shelf and upper slope. The sediments of these basins refleet
eoastal upweIIing sinee the Mioeene and therefore eontain
blaek shale intervals .and phosphorite horizons; further-
more, they display widespread diagenetie dolomitization.
The thieknesses of these basin fills are limited eompared
with those of the more common foreare basins diseussed
below.
Basin Evolution, Sediment Sources, and
Tectonic Overprint
Residual foreare basins on trapped oeeanie ernst, in
partieular, tend to be initially deep. They ean aeeu-
12.5 Foreare Basins 593

a INTRA·MASSIF TRAPPED OCEANIC OR TRANSITIONAL CRUST

GENERAL UPLlFT:·· .
WITH LOCAl
BLOCK. ... . . .
:;>t,JB.S1DEt'!·C.E

~RANSITION

b CONSTAUCTED BASIN COMPOSITE BASIN

Fig. 12.25. a-c Various

types of forearc basins
NO TRAPPEO OCEANIC in relation to their base-
CRUST PRESENT BENEATH ment, with or without
FOREARr. trapped oceanic or tran-
sitional crust. (After
Dickinson and Seely
TYPES AND 1979). d,e Variations in
FILLING
the configuration of
forearc basins, partially
OF related to their evolu-
FOREARC tion. In a back-tilted
BASINS system (d) the volcanic
arc may become sub-
merged below sea level.
The sedimentary fill (e)
ean subside more and
become stronger de-
formed during basin
evolution than shown in
e OR SHElVEO FOREARC BASIN the figure. In addition,
the basin fill may be
affected by extension or
compression, with or
without a strike-slip
component. (Based on
NORMAl
Karig and Sharman
1975; Dickinson and
FAULTING
Seely 1979, simplified
TENDENCY TO UPLIFT
and modified)
Ü
UPUFT
AND COMPRESSION

mulate thiek sedimentary sequenees and have a high
potential for additional subsidenee under the inereas-
ing sediment load. The nearby volcanie are acts as a
sediment source of high effieiency. Continuing rapid
subduetion keeps the volcanic system active and thus
provides both high relief and large amounts of easily
erodible volcanic1astic material (cf. Sect. 2.4), which
is transported into the forearc or baekarc regions.
The aceretionary wedge frequently serves as adam
for ponding sediments in the foreare basin. This sub-
marine or emerged high (shelf edge, outer ridge) may
also shed some sediment into the forearc basin. This
material is derived from the subduetion complex and
possibly· inc1udes ophiolites. Under such conditions,
a b.asin can be fi1led in a eomparatively short time
period (often 10-50 Ma).
The subsidence histories of forearc basins are
more complicated and less predictable than those of
rifted continental margins.
Several mechanisms playa significant role (e.g. Moxon
and Graham 1987; Angevine et al. 1990; ef. Chap. 8): (1)
The sediment load of the depression between the topo-
graphie highs of the voleanie are and the aeeretionary
594
wedge. (2) Isostatic response to the emplacement of dense
oceanic crust beneath the forearc region by subduction. (3)
Rapid cooling of a relatively warm upper plate resulting
from the subducted cooler plate. This mechanism may ap-
ply to situations where young oceanic crust is incorporated
as upper plate into a forearc region. Furthermore, the subsi-
dence histories of forearc basins may be influenced by the
angle of subduction and variations in the subduction rates.
In the course of time, a narrow residual basin can
evolve into a broader constructed or composite basin
that onlaps the arc massif on the inner flank and lies
on the accretionary wedge on the outer side (Fig.
12.25b,c). The basin configuration tends to pass from
a ridged to a shelved forearc basin (Fig. 12.25d).
Outer ridges result from the upbuilding of the
accretionary wedge (structural highs) or from tec-
tonic or volcanic structures (observed along intra-
oceanic arc systems). The ridged forearcs creating a
ponded basin are most effective in trapping and ac-
cumulating sediments. Shelved forearc basins may
lose a major part of the arc-derived sediment to the
trench.
During the evolution from a ponded to a shelved
morphology, the depositional environment of the ba-
sin passes from open, deep-marine conditions into
the increasingly restricted environments of a wide
shallow-marine and coastal. Rapid deposition of
deep-marine sediments (mainly turbidites) is fol-
lowed by slower accumulating shallow-marine strata
and finally often by continental deposits (Fig.
12.25e), particularly on the side ofthe arc massif.
A tendency for uplift of both the arc massif and
the outer ridge and subsidence of the basin center
favor the continuation of sedimentation for some
time. Additional deformation of the strata can be
caused by extension, compression, and wrench fault-
ing of the basin fill. In the early stage of such defor-
mation, normal or reverse faults are common on the
side of the arc massif, while folding and overthrust-
ing predominate on the seaward side of the basin fill
(Fig. 12.25e). Strike-slip motions preferentially occur
at the transition from the accretionary prism to the
arc. If the forearc basin fill is exposed to collision, as
in ancient orogenic belts, it is further tectonically
overprinted.
Sediment Successions of Foreare Basins
(General Aspects)
An idealized residual foreare basin may display the
following succession (from top to bottom):
- Fluvial and deltaic sands, partially derived from
the uplifted roots of the arc. On the inner edge of the
basin, these sediments may interfinger with deposits
from pyroclastic flows, relatively coarse grained ash
fall, lava flows, and alluvial fans consisting of both
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
volcanic and nonvolcanic materials (cf. Sect. 2.4).
- Sands and shales deposited in shallow-marine envi-
ronments (shelf sea); high proportion of volcani-
clastic material but a relatively low amount of bio-
genic components, resulting from the high influx of
terrigenous material and rapid sediment buildup.
- Flysch-like shale-sandstone sequences with up-
wardly increasing proportions of coarser grained
turbidites, largely composed of volcaniclastic mate-
rial. The sediments are distributed by seaward and
basin-parallel currents. Mass flow deposits are com-
mon, particularly on the landward side of the basin
(basin slope). The shales may contain some carbon-
ate (when deposited above the CCD) and partially
have a relatively high organic carbon content.
-'- Abyssal-plain sediments containing montmorillo-
nitic shales devoid of carbonate, fine-grained ash fall
deposits, and fine-grained turbidites.
A large supply of terrigenous material, including
clastic detritus from the far hinterland of the arc,
commonly results in rapid infilling of the forearc bas-
ins. This is often the case in basins associated with
highly elevated non-volcanic continental margins.
Along island arcs, the non-volcanic terrigenous sedi-
ment fraction tends to be low and biogenic sedi-
ments, such as shallow-marine carbonates can play
some role. In sediment-starved, warm equatorial re-
gions, reefs and carbonate banks can grow along the
shallow basin margins and build up thick carbonate
sections (e.g. in the Mentawai trough).
If a basin is filled up rapidly during its early stage,
which is common in continental margin settings, a
large proportion of its sediments consists of shallow-
water and nonmarine deposits. These accumulate
during the late, sediment load-driven phase of subsi-
dence. In contrast, relatively slowly filling basins
during coeval subsidence maintain deep-water condi-
tions for longer time periods and thus lead to the
buildup of a thicker deep-water sequence.
These general trends are superimposed, as in other
basin settings, by relative sea-level changes, climate
change, and certain pulses in the subduction process
and volcanic activity. Increased compression can
steepen the basin slope and the relief of the hinter-
land and thus promote slides and mass flows (e.g.
Postma et al. 1993). Further significant modifications
can be brought about by jumps or shifts in the posi-
tion of the subduction zone or a change in the vector
of plate convergence through time. Such processes
complicate the interpretation of the structural evolu-
tion and facies successions of ancient forearc basins.
The evolution of forearc basins as depositional sys-
tems ends when subduction of oceanic crust is fol-
lowed by obduction and collision of plates, and the
area is uplifted and exposed to erosion.
The post-depositional deformation of forearc basin
fills is less pervasive than that of the accreted sedi-
12.5 Foreare Basins
ments in subduetion eomplexes. Thiek foreare fills
on top of deeply subsided basin floors have a rela-
tively high preservation potential.
For further diseussion see, e.g., Diekinson and Seely
(1979), Maedonald (1993), Busby and Ingersoll (1995).
Examples of Foreare Basins
Modern Foreare Basins on Continental Margins
The above mentioned general trends and some other
speeifie features are illustrated by a few examples
from modem foreare basins whieh still aeeumulate
sediment. The examples demortstrate different tee-
tonie and sedimentary aspeets of these basins.
Foreare basins along eontinental margins are mostly
well supplied with terrigenous material from the hin-
terland of the magmatie are, apart from are-derived
volcanic1astie material. Intraoeeanie basins are nor-
mally eut off from signifieant terrigenous sediment
sourees.
South Ameriean foreare basins along the eoast and off-
shore Ecuador, Peru, and Chile eontain Cretaeeous and
Tertiary sediments with thieknesses of several km up to 10
km (Moberly et al. 1982). Their facies range from deep
marine sediments, eontaining large proportions of
turbidites and deposits of gravity mass flows and slides, to
paralie and eontinental deposits. They evolved on eonti-
nental erust (intra-massifbasins, see above) and frequently
show landward dipping strata in their lower seetions, indi-
eating syndepositional uplift of a seaward basement high.
Syndepositional uplift of landward or seaward parts of the
basins also eaused the eutting of deep submarine ehannels.
As a result of eoastal upwelling, some of these basins aeeu-
mulated substantial amounts of hydroearbon souree rocks.
The foreare basins off Colombia belong to the eon-
strueted basin type resting on both the eontinental erust of
the magrnatie are and the aeeretionary prism. The present-
day tectonic setting (eonvergenee rate 50-65 m/Ma) was
established in the early Mioeene. The seaward-dipping
edge of the eontinental erust aets as backstop, and the pro-
gressive growth ofthe aeeretionary wedge leads to uplift of
the outer-are high. This eauses tilting of the older sedimen-
tary sequenees and sueeessive landward migration of the
depoeenters of the foreare basins (Mountney and West-
brook 1997; cf. Fig. 12.25e). The maximum thiekness of
the basin fills is almost 5 km.
Foreare basin off Guatemala. This sediment-filled ba-
sin is mentioned here as an example of late Pleistoeene-
Holoeene eontinental foreare basin sediments. It has aeeu-
mulated non-marine, predominantly voleaniclastie material
during the past 20 to 30 ka (Vessell and Davies 1981).
These sediments refleet major voleanie eruptions, whieh
have demonstrated a eertain degree of eyelieity expressed
by (1) a long quieseent phase with ineision of meandering
rivers and delta reworking, (2) an eruptive phase with
airfall ash and pyroclastie flows, (3) a fan building phase
dominated by debris flows and eoarse grained fluvial de-
posits, and (4) a braided stream phase delivering large sedi-
ment volumes into the fluvial system and eausing delta
pro gradation on the eoast.
595
Modern Intraoceanic Foreare Basins
Sunda are. The foreare basins of the Sunda are briefly
deseribed in Seet. 12.5.2 (cf. Fig. 12.23). They represent
basins whieh are unequally filled in relation to their sedi-
ment sourees.
Boso Peninsula, Japan. This Plio-Pleistoeene foreare
basin (Kazusa Group) is loeated to the east of Tokyo and
assoeiated with the subduction eomplex of the southem
Japan treneh (cf. Fig. 12.24b; Ito and Katsura 1992, 1993;
Makino et al. 1992). The western, landward part ofthe ba-
sin fill is uplifted and forms the Boso Peninsula. The To-
kyo Bay farther west is a relie of this basin whieh demon-
strates the shallow-water, coastal and deltaie stage of the
foreare (Ito and O'Hara 1994). East of the peninsula, the
foreare basin is still below the sea and being filled. The
sediments exposed on the peninsula refleet a shelf-slope-
deep basin setting and reaeh up to 3 km in thiekness. The
prograding, mainly volcaniclastie pebbly sands and muds
of the narrow shelf-steep slope configuration display many
mass flow deposits and form relatively small submarine
fans. Ash fall deposits have been radiometrieally dated and
serve as marker beds for the identifieation of about twenty,
sea-Ievel eontrolled depositional sequenees.
Tonga Ridge, western Paeifie. This is an example of an
intraoeeanie are-treneh system whieh is far away from any
signifieant eontinental sediment souree (cf. Fig. 12.30a).
The subduetion zone is non-aeeretionary and eharaeterized
by tectonic erosion. A special feature of this are is its eolli-
sion with a seamount and an oeeanie ridge whieh have
shortened and steepened the foreare zone (Clift et al.
1998). The uplifted foreare region forrns a plateau (Tonga
platform) whieh is affeeted by aeross-strike fault zones and
dissected trenehward by submarine eanyons. The relatively
thin fore are sediments eonsist mainly of redeposited mate-
rial from the volcanie are, ash fall, some pelagie sediment.
Minor amounts of sediment are delivered by erosion of
older foreare strata and the Eoeene igneous basement of the
foreare.
Mariana are system (cf. Figs. 12.28 and 12.30). Simi-
larly, the youngest part of this system displays only a thin
sediment cover. It is an example of repeated are and
baekare formation with a very eomplex interrelationship
between teetonism and magrnatism (Fryer 1996).
Less Antilles. In contrast to the Boso peninsula exam-
pie, the late Pleistoeene sediments of this are system eon-
tain high proportions of pelagie, hemipelagie, and even
eolian sediments besides voleaniclasties provided by epi-
sodie volcanie aetivity.
Ancient Foreare Basins on Land
The identifieation of aneient foreare basins on land is
not always easy. The fills of these basins are de-
formed and uplifted by post-depositional teetonism
and more or less truneated by erosion. One needs
good exposures and a c1ear understanding of the gen-
eral teetonie setting of the region investigated. Relies
of a former foreare basin ean be expeeted between
the roots of a magmatie are and the thrust sheets
(nappes) and melange zones of an aneient ae-
eretionuy prism now representing part of an
orogenie belt. The presenee of ophiolites in the
596 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

a GREAT VALLEY FOREARC BASIN, CALIFORNIA

TRANSFOAM FAULT b
(SAN ANOAEAS F.)

NEOGENE ~~--~~QQQ2~~

1/
SUBOUCT'ON COMPI..EX

+ FIU.E) COMPOSITE VOLCANIC APC \

- FOREAAC BASlN

PALAEOGENE
FAANClSCAN
COMPI..EX
(MESOZOIC)
\1/

EARLYCRET.
NEOGENE COUJSION ZONe OF
EARUER (JUAASSIC)
QCEANIC CRUST OCEANICAPC

d
, PETAOFAOes
,MAlN mENDS IN SANDSTONE
N
~VOLCANICS c
rZ7777Z7/Zd OUARTZ A
! ~
j

APCMASSlF
(ACCAErED SAN ~OREAS FAULT
JURASSIC ARe)
CAUST

Fig. 12.26. The Cretaeeous-Tertiary Great Valley
foreare basin of California. a Simplified map of ma-
jor geoteetonie units. b Evolution of eonvergent mar-
gin and foreare basin of eentral California in three
stages; note transition from terraeed, residual basin
on oeeanie ernst (Cretaeeous) to shelved eomposite
basin on both oeeanie ernst and subduetion eomplex
(Paleogene). The final stage is a relie foreare basin,
the western part of whieh was uplifted and partially
eroded. c Simplified eross-seetion of Great Valley
(loeation shown in a and b). d Map view of basin
evolution, showing widening of basin as well as mi-
gration of volcanie are with time. (After Diekinson
and Seely 1979; Ingersolll982; Moxon and Graham
1987)
12.5 Foreare Basins 597

b CROSS SECTION, S. TIBET

(PRESENT-DAY SITUATION) XIGAZE FOREAAC BASIN
(PRESENT·DAY EROSION SURFACEI
TIBETAN PLATEAU

THRUST SHEETS OF SHELF YARLUNG N

5
TETHYS HIMALAYA
.
CARBONATE RIVER

!
1-3
QIUWU MOLASSE
(LATE-STAGE
HIGH HIMALA Y AN DISTAL TURBIDITES _-:--:-.,..-,....~ I FOREARC SED . ?1
CRYSTALLINE CHAIN RADIOLARITES ~ MIOCENE FOLDING. BACKTHRUSTING ( , i
PILLOW BASALT - ' AND CONTINUED UPLIFT

a XIGAZE FOREARC BASIN

(CRET ACEOUS, TIBET)
ANGT ANG BLOCK

MID-CRETACEOUS SHELF GANGDESE BELT

CARBONATES (± ERODED) (MAGMATIC ARC)
..........
SUBMARINE SEA LEVEL
CHANNEL SYSTEMS
-$--\.--
""

TAKENA SERIES (SHALES.

SANDST. , SOME LIMESTONES)

TREND TO UPLIFT
FUTURE INDUS- TRAPPED PRE-FOREARC
YARLUNG SUTURE OCEANIC CRUST HEMI-PELAGIC SED.

Fig. 12.27. a Cartoon of Xigaze forearc basin during
the late Cretaceous indicating megasequences and
provenance of clastic sediments from magmatic arc
(main source) and hinterland. Spillover of sediment
to the trench occurred after the ridged forearc area
had been filled. With the growing and emerging
accretionary wedge, the basin became shallow and
finally continental (Qiuwu molasse). b Present-day
situation of forearc sediments in (idealized) cross
section of southem Tibet (Trans himalaya). Major
part of folded basin fill is preserved due to back-
thrusting; upper part is eroded. Detail from lower-
most distal basin fill shows transition from pillow
basalts to deep-sea radiolarites and turbidites. (Based
on sketch of W. Ricken; Einseie et al. 1994; Dürr
1996)

melange or as larger rock bodies from trapped oce- their deposition in a forearc basin. Here, two weH
anic crust can be useful in delineating the outer exposed examples of, forearc basins on continental
boundary of the forearc basin. In addition, the facies margins are briefly described.
and architecture of the preserved sediments indicate
598
Tbe Great Valley Foreare Basin, California. All three
major components of the arc-trench system, i.e., the (Fran-
ciscan) subduction complex, the (Great Valley) forearc
basin, and the (Sierra Nevada) magmatic arc are exposed
on land in their original relationship (Fig. l2.26a; Ingersoll
1982). This relationship is preserved, because further com-
pression ofthe arc-trench system was terminated by strike-
slip movement along the San Andreas Fault, converting the
convergent margin into a trans form margin.
Tbe forearc basin developed on trapped oceanic crnst in
the Great Valley area, whereas to the north and south such
basins are missing. Tbe forearc region evolved from a ter-
raced or ponded, narrow residual basin with a deeply sub-
merged ridge into a wider, shelved composite forearc basin
behind a high, broad outer ridge.
Sedimentation began in the upper Jurassic and lower
Cretaceous, with muddy slope deposits and conglomeratic
channel fills. Sand and coarser grained components are
derived from the underlying ophiolites, metamorphic and
plutonic rocks of tbe former collision (suture) zone, and
volcanic material from the magrnatic arc. A great part of
the suture-derived material came from tbe Klamath Moun-
tains in the north (Fig. l2.26a). The proportion of
volcanics decreases upsection, while the quartz content of
the sandstones increases (Fig. l2.26c). Tbis reflects the
erosion of the magrnatic arc and the former suture zone.
Later, arkosic sands and sandstones point to the fact that
the batholithic roots of tbe magmatic arc were exposed to
erosion.
Concurrent with the westward growth and upbuilding of
the Franciscan subduction complex, the forearc basin was
enlarged and filled. Sands were dispersed by submarine
slope channels and deposited in large fan systems. How-
ever, the Sierran magmatic arc migrated eastward (Fig.
l2.26d) and lost its dominant role as a sediment source.
Tbe oceanward parts of the basin first underwent strong
subsidence and then uplift as a result of the growing
subduction complex (Moxon and Graham 1987). At the
same time, tbe landward parts of the basin subsided due to
the thermal contraction and eastward migration of the
Sierran magmatic arc.
Summary (Foreare Basins)
Forearc basins develop between deep-sea tren-
ches and magmatic arcs, either on trapped ocea-
nic crust and/or on the inner part of an accretio-
nary wedge. Their fills may onlap or, in some
cases, rest on the subsided basement of the arc.
Many basins evolve from a ridged, deep phase
to a shallow-marine shelf-type and finally to a
continental stage.
The early stage of basin filling is characterized
by thick deposits of relatively small, sand- and
gravel-rich deep-sea fans on top of pelagic or
hemipelagic sediments. The channel-fan systems
are fed by several point sources from the side of
the arc.
In intraoceanic settings, the clastic sediments are
derived mainly from the volcanic arc; along con-
Cbapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
Tbe total sediment tbickness in the western part of the
basin amounts to about 13 km; in the eastern part it is
much less. The sedimentation rate during tbe upper Creta-
ceous was about 280 m/Ma in the basin center. By the end
of the Cretaceous, the forearc basin had attained the mor-
phology of a wide shelf, allowing arc-derived clastic mate-
rial to migrate westward and to accumulate in the trench.
Paleogene sediments were deposited predominantly under
shallow-marine and nonmarine conditions; the Neogene is
represented by primarily nonmarine strata, apart from some
smalI, deep basins caused by Neogene wrench tectonics
associated with tbe development of the San Andreas fault
system. These movements finally terrninated the evolution
of tbe Great Valley basin and converted the subducting
margin into a transform margin (Fig. l2.26b).
Tbe Xigaze foreare basin, Tibet. This residual basin is
associated with the closure of the Tethys ocean between the
Indian plate and the Lhasa block, a microplate of Eurasia.
The folded flysch-type forearc deposits are well exposed
over a distance of 600 km along the Indus-Yarling suture
zone (Einseie et al. 1994; Dürr 1996). Parts of tbe trapped
oceanic plate are exhumed in an ophiolite belt along the
southeni. boundary of the basin. Figure 12.27 shows the
basin evolution in three phases, characterized by fining-
upward megasequences with some dark and marly shales at
their tops which may result from 3rd order sea-level
changes. Several deep-sea channel systems could be identi-
fied supplying the basin with both volcaniclastic material
from the arc (-65% of the basin fill) and detritus of older
rocks from the hinterland (-35%). The arc provided mate-
rial for a mean sedimentation rate of -1 00 m/Ma in the ba-
sin. Relics of a carbonate buildup and carbonate-bearing
coarse-grained channel fills indicate the former existence
of a fringing reef along the arc side. Shallow-marine
forearc sediments are preserved only locally, but alluvial
fan deposits derived from the roots of the arc are still pres-
ent on the inner side ofthe basin.
tinental margins, the hinterland of the arc may
act as an additional significant sediment source.
Later stage sediments tend to be shallow-marine
and largely controlled by oceanic processes
(e.g. coastal upwelling leading to black shales
and phosphorites). In sediment~starved settings,
carbonate buildups and pelagic sediments play
some role.
Sediment buildup can be affected by syn-depo-
sitional subsidence of the basin center, upward
growth of the outer ridge, and uplift of the arc.
The depocenters first migrate seaward, but may
later return to more landward sites.
12.5 Backarc and Retroarc Basins
12.5.4 Backare and Retroarc Basins
General Characteristics
Baekare basins develop either behind island ares on
oeeanie erust or, as retroare basins, on normal and
thinned eontinental erust. Retroare basins often
evolve into retro-foreland basins (cf. Fig. 1.2b).
In eontinental margin settings, the early evolution
of a retroare region is eommonly eharaeterized by
subduetion-related extension and rifting, whieh may
be followed by aeeretion of new oeeanie erust (cf.
Fig. 12.18e). Extension behind the magmatie are re-
sults from the fact that the rate of subduetion of the
downgoing plate is faster than the subduetion-driven
forward motion of the overriding plate. To eompen-
sate this defieit the backare region of the overriding
plate is stretehed. Later, the arcward side of the
baekare basin may be folded and overthrust (cf. Fig.
1.2b), similar to the tectonic evolution of foreland
basins (Seet. 12.6.2). Therefore, these basins are of-
ten addressed as foredeeps or foreland basins, al-
though they have developed behind an aetive mag-
matie are.
In intra-oeeanie are-treneh systems, the backare
region is an oeeanie basin of limited size whieh aeeu-
mulates pelagie and hemipelagie sediments inter-
mixed with volcanielastie material. Most of the mod-
ern oeeanie baekare basins and marginal basins lie in
the northwestern, western, and southwestern Paeifie
(Fig. 12.28) whieh may be addressed as a "super-
subduction zone" active since the breakup of Gond-
wana (~180 Ma). However, the marginal basins pres-
ent in the modern Paeifie are younger than 80 Ma;
the older basins are gone, probably eaused by
subduetion and elosure.
Marginal oeeanie basins ean be subdivided into
subduction-related marginal basins and basins not
related to subduction. Furthermore, the subduction-
related basins form two groups according to their
origin (Tomaki and Honza 1991; see also Leitch
1984; Maedonald 1993):
- Backarc basins evolve on the backare side of an
aetive are by sea-floor spreading following rifting of
the arc.
- Subduetion-related marginal basins form by entrap-
ment of part of a major ocean basin due to the estab-
lishment of a new subduction zone in the oeean ba-
sin.
Oceanic backarc basins in a strict sense inc1ude the pres-
ently active Mariana trough, the North Fiji and Lau basins
in the western Pacific, and the Sea of Japan (see below).
An example in the Mediterranean Sea is the Tyrrhenian Sea
(cf. Sect. 12.2.3; Fig. 12.l5a,b). The Aegean Sea on conti-
nental crost is essentially a retroarc basin which has a rela-
tively complex structural setting (cf. Sect. 12.7.4).
599
Non-subduction-related marginal basins in the Pacific
inc1ude the Caroline Sea and probably the South China,
Sulu, Celebes, Coral Sea, and New Caledonian basins.
Most ofthese basins are not associated with active backarc
spreading, but they may represent remnants of older
backarc basins which have been trapped by the retreat of a
former active arc-trench system.
Marginal basins, ineluding true backarc basins, com-
monly show the following characteristics:
- The basins preferentially develop on the eastern
side of major continents.
- Oceanic backare basins tend to elose by developing
an own subduction zone.
- The lifetimes of these basins is limited « 25 Ma)
compared with those of major ocean basins.
Sediment Successions of Backare and
Retroarc Basins
The sediments of backare regions vary markedly as a
result of their differing tectonic settings, changes in
sediment supply and depositional environments.
There are no generally applicable, simple facies mod-
els, even if retroarc basins on continental crust and
oeeanic backare basins are considered separately.
Ancient backarc basins are normally identified with
the aid of their overall setting in a plate tectonic con-
text. In addition, the following observations can be
useful in recognizing such basins:
- Backarc and retroarc basins are generally asymmet-
rie, with a steep, often thrust-faulted outer margin
against the volcanic arc and a gentler dipping, possi-
bly block-faulted inner margin.
- The sediments of backarc regions inelude elastics
derived from both margins, i.e., -from the volcanic arc
and drainage areas of the craton, but lateral sediment
influx from distal sources mayaiso playa role, as in
the previously mentioned example of Burma and the
Andaman Sea.
Retroare (Retro-Foreland) Basins on
Continental Crust
The basin fills tend to evolve from an initial phase of
coarse, elastic deposition into shallow-marine envi-
ronments, and then to thick, molasse-type sediments
derived largely from the volcanic arc and its base-
ment. The sub-Andean zone in South America on the
eastern flanks of the Andes probably displays the
most prominent examples of this type of retroarc
(retro-foreland) basins.
600 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

MARGINAL
OCEANIC BASINS,
WESTERN PACIFIC
(lNCL. BACKARC B.)

--------------------0°

Fig. 12.28. Marginal basins

in the western Paeifie
(overview). Not all basins
shown in blaek are baekare
basins in astriet sense.
Some of them developed on
eontinental or intermediate
ernst, others represent small
and trapped normal oeean
basins. (After Tamaki and
Honza 1991)

Sub-Andean retro-foreland basins. This zone is affected
by backthrusting and displays structures similar to those of
peripheral foreland basins or foredeeps (Rorton and
DeCelles 1997; cf. Sect. 12.6.2, Fig. 12.34d). In the central
Andes, the eastward directed active thrust belt is overlain
by Cenozoic wedge top sediments which pass cratonward
into thicker foredeep sediments. The eastward following
forebulge zone is free of Tertiary sediments, but farther
east, in the back-bulge zone, up to 0.5 km of young sedi-
ment have aeeumulated.
The older history of the Andean region is eomplieated
and probably not fully understood. In the Triassie and Ju-
rassie, prior to the opening of the South Atlantie, this zone
underwent rifting and eolleeted non-marine and marine
sediments. In the Early Cretaeeous it was covered by an
expanding epieontinental sea. It was not before the middle
Cretaeeous that North Afriea and South America separated
and the Pacific eoast of South America was transformed
into a eonvergent margin. After are collision and the clo-
sure of oceanie backarc basins in the eastem Paeifie, the
present-day subduction zone along the aetive margin of
South Ameriea was established in the late Cretaeeous.
From then on, retroarc basins developed in the sub-Andean
zone, often referred to as foredeeps. Paleogene uplift ofthe
Andes and eastward shedding of large arnounts of are-de-
rived detritus led to the transition from marine to mainly
continental molasse-type deposits in the sub-Andean zone.
The uplift of the Altiplano of the Central Andes may
have been caused by underplating of crustal material tec-
tonically eroded from the continental margin to the west
(Baby et al. 1997). Neogene erustal shortening by about
200 km in the retroarc region seems to be insuffieient to
produee the 70 km of crustal thickness present below the
Altiplano.
Neogene eastward migration of the arc-retroarc system,
synsedimentary eompressional deformation and folding,
and thin-skinned overthrusting, resembling that ofthe fore-
land basins of the Northern Alps or the Rocky Mountains
(cf. Seet. 12.6.2), created the present-day configuration of
the sub-Andean basins (see also Jordan et al. 1983; Megard
1984; Reutter et ai. 1988; Pindell and Tabbutt 1995; Baby
et al. 1995; Dunn et al. 1995; Mathalone and Montoya
1995). These basins are commonly 100-300 km wide, and
their late Mesozoic to Neogene infillings frequently attain
5-10 km in thickness, loeally up to 15 km.
Commonly, Paleozoie to middle Cretaceous shelf sedi-
ments are overlain by upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic
molasse deposits. The souree rocks of substantial hydrocar-
bon occurrences in the sub-Andean basins are Paleozoic to
middle Cretaceous strata; reservoirs mostly forrned in
younger sandstones (mainly structural traps).
Cretaeeous retroare basins in Chile aeeumulated coarse-
grained clasties, up to 7-9 km in thickness, including grav-
ity mass flow deposits and turbidites (Mitchell and Reading
1986).
12.5 Backarc and Retroarc Basins 601

EVOLUTION OF BACKARC BASIN

STAGE 3 NEW INTRA·ARC/ BACKARC
INACTIVE BACKARC B~SIN BASIN

PELAGIC VOLCANICLASTIC SPLITTING OF ARC ,

SEDIMENTS APRON NEW SPREADING -CENTER

STAGE 2

EPICLASTIC SED IMENT

STAGE 1
REMNANT ARC YOUNG OCEANIC OCEANIC ISLAND
SUBAERIAL~ (INACTIVE) BACKARC"BASIN ARC (ACTlVE)
~H~~ ~
- ----- _ -: --1--l~------

PYRQCLAST-IC FLOWS,
ASH FALLS AND
ASH TURBIDITES

Fig. 12.29. Sedimentation model for backare areas of
oeeanie island ares in three stages of evolution. 1
Splitting of island are by rifting, and initiation of
backare spreading into aetive are and remnant are;
high influx of volcaniclasties. 2 Basin widening by
eontinued backare spreading; deposition of thiek
volcanielasite apron at base of aetive are flank and
pelagie sediment farther away. 3 Backare spreading
eeases and renewed splitting of island are rnay initi-
ate a new basin. (After Carey and Sigurdsson 1984)

In several regions of the Andes, intramontane troughs
deve10ped between the magmatie are and the baekare thrust
belt (cf. Seet. 12.7.2). Some of them eolleeted great thiek-
nesses of voleanic1astie material, as for example the
Altiplano ofBolivia.
Backarc Basins on Oceanic Crust
These basins tend to beeome filled after shorter time
periods than larger oeean basins due to their limited
size, nearby clastie sediment sourees, and basin elo-
sure. Some backare regions in the western and south-
western Paeifie display different stages of basin for-
mation resulting from the splitting of an oeeanie are.
The simp!ified model in Figure 12.29 largely refleets
observations in the baekare region of the Mariana are
whieh is eharaeterized by several older remnant ares
and basins (Carey and Sigurdsson 1984; Fryer 1996).
The evolution of such a system shows the following
stages:
602
- Stage 1. Rifting of an island arc along a zone of
crustal wealmess and subsequent backarc spreading
create a narrow trough between the active arc and
inactive remnant arc. The basal fill in the trough is
dominated by gravity mass flows, i.e., slides, slumps,
debris flows, and turbidity currents, which transport
basaltic pyroclastic and epiclastic material (eroded
older pyroclastic deposits) into the basin. Around the
backarc spreading center, special hydrothermal de-
posits may accumulate. On the side of the remnant
arc, epiclastic and some pelagic sediments are com-
mon. The basin attains only moderate depth, and sed-
imentation rates are generally high during this stage
(at least 100 to 200 m1Ma).
- Stage 2. Continued backarc spreading causes basin
widening and subsidence of previously formed oce-
anic crust as a result of cooling. Episodic volcanic
activity in the arc region further provides large quan-
tities of basaltic volcaniclastic material, which is de-
posited in aprons at the base of the arc or dispersed
as ash falls over wider areas. Deposition of epiclastic
material on the side of the remnant arc is replaced by
deposition of pelagic sediments, which also play
some role on the active arc side. The basin floor is
commonly still above the CCD (Sect. 5.3.2) and thus
allows preservation of calcareous rnicrofossils. Dis-
solution of siliceous fossils may be hampered by rel-
atively high Si02 contents in sea water due to the
presence of volcanic ash and glass. In the more distal
parts of the basin, the sedimentation rate drops to
around 50 mJMa, but may maintain high values
arcward in the volcaniclastic apron. Increased arc
volcanism leads to propagation of the areas previ-
ously dorninated by pelagic sedimentation. If volca-
nism wanes, pelagic, ash-poor sedimentation will
prevail.
- Stage 3. Ocean spreading in the existing basin
ceases, and splitting of the volcanic arc initiates the
formation of a new backarc basin. The old basin still
receives some epiclastic material and subaerially dis-
persed ash from the active arc, but is dorninated by
pelagic sedimentation. Continued subsidence may
lower the basin floor below the CCD and thus cause
carbonate dissolution, resulting in the deposition of
brown clays. The sedimentation rate drops to values
characteristic of normal pelagic deposits in the
oceans (5-15 m1Ma for nannofossil ooze and around
5 m1Ma for brown abyssal clays). The subsequent
sediment succession will be controlled mainly by
factors unrelated to arc volcanism and backarc
spreading.
Sediment successions of small ocean basins. Bas-
ins resulting from the rifting of continental crust or
predating the formation of a volcanic island arc fre-
quently begin with normal clastic sediments contain-
ing quartz, feldspar and mica. They are followed by
pelagic and hemipelagic sediments and display a
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
shallowing-upward trend, with increasing influence
from volcaniclastic material if a volcanic source is
nearby. In addition, they show marked differences
between their outer and inner margins.
Examples of Modern Backare Basins
Southwestern Pacific. Tertiary sediment sueeessions
drilled in backare basins (Fig. 12.30a) largely follow the
rules outlined above. Young, narrow basins behind an ae-
tive are or older basins adjaeent to an island are display
sueeessions rieh in various voleanielasties and ealcareous
nannofossil ooze. The sedimentation rates of the
volcanielastie sequenees mostly range between 50 and 100
m/Ma. However, the sediments of oldermargin basins are
dominated by slowly deposited nannofossil oozes and silty
elays, with minor proportions ofvoleanielastie material.
These results were gained during the Deep Sea Drilling
Projeet (Leiteh 1984; Klein 1985b) west ofthe Tonga are
(Site 203) in the New Hebrides basin (Site 286) west ofthe
Vanuatu islands, and in the South Fiji basin (Site 205). The
older margin basins are generated by rifting of eontinental
erust (Sites 210 and 287 in the Coral Sea basin, and Site
206 in the New Caledonia basin).
The upper portion of Site 210 in the New Caledonia ba-
sin eontains about 2000 muddy turbidite beds altemating
with ealcareous ooze, deposited during a time span of 10
Ma (sedimentation rate around 50 m/Ma). This inerease in
sediment supply ean be explained by a rejuvenated sedi-
ment souree in the remnant are region. The narrow New
Caledonia basin is filled with a 3000 m thiek sueeession of
submarine slumps derived largely off the Lord Howe Rise.
The Tasman Sea basin adjaeent to the Australian eontinent
is eharaeterized by a sequenee rieh in silieeous ooze and
ehert (not shown in Fig. 12.30a). Early to mid-Oligoeene
uneonformities observed in several basins are assoeiated
with aceelerated bottom eurrents.
Information about speeifie sedimentary basins in the
South Paeifie, ineluding New Zealand, is found in Ballanee
(1993). Foreare and baekare basins older than Mioeene are
mostly diffieult to reeognize. The basins of New Zealand,
in partieular, are strongly affeeted by lateral displacement.
Sea of Japan. This basin is weIl studied and therefore
an example of a relatively eomplex basin history. The basin
is a relatively old (-25-15 Ma) and presently inaetive
backare basin whieh is beginning to elose by the develop-
ment of a subduetion zone on the western side ofthe Japa-
nese islands (cf. Figs. 12.24a,b and 12.28). The basin is
more than 3500 m deep and separated'from the open sea by
a shallow sill. The basin floor is only partially made up of
young oeeanie erust whieh formed along an E-W direeted
spreading axis (perpendieular to the strike of the present-
day subduetion zone to the east of the Japanese islands).
The remainder of the basin floor is normal, rifted, or
thinned eontinental erust (e.g. Ingle 1997, Tamaki et al.
1997).
During the early rifting and extensional phase of basin
evolution, the rate of subsidenee was limited and non-ma-
rine sediment and voleanie material aeeumulated. With the
onset of backare spreading, aecompanied by basaltie
magmatism, subsidenee aeeelerated (100-500 m/Ma) and
the basin beeame marine with inereasing water depth. A
12.5 Backarc and Retroarc Basins 603

BACKARC AND MARGINAL BASINS, SW PACIFIC

210 286
GRADED SILT AND CLAY VOLCANIC ASH

NANNOFOSSIL OOZE CLAYEY SILT

OR SILTY CLAY
VOLCANOGENIC
SILT AND SAND
UNCONFORMITY
BASALT
VOLCANOGENIC
CONGLOMERATE

CJ SMALL QCEAN BASIN

o 8IO<ARC BASN

~ PCTIVE ARCS
_ R~ANTARCS

=
= CONrt>ENTAL &
OUASI-CONTIIENTAL CRUST
........... TRENCH
• 286 DsoP DRILL-HOLE LQCATIQN

a 100

200

300

400

500
m

203

a , aUATERNARY
P, PLIOCENE
M, MIOCENE
O, OLlGOCENE
E,EOCENE
Pa, PALEOCENE

Fig. 12.30. a Modem backare and small ocean basins Sea Drilling Project shown in simplified sections for
of the southwestem Pacific and results of the Deep specific sites (numbers). (After Leitch 1984)

seeond teetonie and magrnatie phase in the middle Mioeene
led to differential, partly rapid subsidenee (pull-apart) in
some subbasins. Then, subsidenee and magrnatie aetivities
eeased, and finally the basin experieneed eompressional
uplift and deformation to the present-day borderland-style
topography.
The lower half of a 1000 m thiek Mioeene to Quatemary
hemipelagie sequenee (average sedimentation rate about 50
mlMa) eonsists of silieeous claystones and poreellanites
with minor proportions of ealcareous ooze and rhyolite
tuff. The organie earbon eontent of these sediments is
mostly around 1%. The upper half of the seetion is domi-
nated by diatom ooze with an upwardly inereasing propor-
tion of clay and silty clay, including voleanie ash.
Okinawa Trough. This narrow baekare basin on eonti-
nental erust is still in an early stage of evolution (~2Ma). It
developed sinee about 2 Ma between Japan and Taiwan
(Fig. 12.28) behind the Ryukyu island are (Sibuet et al.
1998). The water depth of the basin inereases from about
200 m in the north to 2300 m in the southwest. The basin is
604
characterized by strike-parallel and oblique chains of vol-
canic islands which produced large volumes of tephra and
indicate a transitional stage from continental rifting to oce-
anic backarc spreading.
Andaman Sea. One of the largest modem backarc bas-
ins is the Andarnan Sea in the northeastern Indian Ocean.
This basin is associated with the Sunda trench (cf. Fig.
12.23, Sect. 12.5.2). The center of this elongate basin is
floored by young oceanic crust, but its northern and south-
ern extensions into Burma and Sumatra, respectively, Iie on
continental crust. Thus, moving from north to south, the
present-day depositional environment of the basin changes
from continental (Burma) to deltaic and oceanic (Andaman
Sea), and again resumes continental conditions in Sumatra
(Stoneley 1981). The overfilled part ofthe basin in Burma,
however, is overprinted by Plio-Pleistocene transpression
(Pivnik et al. 1998).
In summary, the modem baekare basins of the west-
ern Paeifie and the Andaman Sea displaya variety of
sediment types ineluding eoarse-grained mass flow
deposits, submarine fan turbidites and basinal
turbidites. Various types of tephra deposits play a
signifieant role (e.g. Klein 1985b), apart from
hemipelagie and pelagie silts and clays. Whereas vol-
urne and nature of the silieiclastie material are eon-
trolled by are volcanism and the presence and relief
of nearby land sourees, the biogenie sediments (ear-
Summary (Backare and Retroarc Basins)
- Baekare, retroare, and retro-foreland basins
evolve behind an aetive magmatie are. Baekare
basins form on pre-existing or newly aeereted
oeeanie ernst and retroare or retro-foreland ba-
sins on stretching eontinental ernst. Late-stage
eompressional deformation and overthrusting
on the side of the are are eommon - Small mar-
ginal oeean basins (e.g. in the present-day we-
stern Paeifie) develop by trapping of parts of a
major oeean basin or parts of a former baekare
basin by retreat of the former aetive are.
- The lifetimes of oeeanie baekare basins are li-
mited; they tend to be closed by subduetion.
- The sediment fills of eontinental retroare basins
(often ealled foredeeps or foreland basins) re-
12.5.5 Preservation and Recognition of
Ancient Subduction-Related Basins
Aneient subduetion-related basins are normally iden-
tified by evaluating their temporal and spatial rela-
tionship with magmatie ares and suture zones, i.e.,
the boundaries between eollided plates. As a result of
eollision, late treneh fills, aeeretionary wedges, and
the sediments of foreare and oeeanie backare basins
are ineorporated into orogenie belts or subducted.
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
bonates and biosilieeous ooze) depend on oeean eir-
eulation and surrace produetivity. Most of these sedi-
ments represent deep-water eonditions, either above
or below the CCD.
Black Sea and southern Caspian Sea. These deep basins,
floored by oceanic crust, are rernnants of a much larger,
3000 km long, 900 km wide, Mesozoic to early Tertiary
backarc basin. The area between the two basins was closed
by collision in front of the northward moving Arabian
prornontory. High rates of subsidence in conjunction with
the approaching thrust belts from the south (the western
and eastern Pontides, the Lesser Caucasus, and the Elburz
Mountains) enabled the accumulation of thick sediment
successions. Large rivers, partly draining high mountain
areas, including the Alps, delivered clastic material and
produced high sedimentation rates. The contribution of
volcaniclastics is of minor importance.
In the Black Sea, upper Cretaceous to Neogene sedi-
ments attain a maximum thickness of almost 15 km. The
oil-bearing middle Pliocene to Quaternary strata of the
southern Caspian Sea are 3-6 km thick and were deposited
at a rate in the order of 1000 mlMa. They are underlain in
the basin center by 8-10 km of older sediments. For further
information see, e.g., Steininger and Rögl (1984),
Zonenshain and LePichon (1986) and Sects. 4.3.1 and
11.2.3.
fleet both the nearby magmatie are and the
more distal eratonie sediment sourees. Some-
times the latter souree predominates. Early de-
position of eoarse clasties may be followed by
shallow-marine and then by thiek molasse-type
sediments.
Oeeanie backare basins are deeper and aeeu-
mulate are-derived and intrabasinal pyro-
clastie flows, mass flow deposits, air-fall ash
and ash turbidites. Hemipelagie and pelagie
sediments, eontrolled by the oeeanie environ-
ment, play an inereasing role in the later stages
of basin evolution.
They are strongly deformed, disrnpted and partially
metamorphosed. In contrast, retroare or retro-fore-
land basins behind eontinental margins, i.e. basins on
eontinental ernst, have a better chance of being pre-
served. However, they may be strongly affeeted by
syn- and postdepositional folding and overthrusting.
The differentiation of aneient examples of treneh
fills and sequenees from foreare and backare regions
exposed in orogenie belts is diffieult. Trenehes are
always filled in deep water, but their sediments in-
12.5 Ancient Subduction-Related Basins
clude slumps and mass flows, which contain material
from shallower or terrestrial environments. Both the
forearc and backarc or retroarc basins mostly contain
abundant volcaniclastics deposited from mass flows,
turbidity currents, or air-fall. The typical shallowing-
upward trend of the forearc basins mayaiso be pres-
ent in oceanic backarc basins. The presence of oce-
anic basalts associated with deep-marine sediments
in a subduction complex or melange is taken as evi-
dence for accreted sea floor, but mayaiso indicate
the former existence of a residual forearc basin or an
oceanic backarc basin. Furthermore, paleo-current
directions and textural trends of subaerially and
subaquatically deposited beds (e.g., fluvial transport,
sediment gravity flows, turbidity currents) can be
used to distinguish between forearc and backarc
depositional systems. The occurrence of specific de-
trital minerals in sandstones (e.g., clinopyroxene and
amphibole; Morris 1987) indicate nearby active arc
volcanism.
605
The composition of volcaniclastic material derived either
from continental margin arcs (dominated by intermediate
and silicic, largely calc-alkaline magma types) or oceanic
arcs (mainly basaltic and andesitic material) is frequently
quoted as a means of discriminating these tectonic settings
(e.g., Crook 1974; Dickinson 1982; Maynard et al. 1982;
Valloni and Mezzardi 1984; Dürr 1996; cf. Sect. 2.4.3).
Large proportions of feldspar and other minerals character-
istic of granitic and granodiorjtic rocks may testify to the
fact that the arc massifwas already deeply eroded. Interpre-
tations of ~ncient sedimentary successions based solelyon
composition should, however, be regarded with caution
(e.g., Moore GF et al. 1982; Lash 1985; Velbe11985; Zuffa
1987). Several modern examples of trench fi11s, forearc
basins and backarc basins have shown that distant sediment
sources and sediment recycling can play an important role.
606
12.6 Remnant and Foreland Basins
12.6.1 Remnant Basins with Flysch
General Aspects
Basin Evolution and Sediments
12.6.2 Foreland Basins with Molasse
General Aspects
Basin-Forming Processes
Subsidence History and Basin Filling
Sedimentation Rates and Sediment Composition
Special Features ofForeland Basins
12.6.3 Summary (Remnant and Foreland Basins)
12.6.1 Remnant Basins with Flysch
General Aspects
The late phase of a closing ocean basin, associated
with subduction of oceanic crust and the formation
of an orogenie belt, is commonly characterized by the
transition from remnant basins to peripheral foreland
basins (cf. Fig. 1.3a). While remnant basins are
largely filled with deep-water flysch-type sediments,
foreland basins accumulate mainly shallow-marine
and continental molasse deposits. Flysch is typically
a thick marine sequence of turbidite beds and gravity
mass flows; it contains an autochthonous deep-water
fauna (apart from displaced shallow-water organ-
isms) and is incorporated into the thrust and fold belt
of a growing orogenie belt. Molasse includes depos-
its of large alluvial fans, fan deltas, fluvial, lacus-
trine, and shallow-marine environments. The close
relationship of both types of basin fills to the
geodynamic development of an orogen is shown by
the simplified model in Fig. 12.31), which imitates to
some extent the situation in the Swiss Alps.
Remnant basins resulting from subduction are un-
derlain by oceanic crust and therefore represent deep,
narrowing basins (cf. Sect. 1.2). In Figure 12.31a, the
remnant basin is confined on one side by a pre-exist-
ing passive continental margin with a wedge of older
clastics and carbonate sediments, and on the other
side by an approaching overthrust belt (accretionary
wedge) shedding relatively large volumes of various
clastics in the form of turbidites and mass flow de-
posits into the basin.
Principally, thick turbidite sequences exposed in
mountain belts can originate from three sourees:
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
- Remnant basins.
- Deep-sea trenches and their slope basins.
- Forearce basins.
The sediments of deep-sea trenches are norrnally in-
corporated into accretionary prisms (tectonic
melange zones), underplated or subducted (cf. Sect.
11.7.3). Accreted and underplated sediments become
highly deformed and more or less metamorphosed.
Foreare basin sediments are frequently uplifted and
eroded. The deposits of remnant basins can, at least
partially, be better preserved when they are taken up
by younger thrust sheets of an evolving orogenie belt
(cf. Fig. 12.47b).
This problem has been discussed, e.g., by Moss (1998) for
an example in Bomeo (Kalimantan and Sarawak). He inter-
prets the late Cretaceous to Paleogene thick turbidite se-
quence of the Rajang-Embaluh Group, forming an exten-
sive mountain range, as deposits of a remnant basin and
not, as suggested previously, as sediments of an arc-trench
system. The latter is older, and a direct strnctural relation-
ship between the melange zone and the flysch sequence
obviously does not exist.
The simple model of a closing ocean basin with flysch
deposits cannot always applied. The Cretaceous Rheno-
danubian flysch ofthe Eastern Alps, for example, has prob-
ably not accumulated in a "normal" remnant basin, but in a
narrow and deep intra-orogenie trough on thinned conti-
nental ernst (mid-Penninic) which resulted from left-Iateral
transtension and possibly from the onset of oblique ocean
spreading (Mattem 1999). According to heavy mineral
analyses and paleocurrent measurements, the flysch basin
received sediment first from northern and later from south-
em sourees; ophiolitic material is absent. The Rheno-
danubian flysch is now present in three thrust sheets along
the northem front of the Alps.
Further references include, e.g., Matter et al. (1980),
Stockmal and Beaumont (1987), Caron et al. (1989). The
flysch to molasse transition in peripheral foreland basins is
discussed by Sinclair (l997a).
Basin Evolution and Sediments
Flysch sediments markedly vary in grain size distri-
bution and composition in relation to the changing
influence of intra-basinal and extra-basinal sediment
sources (Fig. 12.32a). The wide spectrum of flysch
deposits may include proximal conglomeratic beds,
coarse-grained debris flows ("wildflysch" , but cf.
Sect. 12.5.2) and olistostromes (Sect. 5.4.1), as well
12.6 Remnant Basins, Flysch 607

CONTINENTAL
(FRESHWATER)
MOLASSE

Fig. 12.31. Model

showing transition
from remnant oce-
anic basin (a,b) to
fore land basin (c,d)
due to emplacement
of overthrust belt as
tectonic load onto
pre-~xisting passi.ve
contmental maq~m.
With progradmg
overthrust belt, the
zone of subsidence,
basin axes, and flex-
ural foreland bulge
migrate outward
toward the foreland.
Sediments tend to
evolve from marine
(possibly deep,
flyschoid) to conti-
nental and to pro-
grade over the shelf
sequence of former
passive margin.
Late-phase rapid
erosion of highly
elevated fold-thrust
belt initiates isostatic
uplift of inner parts
of the foreland ba-
sin. (Mainly after
Matter et al. 1980;
Stockmal and Beau-
mont 1987)

as shale-dominated sequences with distal fine-
grained turbidites. In places marly and calcareous
flysch facies also occur (Fig. 12.32a,b). Most of
these deposits accumulate in deep water, but not all
of them indicate water depths below calcite compen-
sation, depending on the degree of basin fill and tem-
poral and spatial fluctuations of the CCD (cf. Sect.
5.3.2).
Flysch sediments deposited along the front of an
accretionary wedge or leading edge of the overriding
plate are successively incorporated into the overrid-
ing thrust sheet (cf. Sect. 12.5.2) and transported to-
ward the foreland. Older flysch from internal parts of
the orogen may be overthrust onto younger flysch
deposits. In a cross-section from the internal fold-
thrust belt to the foreland, the flysch deposits (in
their original position) tend to become younger to-
ward the foreland (Fig. 12.32b). Younger flysch may
differ in composition from older flysch due to
changes in the sediment sources close-by or in the
hinterland. Specific sediment sources such as
ophiolites or overthrust metamorphics can be of par-
608 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

a OVERTHRUST

CALCAREOUS
MAINLAND FLYSCH
SEDIMENT SOURCE (ABOVE CCD)

SLOPE BASIN
(ABOVE eeO)
c ....~ ::.~,~ n INCREASING
.. .,.+ ...... Y THICKNESS
'''+
+t FILL
OF BASIN

b
FORELAND INTERN AL ZONE
<
OLiSTOSTROMES FLYSCH LlTHOLOGY
czf&. (WILDFLYSCH) SANDY -SHALY
-:'=~.:-~ ~:.4 SHALE~ CALCAREOUS

BASE OF I
~
- ':.°oo~ ~. f:. flf---
-=-: :~ CONGLOM.
FLYSCH: '
I
:::-:::-:- ~.:--="';
-- - -
r
- - -
0 -/ 0 0
;;;~ 0
SANDY
t
SHALLOW- :
MARINE I PELAGIC
~
~~::::
Jiiß
'.- --
TO HEMI- : TO HEMI- - .- 2#iE
PELAGIC ~- PELAGIC - - - - - - - - 200 km

Fig. 12.32. Characteristics of flysch basins and their
sediments in orogenic belts. a Different basin types
with various sediment sources and transport direc-
tions, deposition above or below the calcite compen-
sation depth (CCD). b Simplified scheme of flysch
basins younging toward the foreland and displaying a
certain trend in their sediment composition, as ob-
served in the Swiss Alps. (Modified after Matter et
al. 1980). c N orthern Alpine foreland basin and
double-sided Po-Adria foreland basin between the
Southern Alpes, Apennines, and Dinarides. The Po
basin is the over-filled part of the Po-Adria basin
which is mainly controlled by young north- and
northeast-directed overthrusting of the Apennines.
Note areas where late Miocene, Pliocene and Quater-
nary fold-thrust sheets are buried under younger sedi-
ments. (Sketch rnap drawn after Synthetic Structural-
Kinematic Map of Italy 1:2 000 000, Consilio
Nazionale delle Recerche, Romc 1989, and Interna-
tional Geological Map of Europe and the Mediterra-
nean Region 1:5 000 000, Bundesanstalt für
Bodenforschung, Germany, 1971)

ticular diagnostic value (e.g., Winkler 1988). Over-
supply of a narrowing basin may lead, at least in part
of the basin, to upward-shallowing sequences (cf.
Sect. 11.3.4). However, as long as oceanic crust con-
tinues to be subducted beneath the prograding
overthrust belt, distal under-supplied portions of the
basin can remain deep and may even exhibit a fining-
upward trend.
Vertically and laterally changing megafacies
mainly result from the varying efficiency and re-
peated shift of submarine canyon and fan systems
funneling sediment into the elongate basins. The di-
rections of sediment transport and megafacies distri-
bution in remnant basins and early-stage deep fore-
land basins (see below) often vary with time and
from basin to basin. This has been observed, for ex-
ample, in upper Cretaceous to early Tertiary flysch
basins of the Alps and in Miocene foredeeps of the
northern Apeninnes. The latter represent a particu-
larly instructive example (Fig. 12.33).
12.6 Remnant Basins, Flysch 609

ALPINE SOURCES (1)

MIOCENE FOREDEEP, (GNEISS, SANOST.,
APENNINES (MARNOSO- SERPENTINESCHIST) ALPINE SOURCES {21
'~ ._"': ~(AS 1, + VOLCANICSl
'~:{; ':.,."
.! . ...~ ..
j
/ C
.":".:,:'-: , " :,:,:, '

- 1-
- -:?
~~
__
'1_<%
1-- - '"
__ ...:!1.-
50 km ROME
......---1

(GRANITES, SANOST., '

SERPENTINESCHIST)

APENNINIC SOURCES (3) /

I
(GRANITE, SANOST., GNEISS,
SIL TST. ANO ARGILLlTE)

b CONTESSA KEY BEO

LONGITUDINAL SECTION
OF N APENNINIC FOREDEEP

BASIN PLAIN
z CONTESSA KEY BEO
«
:::i
...J
«
>
«
CI:
CI:
w
Cf)

SKELETAL SANOY
TURBIOITES

SLUMP OEP r0.5 km

Fig. 12.33. Miocene flysch basins of the northern
Apennines, Italy; sediment sources and megafacies
distribution. a Map of centralltaly showing direction
of overthrusting onto Adriatic plate and pro gradation
of deep-sea fans. b Longitudinal section of foredeep,
deep-sea fans, and various types of turbidites; gen-
OUTERFAN ~
eral trend to shallowing-upward. c Provenance of fan
sediment and turbidite sands from the Alps and
Apennines. Note the occurrence of opposite transport
directions and specific key beds such as the Contessa
bed. (Modified after Ricci-Lucchi 1975; Gandolfi et
al. 1983)
610
Foredeep of the Apennines, Italy. In the Miocene
(Marnoso-arenacea Formation) of the northern Apenninic
foredeep, sedimentological and petrofacies studies, using
lithoclasts, light and heavy minerals, have allowed the
identification of the various sediment sources (Fig.
12.33b,c; Ricci-Lucchi 1975 and 1986; Gandolfi et al.
1983). The basin received sediments not only from the
northeastward advancing overthrust belt and the eastern
foreland, but also from the neighboring Alpine mountain
range to the north which had already reached high alti-
tudes. This sediment source was particularly important dur-
ing an early stage of basin evolution. Large amounts of
sediment were transported southeast along the strike of the
basin. The megafacies of the basin changes in this direction
from proximal (not exposed) to deep-sea midfan, outer fan
and basin plain sediments. Outer fan sediments interfinger
with turbidites of the basin plain and hemipelagic slope
sediments (Fig. 12.33b; cf Sect. 5.4.2). In addition, slump
deposits and olistostromes are intercalated which are de-
rived from the Apenninic thrust front. The composition of
individual turbidites also records different sediment
sources (Fig. 12.33c); sume turbidites consist of reworked
intra-basinal material. A striking feature of this basin is
axial sediment transport in both directions which indicates
the absence of a significant gradient along the basin floor.
Some spectacular beds (Contessa and Colombine key beds,
up to about 15 m in thickness) can be traced over about
100 km along the basin axis. They resulted from northward
directed catastrophic flows and contain material from sev-
eral sources, including shelf carbonate. During the subse-
quent evolution of the Appenines, the depositional basin
migrated toward the foreland to the northeast and nar-
rowed. Its shallow-marine sediments partially consist of
reworked material of the previous basin stage. The basin
became continental in the late Miocene (Messinian).
Changing transport directions in flysch basins of the
Alps have been reported, e.g. by Hesse and Butt (1976),
Ackermann (1986), and others. In addition to changing
sediment provenance, the facies evolution ofthese basins is
frequently controlled by synsedimentary tectonic basin de-
formation along the front of the overthrust belt (Home-
wood and Caron 1983; Ricci-Lucci 1990).
The transition from a deep flysch basin to a shallow-
marine or continental molasse basin in front of the
advancing thrust belt is documented by many exam-
pIes all over the world. A basin in this transitional
stage rnay show the following facies units (Sinclair
1997b):
- Carbonat deposition on the cratonic basin margin
(cf. Fig. 12.36c).
- Hemipelagic mud offshore from the cratonic rnar-
gin.
- Deep-water siliciclastic turbidites (flysch) toward
the orogenie basin margin.
With the prograding front of the thrust belt, the basin
migrates cratonward; it is filled and transfonned into
a molasse basin. The foreland basin stage is com-
monly characterized by the formation of a forebulge
which rnay cause an erosional unconformity in the
older sediment cover of the passive margin sequence
(Fig. 12.34c; see below).
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
12.6.2 Foreland Basins with Molasse
General Aspects
The late stage in the evolution of an orogenie belt,
after plate collision, is characterized by the formation
of elongate depressions on continental crust between
the contractional belt and the adjacent craton(s).
Such foreland basins can develop on both sides of
the orogenie belt. Basins evolving along the former
subduction zone in front of the fold-thrust belt are
referred to as peripheral foreland basins; subsiding
zones in the hinterland, associated with a retroarc
fold-thrust belt, are retroarc foreland basins or retro-
foreland basins (Fig. 12.34a,b). Both types of fore-
land basins are asymmetrie in cross-sections and fol-
low similar rules in their subsidence history and sedi-
mentary filling. In detail, however, foreland basins
and their facies architeeture are very complex and
vary greatly from region to region.
The classical model of fore land basin evolution, as
derived from the Alps, cannot be applied every-
where. It had to be supplemented by modified sce-
narios, including so-called "composite" foreland bas-
ins. The latter are bounded by thrust fronts on two or
more sides and therefore tend to become less asym-
metrie than the "normal" foreland basins. Examples
of composite basins include the Po basin-Adriatic
Sea and Ebro basin (Figs. 12.32c and 12.37a, see
below), some basins in the Rocky Mountains, in the
sub-Andean foredeep, and in central Asia (e.g. the
Tarim basin). After an introduction to basin-forrning
processes, we first discuss here the classical model
using peripheral fore land basins as examples.
Ancient and young fore land basins have been described
from numerous 10cations all over the world (e.g. Allen et
al. 1986; Mcqueen and Leckie 1992; Massari et al. (1993);
Dorobek et al. (1995); Van Wagoner and Bertram 1995).
General principles in the formation and filling of foreland
basins have been discussed, e.g., by Angevine et al. (1990),
Sinclair et al. (1991), Stockmal et al. (1992), Dorobek
(1995), DeCelles and Giles (1996). Ofthe many case stud-
ies, only a few can be mentioned here.
Basin-Forming Processes
The evolution of a peripheral foreland basin begins,
when the former ocean is closed and the front of the
overthrust belt has reached the stretched crust of the
pre-existing continental margin (cf. Fig. 1.3a; Fig.
12.31c). Then the active subduction zone evolves
into a collisional over-thrust belt as one continent
overrides another.
The most important processes creating subsidence
of foreland basins are the emplacement of tectonic
loads and the subsequently accumulating sediment
loads. Tectonic loads become particularly effective if
they reach high elevations above sea level. However,
12.6 Foreland Basins, Molasse 611

SEA L.

RETROARC
SUBDUCTION FORELAND B.
LOAD

C ONE CYCLE OF THRUSTING. RELAXATION. AND REBOUND

. CD LOADING
frli~!t,~,,~r!!;~i!;~'~;~ ~:~ J; ;i;ji ;:': i.:;fr:; : ~ ~ ;o,:;:T~ :z:~ ~·~;:;'i~rL;g~: ~1f:.Fr~:/:r~{0r;'~o6~ :.~,0~:~:tf::.~: : :\
CHANGE IN f,;\
SOURCE AREAS \Y RELAXATION
~ ___ ~ ........ \ SS DECR. EROSION

NEW SEDIMENT
•'
SOURCE ~.. •••• _ •• ". @ REBOUND

·1!:'fti::#~:'i i i i~iÄ.;{&;,g.fl; ~iy, ~~~ii~~~~;~l!~tt~:

d MODIFIED FORELAND BASIN MODEL
PIGGYBACK B.
. 1,..- - - - - - -\-- FORELAND BASIN SYSTEM - - - - - - - - - --
. -------OROGENIC
-+
.
WEDGE - - - \- -- ~

:»:::::::::-:-:-:-......}~\-<-- WEDGE TOP - FOREDEEP--*t., FOREBULGE{-- BACK.BULGE-

1,~,~, ; ;;~~~iiii~~;;i~ib*r;I!~g~!~it~~;ii~~!~:T~fififg~i
Fig. 12.34. a,b Two types of foreland basins, loeated
either in the foreare region (peripheral setting) or in
the baekare area (retroare setting) of a magmatie are
evolving to an oro-genie belt. Note different types of
loads eausing subsidenee. c Foreland basin evolution
during one eycle of (1) aetive over-thrusting, (2)
erustal relaxation, including uplift and migration of
forebulge toward thrust front Via (3) a stage of ± uni-
form subsidenee to (4) isostatie rebound and "anti-
peripheral bulge". The sediment sourees and an un-
conformity in the region of the fore-bulge ehange
with time. d Revised eoneept of a foreland basin sys-
tem adapted to examples where the front of the oro-
genie wedge OWF is buried under younger sedi-
ments. Note spatial differenee between OWF and
topographie front TF of the thrust belt. (a,b and d
Modified from DeCelles and Giles 1996; c based on
several sourees, e.g. Zweigel1998)
612
Airy-type loeal isostatie adjustment of the underlying
ernst is redueed by the flexural strength of the bend-
ing ernst (ef. Seet. 8.4.1). It deereases away from the
load and even ereates a zone of uplift, the peripheral
forebulge. One ean distinguish two types of end-
members deseribing these proeesses (e.g. Flemings
and Jordan 1989):
- If the overriding teetonie load inereases slowly
with time and the eontinental ernst beneath the thrnst
belt is thiek, subsidenee of the evolving foreland ba-
sin proeeeds at a low rate, the basin tends to beeome
overfilled, and the forebulge develops far away from
the load.
- In eontrast, rapidly overriding thiek teetonie loads
on thinned eontinental or transitional ernst generate
fast subsidenee in relatively narrow underfilled bas-
ins. The sediment supply from the thrust belt and its
hinterland eommonly lags behind the teetonie event
(e.g. Cant and StoekmalI993).
The deformation front of over-thrust belts rnay ad-
vanee at rates up to several tens of mmJa and eause
rapid sediment aeeumulation in the foredeep.
For the foreland of the Swiss Alps, Homewood et al.
(1986) inferred a thrust dip progagation of 7 mm1a and a
convergence rate decreasing from around 8 to 2 mm1a dur-
ing basin evolution. The foreland basin of central Switzer-
land migrated at least 210 km northwestward over the Eu-
ropean craton. Farther east, the thrust front advanced at
rates of 3 to 30 mm1a toward the northern Alpine foreland
basin in the early (Oligocene) stage (Zweigel 1998); later
the rates declined. The front of the western Alps in France
advanced 5-8 mm1a (Sinclair 1997b). In the sub-Himalayan
foredeep a rate of 20-30 mm1a was determined. In the
northern Apennines, the Neogene deformation front ad-
vanced at a rate of 2.5 to 10 mm1a; further south the
depocenters of Miocene foredeeps migrated outward at a
rate of up to 75 mm1a, and sediments accumulated as fast
as almost 1000 m1Ma (Ricci Lucchi 1986; Boccaletti et al.
1990). In the South Pyrenean foreland basin, adeformation
rate of35 mm1a is assumed (Mutti et al. 1985; Labaume et
al. 1985). Overthrusting of the Iberian ranges in the west-
ern part of the Ebro basin occurred at a mean rate of 0.7
mm1a (Munoz-Jimenez and Casas-Sainz 1997; see also
Marzo et al. 1998).
Fig. l2.34e demonstrates one eyele of flexuralload-
ing, relaxation and rebound for a c1assieal fore land
basin whieh often ereates an erosional (± angular)
uneonformity within the basin fill. Subsidenee in
front of the advaneing load first inereases. After the
load has eome to rest, subsidenee eontinues and
slows with time (viseo-elastie relaxation), while the
peripheral forebulge migrates toward the load. This
stage rnay be followed by aperiod of more or less
uniform subsidenee in wide areas of the basin. Upon
unloading, as a result of erosion, the underlying ernst
responds by rebound (uplift) whieh in turn rnay gen-
erate some subsidenee in the region of the former
peripheral bulge (sag or "anti-peripheral bulge", e.g.
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
Ettensohn 1994). This type of sag basin also migrates
toward the zone of former loading with time. Sedi-
ments derived from the thrust belt are deposited in
the basin and thus further eause subsidenee to mi-
grate outward toward the foreland.
Flexural loading and unloading may alternate sev-
eral times with the result that their effeets beeome
superimposed on eaeh other. In later stages of basin
evolution the advanee of nappes of the overthrust
belt is inereasingly hampered by the thiekening,
flexured and eratonward rising top of the underlying
eontinental ernst (Fig. 12.31d). Some eases have
been deseribed in whieh upper portions of the
underplating ernst and its shelf sediments were
seratehed off and ineorporated into the overthrust
belt (not shown in Fig. 12.31). Early molasse may be
sheared off and folded in front of the overthrust belt,
or overridden by the nappes. In this stage, the
overthrust sheets are foreed to move obliquely up-
ward and reaeh elevations high above sea level, be-
fore they finally eome to rest. This in turn promotes
subsidenee and additional flexure of the eontinental
plate and thus expansion of the basin toward the
foreland.
In addition, subsidenee of peripheral fore land bas-
ins ean be enhaneed by ongoing subduetion
(subduetion load) and, in the ease of retroare set-
tings, by a subduetion-related "dynarnie slab load"
(Fig. 12.34a,b). Crnstal shortening and overthrnsting
of an orogenie belt mayaiso be assoeiated with the
episodie aeeretion of alloehthonous terranes along
the subduetion zone, as proposed, for example, for
the Paeifie margin of the Roeky mountains of North
Ameriea (e.g. Stoekmal et al. 1992). For all these
reasons, the subsidenee his tory of foreland basins is
eomplex and diffieult to prediet.
Taiwan foreland basin and Timor-Tanimbar trough.
Some deep basins in the modern oceans evidently result
from rapid emplacement of overthrust loads, such as the
1.5 km deep western Taiwan foreland basin (Covey 1986)
and the 2-3 km deep Timor-Tanimbar trough (Audley-
Charles 1986; Harris et al. 1998). The latter basin is 10-
cated to the east ofthe Sunda-Java trench (cf. Fig. 12.23a)
where the Australian continental crust underplates the non-
volcanic island chain of the Banda arc (e.g. Charlton
1997). Collision during the middle Pliocene was followed
by crustal shortening in the foreland region which contin-
ues to the Present. It operates at rates of 6 to 12 cmla and
causes both uplift ofthe island arc (1 to 3 mm1a) and subsi-
dence of the foreland basin (l mm1a along the present axis
of the basin). The arc and forearc region seem to be af-
fected by extension and backthrusting. In an upper Quater-
nary sediment section drilled in the Timor trough, 400 m
consist of fine-grained siliciclastics and biogenic carbon-
ates. The total sediment thicknesses ofthe water-filled fore-
land basin range from 4 to 7 km.
Western Solomon Sea. This closing ocean basin is an-
other example of incipient arc collision with the Autralian
continent. The modern foredeep shows a relatively long
period of turbidite deposition followed by a short phase of
12.6 Foreland Basins, Molasse
shal~ow-marine sedimentation, and again a longer period of
fluVlal deposition (Galewsky and Silver 1997).
In contrast to the classieal model, fore land basins fre-
quently evolve in a markedly different way. In these
eases, so-ealled sate/lite foreland basins develop on
top of deeper lying thrust sheets in addition to the
main f~reland trough. The basins may be split by
progradlllg thrust sheets or earried "piggybaek" to-
ward the foreland (Fig. 12.36d,e).
Examples of such basins have been described from the
s?uthern Alpine foredeep (Po basin), the northeastern mar-
gm .of the Apennines, Italy, where young thrust sheets are
buned underneath ~he Po alluvial plain (Fig. 12.32c), and
th~ Pyrenean margm of the Ebro basin in Spain (Ori and
Fnend 1984; Massari et al. 1986· Ricci Lucchi 1986·
~occaletti. et al. .1990). ~odern, water-covered representa:
tlves of thls modlfied basm type are known from Indonesia
(retroarc ~oreland basin on the Sunda sheIt), the southwest-
ern mar~n of the Zagros fold-thrust belt (peripheral fore-
land basm beiow the eastern Persian Gult) and off the
northwestern coastline of New Zealand (DeCeIIes and
Giles (1996).
These observations have led to a revised eoneept of a
foreland basin system which ean also be used for ex-
~ples where the front of the orogenie wedge is bur-
led under younger sediments (Fig. 12.34d; DeCelles
and Giles 1996). Here, the topographieally visible
front of the thrust belt, delineating the inner bound-
ary of the basin system, lies behind the true front of
the orogenie wedge. The entire foreland basin system
ean be subdivided into four discrete depozones: the
wedge-top zone, the main foredeep, the forebulge
and the back-bulge zones.
The sediments of the wedge-top depozone aeeu-
mulate on. top of the frontal part of the orogenie
we~ge. ThlS zone rnay include speeific piggy-baek
baSlllS and thrust-top basins. It is eharacterized be
relatively eoarse-grained sediments, rnany tectonic
uneonformities, and progressive deformation. The
sediments of the foredeep depozone display the fea-
tures known from the classieal foreland basin model:
inereasing thiekness toward the front of the (buried)
thrust ?elt an~ p~oximal-distal faeies change with
~ee~easlllg .gralll-sizes. The forebulge is a zone of
hrmted sediment aceumulation or potential flexural
uplift and erosion. The back-bulge zone comprises a
further broad region of potential flexural subsidence
and sediment aeeumulation of limited thiekness.
Other variations in foreland basin evolution result
from an irregular shape of the continental margin
subjected .to collision (e.g. Lash 1988). In this case,
the tectomc load of the thrust belt is emplaeed at dif-
ferent times along strike of the basin and thus eauses
diachronous pulses of subsidenee and sediment sup-
ply.
613
Subsidence History and Basin Filling
A~ the onset of ov~rtIu:tsting the orogenie belt may
s.t11l form a submanne ndge or a ridge of low eleva-
tion above sea level and thus induce only slow subsi-
dence and provide limited amounts of sediment. The
further advance of thrust sheets into the basin results
in an. increasing rate of subsidence of the flexing
crust III front of the thrust belt (eonvex-up subsi-
dence eurves, cf. Sect. 8.4). In partieular thick thrust
sheets advancing over thinned continental crust and
reac~ing high elevations above sea level, accelerate
subsldence. Therefore, many aneient foreland basins
became fairly deep during this early stage whieh is
reflected by submarine fans and flysch-type sedi-
ments near. the rising mountain range (cf. Fig.
12.32a). In distal reaches near the bordering platform
shallow-marine (marine molasse) or fluvio-deltaic
sediments (freshwater molasse) predominate. As an
alternative, thrust sheets can also advanee over conti-
nental settings and generate thick conglomerates de-
posited as alluvial fans along the front of the moun-
tain belt .which undergoes rapid erosion (e.g. in the
Ebro baslll, see below). As long as sediment supply
eompensates for subsidence, the continental depo-
sitional environment is rnaintained. When uplift of
t~e orogenie belt is balanced by erosion, the eleva-
tion of the mountain belt and its denudation rate have
reached their maximum. Cratonward, the conglomer-
ates grade into fluvial and frequently also into lake
deposits. Shallow-water carbonates (mostly carbon-
ate ramps ~ are usually restricted to the distal margin
of the basm. In some fore land basins reefs developed
on topographie highs in more central parts and even
at proxi~l sites of the basin (Dorobek 1995).
The lllterplay between subsidence and sediment
supply (or sedimentation rates) can be best seen from
a geohistory analysis (Fig. 12.36a). This diagram
shows th~ basin evolution during one tectonic eycle
from actIve overthrusting to isostatic rebound. The
s~diments, how:ever, record two transgressive-regres-
SIV~ eyeles whleh result from two periods in which
sediment supply surpassed subsidence, i.e. the sedi-
ment accommodation space, and thus the basin be-
came overfilled.
~ort~ern Alp~ne foredeep, Germany. Fig. 12.36a is a
slmphfied version ofbasin evolution in the German part of
the northern Alpi~e foreiand basin elose to the present-day
thrust front (modlfied after Zweigel 1998). Thrusting oc-
curred between about 38 and 22 Ma and then ceased be-
cause subsequent crustal convergence was accommodated
?y lateral ex~sio~ of parts of the Eastern Alps. The strik-
mg decrease m sediment supply during the relaxation phase
w~s .probably c~used by intermittent sediment storage
wlthm the Alps m an area of deIayed uplift. Effects of sea-
level change are neglected in this diagram.
. S~b-Himalayan foredeep. This peripheral foreland ba-
sm lS a~ exampl~ of a. basin receiving very large volumes
of cIastlc matenal smce the Miocene. After an early
614 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

FACIES CHANGE IN N. ALPINE

FORELAND BASIN, MIOCENE

LA TERALl Y, WITHIN
UPPER MARINE MOLASSE

{200 m ,
LOWER FRESHW. MOLASSE 20 km .

N. ALPINE FORELAND BASIN C PROGRADING UNITS OF

LOWER FRESHW. MOLASSE

b CROSS-SECTlON, W. SWITZERLAND
ISWI1ZERLANO, WHEELER DIAGRAMI

BRACKISH SANDS / SHALLOW

AND MARlS MARINE SÄNDS
± GYPSUM FLUVIAL
\ LACUSTRINE FLUVIAL PROXIMAL
L AUSANNE WITH COAL

MESOZOIC
1 I ca. 10km ,
ökm

FLUVIAL WITH MARINE AND

RED BEDS BRACKISH SANDS
AND SHALES e LONGITUDINAL SECTION , GERMANY

d TWO MEGACYCLES, SWITZERLAND

BRACKISH WITH COAL
Ma B.P. r--------Ir---+------,qr------,

15

i
-!§~&' - , UPPER MARINE MOLASSE

20 1.3 GLAUC SANDS, SHELL

I:'-.;-:-y.,.:,~~-~TRANSGRESSION
ILOWER FRESHWATER MOLAS
BED III=:::::~~~~~~.
25
SANDY AND CONGLO·
tiSfii~ ~3.4 MERATIC ALLUV . FANS
~~:;"' -~LOWER MARINE MOLASSE
30 -i:i:= :!=:> I MARINE AND
t=::iiL:ijDS I1.5 BRACKISH SHALES
Ikm
35 I SANDY 50 km
W TURBIDITES

Fig. 12.35. a,b Temporal and lateral facies changes
in north Alpine foreland (molasse) basin, Switzer-
land and Germany. (After Homewood et al. 1986;
Zweigel 1998). c Prograding facies assoeiations of
Lower Freshwater molasse, separated by strati-
graphie gaps, Switzerland. (After Schlunegger et al.
1997a, simplified). d Simplified stratigraphie seetion
of Swiss molasse showing two major shallowing-
upward eyc1es, each of them represented by marine
and freshwater molasse. (After Matter et al. 1980).
e Longitudinal section of foreland molasse in Ba-
varia, Germany, exhibiting transition from perma-
nently marine conditions in the east to partial brack-
ish and continental environments in the west. (After
Bögli and Müller 1976)
12.6 Foreland Basins, Molasse
shallow-marine phase, the widely extended basin was filled
almost entirely with sediments of alluvial fans and fluvial
systems (Fig. 12.36e; Masele et al. 1986; Delcaillau 1986).
Subsequently, the major part ofthe incoming sediment was
transported through the foredeep and deposited in neigh-
boring basins (cf. Sect. 11.5.5; Fig. 11.31). The early fore-
land basin development (Eocene to early Miocene) of the
Hirnalayas is addressed by DeCelles et al. (1998). The evo-
lution of the frontal thrust sheets and their syntectonic ero-
sional truncation is discussed by Delcaillau and Carozza
(1993).
A discontinuous movement of the thrust sheets and
erosional unloading of the thrust front create irregu-
lar subsidence curves and migration of the forebulge.
Active overthrusting is followed by prograding
wedges of coarse-grained clastics; phases of tectonic
quiescence lead to backstepping facies belts (toward
the thrust front) and decreasing rates of subsidence
(concave-up curves) l;lnd finally uplift.
Foreland basin sediments are predominantly
clastics derived in particular from highly elevated
parts of the folded overthrust belt. A frequently ob-
served overall tendency is a shallowing-upward suc-
cession from deep-water sediments over shallow-ma-
rine and deltaic deposits to continental sediments
(Figs. 12.31a and 12.35b). In addition, coarsening-
and fining-upward megasequences may develop in
response to the discontinuous tectonic evolution of
the thrust be1t. It is, however, difficult to discriminate
between the effects of tectonism (subsidence),
changing sediment supply, and eustatic sea-Ievel
changes (cf. Sect. 7.2). The general trend in basin
filling may be modified significantly by spatial and
temporal changes in the supply (e.g. climate-induced)
and dispersal of sediment within the basin (Figs.
12.32a and 12.33c; see below). The depositional en-
vironment of many fore land basins therefore varied
several times between shallow-marine, brackish, and
continental.
Some distance away from the mountain front, the
distributary systems mainly follow the longitudinal
trend of the basin. Surplus fine-grained sediment can
be transported laterally out of the foreland basin into
adjacent ocean basins. The molasse sediments
prograde onto the foreland platform with time (Fig.
12.35c); younger beds successively overlap older,
pinching-out strata (e.g. Homewood et al. 1986). By
contrast, distal sediments onlap onto the top of the
foreland platform, e.g. shallow-water carbonates, and
display backstepping towards the craton.
Finally, isostatic adjustrnent to the continuous ero-
sion of the rising mountain range leads to exhuma-
tion of formerly deeply buried rocks and structures,
as well as to some uplift of the neighboring parts of
the foreland basin (cf. Sect. 8.4).
615
Sedimentation Rates and Sediment Composition
The average sedimentation rates in foreland basins
strongly differ between proximal (near the thrust
belt) and distal areas. Average rates at proximal sites
often range from 100 to > 1000 m1Ma. These rates
can build up thick sedimentary successions in time
spans of a few millions of years. The sediment thick-
nesses of proximal fore land basin fins often surpass
5000 m.
In the foreland basin south of the High Hirnalayas 200-500
mlMa are common (Masele et al. 1986). The spectacular
Eocene elastic wedges at the southeastern margin of the
Ebro basin, Spain, including the conglomerates of
Montserrat, were deposited at mean rates of at least 330
mlMa (Marzo et al. 1998) in a time period of about 4 Ma.
In the western Ebro basin, in the Rioja trough in front of
the Iberian overthrust belt, the mean rate was 100 mlMa
(30 Ma). In other parts of the Ebro basin, elose to the Pyre-
nees, rapid subsidence led to the accumulation of turbidite
sequences ofup to 3.5 km in thickness. The Lower Fresh-
water Molasse ofthe Swiss foreland basin was deposited at
rates from 300 to 600 m1Ma, but locally values up to
> 1000 mlMa were reached (Schlunegger et al. 1997a). Sed-
imentation rates in the Upper Cretaceous of the Western
Interior basin, USA, were in the order of 100 mlMa.
The abundance of gravel in conglomerates com-
monly points to nearby source areas of high relief
which can be well identified. However, wet tropical
climate and increased weathering rates may largely
prevent the availability of gravel-sized material.
Changes in the gravel composition indicates the
unroofing of thrust sheets of different lithologies or
discontinuous overthrusting (Fig. 12.37).
The mineralogical composition of molasse sand-
stones varies from quartz-rich, feldspar-poor types
derived from intensely weathered continental blocks
to varieties which are less quartz-rich but rich in rock
fragments (Schwab 1986). The latter types constitute
the bulk of sand in many foreland basins. Material
derived from tectonically uplifted subduction com-
plexes or magmatic arcs is found only in small quan-
tities. Systematic variations in composition through
time, related to unroofing of deeply buried rocks, are
rarely observed. However, shifts in the principal
source areas providing sediment for particular seg-
ments of a foreland basin are common. They result
from differential rock uplift and exhumation within
the mountain belt and are reflected, for example, by
the temporally and spatially changing heavy mineral
associations derived from different rock types (e.g.
Füchtbauer 1967; Zuffa 1987; Schlunegger et al.
1998; Kempf et al. 1999).
In studies on the provenance of foreland basin
sediments, one has to bear in mind that the composi-
tion of middle- and late-stage sediments can be af-
fected by the recycling of older portions of the fore-
land basin fill. These are frequently incorporated into
the thrust belt, uplifted, and subjected to erosion.
616 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

" ........ 8ASIN OVER- UNDER· I TIME : a

' , UNDERFILLED FILLED FILLED: GEOHISTORY ANALYSIS
........ . \ TC FOR ONE CYCLE FROM
ACTIVE '<.~U8SID'E
I NCE IISOSTA I
THRUSTING ",- I RELAXATION :, UPL\FT THRUSTING TO REBOUND
" (PROXIMAL SITE, N. ALPINE
... FIRST TR-CYCLE.........I,~ .~ -- SECOND TR-CYCLE - - - FORELAND 8., GERMANY)
I ..... __ 1 , . - .....
SED. SUPPLY I - - - _ _ _ _ _,_ -
• INTERMITTENT SED .
AND SED. RATE : STORAGE IN OROGEN
Mit : •• REMOBILIZED SED.

C PRE-DEPOSITIONAL OROGENie
WEDGE
INCISED VALLEYS

d PIGGY8ACK

e SUBHIMALAYAN
FOREDEEP

ERNARY PLIOCENE-QUAT . ALLUVIAL FANS PLlO-QUATERN. OF

AND FLUVIAL CONGLOM. AND SANDS KATHMANDU BASIN
(INTRA-HIMALAYAN), _ N
,.. 4 km
o

HIMALAYAN NAPPES
MIO·PLlOCENE FLUVIAL
SANDS AND PELITES (PRECAMBRIAN AND PALEOZ, ROCKS
(+ CARBONATES, MIOCENE NONMARINE
PALEOSOLS) SANDS AND SHALE ~ MBT 4 km
o

L1GO-MIOCENE CONTIN ENTAL

VOLCANICS OF FINE SANOST. AND RED BEDS.
50 km INDIAN SHIELD PALEO-EOCENE SHALLOW-
MARINE SHALES AND L1MEST.

Fig. 12.36. a Geohistory analysis for proximal site of
north Alpine foreland basin, Germany. One eycle of
thrusting and rebound causes two transgession-re-
gression (TR) eycles due to intermittent sediment
storage within the Alps. (After Zweigel 1998, simpli-
fied). b,c Ineised valleys in forebulge eaused by the
approaehing sub-Alpine chains, southeastem Franee.
Nummulitie early foredeep sediments onlap onto
subsiding foreland plate. (After Gupta 1997), simpli-
fied. d Model of foreland basin with deposition par-
tially on top of fold-thrust belt and minor basin ear-
ried piggyback on thrustsheets. Note growth faults at
front of thrust belt. (After Ori and Friend 1984; Rieci
Luechi 1986). e Evolution of Himalayan foreland
basin in two stages (J and 2) with sediment wedge of
the Siwaliks. MET main boundary thrust; ST Siwaliks
thrust. (After Mascle et al. 1986). See text for expla-
nation
12.6 Foreland Basins, Molasse 617

SW-NE CROSS-SECTION

C PROGRADA TlON-
RETROGRADATION
j
CYCLES (PR-RG!
AND
TECTO-SED IMENT ARY
UNITS (TSU) ONlAP

ANGULAR
UNCONFORMITY

ISOCHRONES ALL: FAN FLUVIAl

11 ACTIVE
THRUST BELT
e CONGLOMERATES
DOMINATED BV CYCLES
TSU CARBONATES SILICICL.

ALL. FAN
PG
FlUVIAL
RG
VARIATION IN SEDIMENT
COMPOSITION
PG
RG
INACTIVE
THRUST BELT
PG
TECTONIC
ACTIVITY

Fig. 12.37. a Composite Ebro fore land basin between
the southem Pyrenees, the Iberian range, and the
Catalan coastal ranges. (Modified after Coney et al.
1996). b Cross sections of Rioja trough, western
Ebro basin, showing onset of overthrusting from both
north and south (Paleocene) and advanced stage of
basin evolution (Miocene). c Schematic cross section
of southern part of foreland basin demonstrating lat-
eral facies change and the interplay between short
episodes of overthrusting and times of reduced tec-
tonic activity. These processes lead to either
prograding, coarsening-upward or retrograding
fining-upward sequences. Note intervals of non-de-
position and erosion as weIl as disconformities, off-
and onlap features along the basin margin. d,e Car-
toons displaying periods of siliciclastics-dominated
sediment supply (tectonicaIly quiet) alternating with
periods rich in the supply of calcareous components
(renewed tectonic activity). The presence or lack of
coarse-grained carbonate particles in vertical sections
indicates progradation-retrogradation cycles. (b-e
Modified after MUrloz-Jimtmez and Casa-Sainz
1997)
618
The cl asts of syntectonic conglomerates may exhibit either
"normal" or "reverse" vertical unroofing sequences (Co-
lombo 1994). Normal sequences begin with elasts derived
from the uppermost part of a thrust sheet, which is eroded
first, and end with clasts from later eroded deeper parts of
the overthrust mountain front. Reversed elast sequences
may form when an older, normal elast sequence is incorpo-
rated into a younger thrust sheet, uplifted and eroded.
Then, in an idealized case, the new (reversed) elast se-
quence may resemble the sequence present in the first
thrust sheet. Besides these endmember types, various mix-
tures of elasts can be produced by further recyeling of
proximal conglomerates.
The efficiency of denudation and recyeling of overthrust
fore land sediments has been demonstrated for northern Pa-
kistan (erosion rates of 1-15 mika; Burbank and Beck
1991). Uplift of proximal fans of the Siwalik Group has
caused a fundamental change in the drainage pattern and
depositional environment of this region (Pivnik and Khan
1996). Examples from the Swiss Alpine foreland have been
reported, e.g., by Schlunegger et al. (1997a).
Special Features of Foreland Basins
Some exarnples of different types of foreland basins
may further underline the above mentioned general
characteristics and, in addition, indicate special fea-
tures observed in several basins:
- Axial sediment transport andfacies change (transi-
tion from flysch to molasse). Flysch deposition in
deep remnant basins may continue into the early
stage of fore land basin filling. Although the sediment
is commonly derived from the evolving orogenie belt
and initially shed from point sources along the thrust
front directly into the basin, the transport directions
of gravity mass flows and turbidites in deeper water
often change and follow the basin axis (Fig. 12.32a).
Later, these basins often displaya coarsening- and
shallowing-upward trend, i.e. the transition from
flysch to molasse.
Axial transport and facies change rnay be even more
pronounced at the transition from fluvial-Iacustrine
to brackish and shallow marine sediments. Coal
searns of limited thickness and lateral extent are com-
mon in such transitional regimes.
Excellent examples ofaxial foredeep fillings are known
from the northern Apennines (Fig. 12.33, see above) and
the Ebro basin (Fig. 12.37a). In the latter case, turbidites
Fig. 12.38. Thrust loading and flexural subsidence in
the retro-foreland basin of the Western Interior,
USA, during the Upper Cretaceous. a Simplified
scheme describing basin formation and subsidence of
the basement surface and the foreland basin. (Modi-
fied from Leckie and Smith 1992). b Plan view of
specific subbasins and exposed Precambrian rocks
within the present-day retro-foreland basin. c Over-
view ofUpper Cretaceous stratigraphy in W-E cross-
seetion of basin (southern Wyoming). Dashed line
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
were shed along the northern basin margin in an axial,
western direction; they also inelude carbonate turbidites
derived from shelves to the north and south of the deep
basin.
Axial facies change in the molasse stage is observed, for
example, in the Swiss and German sectors ofthe North Al-
pine foreland basin in certain time intervals (Fig. 12.35a,e;
e.g., Bachrnann et al. 1987; Zweiger 1998). Another exam-
pIe is the Neuquen basin of western Argentina (Barrio
1990).
- Pre-molasse and intra-molasse paleo-valleys. The
North Alpine peripheral foreland basin, about 1200
km in length from southeastern France to Vienna,
Austria, displays a number of paleo-valleys which
were incised either prior to or during basin filling.
Principally, basal paleo-valleys are expected to de-
velop on both sides of the peripheral forebulge run-
ning either toward the mountain front or the craton
(Fig. 12.36b,c).
Pre-molasse paleo-valleys have been described from the
Swiss and French sectors of the foreland basin (Crampton
and Allen 1995; Gupta 1997). In SE France, the valleys are
located at the base of the oldest foreland basin sediments
(Fig. 12.36c). These Eocene Nurnrnulitic limestones onlap
onto the ramp, formed by tilted Jurassic limestones of the
craton, and step back (cratonward) with time (see also
Dorobek 1995). The sediment-filled paleo-valleys and
younger molasse deposits were incorporated into the young
thrust belt of the sub-Alpine chains and partially exhumed
by subsequent erosion. The valleys run into almost all di-
rections and are evidently associated with a struetural high
within the forebulge zone (Fig. 12.36e). This situation is
interpreted with reverse faults within the basement which
in turn appear to be assoeiated with convergenee of the
orogenie belt. The teetonic strueture of this region is eom-
plex and not diseussed further here.
A large intra-molasse valley incised parallel and elose to
the distal basin margin has been observed in South Ger-
many (cf. Fig. 7.28e). Its formation is aseribed to rapid sea-
level fall in the Miocene. Many examples of intra-molasse
paleo-valleys have been deseribed from the Western Inte-
rior basin ofNorth Ameriea (cf. Seet. 7.6).
- Transgression-regression megacycles. Cross-sec-
tions of the sub-Alpine molasse in Switzerland and
Germany normally show two megacycles grading
from marine deposits (Marine Molasse) into conti-
nental sediments (Freshwater Molasse; Fig.
12.35d,e).
indicates backstripped interval. d Backstripped subsi-
dence profiles across basin (for locations see b)
showing subsidcnce during two time slices. Subsi-
dence varies spatially and temporally along strike and
dip relative to the Sevier thrust beIt. This pattern is
thought to reflect variations in the nature of the un-
derlying crust and in the emplacement of thrust
loads. e Tectonic and total subsidence histories at
locations B-F, 100-150 km east of thrust belt (cf. b).
(b-e Modified from Pang and Nummedal 1995)
12.6 Foreland Basins, Molasse 619

FOLD-THRUST BELT FORE LAND BASIN FOREBULGE

LEVEL

a
REGIONAL ISOST ATIC FLEXURE
OF THE LlTHOSPHERE
SUBSIDENCE OF BASEMENT SURFACE

1\1 :fr1" }
\

11 1 ~-=-
U_lJc.l_L-FOtR-E-LA~N~D:'::B!::A""S-INs.--:W=E~STERN INrERIOR FORELAND REGION,
U .S.A. (U. CRETACEOUS)

b GENERALIZED STRATIGRAPHY IN
E·W CROSS-SECTION, 5 MONTANA
110 LARAMIDE STRUCTURAL
• ...J
z-BASIN_S C W
w MAASTR.
CD 70
I-
CI)

:::>
a: CAMP.
I
- - ' I-
80 Ma
a:
w
SANTON.
>
w CONIAC.
CI)
IV
1-90
I
I TURON.
Colorado\ _
-T"'- .""-
!---- CENOM.
RATON B.
I
300 km 3~ '

e SUBSIDENCE HISTORY AT
SPECIFIC LOCATIONS

d SUBSIDENCE IN E-W CROSS-SECTIONS

100
Ma

I-
...J
W
CD

I-
CI)

:::>
a:
I
I-
a:
w
>
w
CI)
620
North Alpine foreland. Whereas in Switzerland an early
and late main phase of overthrusting are'. assumed, north-
ward thrusting of the Eastern Alps ceased after the early
active phase in the late Eocene/early Oligocene. Here, the
second transgressive-regressive megacycle is explained by
first decreasing and thereafter again increasing sediment
supply due to intermittent storage and remobilization of
sediment within the mountain belt (Fig. 12.36a; Zweigel
1998). A greater number of tectonically controlled megacy-
cles has been reported from the long-persisting Western
Interior basin ofNorth America (see below).
- Prograding ofindividual clastic wedges (continen-
tal) fed by different sediment sourees.
Swiss molasse basin. In the Lower Freshwater Molasse of
Switzerland (-30 to 20 or 15 Ma BP) two to three separate
units were identified which prograded cratonward with
time (Fig. 12.35c) and received their sediments from differ-
ent source areas. In these, various sedimentary or crystal-
line rocks either from the internal and outer zones of the
Alps or from overthrust older Marine Molasse were ex-
posed to erosion (Schlunegger et al. 1997a, 1998; Kempf et
al. 1999). The individual sedimentary units show character-
istic transitions from proximal to distal facies. These begin
with large alluvial fans (including debris flows, coarse-
grained ribbon channel conglomerates, very thick massive
pebble-to-cobble conglomerates) followed by conglomerate
channel belts and overbank fines. The latter grade into
sands tone channel belts, wide flood plains and lacustrine
sediments of cratonward decreasing thicknesses. The main
units are separated by surfaces of erosion or non-deposition
which may partially result from lateral switching of the
depositional systems. Diachronous facies boundaries and a
significant sequence boundary (hiatus) have also been
found in the younger Upper Marine Molasse Group of this
area (Schlunegger et al. 1997b).
- Proximal uncoriformities, change in gravel compo-
sition, tecto-sedimentary units. This topic was ad-
dressed in the western part (Rioja trough) ofthe Ebro
basin which is a composite foreland basin in northern
Spain, surrounded on all sides by overthrust belts of
mountain ranges (Fig. 12.37a; e.g. Marzo et al.
1998).
Rioja trough, Ebro basin. In the Triassic, the Variscan
basement of the basin formed a topographical high and was
covered by continental deposits followed by Jurassic to
early Tertiary shallow-marine sediments (Fig. 12.37b).
Overthrusting of the southern Pyrenees from the north and
the Iberian ranges from the south started in the Paleocene.
From then on the rapidly subsiding basin was filled along
its margins mainly by alluvial fans and in its central part by
fluvial and lake sediments. The Eocene to Miocene sedi-
ments reach thicknesses between 2500 and 5000 m. In the
Miocene, the approaching overthrust fronts had narrowed
the Rioja trough to a small fraction of its original width.
Intraplate thrusts contributed to this shortening. As a result,
the Tertiary strata are folded and thrust near the basin mar-
gin.
Cross sections at the southern margin of this basin dem-
onstrate not only the common transition from proximal to
distal facies, but also the interplay between short episodes
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
of overthrusting and times ofreduced tectonic activity (Fig.
12.37c,d; Munoz-Jimenez and Casas-Sainz 1997). Active
overthrusting created prograding and coarsening-upward
facies associations with high sedimentation rates; periods
of low tectonic activity caused retrograding (backstepping)
fining-upward associations with reduced sedimentation
rates. The transitions from fining- to coarsening-upward
trends record the minima of sediment supply and vice
versa. At the basin margin, fining-upward is associated
with onlap, coarsening-upward with offlap structures. Re-
newed overthrusting of carbonate rocks is partially re-
corded by high contents of calcareous gravel in the proxi-
mal alluvial fans (Fig. 12.37e), whereas siliciclastic compo-
nents predominate in the low-activity intervals. The
progradation-retrogradation cycles are linked to angular
unconformities along the basin margin and therefore inter-
preted as being entirely tectonic in origin (tectono-sedi-
mentary units). These can also be identified by breaks in
the vertical sediment buildup toward the basin center.
- Segmentation of foreland basins into subbasins,
intra-plate thrusts, and growth faults. These phenom-
ena are introduced by some further examples.
Western Interior seaway, North America. The huge,
along strike about 5000 km long retro-foreland basin east
of the Rocky Mountains (Fig. 12.38a,b) is an outstanding
example of basin segmentation. The basin was flooded
from the Aptian to the late Cretaceous and formed a broad
seaway, connecting the proto-Gulf of Mexico and the
Circum-Boreal seaway for nearly 35 Ma (e.g. Molenaar
and Rice 1988).
The simplified scheme of Figure 12.38a, describing the
formation of this retro-foreland basin by the successive
emplacement of thrust sheets, can be regarded only as a
first approximation. In reality, the basin evolved in a very
heterogeneous way. Within the large basin, a number of
smaller subbasins formed which display marked differences
in their subsidence histories and sediment accumulation
(up to about 6000 m in thickness). The upper Cretaceous
development of this region is shown in several profiles
across the basin (Fig. 12.38d,e).
The segmentation of the basin (Fig. 12.38b) probably
results from heterogeneities in the basement inherited from
Precambrian rifting (Pang and Nummedal 1995). The dif-
ferences in the amounts and time periods of maximum sub-
sidence (Fig. 12.38d) are caused by different degrees of
crustal shortening along strike. The sedimentary facies in
the basin include fluvial and deltaic sediments, coal seams,
coastal barrier sandstones, offshore siltstones and shales,
shelf sandstones and limestones, black shales, and even
some turbidites.
A special feature of this basin is its wide eastward exten-
sion onto the stable craton beyond the forebulge zone. This
is ascribed to regional epeirogenetic subsidence, the heavy,
thrust belt-derived sediment load deposited farther to the
east, as well as to the unusually high eustatic sea level dur-
ing the middle Cretaceous.
The basin experienced five to six major tectonically con-
trolled transgressive-regressive cycles, as mentioned above,
and numerous shorter, partially sea-level controlled cycles
(e.g. Van Wagoner and Bertram 1995; Gardner 1995; cf.
Sect. 7.2). The major cycles are characterized by clastic
wedges, separated by erosional unconformities of different
duration (e.g. Leckie and Smith 1992). A stratigraphic
12.6 Foreland Basins, Molasse
overview of cross-sections indicates the repeated basinward
prograding of nonmarine and coastal sand facies during
relative sea-levellowstands while carbonates or calcareous
shales accumulated in more distal regions during times of
high relative sea level (Fig. 12.38c). The facies architecture
differed, however, from subbasin to subbasin due to varia-
tions in accommodation space and sediment supply. The
depocenters tended to migrate southward.
During the Upper Cretaceous relatively thin strandplain
sands prograded rapidly cratonward during times of slow
subsidence whereas thick shales accumulated in periods of
rapid subsidence (Plint et al. 1993). Coastal plain strata,
thickening toward the thrust front, were deposited during
initial downwarping of a near-horizontal strandplain prior
to marine transgression. Uplift and migration of the
forebulge seems to have lagged 0.25-0.5 Ma behind the
onset of (repeated) tectonic loading which was responsible
for the long-term transgression-regression cycles. Erosional
unconformities on top of the forebulge are covered locally
by oolitic ironstone indicating shallow-marine sediment-
starved conditions.
South Pyreneen foreland basin, Spain. The overthrust
northem part of the early Ebro basin was segmented by
12.6.3 Summary (Remnant and Foreland Basins)
Remnant basins are narrowing oeean basins
shortly before c1osure. They eolleet sediments
(mainly turbidites) from the neighboring mag-
matie are, from the approaehing passive conti-
nental margin, and from their underlying oeea-
nie erust.
Foreland basins evolve either in the former fo-
reare region (peripheral settings) or in the bak-
kare region (retroare settings). Their differential
subsidenee is eontrolled mainly by the loads of
the advaneing overthrust belt and the inereasing
sediment mass in the basin.
The overthrust belt of peripheral fore land ba-
sins does not always form a topographieally
high mountain front (c1assieal model), but ean
also advanee into areas of low elevation and
beeome synteetonieally buried (wedge-top sa-
tellite basins, modified foreland basin system).
Phases of aetive overthrusting are aeeompanied
by inereasing rates of subsidenee and sediment
supply; after this phase, subsidenee eontinues at
deereasing rates due to relaxation of the flexed
erust; finally, erosional unloading eauses iso-
statie rebound (uplift).
The geometry and facies assoeiations of eraton-
ward prograding and thinning elastie wedges
are eontrolled by both stepwise overthrusting
621
synsedimentary structural highs transverse to the basin
axis. These structures created several subbasins of complex
morphology and sediment dispersal systems which have
been recently studied in some detail (e.g. Marzo et al.
1998).
Intraplate thrusts (mostly reverse faults) develop in
many foreland basins either during or after sediment
filling. They affeet, in contrast to the eommon "shal-
low" thrust faults, the underlaying eontinental erust
and contribute to erustal shortening (cf. Figs. l2.37b,
western Ebro basin, and Fig. l2.36e, southeastern
Franee). They normally run ± parallel to the axis of
the basin. In eertain eases they may eause basin seg-
mentation.
Growth faults and growth strata in foreland basins
develop in sediments at the front of migrating thrust
sheets (Figs. 12.34d and 12.36d; e.g. Verges et al.
1996). They reeord both the time intervals and
amounts of aetive thrusting.
and the migration of the distal forebulge. Va-
riations in sediment supply mayaiso be eon-
trolled by processes within the orogen. This
ean lead to overfilling or underfilling out-of-
phase in relation to the aetivity of the thrust
front.
- For these reasons, the general trend in the fil-
ling of foreland basins from deep marine to
eontinental and from proximal eoarse- to distal
fine-grained sediments is frequently modified.
- Laterally shifting sediment wedges are separa-
ted by diaehronous surfaees, stratigraphie bre-
aks, and partially by angular uneonformities.
Axial sediment transport generates lateral fa-
eies ehanges (e.g. from eoarse-grained alluvial
fans to fine-grained lake deposits, or from eon-
tinental to shallow-marine sediments).
- Distal foreland basin sediments are eharaeteri-
zed by onlap onto older basement rocks, flood-
plain, laeustrine and shallow-marine sediments
(often carbonates) of limited thiekness whieh
may rceord eustatie sea-Ieve1 ehanges.
- Foreland basin fills rieh in marine sediments,
inc1uding blaek shales, are interesting targets
in hydroearbon exploration (e.g. Van Wagoner
and Bertram 1995).
622
12.7 Collision-Related Basins
12.7.1 General Characteristics
12.7.2 Intramontane basins
12.7.3 Basins Resulting from Continental Extrusion
12.7.4 Pannonian-Type Basins
General Aspects
The Pannonian basin
Structural Evolution
Sediment Successions
The Aegean Sea
12.7.5 Summary (Collision-Related Basins)
12.7.1 General Characteristics
Continental eollision ereates several types of basins
whieh may be relative1y eomplex and variable. The
most important types have been mentioned in Seet.
1.2 (cf. Fig. 1.3). Theyare:
- Foreland basins (cf. Seet. 12.6.2).
- Intramontane basins.
- Basins resulting from eontinental extrusion.
- Pannonian-type basins.
A c1ear separation of these groups is not possible
beeause all of them are related to eontinental eolli-
sion. Furthermore, there are transitions from these
groups to retroare basins and pull-apart basins. Con-
tinental eseape (or extrusion) ean lead to both
transpression and transtension (cf. Seet. 12.8) and
thus to pull-apart or wreneh basins as well as rift bas-
ins.
12.7.2 Intramontane basins
These basins oeeur in all orogenie fold and thrust
belts and mark a late stage in mountain building. The
basins primarily evolve by extension as narrow
troughs within and behind thrust belts on top of the
overriding plate. Some basins develop on the top of
overthust belts (wedge top basins, piggy-baek basins;
cf. Fig. l2.34d and Seet. 12.6.2). Most of these
graben-like struetures run parallel to the strike of the
orogenie belt, others develop as grabens oblique or
normal to strike due to orogenie eollapse and eonti-
nental eseape. Many of these basins are also affeeted
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
by syn- and post-depositional eompression, over-
thrusting, and strike-slip.
The sedimentary fills of intramontane basins ean
be coastal to shallow-marine in an early phase when
the sea intrudes along the topographie depressions.
Then the marine sediments tend to pass upward into
fluvial and alluvial deposits. More frequently, the
entire basin fills are non-marine and may reeord an
extensional (basin opening) phase by a fining-up-
ward megasequenee, followed by a eoarsening-up-
ward megasequenee assoeiated with a eompressional
phase and partial basin c1osing. High-relief sediment
sources nearby ean deliver large amounts of grave1-
and sand-size material and thus rapidly fill the bas-
ins. In some basins, eoal seams are present whieh
formed during times of temperate wet c1imate and
redueed sediment supply. Various voleanie rocks and
voleanielasties eontribute to the sediment fills of
these basins.
Intramontane basins have been deseribed, e.g.,
from the Alps, the Himalayas, the Andes, and other
Alpidie and older mountain belts. In the following,
some young examples from South Ameriea and
Permo-Carboniferous representatives of the Euro-
pean Varisean belt are introdueed.
Andes of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Intramontane bas-
ins have evolved between the Eastern and Western Cordil-
lera, in the so-called inter-Andean Valley, High Plateau or
Altiplano (Marocco et al. 1995). These basins were initi-
ated by the reactivated Andean tectonism in the late
Oligocene and reflect a change in the overall stress fie1d
from NNE-SSW (causing transtension) to E-W (compres-
sion, synsedimentary deformation, reverse faulting and
uplift, Fig. 12.39c). This is indicated by fining- and
coarsening-upwan.l megasequences and the occurrence of
unconformities. Volcaniclastics playa major part in the
basin fillings, but lacustrine deposits mayaiso be present.
Oligocene to Miocene wedge-top basins of the Eastern
Cordillera in southern Bolivia have been described by Hor-
ton (1998). Backthrusting, fault propagation and folds iso-
lated individual basins, which originally developed above
the toe of the orogenie wedge (Fig. 12.39d,e). Now, the
basins are located far west of the active thrust front.
Some present-day lake basins, such as the large Lake
Titicaca in Peru/Bolivia and the sediment-filled and
fluvially dissected Lauca basin of northern Chile (Kött et
al. 1995; Gaupp et al. 1999) belong to this basin type.
Lauca basin, Chile. This is a half-graben and contains a
Miocene-Pliocene section which records several extra- and
intra-basinal volcanic events and climate changes from less
arid to markedly arid conditions. The alluvial-fluvial-Iacus-
12.7 Intramontane Basins 623

WEDGE-TOP INTRAMONTANE BASINS,

S. BOLIVIA

d
C
_ VOLCANIC
SUB-ANDEAN FOLD-
AND-THRUST BELT,
S. BOLIVIA W E
CORDILLERA ORIENTAL INTER-ANDEAN z. SUB-ANDEAN RANGES

PAECAMBAIAN
TO ORDOVICIAN

Fig. 12.39. a Sketch map of the Variscan structural
belts and massifs with some Permo-Craboniferous
intramontane basins and Tertiary rift basins in central
Europe. The young rift basins result either from E-W
directed or NW-SE directed extension associated
with the differing plate motions of Europe and Africa
and the opening of the northwestem Mediterranean
Sea. Note the location of the polyphase South-East
basin in southem France. (Based on Franke et al.
1995; Hippolyte et al. 1993; Schäfer and Korsch
1998). b Cartoon displaying major tectonic and
sedimentological features of the intramontane Saar-
Nahe basin (see a) during the lower Permian
(Rotliegend); younger post-rift basin fill is not
shown. The basin represents a half-graben on top of
a southward dipping detachment zone. It was later
affected by dextral strike-slip and some compression
(Saarbrücken anticline). (Based mainly on Henk
1993; Schäfer and Korsch 1998; Stollhofen 1998).
c Structure of the Eastem Andes and the sub-Andean
thrust-and-fold belt in southem Bolivia. (Interpreta-
tion by Kley 1996). d,e Evolution of "wedge-top"
intramontane basins of the inter-Andean zone (see c)
caused by (1) backthrusting (d) and (2) east-vergent
thin-skinned thrusting (e) causing convergence and
uplift. Note syntectonic deformation and growth
faults in Neogene sediments. (After Horton 1998,
modified)
624
rine sediments of this basin include red beds and show a
surprisingly slow sedimentation rate.
Saar-Nahe basin, southwestern Germany and northeast-
ern France (Fig. 12.39a). This is one of the largest (about
150 km long and 40 km wide) intramontane basins of the
European Variscan orogen (see overview by Franke et al.
1995; Schönenberg und Neugebauer 1997) and it may rep-
resent many other basins of this type and age. It is located
at the transform boundary between the Rheno-Hercynian
zone in the north and the Mid-German Crystalline High in
the south and contains Permo-Carboniferous non-marine,
coal-bearing strata (Fig. 12.39b). The partially exhumed
basin fill is weIl explored; its structure is stilI a matter of
debate (Henk 1993; Schäfer and Korsch 1998; Stollhofen
1998). The basin displays several major tectono-sedimen-
tary units: a late orogenic transpressive proto-rift phase, a
non-volcanic and volcanic syn-rift phase with 35% exten-
sion (?, probably caused by gravitational orogenic collapse)
and rapid subsidence since the Westphalian, and a post-rift
phase with decreasing subsidence. The half-graben basin
probably developed on a southward-dipping detachment
zone. The cumulative sediment thickness reaches up to 10
km, but in fact it does not exceed a maximum of 6.5 km at
one locality because the depocenter migrated from south-
west to northeast. Later, the basin fill experienced some
compression and was slightly folded.
The so-called proto-rift phase contains the deposits of
meandering rivers, lakes, and limnic tropical coal
(Westphalian) which has been mined for many years. In the
Stephanian, the sediments reflect subtropical conditions
and coal formation declined. In the Permian (Rotliegend),
arid conditions led to the development of playas, alluvial
fans, braided rivers and eolian dunes. The main sediment
transport directions changed two times during this evolu-
tion, i.e. from southwest to northeast and back to south-
west. The syn-rift phases were characterized by synsedi-
mentary tectonic activity creating longitudinal normal
faults and numerous transtensional transfer faults running
perpendicular to the basin trend. These structures and ex-
tensive intrusive and extrusive magrnatism (including
pyroclastic flows, ash falls, and the formation of acidic
domes) generated topographic barriers and dams acting as
boundaries between small subbasins. The locally enhanced
relief initiated intrabasinal erosion, mass flow deposits and
sediment redeposition; small depressions were rapidly
filled with siliciclastic and/or volcaniclastic sediments, ba-
saltic lavas, or they were occupied by lakes. Rivers ad-
justed their courses to the changing topography; spatially
restricted areas became sediment-starved and could accu-
mulate peat and biogenic limestones.
Grand Sillon Houiller, France. Another striking
intramontane structure of the Variscan massifs in Europe is
Fig. 12.40. a Lateral extrusion of Indoehina and for-
mation of major basins in South China and Indoehina
as a result of India-Asia collision in the Himalayas.
Note offset of Mesozoie eontinental basins with red
beds along Red River fault; other features such as the
offset of metamorphic rocks and the uplift of older
granitie belts are not shown. (Compiled from Leloup
et al. 1995; Laeassin et al. 1997). b,c Cartoon and
main structures of lateral extrusion in the Eastem
Alps and assoeiated basin formation. (After
Ratschbacher et al. 1991; Frisch et al. 1998, simpli-
fied). d Oblique eollision of the North Ameriean and
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
the so-called coal channel in the Massif Central. It cuts the
total massif from south to north at a length of 300 km and
continues below the sediments of the Paris basin (Fig.
12.39a). Along this line, caused by sinistral strike-slip mo-
tion (~70 km displacement) and some extension, several
narrow coal-bearing basins evolved in the upper Carbonif-
erous and collected additional sediments in the Permian
and Triassic. The sediments of these basins also experi-
enced later deformation and segmentation. The Aumance
basin in the northern part of this structure accumulated
fluvial and lacustrine sediments of Stephanian to Autunian
age (Courel et al. 1998), separated by an angular
disconformity. The Permian coal seams are concentrated
along the eastern part of the basin which received less
clastic material than the western side where fluvial deposits
alternate with mass flow deposits indicating ongoing tec-
tonic activity (extension and basin-internal fragrnentation).
The coal seams are overlain by lacustrine black shales and
later by continental strata containing dolomitic and reddish
beds.
12.7.3 Basins Resulting from Continental
Extrusion
Continental or tectonic extrusion (escape) as a result
of plate eollision has been reeently observed within
and adjaeent to several large orogenie belts. The
most spectular example is the extrusion of Indoehina
caused by the indentation of the Indian plate into
Asia in the Himalayas. Part of the shortening of the
eolliding eontinental erust was transformed into lat-
eral extrusion of neighboring erustal fragments. This
proeess led to several long-extended strike-slip
zones, e.g. the Red River shear zone along the north-
em boundary of Indoehina, ~ 1000 km long with
~ 700 km sinistral displacement. Other examples in-
clude the Eastem Alps, the northem Hungarian plain,
Turkey and the Aegean Sea (see below), the Carib-
bean Sea and the Bismarek Sea in the southwestem
Paeifie (Mann 1997).
A phenomenon related to continental extrusion is
the formation of transfer zones in regions where
erusts of irregular shape, thiekness and density eol-
lide. This leads to ehanges in the angle of down-
bending of the lower plate and a segmentation of the
eollision zone and adjaeent basins. Examples have
been deseribed from the central Mediterranean (Sie-
Caribbean plates, westward direeted eontinental ex-
•
trusion, and formation of the Cayman trough and
Yueatan trough (post-middle Mioeene stage). (After
Gordon et al. 1997, modified). e Neogene extension
and graben formation in the Aegean Sea eaused by
northward subduetion of the Afriean plate and west-
ward eseape of Turkey along the North Anatolian
trans form fault. In the northemmost part of the
Aegean Sea and in Greeee, a southwestward dipping
detachment fault exists whieh has initiated small
halfgrabens. (Based on Dinter and Royden 1993;
Cohen et al. 1995, simplified)
12.7 Basins Resulting from Continental Extrusion 625

a TIBET
UAN F. b
FORELAND
\

S. CHINA
TAUERN WINDOW
C
TERTIARY BASINS IN THE t 40% SHORTENING
EASTERN ALPS RELATED TO
LA TER~~:::~XTRU~I:.:9.
.; ~'~"";;,;;
:: ;,;.;.r;i""r~___

STYRIAN
BASIN

MEKONG B.

(77:::t MESOZOIC .:::::'

~ RED BASINS
immmii\""
W . NATUNA B.
500 km
- - 50% STRETCHING ~

d + + + + ~ LATERAL EXTRUSION AND BASIN

. + + + + .. FORMATION IN THE CARIBBEAN
+ + + + + + + + + + +
N. AMERICA PLATE + + + ..
. .. . . .' YUCATAN B.

+ + + NEOGENE EXTENSION
:+++++++ +
+ + + + + + + + AND GRABEN FORMATION
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
. +++++ .. . . ~ ++
IN THE AEGEAN SEA ~
+ . + . + + + + S. AMERICA PLATE + +
626
ily, Malta, Tunisia) and the eastern Mediterranean
(the Hellenic and Cyprian arc; Reuther et al. 1993).
In the context of this book, the sedimentary basins
resulting from continental extrusion are of primary
interest. Here, a few examples are briefly described.
Southwestern China and Indochina. These basins inc1ude
the Malay basin, the Gulf of Thailand basins, the Mekong
delta basins, and a number of smaller grabens and half-
grabens (Fig. 12.40a; e.g. Tapponier and Molnar 1977;
Leloup et al. 1995; Laeassin et al. 1997). Most ofthe thiek
infillings of these basins (eommonly several km up to > I 0
km) eonsist of non-marine sediments. The basins loeated
below the Gulf of Thailand and in the area of the Mekong
delta have also aeeumulated young marine sediments.
Eastern Alps. Several intra-Alpine small eiongate bas-
ins resulted from eontinental extrusion (Fig. 12.40b,e;
Ratschbacher et al. 1991; Frisch et al. 1998). In earlier
publieations (e.g. Tollmann 1985), these basins are referred
to as intramontane basins. Their infillings largely eorre-
spond with those of intramontane basins (see above). The
Klagenfurt basin at the southern boundary of the extruded
ernstal wedge asymmetrie in cross seetion, strongly sheared
and overthrust from the south (Nemes et al. 1997). The
Styrian basin and the Pannonian basin in Hungary are also
affeeted by eontinental extrusion (cf. Seet. 7.4).
Cayman trough, Caribbean Sea. The 1100 km long
Cayman trough and the smaller Yueatan trough in the Ca-
ribbean Sea are puH-apart basins whieh developed in
transtensional strike-slip zones within oeeanie ernst in as-
soeiation with plate eollision (Fig. 12.40d, cf. Seet. 12.8.3).
These transform zones originated from oblique eollision
between the Caribbean plate with the island are of the
Greater AntilIes (inc1uding Cuba) and the North Ameriean
plate in the eariy Eoeene. The Caribbean plate first moved
northward, but after eollision with Florida and the Bahama
platform, it was foreed to rotate cloekwise and to move
eastward towards the "free spaee" of the Atlantie oeean.
Here the subduetion zone of the Lesser AntilIes led to the
eonsumption of Atlantie oeeanie erust, whereas erustal
slivers of the Carribbean plate to the north of the Cayman
trough were extruded to the west (see Gordon et al. 1997;
Mann 1997).
12.7.4 Pannonian-Type Basins
General Aspects
Relatively large, intramontane basins related to adja-
cent collision belts and subduction zones have been
referred to as Pannonian-type basins (cf. Sect. 1.2).
Such basins are underlain by thinned continental
crost, and they may originate from former retroarc
basins which have experienced extension behind
fold-thrust belts rnigrating away from the basin to-
wards the foreland. This mechanism has been de-
scribed as subduction rollback (Royden 1993).
Several authors have shed some doubt on the use-
fulness of the Pannonian basin as a model basin for
the interpretation of other intramontane basins. In
fact, the structural history of such basins, including
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
the Pannonian basin, is complex and still a matter of
debate. Recently, the impact of continental escape
(see above), caused by continental collision in nearby
orogenic belts, has been pointed out as an important
factor in modifying the structure and evolution of
such basins.
Pannonian-type basins should more accurately be
addressed as "basin systems" because they consist of
several smaller individual basins separated by rela-
tively shallow basement blocks. This structural pat-
tern results from the combined retroarc and escape
tectonic setting. The diachronous development of the
subbasins originates from two processes:
- Subsidence of subbasins located near the thrust belt
begins earlier and at a more rapid rate than that in the
central part of the entire basin system. Hence, the
subbasins adjacent to the surrounding mountain belts
contain thick, fault-bounded sediments which were
deposited during the extensional phase (syn-exten-
sional sediment~). They are covered by thin post-
extensional strata (cf. Fig. 12.41e,f).
- In contrast, subbasins located far from the thrust
belt in more central parts of the basin exhibit only
thin fault-bounded syn-extensional sequences which
in turn are overlain by thick, flat lying, unfaulted
post-extensional sediments. Post-extensional subsi-
dence is enabled by both crustal cooling and wrench
faulting.
The tectonic processes may be accompanied by
calcalkaline and alkali basaltic volcanism. The high-
est nearby mountain ranges act as principal sediment
sources, but major rivers draining large areas outside
the basin (such as the early Danube River in central
Europe) mayaiso playa significant role. The basins
and their smaller subbasins are successively filled
with sediments delivered by these rivers. A general
trend in basin filling is:
- During an early stage. Continental sediments or
marine transgressive beds followed by shallow-ma-
rine shales and marls with sandy intercalations.
- Intermediate stage. Relatively deep-marine sedi-
ments in the subbasins, resulting from rapid subsi-
dence and insufficient sediment buildup to keep pace
with subsidence.
- Later stages. The basins shallow and may pass to
brackish, lacustrine, and finally fluvial environments.
The Pannonian basin
Structural Evolution
The prototype of these basins is the Pannonian basin
of Hungary and its neighboring countries. It lies
within the Alpine mountain belts of east-central Eu-
 -1::, : :
12.7 Pannonian-Type Basins 627

INTERVAL ! 200 km ,
1· 2
> 30DOm
2-3
SEDIMENT
3-4
>4
km

50 km

c d EUROPEAN

---
SE IV 15 Ma B.P, FORE LAND
GHP EAST CARP.
TS
. :~ " ... ._S!'~

km

4
PRE·NEOGENE Ma
BASEMENT '" 10 Ma B.P.
(INCLUDING INACTIVE ALPINE NAPPES) (AFTER EXTENSION)
GHP A TS

9
l' :.:":"" ....,.',.-.. DELTA PLAIN FACIES
FLUVIAL TO LACUSTRINE
~ ,',.', -: -: ,': :.: ,',
SILTY CLAYS, MARLS, MARSH,
AND SANDS, LOCALLY
:.:.: .......: .... :.. LIGNITE AND PALEOSOLS

DELTA FRONT FACIES

e MIGRATION OF EXTENSION
AND SUBSIDENCE
SAND, SILTS, AND MARLS,
INClINED AND DEFORMED BEDS
S OR W <: NORE

PRODELTA FACIES,MARINE
o SANDS AND MARLS
~
~ SLUMPS AND TURBIDITES
a..
::J
DEEP BASIN FACIES,MARINE
SHALES AND MARLS + TURBIDITES
I PARTIALLY EUXINIC
I
I
I BASAL FACIES, SHALLOW-MARINE
\V OR CONTINENTAL

Fig. 12.41. a Pannonian basin system within the Al-
pine belts of central-eastem Europe, Hatched areas
indicate smaller basins with Neogene to Quatemary
sediment thicknesses ~ 3000 m. DA Danube basin; Z
Zala b.; DR Drava b.; S Sava b.; TC Transcarpathian
b.; TS Transsylvanian b.; M Mako, and B Bekes de-
pressions; GHP Great Hungarian Plain; HCM Hun-
garian Central Mountains; P.AL Peri-Adriatic Line.
b,c Simplified plan view and cross section of Vienna
pull-apart basin. (In reality the structure and sedi-
mentary fill of the basin is more complex; Wessely
1988.) d Migration towards to the fore land and
steepening of East Carpathian subduction zone
causes extension of Pannonian plate fragment and
formation of a number of small basins. e Simplified
scheme demonstrating migration of specific zones of
subsidence and basin fill away from thrust belt.
eIdealized succession of sedimentary facies in spe-
cial basins of the Pannonian system. (After Royden
et al. 1982; Mattick et al. 1988; Royden 1988)
628
rope (Fig. 12.41a) and is relatively young. Its evolu-
tion is affected by continental escape in the eastern
Alps, caused by the indentation of the Adriatic
microplate into the European plate in the Neogene,
and the collision of several smaller plates farther east
with the European plate. The Pannonian basin is cur-
rendy interpreted by most authors as a retroarc
transtensional "successor" basin showing features of
both extension and lateral displacement (cf. Sect.
12.8). It also experienced periods of compression and
large-sca1e bending causing zones of uplift and sub-
sidence and thus changing thicknesses of Pliocene
and Quaternary sediments. At the east-west directed
mid-Hungarian line, the Pannonian basin is separated
along a north-dipping detachment fault into a north-
ern and southern crustal block. Here, both normal
and reverse faulting (inversion) was observed in seis-
mic lines (not shown in Fig. 12.41).
From east to west the basin is about 800 km long and from
north to south 400 km wide. The Pannonian region was
deformed during the final stage of thrusting and folding in
the outer part of the Carpathians and Dinarides. Thrusting
was directed outward from the Pannonian basin toward the
European platform and the Adriatic region. Extension of
the Pannonian plate fragment occurred along a conjugate
system of faults and was accompanied by plate rotation and
strike-slip (Fig. 12.41a). Size and shape of the resulting
special troughs including pull-apart basins (cf. Sect. 12.8)
vary considerably, but their long axes more or less follow
the directions ofthe dominant fault system.
Earlier studies in the Pannonian basin have been sum-
marized by Royden and Horväth (1988). The brief descrip-
tion of the basin mainly follows this comprehensive work.
More specific topics have been dealt with by Burchfiel and
Royden (1988), Mattick et al. 1988; Nikolaevet al. (1989),
Csat6 (1993). New results and interpretations about the
evolution ofthe Pannonian basin have been presented, e.g.,
by Horvath (1993), Tari et al. (1993), Mann (1997), Tari
and Pamic 1998, Csontos and Nagymarosy (1998), and
Bada et al. (1999).
Sediment Successions
The subbasins of the Pannonian system were succes-
sively filled from north or east to south and south-
west. Paleogene sediments occur only in limited
areas. The northemmost subbasins near the mountain
belt (Vienna and Transcarpathian basins, Fig.
12.41a,b) subsided and were mainly filled in the
early to middle Miocene, i.e., prior to the basins far-
ther south (Danube, Zala, Drava, Mako and Bekes
basins) where rapid subsidence began in the middle
Miocene. Neogene sediments also overlie the internal
Mesozoic thrust sheets of the surrounding mountain
belts, for example below the Vienna basin.
A general trend in basin filling is caused by the
migration of extension and subsidence is indicated in
Fig. 12.41e,t). Generally, the basins display shallow-
ing-upward sediment successions (Fig. 12.41g). The
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
Neogene-Quatemary sediments exceed 7 km in thick-
ness in some subbasins. The subduction-re1ated de-
formation of the Pannonian basin was accompanied
by Miocene ca1calkaline vo1canism and younger al-
kali basalts. Their material contributed to the filling
of the basins.
Commonly, Neogene continental or transgressive marine
sediments are overlain by shallow-marine shales and marls
with sandy intercalations. During the early, marine deep-
water stage of the basins, predominantly marly, hemipe-
lagic sediments with turbidites and submarine fans includ-
ing gravity mass flows were deposited. The depths of the
troughs may have been in the order of 1000 m; stagnant
water conditions occurred in several basins. Variable facies
and thicknesses of the sediments as weil as unconformities
are common, due to synsedimentary faulting, uplift and
tilting of individual blocks.
As subsidence slowed, the basins were filled by prodelta
and delta front sediments. In the middle to late Mio-
cenelPliocene, a large, relatively deep freshwater lake ex-
isted. This accumulated up to 2000 m of Pliocene sedi-
ments in the southem basin. The final stages were charac-
terized by delta plains, brackish and freshwater lakes, and
fluvial deposits ofthe evolving Dantibe River and its tribu-
taries.
The tectonically induced complications in the basin fills
are also known from the Vienna basin (Fig. 12.41b,c). This
hosts a significant oil and gas field and has therefore been
thoroughly explored by numerous drill holes during the last
60 years (Wessely 1988, cf. Sect. 12.8).
The Aegean Sea
Pannonian-type intramontane backarc basins which
are deformed by continuing mountain building pro-
ces ses and continental escape are also found in other
regions. The Aegean Sea behind the Hellenie arc in
the eastern Mediterranean may be regarded as a mod-
em example of such a basin which is still inundated
by the Sea (Fig. 12.40e).
This area is underlain by thinned continental crust and sub-
jected to rapid extension (2-6 crnla during the last 70
years). Recent measurements by means ofthe Global Posi-
tioning System (GPS) have yielded a N-S extension rate of
3 crnla. In total, the crust appears to have extended in the
order of 100%, and the basin started to subside in the Mio-
cene. Turkey, i.e. the Anatolian platt: south of the North
Anatolian transform fault, moves westward towards the
Aegean Sea at a rate of 3 crnla. As a result of these plate
motions, the northern Aegean Sea developed, and a number
of young graben structures opened in western Turkey and
in the Aegean Sea (Fig. 12.40e; cf. Sect. 12.1.4). It seems
that these are not bounded by steep normal faults, but are
rather associated with low-angle detachment zones as dis-
cussed in Sect. 12.1.2. The Aegean Sea with its many is-
lands is a weil known volcanic province. The northern rnar-
gin of this retroarc basi'1 is emerged and represents a for-
mer Alpine collision zone.
For further information see, e.g., Le Pichon (1982),
Jacobshagen and Giese (1986), Jackson and McKenzie
12.7 Pannonian-Type Basins
(1988), Westaway 1994, Cohen et al. (1995); Mann
(1997), Reilinger et al. (1997), Dinter and Royden (1993);
Dinter (1998).
12.7.5 Summary (Collision-Related Basins)
This group of basins comprises intramontane
basins, Pannonian-type basins, and basins cau-
sed by lateral extrusion of continental blocks.
(Foreland basins are discussed in Sect. 12.6).
These complex basin types are interrelated and
also show affinities to rift basins, retroarc and
pull-apart basins.
Intramontane basins are commonly elongate,
narrow, and evolve during late orogenesis. They
primarily result from extension, but they often
show a strong strike-slip component, syn-depo-
sitional basin segmentation, and a late compres-
sional phase.
These basins collect predominandy clastic and
lacustrine sediments derived from nearby sour-
ces reflecting the local clirnate. Many basins are
629
affected by vo1canism. The total sediment infil-
lings can reach great thicknesses.
- Basins resulting from gravitational orogenie
collapse and lateral extrusion are normally do-
rninated by trans tension. In many aspeets, in-
cluding their basin fill, they resemble in-
tramontane basins.
Pannonian-type basins on thinned eontinental
erust are more complex both in their structural
and sedimentary evolution. Their subbasins
may display diaehronous subsidenee and dif-
ferent eoeval depositional environments of
their sediment fills (including relatively deep-
marine eonditions). Their late-stage evolution
tends to be more uniform and eharacterized by
lacustrine and fluvial deposition.
12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
12.8 Pull-Apart Basins
12.8.1 General Characteristics
12.8.2 Sediments ofPull-Apart Basins
12.8.3 Examples ofPull-Apart Basins
12.8.4 The Guaymas Basin Model
12.8.5 Summary (Pull-Apart Basins)
12.8.1 General Characteristics
Many of the basin types discussed above are affected
more or less by strike-slip motions, particularly those
described in Sect. 12.7. In this section we deal with
some special features typical of pull-apart basins
which originate predominantly from this mechanism.
Pull-apart basins occur on both continental and oce-
anic crust in different tectonic settings:
- Along strike-slip boundary zones (transform
faults) between rigid, continental plates.
- In zones of oblique subduction along volcanic
arcs.
- In zones of "continental escape" in response to
collision (cf. Sect. 12.7.3).
Pull-apart basins are generated at the releasing bend
of transfarm faults and display a certain evolution
from a small initial stage (e.g., spindie shape) via a
"lazy-S" and rhomboidal basin to a more mature,
elongate trough stage (Fig. l2.42a). Furthermore,
there are more complicated strike-slip systems with
various basin morphologies, such as basins associ-
ated with the bifurcation of faults. Pull-apart basins
are typicaHy narrow (less than 50 km wide). Along a
widely extended strike-slip zone, several puH-apart
basins may be created simultaneously. SmaH basins
are commonly underlain by thinned continental crust,
while greater strike-slip motions lead to the forma-
tion of new oceanic crust in one or several special
troughs within the larger basins, as for example in
the Gulf of Califomia (see below). Extremely long
pull-apart basins (e.g. the Cayman trough in the Ca-
ribbean Sea) may develop a short spreading ridge
comparable to mid-oceanic ridges.
The displacement along strike-slip faults may be
accompanied either by extension (transtensian) at a
releasing bend or compression (transpressian) at a
restraining bend along the fault line in map view
(Fig. 12.42b, cf. Fig. 1.4). Transpression leads to
reverse fault separation, vertical uplift, thrusting, and
folding (Fig. 12.42b,c) and is therefore ineffective in
creating sedimentary basins of some size. Transten-
sion, however, and simple, "sharp" puH-apart motion
form important basins with substantial sediment fills
(Fig. 12.43). The size of these basins is mainly con-
trolled by fault separation and overlap of the master
faults. Large puH-apart basins commonly result from
simultaneous strike-slip and trans form-normal exten-
sion. Further prominent features of strike-slip faults
are "en echelon" faults and folds which may occur
within or adjacent to the principal displacement zone.
In profile, strike-slip zones show characteristics as
shown in Fig. 12.42c. The sediments may be seg-
mented in wedge-shaped bodies with lateraHy vari-
able facies and thickness. Both normal and reverse
separation faults may be present in the same depth
range and along the same fault at different levels.
Due to high slip rates (commonly 1-10 cm/a), sub-
sidence of pull-apart basins is fast. The subsidence of
narrow puH-apart basins is more rapid than that of
rift basins of infinite length. In the former case, the
heat provided by the upweHing magma under the
stretched crust is laterally lost and thus subsidence
accelerated (cf. Sect. 8.3). Later, subsidence IS
mainly driven by the increasing sediment load.
A model calculation using the local Airy model for a
crustal block of 10 km width subjected to a stretching rate
of 3 cmla and a continuous sediment 10ading of 1 mlka
(Fig. 12.42d) shows that subsidence during aperiod of 0.2
Ma can reach 10 mmJa and create a 2 km deep basin
(Pitman and Andrews 1985; see also Sawyer et al. 1987).
In this initial phase the basin is sediment-starved in spite of
the high sedimentation rate assumed. Later, sedimentation
exceeds subsidence which is now only driven by sediment
loading. When the basin is filled up, the sediments have
reached a thickness of 4 to 5 km.
The Los Angeles basin deve10ped since the middle Mio-
cene (11 Ma B.P.) and accumulated in its center a sequence
of 9-10 km in thickness (average rate of total subsidence
-1 mmJa). About 4 km result from pure1y tectonic subsi-
dence. A pull-apart basin assumed be10w the northeastem
Nile delta subsided at a rate of -5 mmJa during the last
7000 years (Stanley 1988b). The Dead Sea basin may have
subsided since the late Pliocene at a rate of 2-3 mmJa (cf.
Sect. 11.3.6).
The empirical relationship between crustal stretching
and maximum sediment thicknesses of puH-apart bas-
12.8 Pull-Apart Basins 631

~AULT SEPARATION
,.. ...... ~ 'L AZY ·S'·
~ SHAPED
BASIN

~RHOMBOIDAL~_
.. .
BASIN .' .
"

....~ OVERLAP OF . / :.
nER FAULTS ;

~~ ;.' - NARROW, -
LONG TROUGH ~ .::
..:.. ' OCEANIC CRUST .: : . '
:PREADING RIDGE

c b
HORSETA1L RELEAS1NG RESTRAINING
SPLAY BEND FOLDS BEND

~-:-~\
~~/~~~
AREAS OF
SUBSIDENCE
AND SEDIMENT NORMAL (N)
ACCUMUL ATION SEPARATION ////////
EN ECHELON

e
8

o d
DEPOSITION RATE 1mIka
STRETCHING RATE 3 cm/a

2 ..... HULU BASIN

J: •
BOVEY B.
I-
a.. HANMER PLAIN & CARRINGTON B.
w
4 0 PETROCKSTOW B.

o 2 3 o 20 40 60 80 100
TIME (Ma) LENGTH OF PULL·APART BASIN (km)

Fig. 12.42. a Generalized model of the evolution of
simple pull-apart basins in relation to fault separation
and overlap of master faults. Basins with large fault
separation rnay develop two or several srnaller, pull-
apart troughs. Mature basins fonn narrow, elongate
troughs partially underlain by newly accreted oceanic
crust. (After Mann and Dunne 1984). b Plan view
and c transverse profile of idealized strike-slip fault
with associated structures. (After Christie-Blick and
Bidd1e 1985). d Calculated subsidence/time curve for
crustal block of 10 km width and constant sedimenta-
tion rate. (Pitrnan and Andrews 1985, see text).
e Relationship between maximum sediment thickness
and length (overlap of master faults) of modem and
ancient pull-apart basins. (After Hempton and Dunne
1984; data of Pannonian basin from Royden and
Horvath 1988)
632
ins can be seen from Fig. 12.42e. Here, the length of
the basin, i.e., the amount of strike-slip displacement
represented by the overlap of the master faults, is
plotted versus maximum sediment thickness of the
basin. Short basins have a comparatively shallow
basin floor, while long pull-aparts tend to be very
deep and display one or two depocenters on newly
formed oceanic crust. Known basin depths range
from a few hundred meters up to 7-10 km (Dead Sea,
Los Angeles basin, and some troughs in the
Pannonian basin).
The general principles in the evolution of pull-apart basins
are discussed, e.g., by Ballance and Reading (1980), Read-
ing (1980), Mann et al. (1983), Hempton and Dunne
(1984), Biddle and Christie-Blick (1985), Ben-Avraham
and Zoback (1992).
12.8.2 Sediments of Pull-Apart Basins
In their early stage of evolution, the rapidly subsiding
basins tend to be filled by lake or sea water, as long
as rivers or other sediment transporting systems are
not yet adjusted to the newly formed morphologie
depression. Later, modified or newly developed
drainage systems of rivers or submarine canyons can
funnel larger volumes of sediment into the pull-
aparts and enable them to keep pace with or over-
come subsidence. Mean sedimentation rates of
known basin fills are very high ranging from 0.5 to 4
mlka.
Another characteristic feature of many pull-aparts
is their asymmetrie basin fill displayed in both longi-
tudinal and lateral sections. The basin margin
bounded by a strike-slip fault is usually characterized
by a steep fault scarp of high relief, while the oppo-
site side is more irregular and morphologically less
pronounced. Hence, lateral cross sections mostly
show deep downfaulting on the side of the dominant
fault and less subsidence on the opposite side along
the subordinate fault system (Fig. 12.43a,b).
Several of the modern examples on land (e.g., the Dead
Sea, the Death Valley in California, the Erzincan Basin in
Turkey) showarelief ranging from 2000 to ~4000 m on
the strike-slip bounded side. Pull-apart basins below the
sea display similar morphological features (e.g., the troughs
ofthe Californian borderland, see below).
Continental pull-apart basins are frequently filled
with fluvial and lake deposits, but these facies have a
limited lateral extent (Fig. 12.43b). These two facies
associations can create cyclic basin fills when a kind
of balance between sediment supply and basin subsi-
dence exists. Then moderate tectonic pulses (e.g. epi-
sodic strike-slip and subsidence) or climate change
from humid to semiarid can repeatedly shift the
depositional system from lacustrine to braidplain fa-
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
eies and vice versa (e.g. Plint and Browne 1994). If
an asymmetrie basin is fed predominantly from its
sides, the deeply downfaulted, high-relief side of the
basin commonly displays marginal sediments consist-
ing of locally derived coarse-grained alluvial fans
and debris flows. By contrast, the opposite, subordi-
nate margin is characterized by a wider zone of finer
materials of alluvial plains built up by gentler
streams. The remaining, more central part of the ba-
sin tends to be filled with deltaic sediments and vari-
ous lake deposits depending on the climate of the
region. Pull-aparts in humid climates may accumulate
some black shales and peat. External drainage in
conjunction with an open lake system or a through-
flowing river may be replaced in more arid climate
by an internal drainage system dropping its total dis-
solved and suspended load in the basin (cf. Sect.
12.1.3, Fig. 12.4).
If a pull-apart basin is fed from one end by a river
sufficiently competent to keep it filled all the time, a
depositional architecture similar to that shown in Fig.
12.43a may result. In this case, the depocenter mi-
grates away from the direction of the strike-slip mo-
tion, and the sediments young upstream as shown by
the dip of the strata. Hence, the thickness of the dip-
ping strata may turn out to be greater than the true
basin depth. However, if a major river enters the ba-
sin from the opposite end, the depocenter tends to
migrate downstream.
Strike-slip motion and particularly transtension is
frequently accompanied by voleanism of variable
nature including silicic and intermediate magmas.
Hence, volcaniclastic sediments often contribute to
the fillings of pull-apart basins.
Marine pull-apart basins evolve along continental
margins or on subsided continental blocks. Here, de-
position may begin with comparatively deep-marine
facies, including mass flows and turbidites. As the
basins enlarge their drainage area and become in-
creasingly filled, their depositional environment
passes to shallow-marine and finally continental con-
ditions.
Basins far away from efficient sediment sources form spe-
cial troughs which are considerably deeper than the neigh-
boring sea floor. These basins tend to remain underfilled
for considerable time spans. Their sedimentary facies may
include pelagic sediments and deposits of submarine fans
and gravity mass movements. Such basins exist in the Gulf
of Aden, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of California (cf. Sect.
4.3). The large Cayman trough in the Caribbean Sea has a
mean depth of 5 km below sea level and contains a sedi-
ment cover of significant thickness (:; 1000 m) only in its
eastern part.
12.8 Pull-Apart Basins 633

a MASTER FAULTS

SEDIMENT
SUPPLY

MIGRATION OF
ACTIVE BASIN,
STRATIGRAPHIC YOUNGING

b
ALLUVIAL FANS 1'11" DOMINANT FAULT
AND DEBRIS FLOWS ('I \ \ L.-----""
, " SUBORDINATE
FAULT S STEM (
,-[.
I .

Fig. 12.43. a Generalized longitudinal section of
pull-apart basin formed by sinistral strike-slip; major
part of basin fill is removed to show basin floor.
Depocenter migrates away from the direction of
strike-slip motion and sediments young in direction
opposite to sediment influx. b Cross section of pull-
apart basin demonstrating asymmetry of basin floor
and basin fill. (After Crowell 1974; Steel and
Gloppen 1980)

12.8.3 Examples of Pull-Apart Basins
Numerous modem and ancient pull-apart basins have
been described. Some of the examples mentioned
above are supplemented here by information on spe-
cific features. References indicate a number of other
examples. The evolution of the Dead Sea and the
Gulf of Califomia are discussed in Sect. 11.3.6 under
the aspect of sediment supply and basin filling.
Pull-apart basins in a row are known, for example, from
the Gulf of Aqaba and Jordan Rift in the Middle East
(Manspeizer 1985), the North Anatolian Fault system in
Turkey (Hempton and Dunne 1984; Sengör et al. 1985),
New Zealand (Ballance 1993), and the San Andreas Fault
system in Califomia. Average slip rates along the San
Andreas fault, as determined with the aid of disp1aced allu-
vial fans for the last 30 ka, were 2.2 to 3.4 cmla (Harden
and Matti 1989). Maximum rates were as high as 6 to 8
cmla.
Vienna basin. This intensively drilled basin is an exam-
pIe of the complex structure of a pull-apart basin caused by
thin-skinned extension and left-handed shear with a strike-
slip displacement of a few tens of kilometers (Fig.
12.41b,c). The basin is superimposed on early Miocene and
older Alpine thrust sheets and has a maximum depth of 6
km. Other examp1es from the Pannonian basin system in
Hungary and its neighboring countries are mentioned in
Sect. 12.7.4).
634 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

SEA LEVEL
b VERY HIGH e
SEDIMENTATION RATE
Or---~S~IL~L--S~E~D~I~M=E~
N=T~------~r-,-~
. COMPLEX SEA·LEVEL
2 .:~ .L.! .~'/:':':;:':" "::':>'"

km L2
SUBSIDENCE
1-------------~lrl----~~~---..
30 km 30km/Ma

- H-
f

d
SLOPE BASIN

TIlANS-
FORM
FAULT
TROUGH

PULL-APART BASIN
WITH SPREADING CENTER
(OCEANIC CRUSTI
12.8 Pull-Apart Basins
Spain. Neogene basins of southeastem Spain experi-
enced a main phase of extension followed by compression
and mafic to calcalkaline volcanism (Larouziere et al.
1987; Montenat et al. 1987).
Southern California. Neogene marine pull-apart basins
on land and offshore southem Califomia in the Califomia
borderland have been studied since many years, e.g. the
Ridge basin (Crowell 1974; Link and Osbome 1982) and
the Los Angeles basin (severa1 artic1es in Biddle 1991).
Some sedimentary characteristics of the Califomia border-
land are dealt with in Sect. 5.3.7 (cf. Fig. 5.10; Gors1ine
and Douglas 1987; Teng and Gorsline 1989).
South America. A complex case of a Tertiary pull-apart
has been reported from Venezuela and Colombia
(Macellari 1995). This basin has evo1ved at the boundary
between the South American and the Caribbean plates (cf.
Fig. 12.40d). The 10cus of maximum subsidence and the
basin center migrated with time; the sedimentation rate
reached va1ues up to 350 mJMa.
The Cayman trough in the Caribbean Sea is 1400 km
long and probab1y the world' s longest pull-apart basin. It is
characterized by a spreading ridge, the 100 km long
Cayman rise with the Cayman is1ands (e.g. Mann et al.
1983; Leroy et al. 1996). The evolution ofthis basin com-
menced in the Eocene and results from sinistral strike-s1ip
motion between the North American and Caribbean p1ates
caused by oblique continental collision (cf. Sect. 12.7.3
and Fig. 12.40d). The rate of basin opening (ocean spread-
ing) was 2-4 cmla; the floor of the basin represents, from
east to west, several crustal types: rifted continental crust,
continent-ocean transition with some seamounts, and oce-
anic crust. The sediment thicknesses in the trough are
:>1000m.
Other regions. Examples from many other regions are
found in Biddle and Christie-Blick (1985). Further refer-
ences inc1ude
Steel and Gloppen (1980), Nilsen and McLaugh1in (1985).
An evaluation of the sedimentary basins of China (Hsü
1989; Zhu 1989) has revea1ed that severa1 of the so-called
Chinese-type basins or parts of them can be interpreted as
pull-apart basins.
Strike-slip motions also occur in conjunction with
oblique rifting and on divergent continental margins. They
are probab1y common on convergent margins with oblique
subduction as for examp1e observed in New Zealand
(Lewis 1980), but the resulting basins and their sedimen-
tary fills are complex.
Fig. 12.44. Interaction of strike-slip-induced spread-
ing and sedimentation in Gulf of Califomia-type
pull-apart basins. a Location of Guaymas Basin (1
water depth ~2000 m; 2 trans form faults and spread-
ing centers). b Idealized cross-section of submarine
puIl-apart basin with spreading trough and flanks
showing its evolution during 1 Ma (thick arrows in-
dicate sedimentation rates; spreading rate is 6 cmla;
vertical scale exaggerated 4x). After 1 Ma the basin
will have grown in length by 60 km; sediment vol-
urne element E of the spreading trough will have
moved to E' and have subsided under the load of 1
635
12.8.4 The Guaymas Basin Model
(Gulf of California)
One of the submarine, presently active pull-apart
basins of the Gulf of Califomia, the Guaymas Basin,
was investigated during the Deep Sea Drilling Pro-
ject (Curray, Moore, et al. 1982a). This allowed the
development of a model which may be used for simi-
lar types of basins.
After an initial shallow-marine "proto-gulf' rift
stage, the present Gulf of Califomia formed along
the trans form boundary between the North American
and the Pacific plates. The dextral, somewhat
transtensional plate motions started about 4 Ma B.P.
and operated at an average rate of several cmla. As a
result, aseries of pull-apart basins was generated
(Fig. l2.44a,d) which now lie 2000-3000 m below
sea level, separated by higher elevated sills (cf. Sect.
4.3.2). In the centers of the growing pull-apart bas-
ins, new oceanic crost was accreted (stage of early
drifting). In contrast to the mid-oceanic spreading
ridges of mature oceans, the spreading centers of
these pull-aparts are located iIi the morphological
basin deeps, thus forming spreading troughs. AI-
though these troughs collect large amounts of
hemipelagic sediments, turbidites, and mass flows
from nearby slopes and marine deltas, they remain
open due to the continuing rapid growth of the basins
(Fig. l2.44b,c).
The interrelationship between the rates of spreading (strike-
slip) and sedimentation in such basins is demonstrated in
Fig. 12.44b,c. Assuming a 4 km wide spreading trough and
a (realistic) sedimentation rate as high as 3000 mJMa in
this trough as in the Guayrnas basin, then a 4 km wide and
3 km high sediment body can accumulate during 1 Ma.
However, due to simu1taneous accretion of oceanic crust at
a rate of 6 cmla = 60 kmJMa, this sediment vo1ume is
spread out to a width of 60 km. Thus, its thickness is re-
duced to 200 m. In other words: A sediment volume ele-
ment E of 200 m thickness (Fig. 12.44c) migrates 1aterally
with the ha1f-spreading rate and reaches a position 30 km
away from the spreading center after 1 Ma. On its path to
the new position, it will be covered by coeval flank sedi-
ments which are assumed to accumu1ate at a rate of 1000
m1Ma (Fig. 12.44b).
Only in the northem part of the gulf and in the Salton
trough in southem California is the sedimentation rate so
km thick flank sediments. c As (b); during 1 Ma a
body of trough sediments, 3 km thick and 4 km wide,
is distributed by basin spreading to form a 60 km
wide blanket of 200 m thickness (sediment compac-
tion neglected). d Simplified plan view and block
diagram of gulf-type pull-apart basins in stage of
early drifting. Formation of sill-sediment complexes
in spreading troughs. e,f Pull-apart basins in stage
of early drifting subject to high (e) and very high (f)
sedimentation rates. See text for further explanation.
(After Einseie 1986)
636
high that the underlying pull-apart basins and their spread-
ing troughs are filled up (Fig. 12.44e; Fuis and Kohler
1984; Einseie 1986) and no longer have a topographie ex-
pression. The Pliocene to Quaternary infilling ofthe Impe-
rial Valley depression is 5 to 6 km thiek and begins with an
approximately 1000 m thiek shallow-marine to braekish
sequenee overlain by very thick, mainly laeustrine and flu-
vial deposits (Quinn and Cronin 1984). Their basement,
eonsisting of rift-stage ernst and newly formed oeeanie
ernst, is depressed under the high sediment load. Magma of
basaltie to aeidie eomposition rarely extrudes at the surfaee
of the alluvial plain.
This sediment volume/space estimate and further
evaluations utilizing other assumptions indicate that
Gulf of Califomia-type spreading troughs can be
maintained under very high sedimentation rates if the
12.8.5 Summary (Pu li-Apart Basins)
- Pure strike-slip motions and trans tension along
trans form faults create narrow pull-apart basins
of variable length (often several tens to hun-
dreds of kilometers) in continental and oceanic
settings.
- The floor of long basins tends to subside deeper
than that of short basins. Long basins may de-
velop oceanic spreading troughs with the in-
trusion of basaltic magma.
- Rapid strike-slip causes extremely fast subsi-
dence and thus often an early, short phase of
basin deepening. Later subsidence is driven
mainly by the increasing sediment load.
Continental pull-aparts commonly collect allu-
vial fans, fluvial and lacustrine deposits. These
basin fills are mostly asymmetrie in both longi-
tudinal and cross sections.
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
rate of strike-slip and crustal accretion is also high.
In this case, the basaltic magma rarely extrudes on
the sea floor, but rather generates a sill-sediment
complex of several hundreds of meters in thickness
between sheeted dikes (oceanic layer 2) and the sedi-
ment cover (layer 1, cf. Sect. 13.8.3). In contrast, low
sedimentation rates in conjunction with normal
spreading rates (l to 10 crn/a) lead to very thin sedi-
ment covers on top of newly accreted crust.
Penninian (Valais) trough of the Alps. The Mesozoie
northern Penninian trough may represent an aneient exam-
pie of a tee tonic setting, depositional environment
(Bündnerschiefer), and intrusion ofbasaltic magma similar
to the modern Gulf of California (Kelts 1981).
Displaced fanlsource relationships, the migra-
tion of depocenters parallel to the master
faults, and special tectonic . features provide
evidence for strike-slip motion.
The sedimentation rates, sediment thicknesses
(in limited areas), and structural complexities
of pull-aparts are often greater than those of
rift basins.
The life span of pull-apart basins is commonly
short (a few millions of years).- Pull-apart ba-
sins can be interesting targets for hydrocarbon
exploration in spite of their limited size. Rapid
subsidence and burial of source rocks favor the
preservation and maturation of organic matter
(cf. Sect. 10.3.3).
12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
12.9 Basin-Type Transitions
(Polyp hase Basins)
12.9.1 General Aspects
12.9.2 Basin-Transition Models
Passive Continental Margins
Basin Inversion
Basin Transitions on Convergent Margins
12.9.3 Examples ofPo!yphase Basins
12.9.4 Sediment Preservation Potential ofVarious
Basin Settings
12.9.5 Summary (Polyphase Basins)
12.9.1 General Aspects
The tectonic style of a sedimentary basin may change
over time, as already indicated in the previous sec-
tions. In fact, there is barely areal sedimentary basin
of some age which did not experience a kind of basin
transformation. Rift basins, for example, frequently
evolve into continental margin basins (Sects. 12.1.
and 12.2), or remnant basins (with flysch deposits)
exhibit transitions into peripheral foreland basins
(with molasse deposits; Sect. 12.6). Basins display-
ing such and more drastic transitions have been re-
ferred to as "polyhistory basins" (e.g., Kingston et al.
1983; Klein 1987), but the term "polyphase basins"
appears to be more appropriate. In all these cases,
earlier basin sediments are deformed by syn- or post-
depositional tectonism (cf. Sect. 1.3).
The evolution of polyphase basins follows the
general principles of plate tectonics. Ocean basins
open along a rift zone, grow by accretion of new oce-
anic crust to form a deep ocean basin, and elose
again, when the subduction rate of oceanic crust ex-
ceeds the its spreading rate. Subduction may finally
result in a continent-continent collision (cf. Figs. 1.2
and 1.3). This life cyele of an ocean basin is called
Wilson cycle (Wilson 1965, 1968; Dewey and Bird
1970) and may last for a few hundred millions of
years. A specific region may undergo several Wilson
cyeles during its evolution. The most important
stages ofthis concept are summarized in Table 12.1.
This simplistic scheme of the Wilson cyele does not
take into account several modifications, for example:
(1) The "mature ocean" can be relatively narrow be-
fore it starts to elose again, as assumed for the Alpine
orogeny.
(2) Micro-continents and terranes (cf. Sect. 1.2) may
produce small oceanic basins of irregular shape and
various other regional complications. The evolution
of the Tethys ocean from the late Paleozoic until the
early Tertiary is an example of such complications
(e.g. Ricou 1994). The Caribbean Sea, the Mediterra-
nean, and large regions in southern and southeastern
Asia were strongly affected by the migration and par-
tial rotation of rnicro-continents.
(3) Strike-slip movements and wrench faulting often
playa significant role in the basin evolution related
to the stages of the Wilson cyele.
12.9.2 Basin-Transition Models
Passive Continental Margins
Figure 12.38 shows some straightforward models of
basin transitions on a passive continental margin, i.e.,
from the embryonic to the mature stages of the Wil-
son cyele.
The early rift stage with predorninantly continental
deposits (Sect. 12.1.3) may be followed by a
shallow-marine protogulf stage, in which tectonic
basin subsidence is still controlled by thinning conti-
nental or transitional crust (Fig. l2.45a). With the
onset of ocean spreading (b), the basin develops an
elongate central trough (as in the Red Sea) or several
individual small troughs (Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Cali-
fornia), where hemipelagic sediments and sediments
of various gravity mass movements accumulate. As-
cending basaltic magma may form dikes and sills in
these rapidly accumulating first deep-water sedi-
ments (Sects. 4.3 and 12.8.4).
In the subsequent stages (Fig. 12.45c-e), the sedi-
mentary history of the passive margin basin is char-
acterized by the aggradation and outbuilding of sedi-
ments on the shelf, the continental slope and rise
(Sect. 12.2). In the early stage of this evolution the
shelf tends to be narrow and its sediments largely
consist of elastic material ineluding sands. Later, fre-
quently shales and carbonate buildups take over de-
pending on the elimatic situation and presence and
sediment load of large rivers. The depositional area
may inelude coastal regions which in earlier stages
638 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

acted as sediment source or were sediment-free. In a crost boundary and deeply bury older sediments un-
final stage, a wide, very thick embankment may der its load.
prograde seaward beyond the oceanic/continental

Table 12.1. Stages ofthe Wilson cycle and basin evolution. (After Wilson 1968)

Stage Basin type Motions, volcanism, Characteristic depositional

(modem formation of terrig. environments and sediments
examples) sediment sources (depending on climate)

Embryonic Continental Frequently updoming Continental and lacustrine,

rift (East and block uplift,
African Rift) extension and strike-
slip; alkaline, mostly
basic, but also more
silicic volcanism
partially also marine,
clastics, volcaniclastics,
(red beds and evaporites)

Young N arrow ocean Incipient ocean Marine, narrow shelves,

(Red Sea, spreading, rapid one central trough or
Gulf of Aden, subsidence ofbasin, several small spreading
Gulfof continued uplift of troughs, variable sedi-
Califomia nearby continental ments depending on con-
zones, tholeiitic nection to world ocean,
basalts entering rivers, etc.

Mature Wide ocean Spreading, mid-oceanic Wide shelves with thick

(Atlantic ridges, continued sub-
Ocean) sidence of basin flanks,
tholeiitic ocean floor,
alkali basalt islands,
distant terrigenous
sediment sources
clastic and carbonate
sediments, deep-sea fans
and basin plains, large
areas with pelagic clay
and biogenic oozes

Declining N arrowin~ of Convergence and Deep-sea trenches, forearc

ocean baslll marginal uplift,
(Pacific Ocean) island arcs or Anden-
type active margin,
basaltic and andesitic
volcanics
and backarc basins,
flysch-type and pelagic
sediments, volcaniclastics

Terminal Ocean basin Convergence and uplift, Remnant basins (flysch)

strongly re- young orogenic belts, and fore land basins
duced in size andesitic volcanics (marine and continental)
(Mediterra- and rising grano- accumulate clastic wedges,
nean Sea) diorite-gneis com- volcaniclastics, (red beds
plexes and evaporites)

Relic scar Suture zone Collision and continued Final stage of foreland
(Indus- uplift of orogenic belt basins with continental
Tsangpo exposed granitic and clastic wedge, intra-
suture, metamorphic rocks montane molasse (red
Himalayas) beds)
12.9 Basin-TyPe Transitions 639

EARLY RIFT SEDIMENTS POTENTIAL UPLIFT

AND EROSION

SEDIMENTS OF EARL Y SPREADING TROUGH (S) •

DRIFTING (INITIAL. POSSIBLY DIKE AND SILL INTRUSIONS
OCEANIC

NARROW SHELF PROTO -GULF AND INITIAL OCEANIC PHASE,

-(BASAL CLASTIC PHASE) SEDIMENTS OF EARLY RIFTING,

WIDE SHELF (SHALES,

CARBONATE BUILDUP) COASTAL BASIN

, : :: Fig. 12.45. Basin evolution

d from (a) early rift stage and
proto-gulf to (b) initial oceanic
, . ,: :' phase and (c,d,e) severa1
- - . stages on passive continenta1
margin. Note increase in shelf
width (including coastal basin)
and sediment thickness, as
weIl as onset of slope and con-
tinental rise deposition. Not to
scale (crustal thicknesses re-
duced), tectonic modifications
omitted. (Largely after
Dickinson and Yarborough
1976)

Basin Inversion mulation had ceased. An example mentioned earlier is

In recent years, the tenn "basin inversion" has been
widely used. It describes the trend to uplift of an ori-
ginally subsiding extensional basin which later is
subjected to compression or transpression. Structural
inversion is the reversal of the original sense of mo-
tion, for example along a nonnal fault which is later
transfonned into a reverse fault.
Many ancient basins were affected by basin in-
version after thermal subsidence and sediment accu-
the High Atlas rift in Morocco (Sect. 12.l.5). In most
of these cases, older faults or zones of structura1 wea-
kness are reactivated to accommodate compression
(Fig. 12.46). The degree of basin inversion in relation
to the uplift of the fonner basin fill large1y varies. It
may lead to tilting of the fonner basin floor, defonna-
tion or expulsion of parts of the basin fill (Fig.
12.46b). Strong inversion is when the entire post-rift
basin fill has been expelled from its original position
and has reached a relatively high elevation. In fold-
640 Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments

Inversion tectonics is also known from the Variscan fore-

BASIN INVERSION land in central Europe and the British Isles (Corfield et aL
1996). Strong inversion of former foredeeps has been ob-
served when the direction of maximum shortening was per-
pendicular to the strike ofthe basins,
Basin inversion exerts a major influence on hydrocarbon
occurrences in rift basins. It modifies the thermal evolution

~~~I[[iilllffiJ~~~O~RI~GI~NA~L~~~ ~
of the basin, maturation of organic matter, and hydrocarbon
migration, In addition, it rnay create new traps and alter the
'\,r--J BASIN FILL L...,/ porosity and permeability of the reservoir rocks (e.g. Landon
(HALFGRABEN I 1994),

UPLIFT OF b INTERNAL DEFORMATION OF

SYN-RIFT BASIN FILL Basin Transitions on Convergent Margins
HANGING WALL

Basins evolving from the declining oeeanie stage to

the relie sear (suture zone) stage of the Wilson eycle,
are more diversified and eomplieated. Figure 12.47
displays the closing of an oeean basin between two
eontinental plates with a subduetion-related scenario
at the right-hand side. The terminal stage of an oeean
basin ean bring about the following basin-type transi-
BASIN INVERS ION DUE TO OVERTHRUSTING
(ANDES, VENEZUELA)
c tions.

SE (1) Along passive margins:

- Transition from a passive-margin shelf-eontinental
slope-rise faeies assoeiation to a flysch-type assoeia-
+ +
+ -+ +- +- + tion of a remnant basin (Fig. 12.45a).
+ + -+ + ..
+ -+ -+ + .. +
.. + + ... + +
- Transition from a deep remnant basin into a
+++++++
.. + + ... + t -+ shallow-marine relie basin (Fig. 12.45b).
+ + + + + + -+ -+
+- + ... ... •
+ + + + + CflV STA LLINE
• - Transition from a epieontinental basin (often shelf
++.+.+++++ SASEMENT or inner shelt) to a periphera1 fore land basin, or to a
deformed shelf basin (overthrust) to a piggy-baek ba-
Fig. 12.46a-c, Various types of basin inversion and sin (cf. Seet. 12.6.2).
resulting new sedimentary basins. b Example from
the Varisean fore land, UK. (From Corfield et aL (2) Along active margins:
1996), c Neogene struetural inversion (Jurassie/early - Transition from a shelf and slope basin to a fore are
Cretaeeous graben) in the Andes of Venezuela. basin (Fig. 12.47a).
(From Co1etta et aL 1997, modified) - Transition from strongly deformed sediments of an
aeeretionary wedge to undeformed slope basin sedi-
ments (Fig. 12.47a).
and-thrust belts marginal portions of the basin fill - Transition from a foreare basin to an intramontane
may beeome overthrust onto the central former basin or intra-are basin (eontinental molasse, Fig. 12.47b).
(Fig. 12.46e). Basin inversion ereates new relief, ero- - Transition from an extensional marine baekare basin
sion, and thus also the formation and filling of new to a eompressional retroare basin or foredeep whieh is
struetural depressions adjaeent to the former basin overthrust by the are and filled predominantly with
(Fig. 12.46a,e), eontinental molasse.

Basin inversion has been described, e.g., by Cooper and
Williams (1989), Williams et aL (1989), Coward et aL
(1991), Giese and Jacobshagen (1991), Buchanan and Bu-
chanan (1995),
Repeated basin inversion after long periods of rifting
took place in Africa and Arabia in relatively short time in-
tervals, e.g. in the Santonian, the latest Maastrichtian, and
Eocene (Guiraud and Bosworth 1997). Basin inversion is
strong within the western Alps where the external massifs
represent uplifted halfgraben blocks, whereas the Alpine
foreland displays weakly inverted structures. (GilIchrist et
al. 1987).
The basins associated with the late stages of eontinen-
tal eollision and the formation of fold-thrust belts both
on top of the downgoing plate and often also on the
overriding plate eommonly are narrow, shallow-mari-
ne or eontinental relie basins. Continued eompressio-
nal intraplate stress in both the fore are and backare
regions ean further modify, trans form, or invert the
still existing relie basins (e.g. Ziegler et aL 1998).
Polyphase basins may be subdivided further into
the following groups (Klein 1987):
12.9 Basin-Type Transitions
PASSIVE MARGIN
BASIN (SHELF,
a FORMER
SLOPE, RISE SED.)
OCEANIC CRUST
FORELAND RELIC OF
b PARTIALLY
BASIN REMNANT BASIN
(SHALLOW-MARINE)
THRUST SHEETS SUBDUCTION COMPLEX
(SEDIMENTS OF PASSIVE MARGIN (SUTURE ZONE, MtLANGE,
AND REMNANT BASIN) ~OPHIOLITES)
- Superposed basins whieh develop on a suture zone.
- Sueeessor basins eonsisting of ehanging basin
types along a zone of long-persisting "teetonie weak-
ness".
- Resurgent basins In situations where the original
basin style is repeated and maintained along older
teetonie boundaries and trends.
12.9.3 Examples of Polyphase Basins
Of the large number of ease studies earried out on
polyphase basins, only a few ean be mentioned here.
Aneient basin fills present in orogenie belts mostly
display basin transitions. The long-lived intra-eonti-
nental basins diseussed in Seet. 12.4 generally show
a multiphase rift-sag basin development.
Tarim basin, western China. This large basin (560 000
km2) in central Asia is situated between the Tibet plateau
and the Kulun mountains in the south and the Tian Shan
mountains in the north. At present it represents a double-
sided continental fore land basin which is overthrust by
both foldbelts. The Tarim basin has a lang polyphase his-
tory beginning in the early Paleozoic with an intraconti-
nental period ofrifting and slow subsidence (Li Desheng et
a1. 1996; Xu and Shen 1996). In the Carboniferous and
Permian, the basin experienced several marine ingress ions
and a second phase of extension associated with wide-
spread basalt flows. After the Hercynian orogenesis caus-
641
SHELF
Fig. 12.47. Basin
evolution during two
stages of a closing
oeean. a Remnant
basin between pas-
sive margin with
wide shelf and sub-
duetion-related bas-
CONTI· ins. b Closed oeeanie
NENTAL
SEDIMENTS
basin and onset of
eollision of two eon-
tinental (or transi-
tionai) plates. Note
various basin-type
transitions; foldmg,
strike-slip, and other
struetural modifiea-
tions are omitted; not
to seale. See text for
further explanation.
(Based on various
sourees)
ing uplift of the surrounding fold belts and the basin center
(inversion), the basin was transformed into a foreland basin
collecting mainly fluvial and lacustrine Triassic and Jurassic
sediments. During high sea level in the Cretaceous and
Paleogene, parts of the basin were again flooded by the sea
and formed an embayment of the Tethys ocean. FinaIly,
Neogene uplift of the entire region and continued
overthrusting of the neighboring foldbelts established the
modem scenario of the basin. Simplified, the basin evolu-
tion may be characterized by two principal phases: (I) an
early Paleozoic intracontinental rift and sag basin phase, and
(2) a Hercynian and post-Hercynian intramontane and fore-
land basin phase. In both periods the continental
d.epositional environment altemated with marine ingres-
sIons.
Salin basin, Myanmar (Burma). This young forearc-
backarc basin on land can be regarded as a northem continu-
ation of the modem Sunda arc-Andaman backarc system
farther south (Sect. 12.5). It is located between the oblique
subduction zone of the northem section of the Sunda arc to
the west and a right-lateral transform fault to the east (cf.
Fig. 12.40a; Pivnik et a1. 1998). The style of deformation
indicates that the basin first experienced north-northwest-
directed extension in the Miocene followed by Plio-Pleisto-
cene east-northeast-directed transpression. This led to fold-
ing, thrust faults, local uplift and inversion ofMiocene nor-
mal faults as weIl as significant lateral changes in sediment
thicknesses and unconformities.
Magdalena basin, Colombia. This basin may represent a
number of other basins along the Andes in South Arnerica.
The present-day middle and upper Magedalena basins lie
between the Central and Eastem Cordilleras and began their
642
evolution in the Triassic and Jurassic as a backarc basin
behind an oceanic island arc of the eastern Pacific
(Schamel 1991; see also Pindell and Tabbutt 1995; Colletta
et al. 1997). After the elosure of this basin, a pericratonic
trough developed which accumulated thick marine lime-
stones and shales in the Cretaceous and early Tertiary.
These sediments acted later as hydrocarbon source rocks.
In the middle and late Tertiary, the basin fillings were in-
corporated into the east-vergent thrust sheets of the young
Andean orogeny which led to uplift and the formation of
the Central and Eastern Cordilleras. The complex structural
evolution of the Andes is still not fully resolved (e.g.
Roeder and Chamberlain 1995; Kley 1998). During this
period the Magdalena basin represented the inner part of a
retroarc basin or foredeep which collected shallow-marine
shales and molasse-type sandstones. At present, the former
basin is subdivided into an array of intramontane "succes-
sor" basins.
South-east basin, France. The largest basin in France
is located between the western Alps and the Massif Central
(cf. Fig. l2.39a). It developed on relatively mobile conti-
nental crust since the Triassic and displays a complex his-
tory (Dubois and Delfaud 1998) which was largely con-
trolled by the evolution of the Tethys, the Alpine orogeny,
and the western Mediterranean. After Triassic rifting and a
phase of elastic and evaporite sedimentation, further rifting
and block-faulting, related to the opening of the Tethys
ocean (Liguro-Piemont segment), led to a first basin frag-
mentation and the accumulation of marine shales and lime-
stones of variable thicknesses in the Jurassic and Creta-
ceous. As a result of the opening of the Atlantic ocean
(Gulf of Gascony) and the collision of Iberia with Europe,
the basin was deformed and emerged. Toward the evolving
orogen of the Alps, parts of the South-East basin repre-
sented a passive margin basin which was later overridden
in the east by Alpine thrust sheets and transformed into a
foreland basin. The southern part of the basin was affected
by proto-Mediterranean Tertiary rifting (Liguro-Provenyal
rift between the Provence and the islands of Corsica and
Sardinia) and the subsequent opening of the western Medi-
terranean (Fig. 12.39a). East-west directed extension in
central Europe and more north-south directed extension
along the Mediterranean coast created several subbasins of
differing strike (Hippolyte et al. 1993). The subbasins sub-
sided rapidly in Oligocene and Neogene times, particularly
those elose to the Alps. The maximum sediment thick-
nesses in these basins range from 10 to 15 km.
Chapter 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments
12.9.4 Sediment Preservation Potential of
Various Basin Settings
The preservation of sediment fills of some age de-
pends to a large degree on the basin type, its syn-
depositional tectonic setting, and its post-depositional
structural evolution. Some of the examples of this
chapter demonstrate this relationship (see also Sect.
11.7).
It is evident that mountain belts resulting from con-
tinental collision and uplift cannot preserve their en-
tire sedimentary history. Only the sediments of deep
intramontane basins, of deep-seated thrust sheets, and
those of overthrust and deeply subsided forelands are
well protected against long-term erosion. More distal
foreland sediments tend to be eroded earlier due to
uplift of the foreland plate.
Old fold-and-!hrnst belts have comrnonly lost most
of their sedimentary cover including moderately meta-
morphosed rocks. Pelagic oceanic sediments and
deep-sea trench sediments which undergo subduction
can survive only partially in accretionary prisms.
Here, they are strongly deformed, metamorphosed,
and sooner or later also subjected to erosion.
This is the reason why the oceanic sediments of
periods older than the Mesozoic are largely gone or
obscured by accretion and metamorphism. Below the
present-day oceans, the oldest oceanic ernst with oce-
anic sediments is Jurassie in age. It is found only in
marginal regions, whereas most existing deep-sea sed-
iments and their underlying ernst are younger.
The sediments of remnant and foreare basins, in-
corporated into thrust sheets, may escape from erosion
for some time, particularly so if they lose in elevation
by gravitational collapse of highly uplifted regions of
an orogen, as e.g. in the Alps and the Himalayas (cf.
Sects. 12.5 and 12.7.3). The sediments of oceanic
backare basins comrnonly have a limited life time be-
cause these basins tend to be closed. Retroarc basins
on continental ernst which experience overthrusting
and are transformed into foredeeps offer better
chances of sediment preservation.
A good chance of being preserved have the sedi-
ments of intracontinental rift and sag basins as weH as
sediments deposited on passive continental margins.
In particular the fillings of early rift basins tend to
become deeply buried. This is also trne to some de-
gree of post-rift sediments on slowly subsiding conti-
nental ernst. Passive margin sediments affected by
overthrusting are better preserved than sediments as-
sociated with intracontinental overthrusting. The latter
tend to become rapidly eroded due to high uplift.
12.9 Basin-TyPe Transitions
12.9.5 Summary (Polyphase Basins)
Many existing and most of the ancient sedi-
mentary basins have experienced a polyphase
history which can be subdivided into two or
several phases of structural evolution and basin
filling (tectono-stratigraphic units).
A cmde scheme of basin transitions on passive
and active continental margins is provided by the
"Wilson cycle". However, the evolution of many
basins is more complex.
Original basins and their sedimentary fills can be
partially or entirely inverted, i.e. they later form
structural highs which are exposed to erosion.
643
The potential for preserving little deformed
and/or moderately metamorphosed sediment
decreases from intracontinental basins via
passive continental margin basins to active
margin and oceanic basins.
The deciphering of the history of polyphase
basins is one of the tasks of structural, regional
and historical geology. To solve this task with
success, the aid of experienced sedimentary
geologists is needed who are familiar with the
basic concepts of basin evolution.
Part V

Diagenesis and Fluid Flow

13 Mechanical and Chemical Diagenesis
13.1 General Aspects ofMechanical and 647
Chemical Diagenesis
13.1.1 Introduction, Definitions
13.1.2 Various States of Sediment Consolidation
13.1.3 Mechanical and Chemical Compaction
(Overview)
13.2 Compaction, Compaction Flow, and
Other Flow Mechanisms 653
13.2.1 Analytical Equations to Describe Compaction
13.2.2 Compaction Ratio and
Differential Compaction
13.2.3 Compaction Flow
Model Calculations
Compaction Flow as Function of
the Sedimentation Rate
Velocity of Ascending Pore Water
13.2.4 Pore Water Pressure, Overpressure
13.2.5 Refraction ofPore Water Flow
13.2.6 Other Subsurface Flow Regimes
13.2.7 Significance ofthe Various Flow Regimes
13.2.8 Evolution ofPore Water Flow in
Various Depositional Systems
13.2.9 Summary (Compaction and
Subsurface Flow Regimes)
13.3 General Processes in Chemical Diagenesis 668
13.3.1 Introduction
13.3.2 Solute Transport by Subsurface Flow Systems
General Aspects
Meteoric Water Circulation
Compaction Flow
Redistribution of Solutes by
Convective Fluid flow
Combination ofVarious Processes of
Solute Transport
13.3.3 Pressure Solution
13.3.4 Solute Transport by Diffusion
13.3.5 Hydrodynarnic Dispersion
13.3.6 Formation Waters
13.3.7 Mineral Reactions and
Major Diagenetic Regimes
Mineral Reactions
Major Diagenetic Regimes (Overview)
13.3.8 Porosity and Permeability ofSandstones and
Carbonate Rocks
13.4 Early Diagenesis ofMajor Sediment Types 685
13.4.1 Marine Muds under Oxic and Anoxic
Conditions
13.4.2 Biogenic Carbonates (Muds and Grainstones)
13.4.3 Biosiliceous Sediments
13.4.4 Early Diagenesis of Sands
13.5 Late, Deep-Burial Diagenesis 689
13.5.1 Trend to a Final, Inactive Stage?
13.5.2 Reactivation ofLate-Stage Diagenesis
13.5.3 Large-Scale Fluid System and
Late Dolomitization
13.5.4 Geohistory and Diagenesis (Case Studies)
13.5.5 Cement Sources and Cement Mineral
Sequences
13.6 The Transition from Diagenesis to Metamorphism
697
13.7 Thermal History ofBasin Fills 697
13.7.1 Subsiding Basins Affected by Conductive
HeatFlow
13.7.2 Thermal Effects ofSubsidence Followed by
Uplift
13.7.3 Thermal Effects ofMeteoric Water Circulation
13.8 Special Methods and Processes in Diagenesis 700
13.8.1 Age, Temperature, and Degree of
Diagenetic Reactions
13.8.2 Diagenetically Controlled Ore Deposits
13.8.3 Pore Water Expulsion and Hydrothermal
Systems at the Sea Floor
13.9 Summary (Chernical Diagenesis) 705
13.1 General Aspects of Mechanical
and Chemical Diagenesis
3.1.1 Introduction, Definitions
Freshly deposited sediments are commonly unconsol-
idated, have a relatively low bulk density and high
permeability and, if accumulated under water, a high
water content. However, with increasing burial depth
under younger sediments, and occasionally shortly
after deposition, the sediments become denser and
more solid or lithified. All the processes involved in
such a change of sediment state are summarized un-
der the term diagenesis. It comprises both mechani-
cal and chemical-mineralogical processes.
Some authors, particularly those dealing with the transfor-
mation of organic matter into hydrocarbons and coal
(Sects. 14.2 and 14.4), distinguish a zone of catagenesis or
an anchimetamorph zone (anchizone) between diagenesis
and metamorphism. At this depth range, most sediments
have become lithified, shales and claystones are trans-
formed into slates, smectite and mixed-Iayer clay minerals
648
are replaced by well-crystallized illite and chlorite, and
vitrinite reflectance is high, but temperatures are only 100
to 150 0 C (e.g., Krumm et al. 1988).
Mechanical diagenesis results from vertical and ac-
companying lateral stresses, caused by the overbur-
den load of younger sediments, and possibly by addi-
tional stresses due to compressional tectonic move-
ments. It expels pore water and leads to a rearrange-
ment of the sediment particles and their fabric.
Chemical-mineralogical or, simply, chemical dia-
genesis includes dissolution and recrystallization of
primary sediment particles, as well as reprecipitation
of dissolved matter as cement in the pore spaces.
Dissolution and cementation rnay take place at differ-
ent levels within the sediment and thus involve mass
transfer from one layer to another. Chemical
diagenesis is driven by the tendency of solid matter
to reach thermodynamic stability under the changing
conditions in the subsurface (increasing temperature
and pressure, possibly changing pore water chemis-
try). As a result, a limited number of stable minerals
are formed at the expense of various unstable phases.
In old and deeply buried shales, for example, the
illite-chlorite-quartz mineral assemblage is common,
regardless of the initial clay mineral association. Cal-
cite and dolomite replace less stable skeletal carbon-
ates, such as aragonite and high Mg clacite. Further-
more, all sorts of minerals having a large surface area
tend to dissolve and reprecipitate into more compact
particles and thus to achieve astate of lower energy.
All these processes promote the reduction of po-
rosity and permeability, enhance the bulk density,
and affect the strength of the rock. The loss in poros-
ity and thus in sediment thickness is referred to as
compaction. Compaction of a water-saturated sedi-
ment is always associated with the expulsion of pore
water; the escaping water generates the compaction
flow.
The processes and effects of both mechanical and
chemical diagenesis in various tectonic settings and
sedimentary sequences are very complex and can be
studied and described in several ways. In this text,
only a brief summary can be given, in which the as-
pects of compaction and subsurface flow are more
emphasized than detailed descriptions of the cement
minerals and their paragenesis. The latter aspects
have been frequently and extensively addressed in
many special articles and textbooks. Brief introduc-
tions to the diagenesis of carbonates, biogenie silica,
and evaporites are given in Sects. 3.4.7, 5.3.5, and
6.4.6.
The enormous body of publications on diagenesis includes,
e.g., Engelhardt (1973), Bathurst (1975), Magara (1978),
Larsen and Chilingar (1979), Parker and Sellwood (1983),
McDonald and Surdam (1984), Gautier (1986), Mumpton
(1986), Füchtbauer (1988), Pamell (1994), Monta nez et al.
(1997), Morad (1998).
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
Some references to more specific topics in this field are
listed below.
13.1.2 Various States of Sediment Consolidation
Subaqueous mechanical diagenesis starts irnmedi-
ately below the sediment-water interface and pro-
gressively alters all the mass physical properties of
the sediments versus depth. It controls or influences
the porosity, water content, bulk density, permeabil-
ity and pore water flow, shear strength and rheologie
behavior, sensitivity to liquefaction and, finally, in-
fluences mass transfer via molecular diffusion and
advection. One has to distinguish between three
states of consolidation:
- Normal consolidation.
- Underconsolidation.
- Overconsolidation.
(1) In normally consolidated sediments, the fabric
strength or compaction state is in equilibrium with
the overburden pressure at all depths below the
sediment-water interface (Fig. 13.la). The overbur-
den pressure can be expressed as total lithostatic
pressure (see below) or as effective vertical stress
(reduced by buoyancy) per unit area of a horizontal
plane within the sediment. In reality, such an effec-
tive vertical stress acts as a grain-to-grain stress at
the contact of individual particles. The state of com-
paction can be defined in terms of porosity, water
content, or bulk density. The pore water pressure is
equal to the hydrostatic pressure at the corresponding
depth; hence, if sediment accumulation has ended,
there is no upward or laterally directed pore water
flow. However, if a new increment of sediment is
added on top of such a sedimentary column (Llh in
Fig. 13.la), this equilibrium is disturbed. In order to
establish a new equilibrium between the increased
vertical stress and the compaction state, some pore
water must be expelled (see below). In a fairly per-
meable sediment, this pore water expulsion takes
place more or less simultaneously with the growth of
the sedimentary column, i.e., the sediment maintains
its state of normal consolidation. Normal consolida-
tion can also be rnaintained in fine-grained, low-per-
meable sediments if the sedimentation rate is low and
the pore water has sufficient time to escape.
(2) Underconsolidation. If the sedimentation rate is
high and the growing sedimentary column has a low
permeability and becomes less and less permeable
with depth, then the pore water to be released by
prograding compaction cannot escape readily to the
sediment-water interface. Hence, compaction is de-
layed (Figs. 13.1b and 13.3c), and the sediment is in
astate of underconsolidation. In this state, the fabric
13.1 General Aspects 649

a b
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED HYDROSTATIC UNDERCONSOLIDATED
PRESSURE, Ph
,-I - -:.:.:1. _____ ___ __ _ .---___--:::.
r -,-""" ,
, Y WATER
,
l/j

L_I"'-_~
.l!.h
fl
I SEDIMENT
J: I
~ I
W I
~ Z ,,
~ I
I
\
1il /'\
U= 0 , _ /)\
UNDER -
I CONSOLl-
I (al '. 12~ ,
\
DATION
___ ' _L~
v~'--....J>
EXCESS PORE
WATER PRESSURE, U
PORE WATER
(b)
n, POROSITY
C ~, SUBMERGED BULK DENSITY
OVERCONSOLIDATED Pe EFF EC TIVE OVERBURDN PRESSURE

; . . . r - ::-.. . ,
I' -,- -r ,
,
, I
REDEPOS'TlON

Pe
~---.--=--r-----::' - - - -r------?>-

ZONE OF OVERCONSOLlDATlON

Fig. 13.1. Different consolidation states of subaque-
ous fine-grained sedimentary columns. Encircled
numbers indicate subsequent stages of evolution.
aNormal consolidation. Newly added sediment in-
crement, ßh, tends to disturb equilibrium between
vertical effective stress, Pe' and compaction state of
sediment at all depths, z, but rapid escape of pore
water adjusts new equilibrium. This is exemplified
by shifting curves of porosity (or water content), and
bulk density, Yh' b Underconsolidation. Downward
decreasing permeability prevents the escape of pore
water released by additional sediment load, ßh, and
thus hampers further compaction. As a result, part of
the sediment load is carried by the pore water charac-
terized by excess pore water pressure, u. c Overcon-
solidation. After erosion (Stage 2) the remaining sed-
imentary column is overconsolidated. Further consol-
idation can only take place if redeposition (Stage 3)
surpasses the former top of the sequence. During
Stages 1 to 3, porosity (or water content) and bulk
density remain approximately constant in the zone of
overconsolidation, but the vertical stress varies. See
text for further explanation
650
strength is less than that which would result from the
total overburden pressure. Excess pore water pres-
sure builds up, which may approach and counteract
the effective vertical pressure induced by the
(buoyancy-reduced) weight of solid matter in the sed-
iment. As a result, the weight of the overlying sedi-
mentary column is no longer carried alone by the
solid grain structure (grain-to-grain stress), but to a
great part or nearly entirely by the practically incom-
pressible pore water. This condition causes a drastic
reduction in shear strength (friction) and is therefore
one of the most important factors generating gravity
mass movements (cf. Sect. 5.4.l). Underconsoli-
dation and excess pore water pressures in the
subsurface are weIl known phenomena in the explo-
ration of hydrocarbons and deep groundwater (see
below).
(3) Overconsolidation. Cohesive, commonly clay-
bearing sediments, may exhibit astate of mechanical
overconsolidation, i.e., astate in which their fabric
strength is higher than under equilibrium with over-
burden pressure. This frequently occurs when the
upper part of a sedimentary column is removed by
erosion (Figs. 13.lc and 13.3d). Due to a kind of
"memory effect", the underlying sediment maintains
its compaction state achieved under the former
higher overburden pressure. This signifies that its
bulk density is too high and its porosity too low with
respect to the lowered sediment-water interface. The
erosion-induced reduction in vertical stress has prac-
tically no influence on the compaction state. Further-
more, renewed deposition on top of the erosion sur-
face (Stage 3 in Fig. l3.lc) does not affect the com-
paction state of the underlying material as long as the
newly added sediment does not surpass the former
top of the sequence.
Reeent fine-grained marine sediments frequently show
apparent overeonsolidation at or slightly below the sea
floor. They have, for example, shear strength values higher
than normal for this depth. This phenomenon is not related
to submarine erosion, but to the onset of ehemieal
diagenesis (the beginning of eementation) .
As sediment builds up over time, a fine-grained se-
quence may undergo changes in its consolidation
state, as demonstrated in the model in Fig. 13.2.
Emergence of sediments above sea level and/or the
lowering of the groundwater table lead to an increase
in effective overburden pressure and therefore initi-
ates renewed compaction or underconsolidation. Wa-
ter loss by evaporation near the land surface, associ-
ated with high capillary pressures, can produce
"evaporative hardening" of fine-grained materials.
Present-day erosion on land generally leads to
overconsolidated shales and mudrocks, while earlier
erosional events followed by subsequent deposition
mostly become masked.
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
13.1.3 Mechanical and Chemical Compaction
(Overview)
The porosity-depth relationship of usually nonuni-
form sedimentary columns is generally controlled not
only by gravitational, mechanical compaction, but
also by chemical-mineralogical processes. This ap-
plies in particular to coarse-grained materials (sand
and gravel) which are but little affected by mechani-
cal diagenesis. The models of Fig. 13.3 demonstrate
the principal behavior of some major sediment types.
(1) Compaction 0/ clays and sands. Purely mechani-
cal (or gravitational) compaction of a fine-grained,
mainly siliciclastic sediment leads to a porosity-depth
relations hip as indicated in Fig. l3.3a. The regularly
decreasing porosity versus depth is interrupted by
intercalated sands (thick beds or relatively thin sandy
turbidites) which cause a drastic drop in the porosity
curve in the upper part of the sequence. However, at
greater burial depth, as long as the sands are not af-
fected by pressure solution and cementation (see be-
low), they may maintain a higher porosity than their
neighboring shales and mudrocks.
If the same sequence is also affected by chemical
diagenesis, the porosity-depth relationship may be
modified in such a way as that shown in Fig. 13.3b.
At aburial depth of several hundreds of meters, the
less stable portions of the fine-grained material, for
example various bioclasts, start to dissolve and
reprecipitate as pore cement. At greater depths, un-
stable clay minerals "mature" into stable ones and
lose their crystal water (dehydration). As a result, the
porosity curve shifts to lower values. Sandy interbeds
in particular undergo shaIlow-burial cementation and,
in addition, deep-burial pressure solution at the con-
tacts of individual grains. Both processes strongly
reduce the pore space and permeability of such beds.
As stated by many authors (e.g. Chilingarian 1983,
BfÜekmann 1989), the absolute values of porosity at eer-
tain burial depths are reversely related to grain size and, in
addition, depend on the type of sediment particles (cf. Fig.
13.4). Clays rieh i!J. smeetite, montmorillonite, and mixed-
layer clay minerals generally exhibit higher porosities than
illitie or kaolinitie clays. Normally eonsolidated clays rieh
in exehangeab1e Na+, for exarnp1e montmorillonitie mate-
rial, usually bind more pore water and henee have higher
porosities than Ca++-rieh clays.
Some examples of porosity-depth eurves refleeting the
influenee of mierofossi1s and primarily meehanieal eom-
paetion are shown in Fig. 13.4. The highest initial porosi-
ties are in sediments rieh in diatoms and radiolarians, as
long as the delieate opal skeletons res ist meehanieal and
ehemieal destrueüon. They ean maintain porosities higher
than 0.7 (70%) up to several hundreds ofmeters below the
sea floor. In addition, other biogenie oozes may display
abnormally high initial porosities as a result of their
intratest porosity. This may inerease the total sediment po-
rosity by approximately 35 to 45% (Baehman 1984), as
eompared with a sediment eonsisting simp1y of solid grains
13.1 General Aspects 651

SEDIMENT
BUILDUP

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~ ~V~~ _ _ _ _ S~~L~:;7LL
./" SEDIMENTATION RATE ______ "...':':"
.' ...,.,.,.rrrl.."..":'f
HIGH L6w ZE'RO EROSION HIGH ' , ' .' .' . '
Fig. 13.2. Sedi-
/ NON-DEPO- ment buildup
SITION versus time, dis-
playing different
consolidation
states for fine-
grained material
in relation to sed-
imentation rate,
TIME
erosion, emer-
STATE OF CONSOLIDATION I I gence eaused by
UNDER- VARYING INCREASING OVER - falling sea level,

UNDER-
TRANS-
ITIONAL I
NORMAL
I
OVERCONSOL
CONSOL. {ADDITIONAL
LOADINGj
CONS.
n marker bed indi-
i //
i ./
i!
i' ;1-- NORMALLY
,, ij
NORMALLY
I
CONSOLIDATED CONSOLIDATED
I
I Z, DEPTH BELOW
I SEDIMENT
DEPTH. Z z SURFACE
of the same size. Pelagic carbonates consisting mainly of
nannofossils and foraminifers, however, exhibit about the
same initial porosities as siliciclastic marine muds witb mi-
nor proportions ofmicrofossils and organic matter.
(2) Pelagic carbonates, consisting mainly of calcare-
ous nannofossils, tend to displaya steplike decrease
in porosity and strength (and other properties) versus
depth (Fig. 13.3e). Partial dissolution and recrys-
tallization of calcium carbonate as eement already
starts in the soft nanno ooze (Fig. 13.3t), but be-
comes more important in the deeper regions where
firm ehalk and hard limestone are encountered.
While tbe nanno chalk is still highly porous, the pelagic
limestone has lost most of the porosity of the initial nanno
ooze at a depth, where a siliciclastic mud would rnaintain a
considerably higher porosity (Fig. 13.3a; see, e.g.,
Schlanger and Douglas 1974; Matter et al. 1975). The
depths of the transition zones between ooze, chalk, and
limestone also depend on tbe temperature gradient within
the sedimentary column (Wetzel 1989). A high gradient
furthers chemical diagenesis and thus a shift of the bound-
aries into shallower burial depths. Norrnally, calcareous
ooze is converted into chalk at burial depths of at least 150
to 300 m (Garrison 1981). The chalk-limestone transition
commonly occurs at burial depths between 500 and 1000 m
CON8QUDATION and tectonic up-
lift with denuda-
tion on land.
Note position of
cating the prog-
ress of compac-
tion assoeiated
with compaction
flow. All the
porosity-depth
curves represent
sediment of
equal, homo ge-
neous eompo-
sition
z
(e.g. Neugebauer 1974) and thus takes a very long time.
The compaction and porosity evolution of chalk at burial
depths beyond 1000 m is often retarded by overpressering
(Sect. 13.2.4) and the entry ofhydrocarbons, as observed in
North Sea reservoirs (Brasher and Vagle 1996). Chalks
deposited by slumping and gravity flows tend to preserve
higher porosities than normal pelagic chalks.
(3) Siliceous sediments rieh in opaline silica exhibit a
behavior similar to that of nanno oozes, but com-
monly have a higher initial porosity. Opal A is gener-
ally transformed into opal CT, in conjunction with a
marked decrease in porosity, at depths below 100 to
300 m (cf. Sect. 5.3.5 and Fig. 5.6).
High geothermal gradients lead to lithification of these sed-
iments at considerably shallower burial depths. Beginning
shallow-burial lithification of layers rich in diatoms has
been found in the Norwegian Sea (Kassens 1990). Here,
the diatom-rich layers originate from short upwelling peri-
ods during the late Pleistocene.
(4) Mixed biogenic and siliäclastic shallow-marine
sediments. Chemica1 diagenesis frequently starts at
shallow burial depths and proceeds very irregularly
(Fig. 13.3g and h). Layers containing significant pro-
portions of unstable, relatively reactive components,
652 Cbapter 13 Diagenesis

a MECHANICAL COMPACTION b MECHANICAL AND

CHEMIOA L COMPACTION
POROSITY . n
POROSITY . n
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
o~~~~~~~~ o+---~----~--~--~~~

SHALLOW -BURIAL
CEMENTATION

1000 1000

SANDY
DEEP-BURIAL
TURBIDITE
PRESSURE SOLUTION
, AND CEMENTATION

,: - - SANDSTONE
I
2000 I CLAY MINERAL
m I 2000 "MATURATlON" AND
I m DEHYDRATION
DEPTH , Z
DEPTH, Z

c e f
POROSITY. n POROSITY . n CEMENT VOLUME
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 o 50
o+---~----~--~--~

200 NANNO OOZE

1000

d ---,------"7'
EROSION .. "'"' ....
o+---~----~~irT"'~~~ 600
m LIMESTONE
/' "' REDE PO- PELAGIC
/" SITION
"
,"- NORMAL
DEPTH

I
/ CONSOLIOATION
9 h
I
1000 I
0
m SHALE OR
OVERCONSOLIOATION MARL
100 LIMESTONE
m OR CHERT
DEPTH

Fig. 13.3. Generalized porosity-depth relationships
of various marine and lacustrine sedIments; z is depth
below sediment-water interface. a Mechanical (gravi-
tational) compaction of silty clay and sands. b Me-
chanical compaction of a is enhanced by chemical-
mineralogical reduction of porosity. c Undercon-
solidation of low-permeable sediments resulting from
delayed escape of pore water. d Overconsolidation
due to erosion of thicker overlying sediments prior to
the accumulation of the present (thinner) sediment
colurnn. e,f Transition from pelagic nanno ooze to
chalk and limestone accompanied by mechanical and
chemical compaction, i.e., dissolution and
reprecipitation of carbonate as cement. (After Matter
et al. 1975; Wetzel 1989; Hobert and Wetzel 1989).
Cement volume in fand g is related to total sediment
volume. g,h Shallow-burial onset of carbonate (or
silica) diageneses in shelf and platform sediments
containing unstable mineral phases. This may gener-
ate strong fluctuations in porosity versus depth
13.2 Compaction, Flow Mechanisms
such as aragonitic bioclasts, high-Mg calcite, and
opaline silica, become cemented and lithified earlier
than their clay-rich interbeds which maintain a rather
high porosity. Instead of continuous hard beds, layers
of isolated carbonate concretions or chert nodules
can be formed. The role of microbial decomposition
of organic matter in the formation of carbonate nod-
ules is briefly described in Sect. l3.3.
There are numerous other factors influencing the porosity
evolution of sediments. Sediments rich in finely dispersed
organic matter (e.g. lake gyttjas and marine sapropels) have
particularly high initial porosities. Clayey sediments depos-
ited in freshwater lakes tend to develop higher initial po-
rosities than marine clays, but they can be surpassed by
marine diatomaceous and radiolarian oozes (see below).
When exposed to freshwater circulation, carbonates espe-
cially tend to become rapidly lithified. In slowly reactive
and low permeable sediments, such as shales devoid of
carbonate, age is an important factor in diagenesis, because
the escape ofboth the excess pore water and water released
by dehydration of clay minerals as a result of their transfor-
mation into stable phases takes a long time.
In conclusion, the effects of mechanical compaction
are in most cases overprinted by chemie al diagenesis,
particularly in sediments with large proportions of
highly soluble, unstable components. Variations in
temperature gradients and differences in age further
modify the porosity-depth relationship in sediments
of similar composition. For a11 these reasons, the
porosity-depth curves summarized in many articles
and special volumes mentioned above displaya wide
scatter, even within sediments of approximately iden-
tical composition. It is therefore frequently not possi-
ble to successfu11y describe the porosity-depth rela-
tionship and compaction of natural sediments in a
general way by simple rules or equations (see below).
This can be done for compaction or consolidation
experiments in the laboratory, and to some extent for
young, sha11ow-buried sediments below the present
sea or lake floors.
13.2 Compaction, Compaction Flow,
and Other Flow Mechanisms
13.2.1 Analytical Equations to Describe
Compaction
General concepts. In spite of the complexity of sedi-
ment compaction and the constraints mentioned
above, several authors have made an attempt to de-
scribe the porosity-depth relationship or consolida-
tion of sediments by simple analytical equations.
They were encouraged by the observation that the
reduction of porosity versus depth takes place in a
more or less exponential fashion, i.e., the porosities
of succeeding depth intervals decrease systemati-
653
ca11y. Figure l3.5 illustrates four different ways to
approach this problem:
(1) Soil engineers (Terzaghi 1925, Fig. l3.5a) have
leamed from laboratory consolidation tests that the
compaction of clayey materials renders straight line
relationships, if the void ratio, e, is plotted versus the
logarithm of the effective overburden pressure, Pe
(see above and Fig. 13.1). The void ratio, e, is the
ratio between the volumes taken by the voids and the
solid material of a sediment sampie (cf. Fig. l3.6a,
Eq.3).
(2) The effective pressure Pe is not a linear function
of depth, z, and therefore not very convenient to use
in the study of sedimentary colurnns with downward-
increasing bulk density. Therefore, Athy (1930) pro-
posed plotting porosity versus log z according to the
equation
(13.1)
where no = initial porosity
nz = porosity at the depth z .
Athy's exponential equation (Fig. l3.5b) is character-
ized by the initial porosity, no , and an exponent, ß,
the value of which depends on the sediment type and
the dimension of z (m or km). Y oung marine sedi-
ments frequently have ß values between 5 and 15 x
10-\ if z is measured in meters (Brückmann 1989).
However, while both the Terzaghi and the Athyequations
describe the true situation fairly weil in medium depth
ranges (Fig. 13.5b, Wetze I 1986), they render differing
results for shallow burial depths. Furthermore, the
"Terzaghi curve" cannot be used for deeply buried sedi-
ments. The reason for this is that the straight lines approach
zero porosity with depth, which is on the whole unrealistic.
(3) To overcome these difficulties, Beaudoin et a1.
(1985) and Maillart (1989) set certain limits for the
initial porosity, no , and the residual porosity, n,., at
great depth (several kilometers). Between these two
boundaries, the porosity changes exponentia11y (Fig.
13.5c). The specific parameters, a and ß, are empiri-
cal and may include effects of chemical diagenesis.
(4) Instead of using an exponential equation,
Baldwin and Butler (1985) emphasize that a power-
law equation (Fig. l3.5d) may suit the porosity-depth
relations hip better than an exponential equation.
Their equation is based on the average porosity-depth
relationship of a number of fine-grained sediments.
In this case, however, the sediments start with an
(unrealistic) porosity of 1 (100%) at the sediment
surface. The power-Iaw equation plots as a straight
Ene on log-log paper (Fig. l3.5d). In addition, these
authors replace porosity by "solidity" (S = l-n),
which is '.he complement of porosity.
654 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

POROSITY, n
04 0.5 1

200

Fig. 13.4. Generalized porosity/depth type

curves for young marine sediments
DIATOMAC. OOZE (hemi'pelagic to pelagic) little affected by
PELAGIC (> 50 %) cherrucal diagenesis. (Based on DSDP data,
CARBONATE Einseie 1989). Each curve represents the
results from about 20 to 70 DSDP drilling
sites. The oozes contain more than 50%
diatoms or radiolarians
SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTS
DEPTH BELOW SEA FLOOR (m)

Calculation of burial depths. If the compaction of a
sedimentary column follows one of these equations,
one can calculate from porosity or solidity the burial
depth, z" for a specific site (e.g., Magara 1976). Us-
ing the Athy equation, one obtains
(13.2)
where Zx is found in m, when ß values are, for exam-
pIe, between 5 and 15 x 10-4 as mentioned above.
The depth values calculated may differ considerably
from the true values, when no and ß are not known
exactly.
According to Baldwin and Butler (1985), the
burial depth, Zx (in km), for normally consolidated
shales is:
= 6.02 (I - n)635 or 6.02 Sl.35
Zx (13.3)
and for underconsolidated shales:
(13.4)
Whether this method can be applied to sandstones as
quoted by Baldwin and Butler (1985) appears to be
not sufficiently ascertained.
Lithic arenites and wackes containing a significant volume
of ductile grains displaya reduction in porosity from ap-
proximately 40% at the surface to 15% at a depth of 500 to
800 m (Smosna 1989). This is caused by simple grain rear-
rangement, whereas plastic grain deformation operates at
greater depths and proceeds more slowly. Evaluating a
large data base, Scherer (1987) conc1udes that, in addition
to the factors mentioned above, sandstone porosity de-
creases significantly with the age of the rocks considered.
This finding indicates that long-term processes, such as
pressure solution and various types of slow, chemical pro-
ces ses are involved (see below).
There are other and more sophisticated approaches to
the rnathematical modeling of compaction (summarized,
e.g., by Brückmann 1989; Bayer 1989b; Smosna 1989). All
of them try to understand and interpret this process in order
to predict situations which cannot be directly measured.
13.2.2 Compaction Ratio and
Differential Compaction
Compaction Ratio
In the following we consider horizontal layers or
slices of a compacting sedimentary column at various
depths. All the layers contain the same solid mass per
unit area or the same height, hs ' of pore-free, solid
material. The reduction of porosity versus increasing
burial depth causes individual layers or beds of an
initial thickness, h l , and mean porosity, n l , to com-
pact to a secondary thickness, h z, with a mean poros-
13.2 Compaction, Flow Mechanisms 655

a b

---"
VOIO RATIO, e VOIO RATIO, e
1 2 3 5 6 7 9
0.00' °
H
<? a "'=
a..

---
C~p-E
~
0-
CD
-
Si'

•
J:ChP
ChCY g 5
/
W,O.OI
a: e ', ~
.§ N 10
:::>
(J) :x:- ·TERZAGHI·
I-
(J)
w a.. TYPE"
a: w 50 CURVE
a.. 0.1 0
...J 100
Z
W
DIATOM.
OOZE
«
0 (GULF OF
ii
a: CAUFORNIA)
:::>
:::> !Xl
!Xl
a:
w 1
>
0 2
"ATHY·TYPE" CURVE
e- Pz
w
> 5 z in (m),
i= ß = 5 In 15 x 10 . 0
ü
w 0.30.5 0.7 0.8 0.85
u.
u.
0.9 0.7 0.6 .D85 0.9
w POROSITY , n POROSIT Y, n
TERZAGHI (1925): e , = 90 ' Ce log (po + ~
Po
Ce=COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBIUTY (DEPENDS ON MATERIAL AND USE OF leg GA In)
Po= INITIAL, EFFECTIVE VERTICAL STRESS

C d
POROSITY , n
.......T10p;..3;.'rrm-......,....,....;;r-.....-';;;.,......,.._...,
0.,O 0.9

,0.3

I J. 0:. '= 0 .004 ; ß = 0 .8 N

:x: I I~ 0:, = 0.001 ; ß = 0. 8 :x: 3

I-
a..
W
I
,r
, --,-i---- I
IX . 1::1 0.004; () = 0.4
I-
a..
~ 10
o : I NORMALLY
...J , I CONSOLIDATED
« : I ~ 30 SHALES
ii : BEAUDOIN-ET -AL. (1985) ii Z = Zmax (l.n)OI.
:::>
!Xl : MAILLART. (1989) ffi lOO (CI(. m 6. 35)
: I • -OI. Z P I
: I nz · n/+(no-nrl · e 300 " -SANDSTONES
: I " (SCLAT ER - CHRISTIE
J 198 0)
: I I
,: , ' IX., ß = EMPIRICAL /
I
CONSTANTS
:'
/

I ,
Z ma x = 6.0 2 km

Fig. 13.5. Approximations to describe the porosity- between both curves. (After Wetze! 1986). c Po-
depth relationship of fine-grained sediments. a Void rosity-depth curves between fixed upper and lower
ratio versus logarithm of effective vertical stress after limits, nc and n., respectively. Shape of curve is con-
Terzaghi; C1P' low plasticity, normally consolidated trolled by empirical constants, a and ß (absolute val-
clay; Chp , high plasticity clay; Che, highly colloidal ues depend on dimension of z). (After Maillart
clay (after Skempton 1970) and young diatomaceous 1989). d Porosity-depth curve in log-log diagram
oozes. (AFter Einsele 1982a, simplified). b Compari- according to a power-law equation. (Baldwin and
son of Athy-type and Terzaghl-type curves using Butler 1985, solidity replaced by porosity). See text
logarithmic scales for depth and porosity, but linear for further explanation
scale for void ratio. Note the field of good agreement
656 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

COMPA CTION AND

n, POROS ITY b SEDIMENT
COLUMN
COM PACTI ON RATI O
0 0 .2 0.4 0 .6
0 lI - · a -- --f
,'~, /' h1 = 1m POROSITY I
0 .2 ,'< (n1 = 0.7)
' \,' , hp
,
I
\
\ -t I
0.4 I n1 SOLIDS
E \
\
\ ',
\ \ z2
I
h1
6 0.6 '. \ \ I 7.; -
'. \ \1 I "2

c-------/[i]
I I I
I-
0... 0.8 \
, \ 1\-'-
I h2
w \ I \ I
0 hs I I
\ I \ I
\ I \
...J
~ \ I .i _ ~ _ :i. _
er \ I
:::> \23 COMPAC TI ON RATIO CR = hh 1 = 11- "2 ( 1)
m 2 - n1
: I
N \ COMPAC TI ON
"
I \ h1= 400m ~DECOM PACTION SINCE h s = ( 1- "1 ) h1=( 1- n2 ) h2 ,

\ I (n1 = 0.55) /
2 "
3-f-r--------I

I
\

\
-llJ
~ HEIGHT OF PORE WATER LOSS:

(2)

I- - - -r --- - , - --7
1 2 3 VOID RATIO e= "
hs" (3)
CR , COMPACTION RATIO

c d SOLID PARTlCLE
e SHALLOW ·BURIA L
COMPACTlON (GRAVEL , FOSSIL) CONCRETlON)

~ ~~~i---~-~-~~~-----~~
-_-
_-_ --
_ -_
__ -_ _ ......
laIif 1 _

- -- - -------

DIFFERENTIAL COMPACTION

SEDIMENT ·FILLED ::!: INTACT

PRIOR TO DISSOLUT ION OF SHELL SHELL

Fig. 13.6. a Demonstration of compaction ratio, eR, which decreases with increasing thickness of h,.
vOld ratio, e, and thickness or height of expelled pore c-e Direct measurement of compaction ratio using (c)
water by comparing two sedimentary columns. These horizontal, initially cylindrical sediment-filled bur-
have the same height, hs' of compact, solid matter, rows, (d) compacted part of sediment-filled broken
but differing porosities, n j and n2 • b Relationship fossil shell, and (e) initial parallellamination de-
between porosity-depth curve and eR at different formed by differential compaction adjacent to solid
depths, z, below top of sedimentary sequence. Note gravel, compact fossil (e.g. belemnite, bone of verte-
that eR depends on the height, h j , of the uppermost brae), and early diagenetic concretion
sediment column and on its average porosity, n j ,
13.2 Compaction, Flow Mecbanisms
ity, n2 , at the average depth, Z2' below the top of the
sequence (Fig. 13.6a and b).
The ratio between h} and h2 is the compaction ra-
tio, CR, which directly indicates the reduction in
thickness between a higher and lower interval in a
sedimentary column. Since h} is usually not known,
the compaction ratio is determined from the porosi-
ties, n\ and n2 (Fig. l3.6a, Eq. I).
In tbis case, n z is measured from rock sampies, and n \ is
assumed from published porosity-depth curves for the cor-
responding sediment type. One has, however, to take into
account that the value of n] and thus the compaction ratio
significantly depend on the height, h I> chosen for the top-
most (initial) layer as compared to that ofthe deeper buried
layer (Fig. 13.6b). A thick top layer renders a lower n]
value than a thin one, and therefore yields a lower compac-
tion ratio for the same sequence and depth range consid-
ered.
Under favorable conditions, compaction ratios can be
determined or estimated directly (Fig. 13.6c-e). For
example, horizontal, originally cylindrical, sediment-
filled burrows, generated several to tens of centime-
ters below the sediment-water interface, are de-
formed under higher burial load to bodies with ellip-
tical cross sections. Shallow-burial concretions pre-
serve more or less the original thickness of parallel
sediment laminae, while the same laminae become
compacted outside. Sediment-filled body fossils, the
shells of which are dissolved on or slightly below the
sea floor, also register subsequent sediment compac-
tion.
Differential Compaction
The effects of compaction are difficult to detect in
homogeneous, widely extended sediments, except for
the above mentioned changes in mass physical prop-
erties. Compaction becomes evident, however, in
cross sections of strata of laterally varying compac-
tion ratios, as weIl as in basins with inclined or irreg-
ular basin floors (Fig. 13.7). For example, mechani-
cally resistant reef structures undergo little or no
compaction, particularly if their pore space is ce-
mented early. In contrast, the adjacent interreef sedi-
ments displayahigh compaction ratio. Such differ-
ences in compaction, i.e., differential compaction of
sediments not far apart, may enhance the primary
relief of a bioherm (Fig. l3.7a), or accentuate and
modify the shape of sand-filled channels within a
shale sequence (Fig. 13.7b). Differential compaction
may generate faults on top of a step-like relief in the
underlying bedrock (Fig. 13.7c) and lead to a syn-
thetic fault system on top of an inclined basin floor
(Fig.13.7d).
Differential compaction is a common feature in
marine deltaic environments. Where fluvial sands of
657
distributary channels, river mouth bars and the delta
front (cf. Sect. 3.5) accumulate on top of thick
prodelta muds, they cause greater compaction than in
adjacent areas less loaded. The resulting slight de-
pressions in the topography are immediately filled up
with more sand, which adds to the already existing
higher overburden press ure at this site. In this way,
so-called growth faults are generated (Fig. 13.8a and
b).
Such faults are known, for example, from the Niger delta
front (Cohen and McClay 1996). The growth faults can
cause a rotation of the more loaded sediment bodies. High
sand input into the basin and a seaward prograding delta
front or shelf edge during sea level lowstand may lead to a
series of basinward prograding minor to medium-sized
faults (Fig. 13.8a), while a balance between subsidence and
deposition tends to form a single or only a few large
growth faults (Fig. 13.8b). Some of these initially steeply
inclined faults may be affected by the lateral sliding of sed-
iment ma~ses, such that they then continue basinward as
gently dipping reflectors (Bruce 1973). As a result, a rather
complicated extensional fault pattern can develop, as ob-
served in seismic records of the Texas coast (Fig. 13.8c).
Cross-sections of the continental margin in the northwest-
em Gulf of Mexico, which is little affected by salt diapirs,
show Tertiary sands and sandy shales subdivided by
growth faults into aseries of coastal-parallel troughs. These
rest on the irregular top of older, thick shales which form
"ridge-like" structures between the sand-filled troughs. The
growth faults die out near the deepest parts of the troughs.
The underlying shales appear to be more compacted than
the shales forming the ridges, which are underconsolidated
and exhibit excess pore fluid pressures from subsurface
depths of approximately 1500 m downwards.
The true origin of all these structures is revealed by
decompacting the sediments with the aid of the
(downward increasing) compaction ratio. In this way,
the state and thickness of a sediment body prior to
compaction can be reconstructed. As demonstrated in
Figs. 13.6b and l3.7, decompaction can be carried
out in several steps to show the evolution of a spe-
cific structure. U sing this method, the compaction-
induced structures can also be dated.
13.2.3 Compaction flow
Model Calculations
The reduction of the water-filled pore space of sedi-
ments versus depth is accompanied by the expulsion
of considerable volumes of water. This water moves
as compaction flow or as a kind of advective flow
either vertically upward through the entire sedimen-
tary column, or uses inclined, weIl permeable layers
to escape lateraIly.
In the following consideration, the amount of pore
water is expressed in terms of height of a pure water
column. The height or volume of expelled pore water
658 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

a DIFFERENTIAL COMPACTION b
i
z .. lbOOm
@
3 .
.
SAND.FILLED .'.
'"
I
1000 '
.

z.. I . m
CHANNEL ~ 't. ., . :..,
~~. ~~~~~==-~ ~.-
- -~-

CARBONATE MIGRATION
g~L~~ _________ _
CD REEF CORE PALEORELIEF Fig. 13.7. Examples
REEF BASIN of medium to large-
DETRITUS SEDIMENT scale sedimentary
structures caused by
differential compac-
tion at a burial depth
<D ,
. -:--;-~-~~-
. of z::::; 1000 m. a Pri-
mary relief of
bioherm with talus
HARD BEDROCK
(Stage I) is strongly
enhanced (2), assum-
ing compaction ratios
. JF10 i· of 1.0 (reef core) up
.I to 2.2 (basin sedI-
SAND AND GRAVEL ' z..,1000in ments). Mechanical
FAULT DUE TO'~ "'-~"
DIFFER~NTIAL .. ,,"=, .. ... ...... .
compaction may be
COMP"';CTION p' .. ' .', . modified by carbon-
ate redistribution.

:t:~m
(After Shaver 1977).
b Deformation of
sand-filled channe1s
and accompanying
shales. c Differential
compaction in three
SOLID BEDROCK
stages of develop-
ment on top of a step-
d like structure on the
SAND AND GRAVEL
+I basin floor generating
z ..1000m a nontectonic fault.
I d Deformation of
I
primary horizontal
bed on top of in-
~ c1ined baslll floor.
(b,c,d After Maillart
/"/ : 'SOLID BEDRO~t</
1989)
/ ///////////,
can be calculated from the reduction in porosity and For this purpose, the difference in mean porosity between
the thickness of the sedimentary column considered succeeding intervals is evaluated. In a second step, the vol-
(Fig. 13.6a, Eq. 2). An example of such a calculation urne increments of the intervals are summed from bottom
to top of the sequence (right-hand side of diagrarn). As ex-
for vertically ascending water, using the Baldwin- pected, the water volumes expelled from the single inter-
Butler (1985) porosity-depth curve for normally con- vals increase upward. Thus, the volume of the total pore
solidated argillaceous sediments, is shown in Fig. water flow through given horizontal planes or marker beds
13.9. in the sedimentary column grows substantially toward the
top. A new increII'ent of 1000 m of sediment would release
the same amounts of pore water from the underlying inter-
First, the volume of expelled pore water is determined for vals and generate an equal cumulative compaction flow.
specific depth intervals (1000 m in thickness, in the upper- Values derived by Bjerlykke (1983) from a somewhat dif-
most 250 to 500 m of the seetion), which was released by ferent porosity-depth curve are similar to those reported
the deposition of the last 1000 m increment of sediment. here.
13.2 Compaction, Flow Mechanisms
DEPOSITION
>SUBSIDENCE
DIFFERENTIAL
COMPACTION AND
GROWTH FAULTS
b
SHALE
DEPOSITION
~SUBSIDENCE
d QUATERNARY SAND AND SHALE
COASTAL PLAIN ----1---
PRE· TERTIARY LO~W~.~D~E:~y~IIIIIIII'R~I~D~G~E~S'~ OF
SHALE WITH HIGH FLUID PRESSURE
Fig. 13.8. Large-scale sediment deformation by dif-
ferential compaction and development of syndepo-
sitional fault systems. a,b Growth faults in marine
deltas or along edge of continental shelf as controlled
by subsidence and rate of deposition in three stages
of development (1-3). c Reconstruction of the evolu-
tion (Stages 1-4) of individual fault system due to a
combination of differential compaction and laterally
However, these values represent neither the total pore
water loss from individual sediment intervals nor the total
water loss from the entire sequence during its burial his-
659
c
SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
CONT, SHELF -
UNCOMPACTED SHALE
directed slide over gently inclined slip face. Stage 4
is constructed after seismic record. d Generalized
cross section of passive continental margin on the
Gulf coast of Texas. Note seaward migrating depo-
centers of sand-shale sedimentation on top of a thick
shale sequence, forming wide "ridges" of under-con-
solidated sediment in between the sand-filled
"troughs". (After Bruce 1973, modified)
tory. If, for example, the mean porosity of the lowermost
sediment interval in Fig. 13.9 is compared with the poros-
ity ofthe uppermost 1000 m thick section (mean porosity n
660 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

POROSITY. EXPELLED PORE WATER (1)

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 o 200 400 600 m7m 2
Or--,---r---,--~--~~~~~
.,= -=---+-,- --
NORMALLY
CONSOLIDATEO
I
,1-===-:- h S8
TI 49
/ -~

-----r--r----- ~~- -----

/ ...1 +
:r - :- - - ,

110
h _. ,//: I
,' n,1
t ,. /'
// ,
I
I
I

!
I
".
1///
, :
PORE WATER
~2
0- ~/L HEIC;HT-OF - ---'r----l 88 EXPULSION
W , PORE WATER, h~ . ~
o I LOST FROM h2 IN ' ,'"
..J I RELATION TO 11, : : I
<C
er ii2 1 ",/ , I
::J
!Xl ; ", h/; h (1=ill
1-n ,
-1) ::
:
3 - ;----------U
/...1
, <" P 2
S2
; " ,. , +
"
t ,.. " I
,
i . ,., _/ ... " , '" I
I
I
I

,r ,
--,----'!'- -----U
, - I •
41
, '000 m " , '"
I SEDIMENT " - , I
i
,
INTERVAL :
,
I
I

I --

-Jj
~_~ I II It

S ::-~~-u~~~_:i- ---- 34
i CONSOLIDATED __ , - - EtPELLED PORE
I , . - WATER DURINO
I ,, ' TRANSITION FROM
I _ -- HIGH ER TO LOWER
I _ -" SEDIMENT INTERVAL EXPELLEO
..,... .... / ( '
PORE WAtER (2)
6~--~--------------~~~--~
COMPLETELY COMPACTED o 100 m7m 2 o 1000 2000 3000 m'lm 2

Fig. 13.9. Upward-directed compaction flow ca1cu- interva1s. Right-hand curves: J cumulative compac-
lated for a standard porosity-depth curve for nor- tion flow, released by an additional 1 km increment
mally consolidated, argillaceous sediments (after of sediment from all six underlying 1 km-thick sedi-
Baldwin and Butler 1985); curve for under-consoli- ment sections. 2 Total volume of pore water released
dated material for comparison. Heights, or rather from aB six, 1 km-thick sediment sections during
volumes, of expelled pore water are based on equa- their burial history, summed from top to bortom. 1
tion in Fig. 13.6a (Hamilton 1976). Columns Water m 3/m 2 = 0.1 l/cm2• (See also Bj0rlykke 1983 and Gal-
released from individual lower to higher sediment loway 1984)

= 0.35), one gets (using Eq. 2 in Fig. 13.6a, as before) a loss of all intervals can be surnmed from top to bottom
volume of released pore water of 515 m 31m2• If the initial (Fig. 13.9, Curve 2). It is found for this example that a wa-
porosity at the sediment-water interface (no = 0.72) is taken ter volume of approxirnately 3150 m 31m2 was released. This
into account, one obtains 2520 m 31m2• The latter value cor- means, in other words, that a water colurnn of about one
responds to a water column higher (or thicker) than the half the present thickness of the sequence was expelled.
present thickness of the lowermost buried sediment inter-
val. This appears to be reasonable, because initially, i.e. at The sediment layers in Figure 13.9 had to take up some of
the sediment surface, 72% of this deposit consisted of wa- the ascending pore water from the compacting underlying
ter. sections, i.e., part of their original pore water was replaced
In order to determine the total water loss of the entire by older pore water. This mechanism is demonstrated fur-
sequence during its burial history, the cumulative water ther in the three-Iayer model in Fig. 13.10a,b, using the
13.2 Compaction, Flow Mechanisms 661

d FLOW REFRACTION f
PERMEABLE SAND
e DIFFERENTIAL COMPACTION
r.", .:':':':.:.:,:,;...,.
~ 1':::,:,:::::::::i:::::::
::~::: . ,,::::::: ~

..
. ~, :
'.

Il:!! M~~ :M~~-~~~...~~.'

h
LOW -PERMEABLE MUD, UNDERCONSOLIDATED (OV ER PRESSURED)

COMPACTION FLOW a b c
TIME , t

1- - - - -/".
I I,' tl;
t NEW lNCAEMENT
I OF SEDIMENT
'f\
LAYEA -1
' ".
I
J
ah /,' '"",- I -7----f- ~- , I
,
I: s hI
I
I
/,' 1;'
h
I
I
.I
I 1
n---.L.z~-{'- _d ___ ~ __ f1 I I .. 1 ____ AI. - - .... ~
I
1
I PORE WATER I I
OF ER 2

hs = HEIGHT OF COMPACT SOLID MATTER

n= MEAN POROSITIES WITHIN INDIVIDUAL LAYERS 1,2,3
hp = HEIGHT OF EXPELLED PORE WATER
h, = RISE OF EXPELLED PORE WATER IN POROUS SEDIMENT

Fig. 13.10. a Two-Iayer sequence (h/ and hz') based
on the same porosity-depth curve as m Fig. 13.9, but
later loaded by new increment of sediment (h l ). This
causes compaction and pore water flow (~ or hf)
from underlying Layers 2 and 3. The thickness, 11., of
compact solid matter is the same in all layers, but
mean porosities, n, vary with depth_ b Upward migra-
tion of pore water from Layer 2 and Layer 3, respec-
tively, caused by additional compaction under the
load of Layer 1 (h l ); dispersion and mixing are ne-
glected. c Total up'ward mi~ration of pore water from
lowermost layer (h3) resultmg from sediment load of
both overlying layers (hz and h l ). Note the especially
wide, secondary depth range of pore water from the
lowermost layer. d-f Refraction of vertically ascend-
ing pore water flow through highly permeable, in-
clined individual sand layers, sand wedges, and reef
detritus. See text for further explanation
662
same porosity-depth curve as in Fig. 13.9. As a result of
compaction caused by the new sediment increment (Layer
1, hl), the original pore water in the middle layer (Layer 2)
moves upward beyond its base and top and penetrates far
into the uppermost layer (Layer 1). This process can have
some bearing on chemical diagenesis when the ascending
pore water differs in chemistry from that of the other lay-
ers. Even more important may be the case in which the
lowermost layer (Layer 3) deviates in its pore water chem-
istry (e.g. non-saline or highly saline) from the following
layers with normal marine pore water (Fig. 13.lOc).
Compaction Flow as Function of the
Sedimentation Rate
During deposition, the range and velocity of ascend-
ing pore water flow and its potential for solute trans-
port are mainly a function of the sedimentation rate.
This relationship is exemplified in Fig. 13.1 Oa (based
on the same porosity-depth curve as Fig. 13.9).
Here, a two-layer sequence with the layers h l and h2 is
overlain, in the course oftime, bya new increment of sedi-
ment with the thickness h l. Under conditions of normal
consolidation, the former sediment layers, h land h2, are
compacted to h2 and h3, respectively, and their former po-
rosities, n l and n2, are reduced to n 2 and n 3 , until a new
state of equilibrium is established. In contrast to the model
in Fig. 13.9, the thickness, h" of compact solid matter is
kept constant in all three succeeding sections, i.e., they be-
come thinner with increasing burial depth. The loss of pore
water in terms ofthe height, h p, from the freshly compacted
sections h2 and h3 can easily be found graphically. Because
of the preservation of mass, the sum of h 3 and hp2 , for ex-
ample, is equal to the thickness, h 2 , ofthe former, less com-
pacted section.
The height, ~, of expelled pore water can also be cal-
culated with the aid ofthe compaction ratio, CR (Fig.
13.6a, Eq. 1). Ifh/h 2 = CR 1,2 and h/h 3 = CR2,3 etc., we
find
hl h2
h =h -h = - - - - - (13.5)
p2 2 3 CR 1,2 CR 2,3
and
(13.6)
Sequences subdivided into more sections can be
treated in the same way.
The ~ values of expelled pore water signify the
heights of colurnns or the thicknesses of layers of pure
water. In reality, the ascending pore water passes
through pores which occupy only a fraction ofthe sed-
iment volume. Hence, the range of ascending pore wa-
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
ter flow, h f, crossing the boundaries of the sediment
sections in question is greater than ~. It is generally
hp
h=-
f n
(13.7)
For our example we find
h = ~ and h = h p2
fl n1 f2 n2
Velocity of Ascending Pore Water
The velocity, v, ofthe pore water ascending in the po-
rous sediment is then approximately (t = time interval)
(13.8)
because the sedimentation rate is SR = h/t.
Equation (13.8) shows that the velocity of the
upstreaming pore water is controlled by the sedimenta-
tion rate and is inversely related to the thickness, h, of
the uppermost sediment layer considered. For the ex-
ample in Fig. 13.10 we find (using n 1 = 0.3)
0.84SR w ,
where S~ = sedimentation rate ofwet sediment in the
uppermost section with h l = 1000 m.
For S~ = 10, 100, 1000 mlMa, the velocity ofas-
cending pore water in our example is VI = 8.4,84, and
840 mlMa, or 2.7x10' 13 , 2.7x10· 12 , and 2.7xl0· 11 m/s,
respectively. In the underlying sediment intervals, the
velocity of compaction flow becomes successively less
with depth.
It should be mentioned here that one can distinguish between
different sedimentation rates (measured, for example, in
rnIMa; cf. Sect. 10.1): the sedimentation rate ofwet sediment
calculated from h l, the sedimentation rate for dry, compact
sediment derived from h" and the elevation, dh, of the
sediment-water interface above the basin floor (Fig. 13.10).
These calculations show that the velocity of a uniform,
upward directed compaction flow is generally ex-
tremely low and less than the sedimentation rate, a fact
which will be discussed further in Section 13.3.
13.2 Compaction, Flow Mechanisms
13.2.4 Pore Water Pressure, Overpressure
As mentioned earlier, compaction flow is delayed or
prevented if the permeability of the overlying beds
drops to such low values that the released pore water
cannot escape. It then becomes overpressured with
respect to the normal hydrostatic pressure, Ph' because
it has to carry part of or almost the entire load of solid
matter exerting lithostatic press ure (Fig. 13.l1a).
Hence, the state of underconsolidation of subsurface
layers can be determined from the pressure of their
pore fluids. The ratio between the pressure of the pore
fluid, Pf (Pf=Ph+u; U = excess pore pressure ), and the
lithostatic pressure, PI' is called geostatic ratio. Values
for this ratio vary between 0.47 (no excess pore pres-
sure) and in excess of 0.9, indicating very high
overpressure. In the latter case, the fluid pressure can
exceed the minimum horizontal stress and thus cause
fracturing andfluid escape (Fig. 13.11b).
Apart from sediment-Ioading of low-permeability
strata, overpressure can be generated bythe exertion of
tectonic lateral stress, thermal expansion of pore fluids
and/or dehydration of c1ay minerals, and by the
buildup of a hydraulic head in weIl sealed, shallowly
buried sediments.
For further details see, e.g., Osbome and Swabrick (1997),
Gordon and Flemmings (1998). In non-compressional set-
tings, fracturing preferentially occurs in the depth range of
1000 to 3000 m, where horizontal stresses are considerably
lower than vertical stresses (e.g. Rouchet 1978).
The existence of overpressure signifies that the section is
more or less sealed by overlying low-permeability layers.
Consequently, there is a high likelihood that hydrocarbons,
possibly released from the sequence, are not lost by migra-
tion to the land surface or sea bottom. Similarly, one can as-
sume that the primary pore water (connate water or chemi-
cally altered formation water) was not recently mixed with
meteoric water (see below).
Some sedimentary basins exhibit subnormal pressures in
drillholes of some depth. These pressures are less than the
hydrostatic pressure. Such low pressures can only occur in
porous rocks that are separated from circulating groundwater
by a low permeable barrier. Under this condition, subnormal
pressure can be generated by extracting fluids or gas from the
reservoir. Other causes for the reduction in pressure may be
an increase in pore volume by fracturing and decompression,
a decrease in the subsurface temperature, or osmotic effects.
13.2.5 Refraction of Pore Water Flow
So far, vertically ascending pore water in homoge-
neous sediments has been considered. The direction of
compaction flow is, however, often significantly modi-
fied by the intercalation ofwell-permeable layers, sedi-
ment wedges, and irregular sediment bodies. These in
addition may cause differential compaction and in-
c1ined bedding (see above). If vertically upstreaming
pore fluid in low-permeable muds reaches, forexam-
pIe, an inc1ined porous sand bed or sand wedge, its
663
direction offlow is refracted and thus forced to follow
more or less the dip ofthe sandy bed (Fig. 13.10d and
e). Similarly, reef detritus can act as conduit for com-
paction flow (Fig. 13.10f).
In the South Caspian basin, for example, subsurface pressure
data indicate that sands are acting as drains not only for the
underlying, but also for the overlying compacting shales
(Bredehoeft et al. 1988). The highly permeable sands there-
fore display flow velocities considerably higher than those
calculated for vertically ascending pore waters. The lateral
movement of compaction water may allow subdivision of a
sequence into several units which are hydraulically more or
less isolated from one another.
In conclusion, the compactional flow regime is charac-
terized by upward and outward expulsion of pore wa-
ters from growing basin fill. Lithostatic loading or
compressive tectonic stress provides the driving mech-
anism for flow. The zone of compaction flow mayaiso
inc1ude burial depths where the fluid pressure exceeds
hydrostatic pressure (Fig. 13.11). Compaction flow is
substantial in thick sequences and may contribute sig-
nificantlyto diagenetic processes. Neverthe1ess its vol-
urne is finite and limited by the water content of the
sediments involved. Growth faults frequently act as
barriers for the updip migration of compaction water
(including hydrocarbons).
13.2.6 Other Subsurface Flow Regimes
In growing sedimentary sequences, compaction flow is
the most obvious result of pore space reduction with
increasing burial depth. However, sedimentary basins
are also affected by other flow mechanisIDS. Inc1uding
compaction flow, we have to consider at least four dif-
ferent types of subsurface flow regimes (Fig. 13.12):
- Meteoric flow (gravity-driven flow).
- Compaction flow (pressure-driven flow, discussed
above).
- Thermobaric flow (temperature/pressure driven
flow).
- Convection (density driven flow).
All these flow regimes may occur simultaneously in
various basin settings which actively accumulate sedi-
ment. The model ofFigure 13.12 refers to a repeatedly
prograding shelf-slope depositional system as is com-
mon on passive continental margins with high terres-
trial sediment input.
These flow regimes have been discussed in some detail, e.g.,
by Bjerlykke (1984), Galloway (1984), Hanor (1987), Land
(1997), Morse et al. (1997), and many others. Their role in
diagenesis is described further in Sect. 11.3.
Meteoric water circulation. Meteoric water circula-
tion (groundwater flow) is common in permeable sedi-
664 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

PRESSURE
a o 200 400 600 800 1000 bar
100 MPa
2.0 g/cm 2
" BULK DENSITY OF SEDIMENT
, / (INCREASING WITH BURIAL DEPTH)

E
2S
N
2
I 2.3 LlTHOSTATIC (GEOSTATIC) PRESSURE
I ZONE / GRADIENT ('" 0.225 bar /rn)
I- OF OVER-
0..
UJ
Cl 3 PRESSURE Pe
...J
I u, EXCESS, PORE PRESSURE
« ---Ph ---~
PI / P\, GEOSTATIC RATIO
a: I
::>
co 4 :I
HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
GRADIENT (0.1 bar/ rn) pE' / EFFECTIVE OVERBURDEN PRESSURE (Pf -u)
5
PORE PRESSURE,
PRESSURE SOLUTION
b c LlTHOSTAIC PRESSURE

FRACTURE
Sl' MINIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS
MEAN EFFECTIVE STRESS
AT GRAIN CONTACTS:
d DECREASING THICKNESS
INCREASING a, BUT DECREASING Peg
Fig. 13.11. a Relations
between hydrostatie pres-
sure, lithostatie (or
geostatie) pressure, ex-
eess pore water pressure,
and burial depth. (After
Gretener 1979; Gretener
and Feng 1985). Note the
buildup of exeess pore
.A water pressure in the zone
PE'g: PE' "0 of "overpressure" and the
assoeiated reduetion in
effeetive stress. b Possi-
hle fraeturing nonnal to
AREA OF GRAIN CONTACTS, a, PER UNIT AREA , A
the direetion of minimum
prineipal stress in zone of
overpressure. (Rouehet
1978). c Comparison of
effeetive stress on unit
area of horizontal plane
and mean effeetive stress
at grain eontaets. d In-
ereasing eompaetion due
) to pressure solution. See
SOLUTION SEAMS
text for explanation

ments both on land and in eoastal settings. In the latter
ease, water infiltrated on land from preeipitation or
surfaee water tends to move down the topographie gra-
dient in the direetion of deereasing hydraulic potential
and discharges at or below sea level. A drop in sea
level or the emergenee of parts of the sequenee permit
deeper and more wide1y extendedfresh water jlushing
of sediments whieh originally eontained marine pore
water. In addition to loeal eireulation eells, larger re-
gional eireulation systems may develop (Fig. 13.l2d).
Compared with other flow meehanisms, shallow mete-
orie flow involves large volumes of water, whieh not
only replaee the primary pore water, hut also leaeh sol-
uble and unstable minerals from the sediments.
13.2 Compaction, Flow Mechanisms 665

a SUBSURFACE FLOW REGIMES c

~ ~ METEORIC

~
COMPAcnON FLOW
4~
. I' l' FLOW ~ (FRESHWATER
I I
FLUSHING)
~
.". -
THERMOBARIC
FLOW (:t C02 , HEAT CONVEcnON
CH 4 , H2 S)
OVERPRESSUREO GROUNOWATER LOCAl
RECHARGE METEORIC "LOW
REGIONAL
METEORIC FLOW

METEORIC FLOW,
INOUCEO BY
SEA LEVEL FALL

d \-----
__
-'" -,"" ~ ~ ""
_--...
. .. I
/')-..
I ,...,....,._

/ .J--;.~f---i'
_ _- I T-r-t-p

r~:::~
I .......................... -........... ..-"" l~ .. ..
~. - /':.---- . . I /
I ;- I I I
I / I / J

I I / / / ;'
I I /' ,/
I I
I POSSIBLY
I OEEPER
METEORIC
I FLOW

lOW PERMEABLE BASEMENT

CLASTIC WEOGE COMPAcnON FLOW

Fig. 13.12. a,b,c Prineipal types of flow regimes pos- ous eontemporaneous hydrogeologie flow regimes. A
sible in sedimentary basins. d Simplified model of sea-level fall may extend the influence of meteoric
repeatedly prograding, partially deltaie shelf-slope water circulation, MF. (Based on Bj0rlykke 1983;
faeies on passive eontinental margin, illustrating vari- Galloway 1984; Bethke 1989, greatly modified)

The velocities and water volumes of meteoric flow for a cer- Thermobaric flow. This type of flow oecurs in the
tain time unit can be estimated byusingDarcy's law. Forthis deeply buried parts of a basin fill, normally below the
calculation the perrneability (or hydraulic conductivity) of zone of eompaction flow with which it is related in
the strata in question, the gradient, and the area of the cross
some respects. Under increasing temperature and pres-
section perpendicular to the flow direction must be known.
Along the Atlantic continental margin ofNorth America, sure, significant volumes of water may be released by
fresh, artesian groundwater was found by ocean driIling far dehydration of c1ay minerals and other hydrous min-
offshore (Kohout et aI. 1988). If special water conduits such eral phases (e.g. evaporitic minerals, cf. Sect. 6.4.6 and
as fault systems are present, meteoric water circulation can Fig. 6.12), besides the expulsion ofresidual pore wa-
affect even deeply buried strata. However, the volume ofwa- ter. Similar to pure compaction flow, the fluids tend to
ter passing through deeper parts ofthe basin tiII during a cer- move slowly upward until they reach permeable layers
tain time interval is usuaIly much less than that of shaIlow allowing lateral flow. However, the extremely low
meteoric circulation systems.
permeabilities ofintensely compacted sediments in this
depth zone commonly restrict water movement. As a
result, this zone is charaeterized by abnormally high
666
pore water pressures. Thennobaric waters frequently
contain methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide
derived from the thermal alteration of organic matter
within the sediment.
Convective flow. This flow is density-driven and can
operate in different ways. It occurs in both relatively
shallow and deep burial depths:
- Near the surface when water ofhigher density (salin-
ity) fonns a kind ofreflux system through sediments.
This is known from some modern salt lagoons sepa-
rated from the open sea (cf. Sect. 6.4.2). Circulation of
sea water with slightly elevated salinity mayaiso occur
in carbonate platforms.
Beneath the North Island of the Great Bahama Bank, for
example, sea water with salinities between 38 and 42%0
flows eastward, mixes with colder groundwater of normal
salinity, and enters again the sea at water depths of 200 to
300 m (Whitaker and Smart ·1990). Such flow systems are
thought to be important for pervasive dolomitization of car-
bonate buildups (see below).
- Pore water flow in a circ1e or loop within a penne-
able sediment body may occur without the uptake of
water from outside or loss of water to an adjacent flow
system. Density differences may arise as a result of
differences in temperature andlor salinity (cf. Sect.
5.2). However, convection of fluid can only occur in
relatively large, penneable rock bodies if the differ-
ence in density is sufficiently high and, in addition, the
viscosity of the fluid is low enough to overcome fric-
tion within the porous medium. Convective mass trans-
port can redistribute relatively large quantities of mass
in comparatively short times.
Theoretical calculations and some field observations con-
ceming temperature gradients and pore water chemistry have
presented evidence that such flow systems are possible in
several sedimentary basins (Wood and Hewett 1984; Hanor
1987; Schwartz and Longstaffe 1988). For example, density
inversions in pore fluids on the Gulf coast ofTexas are suffi-
cient to drive large-scale convective flow at rates of meters
peryear.
A quantitative evaluation of these large-scale flow sys-
tems is difficult, because the three-dimensional structure of
basin fill and its heterogenities are seldom sufficiently
known. The permeabilities ofthe different sedimentary facies
in particular vary markedly in space and time (Bethke 1989,
Bj0rlykke et al. 1989).
There are several other, so-called nonhydraulic mecha-
nisrns, such as osmosis and ultra-filtration, which may
cause or influence fluid flow and pore water chemistry
in argillaceous sediments (NeuziI1986; Hanor 1987).
Although several experimental studies have been car-
ried out in this field, the significance ofthese phenom-
ena in large-scale natural systems is still poorly known.
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
13.2.7 Significance of the Various Flow Regimes
The importance of the various subsurface regimes de-
pends on the type of sedimentary basin and its age and
evolution through time. Compactional and thennobaric
regimes are associated with the active depositional
phase of the basins, particularly in basins on continen-
tal margins, marine rift zones, or delta-fed basins
which subside significantly and are fi1led rapidly. If
this active phase comes to an end and is followed by
emergence ofthe basin fill due to sea-Ieve1 fall or the
onset of uplift, compactional and thennobaric flow
slow down and finally cease.
Depositionally inactive basins or hydrogeologically
maturing basins are then increasingly subjected to
gravity-driven, meteoric water circulation and there-
fore flushed by fresh water. Recharge commonly oc-
curs along the uplifted margins ofthe basin, and mete-
oric flow is directed toward the less elevated basin
center. Pressure gradients versus depth commonly re-
cord hydrostatic conditions. Many basins all over the
world have evolved to the stage when gravity flow pre-
dominates, for example the Aquitaine basin and Paris
basin in France, the Pannonian basin in Hungary, and
several basins in North America.
13.2.8 Evolution ofPore Water Flow in
Various Depositional Systems
The young, slowly deposited sediments of deep-sea
basins far away from the continents, as weil as most
sediments of slowly subsiding epicontinental seas, ex-
hibit only minor compaction flow and are barely thick
enough to develop overpressured thennobaric zones.
The emerged, more or less horizontally layered sed-
iments of an epicontinental sea, for example, provide
little possibility for deeply circulating meteoric waters
(Fig. 13. 13a), as long as significanthydraulic gradients
are absent due to low relief. Hence, the evolving circu-
lation systems are limited in extent both laterally and
vertically, excep~ for emerged carbonates which may
provide more effective conduits for ground water cir-
culation. Sandstones in such sequences are usually thin
and contain small proportions of unstable minerals
which may be later leached and gain secondary poros-
ity (see be1ow).
Thick, fluvial, and deltaic sediments along the mar-
gins of a continental rift basin are usually weil and
deeply flushed by meteoric waters during and after the
time of their deposition (Fig. 13 .13b). Their frequently
immature sediments derived from nearby uplifted rift
shoulders can thus be strongly affected by leaching
and alteration, as in the example of kaolinitization of
feldspar. Some compaction flow may originate in the
basin center and migrate $ome distance outward.
13.2 Compaction, Flow Mechanisms
a EPICONTINENTAL SEA
LIMITEO MINERA LOGICAL LY
COMPACTION FLOW MATURE SANDS TONE
b CONTINENT.A;l RIFT BASIN STRONG AND DEEP
METEORIC CIRCULATION
d e
C BURIED DEEP-SEA FAN PROXI·
MAL
TURBI·
OITE
COMPACTION FLOW ONlY COMPACTION FlOW
Fig. 13.13. Dominant flow regimes in various types
of sedimentary basins. a Epicontinental sea in stage
of emergence. b Continental rift basin with central
lake or marine environment. c Buried deep-sea fan.
d,e Sections of special turbidite sequences. See text
for further explanation. (After Bj0rlykke 1983)
Deep-water turbidites, which have been buried by
pelagic and hemipelagic marine sediments (Fig.
13 .13c), are normally not affected by early freshwater
flow. If the turbidites are relatively fine-grained and
poorly sorted, they lose most of their primary porosity
due to compaction, or their pores are filled with car-
bonate cement provided by compaction flow from
carbonate-bearing host sediments (Fig. 13. 13d). Only
thicker turbidites with thin intercalations of host sedi-
ment devoid of carbonate or easily soluble opaline sil-
ica, have a chance of preserving some of their primary
porosity; or they may gain some secondary porosity by
the leaching effect of compaction water (Fig. 13.13e).
After the emergence of sediments deposited on the basin
margin, meteoric water circulation can also penetrate into
turbiditic sandstones and bring about extensive feldspar
leaching, the formation of kaolinite, and create secondary
porosity. This has been reported, for example, from the
Pannonian basin in Hungary (Matyas and Matter 1997)
which is weIl known for its warm artesian waters.
The flow regimes of other basin types and their evolu-
tion over time can be inferred from these general rules.
667
However, many basins experience changes in the de-
velopment of certain flow regimes during their
depositional history (Fig. 13.14).
F or example, Lower and Middle Jurassic deltaic sands, repre-
senting the rifting stage in the central North Sea, were sub-
jected to meteoric water circulation during and immediately
after their deposition (Fig. 13. 14a). As a result, feldspar and
mica in the sands were converted to kaolinite. Then the
sandy deposits (Brent Sandstone ofthe Viking graben) were
covered by transgressive shales and carbonates, which cut
them offfrom the meteoric water supply and initiated some
compaction flow (Fig. 13. 14b). Grain-to-grain pressure was,
however, not sufficiently high to produce pressure solution
(see below). In a third stage during the Upper Jurassic, part
of the sequence emerged due to tectonic uplift. Thus, the clay
cover on top of the sandstones was removed, aIlowing the
renewal of meteoric water circulation within certain portions
ofthe sandstone (Fig. 13.14c).
The later development (Fig. 13. 14d) was characterized by
significant subsidence and deposition of more than 2000 m
ofyounger beds, which again sealed the Jurassic sandstones
and caused overpressure, limited compaction flow, and pos-
sibly thermobaric flow and hydrocarbon accumulation within
the deeply buried part of the basin fill. Further compaction
and cementation of the sandstone by pressure solution was
inhibited by the buildup of a very high excess pore pressure
. . . ... ........ ... .
----%t+Ztr+5.itt4E.Wii?3±@1
TERTIARY ,.
t"-t".''I'''\':*1:'.-.:''.'r''1'.''';'''.',~.'
, -
..... '.''''r''.'I''T''.' ....... '."T'''I' ........ ' .'~.'''''',,,,,,,,,,,,,,
~~~DsSJ~t~~
g~~~~~fTEETtC . i·;\;i.;: ;';';';';':';';";';';;;: ;·;'.";";';';':':':i: i: :':'; ';';';';';
i~t:sc""~._i
OVERPRESSURED SEQUENCE':
lIMI:rED. SLOW COMPACTION FLOW
EROSION OF CL AY COVER
AND RENEWED INFILTRATION
UPPER JURASSIC
TRA NSGRESSION
",:.;.;.:.;.;.;.:.;.:.:.:.;.:.:.:.:.:.;.:.;.:.:.;.:.:.;:::;:::::::::;::::::
gÄ~~JWA~-:,:::/Hr::r?:::U::::::~M~~#8M}::H?
SOME COMPACTION FLOW
INFILTRATION
~CJ~ORIC -t ~ ,,
§!~~:~it1Btiili;i.~]I··.
LOWER & MI DOLE
JURASSIC
PROGRADING
DELTA
KAOLINITIZATION OF
FELOSPAR AND MICA
Fig. 13.14. Burial history and varying flow mecha-
nisms controlling diagenesis of Jurassic Brent sand-
stone in the North Sea, burial depth 2.5 to 3 km.
(After Bj0rlykke 1983)
668
equivalent to approximately 3000 m ofwater column. Today,
about 70 to 80% of the overburden load is carried by pore
13.2.9 Summary (Compaction and Subsurface Flow Regimes)
- We distinguish between normally consolidated
sediments with pore water pressure equal to the
hydrostatic pressure, underconsolidated sedi-
ments (overpressured pore water), and
overconsolidated sediments (e.g. after erosion).
Sediment compaction is generated by both load-
ing and chemical-mineralogical processes. It is
accompanied by increasing bulk densitities and
decreasing porosities and permeabilities. With
the aid of analytical equations or the compaction
ratio, these parameters can be approximated.
Differential compaction can explain a number of
small- and large-scale sedimentary structures.
- Compaction flow results from expelled pore wa-
ter and occurs in overpressured systems (mainly
caused by ongoing sedimentation or tectonic
stress). The velocities of compaction flow are
very slow and normally related to the sedimenta-
13.3 General Processes in
Chemical Diagenesis
13.3.1 Introduction
Chemical diagenesis is an extremely complex, but very
interesting and important topic in sedimentology and
economic geology. There is an immense number of
publications on the different aspects of chemical
diagenesis in various rock types from many regions all
over the world. Chemical diagenesis affects silici-
c1astic and biogenic materials (skeletal remains and
organic matter) of greatly varying solubility and ther-
modynamic stability, and it inc1udes mineral reactions
with pore fluids ranging from meteoric waters to
highly concentrated brines. Some aspects ofthe chemi-
cal diagenesis of carbonates and evaporites are briefly
described in Sects. 3.4.7 and 6.4.6.
Pore fluids are the main mediator of all reactions in
chemical diagenesis. Solid-solid reactions are negligi-
ble under the low temperature conditions characteriz-
ing diagenetic processes. The flow and chemistry of
pore fluids are therefore the most important criteria for
distinguishing between various diagenetic realms (cf.
Fig. 13.16) at both shallow and deep burial depths.
Primary minerals may be depleted in trace elements,
which are enriched in secondary mineral phases or
have migrated in solution to other sites. Stable isotopes
and fluid inclusions present in secondary minerals may
reveal their origin (cf. Sect. 13.8.1). Some inorganic
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
water and only 20 to 30% by the sandstone framework
(BjerIykke 1983).
tion rate. Deeply buried, fine-grained sedimen-
tary bodies have lost more water than equiva-
lent to their present-day volume.
Other subsurface flow regimes include temper-
ature/pressure driven thermobaric flow and
density-driven convective flow. These flow sys-
tems often exert a great influence on deep-
burial chemical diagenesis.
- Meteoric flow, however, operating in continen-
tal depositional systems or in at least partially
emerged marine sediments, is mostly more ef-
fective in dissolving and reprecipitating mineral
phases than the other flow regimes.
The directions of all kinds of subsurface flow
are strongly influenced by refraction which nor-
mally leads to lateral flow toward the basin
margin and to the development of separated
flow systems within an individual basin.
processes are closely related to the decomposition and
diagenesis of organic matter.
Generally, one can distinguish between two end
members of diagenetic scenarios which can be realized
in early and late diagenesis (cf. Fig. l3.16b,c):
- Open diagenetic systems, which exchange dissolved
matter with sea water or other parts ofthe sedimentary
basin (allochemica/ diagenesis).
- Closed systems, which preserve their bulk chemical
composition (isochemica/ diagenesis), although they
exhibit internal solution and recrystallization pro-
cesses.
Specific processes in diagenesis include:
- Dissolution of pre-existing minerals, including pres-
sure solution and earlier cement minerals.
- Leaching of primary minerals and their partial re-
placement by secondary minerals (e.g. the transforma-
tion of feldspar into expanded hydrous minerals, such
as kaolinite and other clay minerals).
- Full replacement of primary minerals by secondary
minerals (e.g. calcite by dolomite, matrix dolomite).
- Overgrowth of detrital grains (e.g. new quartz on
primary quartz).
- Pore-filling cements.
- Recrystallization of pre-existing, normally finer
grained particles.
13.3 Chemical Diagenesis 669

Chemical diagenesis is commonly accompanied by
compaction. The term "chemical compaction" may re-
fer to pressure solution, but is also used in a broader
sense to describe the total compaction effect of chemi-
cal diagenesis. We may, however, distinguish between
processes retarding the onset and efficiency of chemi-
cal compaction (e.g., early cementation, pore filling
with oil) and situations accelerating chemical compac-
tion (presence of metastable mineral phases, aggres-
sive pore fluids, effective flow systems; Moore 1989).
Carbonates normally undergo earlier and more inten-
sive diagenesis than siliciclastic sediments.
Most geologists and sedimentologists dealing with
diagenesis distinguish between processes of "early"
(shallow-burial diagenesis or eodiagenesis) and "late"
(deep-burial) diagenesis, but some experts have de-
scribed more stages of diagenesis for particular rock
sequences or regions, including intermediate or
mesodiagenesis. A sharp boundary between early and
late diagenesis is difficult to define, because it depends
on the nature of the process which is considered most
CARBONATE GRAINSTONES
MINERAL PRECIPITATION COMPACTIONAL
AND DISSOLUTION PROCESSES
TRANSFORMATION OF HIGH- TO
LOW-Mg CALCITE. LlnLE OR NO
CEMENTATION. ot K,ARSTIFICATION
CALCITE PRECIPITATION AND
CEMENTATIO N. EARLY
DOLOMITIZATION
GRAIN BREAKAGE
important. An overview ofthe relationship between the
major depth and temperature zones of inorganic ce-
mentation and the oil window (cf. Chap. 14) is shown
in Fig. 13.15.
Ifthe transition from biogenic decomposition of organic mat-
ter to thermocatalytic reactions (see Sect. 14.2) and the onset
ofhydrocarbon migration are taken as particularly significant
in diagenesis, the lower boundary of early diagenesis coin-
cides with a temperature of 60 to 75°C (e.g., Edman and
Surdam 1984; Hesse 1986). Assuming a temperature gradient
of 25°C per 1000 m and a surface temperature of 10°C, the
transition to catalysis corresponds with aburial depth of at
least 2000 m. However, ifthe peak of carbonate diagenesis is
thought to characterize early diagenesis, a much shallower
burial depth appears to be appropriate.
Many authors (e.g., Bemer 1980) leave this question
rather open. Others use the mechanical state ofthe sediment
to distinguish the following diagenetic zones (e.g. Swennen
et al. 1996):
- Syndepositional and early diagenesis (soft sediment).
- Compactional!pre-fracturation stage.
- Fracturationlpost-fracturation stage.
A generally valid depth range of these zones cannot be as-
sessed because the various sediment types behave differently
in this respect.
Due to all these and further complications, it is not
possible to present a simple system including and SUill-
marizing all important problems of chemical dia-gene-
sis. In the following, only some major processes and
phenomena can be discussed. We first discuss sepa-
rately some specific processes (such as molecular dif-

~
fusion and pressure solution) which operate without
IN-TO ' GRAIN advective flow. Then we proceed from early, shallow-
ESSURE SO
CALCITE
C~MENTATI O
burial diagenesis to phenomena of later, deep-burial
STYLOLITHI ZATION diagenesis (Sects. 13.4 and 13.5). Meteoric water cir-
ANHYDRITE ROCK FRACTURING
REPLACEMENI culation, briefly described in Sect. 13.2.6, will be dis-
cussed further in these sections.
1DO' C
SADOLE
DOLOMITE
[ CEMENTATION 13.3.2 Solute Transport by
SOLID BITUMEN1 " Subsurface Flow Systems
(PYRO BITUMEN) ~
PRECIPITATION ~
General Aspects
150' C 11

When pore fluids are largely in equilibrium with their

AN HYDRITE
AND CALCITIZATION.
matrix minerals, theyare only slightly oversaturated or
ELEMENTAL SULFUR undersaturated with respect to the common carbonate
and silicate minerals. Their capacity to dissolve or pre-
cipitate these minerals is therefore limited. To accom-
POST-BITUMEN
CALCITE CEMENTATION
~ plish significant diagenetic effects, either high flow
velocities andlor very long time periods are necessary.
210·C
To caJculate the flow velocity of pore water using Darcy's
law, the intrinsic permeability ofthe sediment, its effective
Fig. 13.15. Relationship between early and deep- porosity, and the fluid pressure gradient of the flow system
burial carbonate diagenesis (grainstones ) and matura- must be known. Furthermore, the density and viscosity ofthe
tion of organic matter. (After Heydari 1997, simpli- fluid have to be taken into account which rnay significantly
fied)
670
deviate from pure water at low temperatures. With these data
and the differences in the solute concentrations, the mass
transport from one site to another can be determined. For
further details see, e.g., Hanor (1994).
Another approach to this problem is the question how
many volumes of pore fluid flowing through a unit area of
sediment (e.g. 1 cm 2) are needed to dissolve minerals at one
site and to fill all sediment pores with cement at another site.
In the case of quartz, for example, the solubility increases by
2 ppm/°C (at 100°C). Assuming a geothermal gradient of
3°C1l00 mand a quartz density of2.7 g/cm 3, a fluxof~3 x
10 8 cm3/cm2 is required to import the silica from hotter strata
to overlying colder regions, which is needed to completely
cement a rock of 10% porosity (BjfIJrlykke and Gran 1994).
This means that a water colurnn of 1000 km (!) has to pass
through the sediment which appears to be absolutely unreal-
istic, unless there is long-term convection flow (see below).
It is often more likely that pressure solution and short-dis-
tance diffusion transport provide silica cement.
Meteoric Water Circulation
The prerequisites of meteoric water circulation and the
general laws controlling velocity and volume of this
flow (i.e. shallow and deep groundwater circulation)
have been mentioned in Sect. 13.2.6. Meteoric waters
commonly differ in their composition from connate
pore waters (cf. Sect. 13.3.6), before they approach a
thermodynamic equilibrium with the mineral phases
a10ng their flow parth. Intense and long-lasting mete-
oric flow can therefore be very effective in leaching
carbonate- and feldspar-bearing sediments, aided by
the uptake of carbon dioxide and organic acids from
the soil zone. Whereas leaching and creation of sec-
ondary porosity prevail elose to the recharge area of
these waters, reprecipitation of dissolved constituents
can take place after some flow. This mechanism is dis-
cussed further in Sect. 13.4.4.
Compaction Flow
Sedimentary sequences below the sea or large lakes as
well as deeper buried sediments, protected from mete-
oric inflow by overpressure or an impermeable to low-
permeable seal, may be affected only by compaction
flow (upward directed advection; cf. Sect. 13.2.3 and
Fig. 13. 12a,d) and diffusion (Sect. 13.3.4). These sys-
tems can be regarded as more or less elosed, and their
flow velocities and thus their advective solute transport
are very slow (cf. Fig. 13.16a).
As pointed out in Sect. 13.2.3, the velocity ofvertical com-
paction flow, v, and the filter velocity, v f = v· n, are com-
monly less than the sedimentation rate, SR w • Usingtheprevi-
ous example (velocity of compaction flow v 1 = 0.84 SRw>
SR,. = 40 m1Ma, porosity n 1 = 0.3), the filter velocity of
upstreaming pore water is vf1 = 10 m1Ma. If, for example, the
pore fluid contains 20 mg/I or 20 g/m 3 dissolved silica, then
the transport rate of silica through a horizontal plane within
the sediment is 200 g/m 2/Ma. This amount corresponds to a
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
0.074 mm thick layer of solid quartz or chert if all dissolved
silica could be precipitated within the plane. If a water col-
urnn with the same Si0 2 concentration as before, 1000 m in
height, passes through a unit area ofthe horizontal plane, it
may leave behind a quartz layer of7.4 mm at most. In reality,
only a small fraction of the dissolved silica can be precipi-
tated as cement.
This solute transport is not enough to provide cement
for a sand layer of a few to tens of meters in thickness.
Similarly, limited compaction flow can barely dissolve
enough pre-existing cement in order to create second-
ary porosity. Even the relatively well soluble calcium
carbonate (100 to 1000 gim3 ) cannot be transported by
compaction flow in sufficient quantities to account for
the 1arge vo1umes of carbonate cement observed in
rnany sequences. However, where thin sandy beds or
channel fills within muddy sediments act as lateral
drains ofupstreaming compaction flow (Fig. 16a), the
volume of pore fluid and the concentration of solutes
may match the requirements for significant cementa-
tion.
The efficiency of compaction flow in delivering
cement increases when it is highly saline as frequently
observed, e.g., on top of deeply buried evaporites.
Then evaporitic minerals such as anhydrite, barite, ce-
lestite and halite occur as cement minerals. Con-
versely, ascending low-centrated pore fluids can dis-
solve earlier cements and partieles of the matrix along
specific drains and fractures (see below).
In general, the volume of compaction flow further
decreases in deeply buried sediments which have al-
ready lost most oftheir initial porosity (cf. Fig. 13.10).
Under completely different circumstances, saline pore fluids
can precipitate minerals very rapidly. This is known as "scal-
ing" from production wells in oil and gas fields which inter-
mittently produce formation waters. Here flow lines and
valves can be blocked by mineral cements (e.g. Osbome et
al. 1994; Yuan et al. 1994). Rapid decrease in temperature
and pressure causes release of carbon dioxide and precipita-
tion of calcium carbonate. Mixing of injected sea water (to
maintain reservoir pressure) with incompatible brines my
lead to the precipitation of sulfates of Ba, Sr, and Ca.
Redistribution of Solutes by Convective Fluid Flow
Convection of pore fluids in a relatively large, elosed
circulation system (Sect. 13.2.6 and Fig. 13.16t) ap-
pears to be a rather common phenomenon in the
subsurface, even under conditions of normal geother-
mal gradients. Such long-term operating circulation
systems have been postulated by several authors in or-
der to explain the volume of dissolved and redistrib-
uted cement in thick sandstone bodies, which other-
wise are difficult to exp1ain. As a result of changing
solubilities with temperature, quartz will move from
hot source zones to cooler sinks, but carbonates from
cool sites to hot ones. Dissolution and reprecipitation
are particularly intense in anticlinal crests and
13.3 Chemical Diagenesis 671

a AQUEOUS DIFFUSION b COMPACTION FLOW (ADVECTION)

I ON WATER

l"'t
ION A+ B WATER'

{, :
A B
,
r 7:*-:
~ OPEN ·
SEDIMENT
SYSTEM T

r
1-" .,. I
I
. ., I I I ENHANCED
,. I f
• __ ~FLOW'
, ~I -.,. I
CLOSED I I 100 r,
': .': .' . LEACHING OR
I :!:CLOSED I I ~ CEMENTATION
SYSTEM TO I I t I

K-
gSO' I SYSTEM I I

?
I I
HEMICAL I I m I ASYMMETRIC
DIAG.) I ~ CEMENTATION

/
I I... t I OR LEACHING
/ I ~ t I
.1.
I I
'7777r77777~ BASEMENT
DECREASING DECREASE
SEDIMENT MULTI· IN FLOW :!:UNIDIRECTIONAL
DIFFUSION DIRECTIONAL VELOCITY TRANSPORT
COEFFICIENT TRANSPORT

EXCHANGE OF
SSOLVED SPECIES
FUSION)
C MIXED SOLUTE TRANSPORT
SOLUTION AND
METEORIC FLOW RECRYSTAL·
+DIFFUSION EMERGED LlZATION

:!:OPEN
SYSTEM
(ALLO·
CHEM.
t~ ~-
'''~.U. _ ..,/1.,,/1.
____ -
I I \
->
. T
I

500 PRIMARY
DIAG.) . TO UNSTÄBLE
eAATiCLES

l
tE. G.,
ARAGONITE}
:!:CLOSED f
SYSTEMS
NEW, STABLE
MINERAL

PREDOMINANTLY DIFFUSION INTRAGRANULAR MICROPORE,

DIFFUSION, SOME AQUEOUS SOLUTION, DIFFUSION ONLY
COMPACTION FLOW

f DISSOLUTION OF CARBONATE,
SUBSURFACE CUMULATION OF QUARTZ AND
CONVECTIVE FLUID FLOW HYDROCARBONS

ISOTHERMS "-
--7--------- SHALE
SAND/SANDSTONE
--~------
".
DISSOLUTION
OF QUARTZ,
ACCUMULATION
OF CARBONATES SHALE

Fig. 13.16. a-c Various mechanisms of solute trans-
port in sediments reflecting more or less "closed" or
"open" chernical systems. d Solution-recrystallization
via thin film of pore fluid in rnicropore of closed
(isochemical) system. e Same as d but in open
(allochemical) system. f Convective pore fluid flow
in folded sand sheet intercalated with shales. (After
Wood and Hewett 1984). Quartz is dissolved in the
hotter synclinal trough and precipitated in the cooler
anticline, while carbonate behaves vice versa
672
sync1inal troughs where the pore fluids are most rap-
idly cooled or heated. In this way, a continuous trans-
fer of solutes is accomplished in the permeable rock
layer.
For example, the slowly moving pore fluid (rate of convec-
tion in the order of I mlyear) may circulate in a thick sand
layer in a folded sequence in a so-called toroidal cell (Fig.
13.16t). It is heated during its downward flow to the
synclinal trough and cools as it approaches the anticlinal
crest. During its circulation, the pore fluid has the tendency
to maintain chemical equilibrium with the adjacent rock ma-
trix. Because the solubility of minerals is, among other fac-
tors, a function oftemperature, the cooling pore fluid precip-
itates minerals which have "prograde solubilities" (for exam-
pie quartz) and dissolves minerals whose solubility decreases
with increasing temperature ("retrograde solubility", for ex-
ample carbonates).
Solute transport by convective flow is discussed, e.g., by
Wood and Hewett (1984), Bjorlykke 1984), Morse et al.
(1997). It is interesting to note that from 60 to 150°C the sol-
ubilities of common hydrocarbons in water are similar to that
of quartz. Hence, both components can be transferred and
accumulated in comparable quantities under these condi-
tions.
Combination of Various Processes of
Solute Transport
In rnany sedimentary basins several solute transport
systems operate simultaneously (Fig. 13 .16c) in con-
junction with pressure solution and molecular diffu-
sion (see below). While the open meteoric system is
realized in emerged, coastal and shallowly buried parts
ofthe basin fill, water-covered and deeply buried por-
tions of the basin fill are characterized by compaction
flow, diffusion, and convective flow in a more or less
c10sed system.
As a result of the different mechanism of solute
transport, the mineral reactions occurring in individual
pores and micropores in the sediments vary fundamen-
tally. In a c10sed system, an unstable mineral rnay dis-
solve and be replaced by one or several stable miner-
als, which in total have the same chemical composition
as the parent mineral. For example, high-Mg calcite
may be transformed into low-Mg calcite and some do-
lomite. The new mineral phase(s) are formed directly
adjacent to the dissolving mineral; solute transport
takes place by diffusion via a very thin film of pore
water (Fig. 13.16d). In an open system, the micropores
between a dissolving and newly crystallizing mineral
are in contact with the macropores. These serve as con-
duits for pore fluid flow and thus for the exchange of
chemical species between the reaction zone of the
micropore and zones far away from this location. In
this case, the new mineral phase(s) and their trace ele-
ment contents frequently differ in their bulk composi-
tion from the primary minerales) (allochemical
diagenesis ).
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
13.3.3 Pressure Solution
Mechanical compaction inc1udes ductile deformation,
re arrangement, and fracturing ofminerals all ofwhich
contribute to a denser grain packing. In addition, pres-
sure solution at the contacts of individual grains is a
very important process in diagenesis. This can be re-
garded as a process transitional between mechanical
and chemical diagenesis. The principle mechanism has
long been known, but its efficiency as a provider of
pore cement for various types of sandstones, ortho-
quartzites, and carbonates is somewhat controversial.
This problem has been discussed by several authors (e.g.
Trumit and Amstutz 1979; Bjorlykke 1983, 1984, 1991;
Bathurst 1987, 1991; Pettijohn et al. 1987; Füchtbauer 1988;
Houseknecht 1987, 1988; Mitra 1988; Bayer 1989b;
McBride 1989; Tada and Siever 1989; Ramm 1992; Bjorkum
et al. 1998).
According to Riecke's principle, the solubility of min-
erals is enhanced under compressional stress, i.e., at
the contact between two grains or bedding planes. If
the composition of adjacent partic1es is different, one
of them usuaUy maintains its shape at the expense of
the other, which is partially dissolved. However, pres-
sure solution does not occur between deformable clay
partic1es. Pressure solution has been described rnainly
from carbonate rocks and quartzitic sandstones, but it
also occurs in other rock types.
The effective vertical stress at the grain contacts is
a function ofthe effective overburden pressure and the
area, a, which the grain contacts occupy per unit area,
A, of a horizontal plane within the rock (cf. Fig.
13.11c). The smaller the grain contacts, the higher is
the effective stress at these contacts.
For example, at aburial depth of2000 m, the effective verti-
cal stress exerted on a plane with area A is
Pe = PI - Ph = 25 Mpa (= 250 bar)
In this calculation the hydrostatic pressure and lithostatic
pressure gradients listed in Fig. 13.11a are used, and it is as-
sumed that there is no excess pore pressure. Then, the mean
effective stress at the grain contacts, p eg' is
A
P eg =P e • - . (13.9)
a
If a = 0.1 A, the effective stress at the grain contacts amounts
to 250 MPa (= 2500 bar).
Such a high stress is, however, strongly reduced if excess
pore water pressure builds up. In this way, significant pres-
sure solution is prevented. This is one of the reasons why
many reservoir rocks can maintain a great part of their pri-
mary porosity at an advanced stage oftheir burial history and
thus aYow the migration and accumulation ofhydrocarbons.
13.3 Chemical Diagenesis
Quartzose Sands tones. Significant pressure solution
at the grain contacts of quartz commonly occurs at
burial depths of 2.5-3.5 km at temperatures greater
than approximately 90°C (the "silica mobilitywindow"
at 80 to 120°C). Up to this depth range the sandstones
can maintain porosities of about 25% if other cement-
ing materials (e.g. carbonate) are absent. Higher or
lower temperature gradients than the average
(~35°CIkm) cause a shift ofthe onset ofpressure solu-
tion to shallower or deeper burial depths. Below this
temperature threshold, young sandstones can have
higher residual porosities than old ones.
Fine-grained quartzose sandstones appear to de-
velop more intergranularpressure solution than coarser
counterparts. Pressure solution of quartz appears to be
enhanced by the presence of clay as grain coatings.
Chemical reactions involving clays probably yield high
pH in the pore water and thus favor the dissolution of
quartz. Therefore, clean quartz sands have a higher
potential for preserving their porosity with depth than
"dirty" sands.
Ongoing pressure solution will lead to an increase in the area
of grain contacts (cf. Fig. B.lld) and thus to a reduction in
stress at these contacts. As a result, the solution process
slows down. Finally, the grain contacts often merge and dis-
play dissolution seams, sutures, or microstylolites. The dis-
solved matter is usually precipitated immediately next to the
grain contacts on free grain surfaces and in the open pore
space, where minimum stress conditions prevail. The
pressure-solved material forms mineral overgrowths and
pore cement. If all pores are filled, pressure solution tends to
end. It may continue during early stages of rock deformation,
when fractures can be filled by pressure-solved material.
Bioclastic carbonates (calcarenites). Pressure solu-
tion of carbonates largely occurs at depths of a few
hundred meters. It contributes to the early cementation
ofbiogenic carbonates which, in addition, is promoted
by dissolution and reprecipitation of unstable mineral
phases (such as aragonite and high-Mg calcite, see be-
low).
The question whether or not the cement of orthoquartzites or
carbonate-cemented strata has been derived entirely from the
same layer by pressure solution is controversial. Several au-
thors assume that both carbonate and silica can also be deliv-
ered from neighboring mudstones and shales (e.g.,
Füchtbauer 1974a and b; Ricken 1986; McBride 1989).
However, it was also inferred from petrographie evidence
that, in the case of quartz sandstones, pressure solution dur-
ing deep burial diagenesis may provide more silica than
needed for complete cementation and then export silica.
13.3.4 Solute Transport by Diffusion
Molecular or ionic diffusion in aqueous solutions has
been already mentioned in the previous sections. It is
one of the most important processes of mass transport
in diagenesis and therefore described here in some de-
673
tail (avoiding the normally used differential equations).
It tends to overcome differences in concentration or
chemical potential of a specific ion or pair of ions, for
example Na+ and Cl- at the surface ofburied rock salt,
between two locations within the solution. These loca-
tions are usually the source and sink (or reaction zone)
of the specific ions in question.
A thorough treatment of diffusion in sediments is a rather
difficult topic (see, e.g., Garrels and Mackenzie 1971; Berner
1980; Pingitore 1982; Hesse 1986; Ranganathan and Hanor
1987). Here, a relatively simple approach is favored.
Under simplified steady state conditions, the flux, J i , of
a dissolved chemical species, i, through a unit area, A,
is directly proportional to the concentration gradient,
(C 2-C j )/d, between the two locations (distance, d) and
the time, t (Fig. 13.17a):
(13.10)
The quantity, q, of the transported material is ex-
pressed here in g, the ion concentration in the aqueous
solution, C, in g/m3 , A in m 2 , and d in m. The factor of
proportionality, D, is the diffusion coefficient for the
specific ion in water. It is here expressed in m 2/a, but
values given in the literature are usually in cm2/s or
cm2 /day (10- 6 cm2/s = 0.0864 cm2/day = 0.00315 m2/a).
The diffusion coefficient signifies the mass of material
transported through a unit area per unit time, if the dis-
tance corresponds to one unit length and the concentra-
tion gradient is also 1 (in terms ofthe mass units used;
Fig. 13.17a).
If, for example, the diffusion coefficient ofCa 2+ in water is D
= 7.9-10- 6 cm2/s : : : 0.025 m2/a (at 25°C, Lerman 1980), the
diffusion flux under steady state conditions (as shown in Fig.
13. 17a) is J = 0.025 glm 2/ a) or 25 kglm 2/Ma).
Solute transport by diffusion increases with growing
concentration gradient, decreasing distance between
the ion source and the re action zone, and increasing
temperature. An increase in temperature on the order
of 30°C doubles the effectiveness of diffusion. How-
ever, this does not necessarily mean that diffusion in-
creases with burial depth. The significance of diffusion
is reduced by low concentration gradients and long
transport distances. In addition, diffusion is generally
hampered in sediments as compared with water, be-
cause sediments consist for the most part of solid mat-
ter and have rather irregular, changing pore space and
pore geometry. Therefore, both the porosity, n, and the
tortuosity (length/length) of the pores, i.e., the actual
path a dissolved species has to travel between two
points within asediment, have to be taken into ac-
count. Th:ls, the diffusion coefficients for water-filled
sediments, D" are generally smaller than those for pure
674
water, D. The diffusion transport in sediments be-
comes
q A
J =- =n· D . (C - C ) . - (13.11)
't ,2 1 d·
With increasing burial depth and continued loss in po-
rosity, the diffusion factor, nD" may drop to values of
10-7 to lO- g cm2/s (Manheim 1970), and thus the effi-
ciency of diffusion declines further (Fig. 13.17 c). N ev-
ertheless, solute transport by molecular diffusion is
frequently more effective than compaction flow.
For n = 0.2 and a tortuosity of 1.33, or D, = 0.75 D, the dif-
fusion transport for the example in Fig. 13.17a is reduced to
15% ofthe amount calculated for diffusion in water only.
Taking into account aburial depth-related reduction in the
diffusion factor, n· D, = 0.1 D, the diffusion flux in sedi-
ments is J, = 0.1 x 25 = 2.5 kg/m 2/Ma (for a distance d = I
m). Ford = 100 m, J, drops to 0.025 kg/m 2/Ma, ford= 0.1 m
it increases to 25 kg/m 2/Ma. The transport rate of compaction
flow, calculated below for a concentration (or difference in
concentrations between the inflowing and outflowing pore
water) of 10 g/m 3 is only 0.2 kg/m 2/Ma.
This means that molecular diffusion is the main trans-
port mechanism over short distances in both closed
and open diagenetic systems.
The significance of time in diffusion processes can
be defined in terms of a mean diffusion path length, ~
(Gieskes 1975):
(13.12)
This is the distance over which diffusion will dissipate
concentration anomalies for a given period of time.
The mean diffusion path length, Z m' is 100 to 200 m for a
time period of I Ma and values ofD, between approximately
4 and 10 x 10-6 cm2/s (= 0.0126 to 0.0315 m 2/a), which in-
clude the bulk sediment diffusion coefficients ofNa + Ca2+
Cl-, and SO/in young soft muds with n = 0.71 ata te~pera-'
ture of 20 to 25°C (Bemer 1980).
This signifies, for example, that solute transport by
diffusion from sea water can penetrate about 100 m
downward into the sediment, as long as the sedimenta-
tion rate does not exceed 100 mlMa. Long diffusion
pathways on the order of some 100 to c; 1000 m were
fo~nd in drill holes of the Deep Sea Drilling Project
(Flg. 13.17 c,d). Here, diffusion is reflected by vertical
concentration gradients between sea water and oceanic
basement (e.g., for Ca++ and Mg++) in the pore fluids of
the sediments over great depth ranges. Only where
convective flow causes relatively fast, upward and
downward directed solute transport is the effect of dif-
fusion largely eliminated (Fig. 13.1 7b).
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
Evaporites gr<:atly influence their overlying or un-
derlying sediments, because they create very steep con-
centration gradients for several chemical species (e.g.,
Cl-, SO/", Ca2+, Mi+, Na+; Figs. 13.17e and 13.18c).
In the Mediterranean, for example, the pelagic to hemipe-
lagic sediment cover on top of Late Miocene (Messinian)
evaporites (cf. Sect. 6.4) forms a section ofabout 200 m with
abnormally high, but upwardly decreasing pore water salin-
ity. The pore fluids are characterized by the easily soluble
constituents ofthe underlying halite, anhydrite, and dolomite
deposits. In this case, diffusion transport has covered a verti-
cal distance of 200 to 300 m in a time interval of approxi-
mately 5 Ma. Similar observations were reported from the
North and South American Atlantic margin, offshore West
Africa, and along the Gulf coast ofthe United States (Holmes
1986; Bj0rlykke 1988). As known from several other exam-
pIes, sandy sediments in the neighborhood of evaporites may
contain salt minerals as cement (e.g., anhydrite).
Some concentration gradients observed in thick marine
sediments on top of evaporites cannot be explained alone by
molecular diffusion. Figure 13.18c shows two examples
where solute transport from the evaporites has produced up-
ward decreasing pore water concentrations. Along the Gulf
Coast ofUSA, an Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous sediment
section much thicker than expected from the diffusion equa-
tions (Eq. 13.11 and 13.12) is affected by the underlying
Middle Jurassic enporites. The example from the North Sea,
where the buried ~vaporites are older (Late Permian), dis-
plays a much steeper concentration gradient representing es-
sentially molecular diffusion. The more efficient solute trans-
port of the Gulf Coast pore waters is caused by both diffu-
sion and upward directed pore water flow (advection, includ-
ing hydrodynamic dispersion, see below). At some other 10-
cations, irregular variations in the vertical pore water concen-
trations result either from buried subaerial brines or initially
low-concentrated meteoric water.
The diffusion coefficients of different chemical spe-
cies vary slightly. Chloride and carbonate ions have
relatively high diffusion coefficients and can therefore
migrate somewhat faster than most ofthe common cat-
ions.
In a sediment undergoing chemical diagenesis, the
concentration gradients ofthe various chemical species
often vary considerably. At a single site, a strong gra-
dient may exist for one or a pair of species, but weak
or no gradients at all for other species. Hence, only the
species affected by a significant concentration gradient
will exhibit diffusion transport. Such conditions are
encountered, for example, along the boundary between
an oxidation and reduction zone, where SO/" is used
up by anaerobic bacteria and ferrous iron precipitated
as iron monosulfide or pyrite (cf. Fig. 13 .23, reaction-
controlled diffusion).
In contrast to advective mass transport through pore
water flow, mass transfer of specific ions by diffusion
can occur toward or away from the reaction zone si-
multaneously ("two-way traffic"). In relation to the
concentration gradients, one species may enter a cer-
tain reaction zone, while another species leaves.
13.3 Chemical Diagenesis 675

a SOlUTE FLUX SY DIFFUSION

AQUEOUS
DIFFUSION a =D
(IN WATER
C1 = 29 J = -\- (C2 - C 1) dA
ONlY) in 1 m3
WATER ,L __ _ t = 1 a (year)
"

DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT D- J (g/m~a)

(e.g., with D = 7.9'10 '6 cm 2/ s,.0.025 rri 2/ a J = 0.025 g/m2.a)

b C
CONVECTION-CONTROLLED DIFFUSION-DOMINATED

CONCENTRAT ION
SED .SURFACE IN SEA WATER
C C
T
I I I I-.. DISCHARGE I
I
I I I I
' . . -4I
I
I I
CONCENTRATION
CONVECTION
,
I GRADIENT DUE TO
\ CEll SEVERAl DIFFUSION ONLY
100
z " CONCEN-
TRATION
GRADIENT= O.
m
I
DIFF . COEFFICIENT
DECREASING WITH Z
I
FOR VARIOUS !
CHEM. SPECIES Z

HIGH HEAT
YOUNG
FLQW ++
OCEANIC SINK FOR Mg
CRUST

d e
DIFFUSION-DOMINATED DIFFUSION FROM EVAPORITES
CONCENTRATION C
INCREASING.f. .v . . . . . . . .
DIFFUSION --1 ....... ALTERNATIVE :
COEFFICIENT I .......L- DIFF. FROM
/ ., '4' OVERlYING
...... EVAPORITES

i ++ ++
Ca , Mg , CI
/
Z

/
EVAPORITES (NaCI, CaS04 ' DOLOMITE)

Fig. 13.17. a Meaning of the diffusion eoeffieient in
terms of diffusion transport under simplified eondi-
tions. b-d Various types ofvertieal eoneentration
gradients in marine sediments: b in sediments of lim-
ited thiekness on top of young oeeanie erust; differ-
enees in heat flow eause eonveetlve flow, whieh pre-
vents ehemieal gradients. c Diffusion-dominated
Mi+ gradient, somewhat modified by depth-depend-
ent diffusion coefficient or adveetion, in sediments
on top of oider oeeanie erust. d Same as c but for
Ca2+. e Diffusion-eontrolled, strong vertieal eoneen-
tration gradients of ehemieal speeies assoeiated with
underlying (or overlying) evaporites. (Largely based
on Hesse 1986)
676
For example, during the transformation of skeletal aragonite
(e.g. corals) to calcite, the aragonite may release strontium to
its environment, while the new calcite takes up magnesium
from outside (cf. Fig. 13.16e).
13.3.5 Hydrodynamic Dispersion
Some authors (e.g. Hanor 1994; Morse et al. 1997)
have pointed out that neither molecular diffusion nor
uniform pore water flow can explain a11 phenomena of
diagenesis. A combination ofboth pro ces ses including
local sma11-scale mixing of pore waters of slightly dif-
fering composition is accomplished by hydrodynamic
dispersion. This term refers to the different velocities
ofthe fluid flow through a heterogeneous porous me-
dium. The water particles are forced to take paths of
different lengths and they are slowed close to grain
surfaces. This leads to a spatia11y varying pore water
composition with the result that dissolution of a certain
mineral at a specific site may be fo11owed by repre-
cipitation of the mineral at another site not far away.
Hydrodynamic dispersion is defined by the flow velocity and
an aquifer-specific dispersion coefficient (see textbooks for
hydrogeology, e.g., Freeze and Cherry 1979) and also in-
c1udes molecular diffusion. Ifthe fluid velocity is very low,
the solute transport is dominated by molecular diffusion (cr.
Fig. l6e). At higher fluid velocities (greater than a few
mmlyear) mechanical dispersion mainly controls solute trans-
fer. An example from the GulfCoast (Fig. 13.18c) indicates
that diffusion transport has been accelerated by hydrody-
namic dispersion. In this case, compaction flow is probably
sufficient to account for the additional solute transport. With-
out the aid of advection, diffusion-controlled highly saline
pore water may subside almost at the same rate as the basin
(Bjill"lykke and Gran 1994).
13.3.6 Formation Waters
The processes discussed so far allow a better under-
standing ofthe great variations in the chemical compo-
sition of formation waters. The nature of these fluids is
an important topic in hydrocarbon exploration and the
key for the interpretation of dissolution and precipita-
tion of minerals in the subsurface. Even within the
same stratum, the composition of the formation waters
and thus the diagenetic response may change signifi-
cantly. One has to distinguish between two end-mem-
ber types of pore waters:
- Connate water is inc1uded in the pore space of the
sediment at the time of deposition (Latin-derived
"borne with"). Connate marine water contains 32-37
g/I dissolved species of approximately constant com-
position. Continental connate waters greatly vary in
their composition. In humid climates, connate water or
groundwater has a very low salinity of mostly ::;1 g/l,
the dominant anions being hydrogen carbonate andlor
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
sulfate. In arid regions, the connate water may attain
very high salinites (cf. Sect. 6.4).
- Formation water is buried older pore water which is
not in direct contact with meteoric water. It has reacted
to increased temperatures and pressures and exchanged
components with the solid partic1es ofthe surrounding
sediment matrix. Furthermore, it rnay have taken up
fluids, gases or hydrocarbons from elsewhere, or it
may have exported components to other sites.
In hydrologica11y open diagenetic systems, both con-
nate waters and formation waters can mix with mete-
oric water, diagenetically altered groundwater, and
evaporitic brines. In this way, pore fluids of greatly
variable composition are generated. Mixed pore fluids
are often undersaturated or oversaturated with respect
to a certain mineral species and therefore lead to disso-
lution or reprecipitation of this mineral.
Stagnant or very slowly moving formation waters
generally tend to establish a thermodynamic equilib-
rium with their surrounding solids. Most of their com-
ponents are buffered by carbonate and silicate minerals
and therefore reach only relatively low cation concen-
trations (e.g. for Ca and Mg; Fig. 13.18d,e). General
trends are a depletion in Mg, which is consumed by
dolomitization, and enrichments in Ca (released by
dolomitization) and silica (due to a better solubility at
high temperature ).
Marine sediments with connate sea water and de-
void of evaporites show moderate changes in their total
dissolved solids, TDS, of their formation waters with
depth, provided the system is largely c10sed (Fig.
13.18a). Sedimentary sequences in contact with halite-
bearing evaporites develop hypersaline pore fluids (up
to ~300 g/I TDS) with very high chloride contents ac-
companied either by high Naor Ca values (Fig. 13.18).
Chloride, bromide, and often also sulfate are not buf-
fered by ambient mineral phases. Particularly chloride
can therefore be used as a kind of tracer for the source
of the fluids. The cation concentrations of these
hypersaline pore fluids tend to increase by several or-
ders of magnitude with growing chloride content, but
the absolute values for Mg and K remain much lower
than those for Ca and Na (Fig. 13.18d,e).
Pore fluids cannot migrate from norma11y pressured
into overpressured zones which tend to expe11 pore
water. This is demonstrated by Fig. 13.18b) where
deeply buried mudstones have become overpressured
and therefore maintained low pore water salinities be-
low sand-dominated younger strata with evaporitic
brines.
13.3 Chemical Diagenesis 677

a SALINITY VS. OEPTH (TRENDS)

b
TDS (g/l) TDS (g/l)
o 100 200 300 o 100 200 300

I-SEA WATER
JJ (32·37 g/l )
Jr~~
mr, SOUTHERN
Mk.. NORTH SEA
~ 2 tJU~> .. (ABOVE EVAPORITES) 2

I
b:w
o 3 3

4
:f[tt
·r· OVERPRESSURED FLUIDS
(MUDSTONE.DOIMINATED)

5
(NO EVAPORITES)

MAJOR DISSOLVED SPECIES

AS A FUNCTION OF CHLORIDE
C SALINITY PROFILES
ON TOP OF EVAPORITES d 100 r------,-----..

o 100 200 300

K
\ 2
\ o -'
E 1 i=
<{ 0 .1 Ä. '"- - NORTH SEA
~ u 0 .01 ........
,/ _Mg
I _ _ _SHELF
_ _ _ _.....J
h:
w
10
CI (g/kg)
100 1000
o 0 ...
I
100 e
10

--
Cl
-'t!

~
" / , - Mg
~ 0 .1 -;;.... ~+--

EVAPORITES WITH HAllTE

~ "
~ 0 .01toC---/...... _ ........
CALCULA TED
:-1.-
~ 0.001 " ~- - -~. "'<;.~C03
U
10 100 1000
CI (g/kg H 2 0)

Fig. 13.18. a,b Salinity of pore fluids vs. burial depth
depending (a) on the presence of evaporites in the
deep subsurface and (b) on the fluid pressure.
Overpressured systems prevent the injection of pore
fluids from other regions. c Salinity profiles of pore
fluids on top of evaporites caused either by pure mo-
lecular diffusion or a combination of diffusion and
upward directed fluid flow (advection). d,e Concen-
trations of major dissolved species in pore water as a
function of chloride. Values of d are observed in
N orth Sea sediments, those of e are calculated for
waters in equilibrium with quartz, muscovite, albite,
K-feldspar, calcite and dolomite at a temperature of
100°C, apressure of 1 bar and a RC0 3 fugacity of
0.001 bar. (a,b After Bj0r1ykke and Gran 1994;
Hanor 1994, modified; c-e after Ranor 1994, modi-
fied)
678 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

MAJOR MINERAL REACTIONS IN DIAGENESIS

(SIMPLIFIED, NOT BALANCED)

SILICATES

UPTAKE OF RELEASE OF

IK-FELDSPAR - ? 1 KAOLINITE I + K + Si0 2

2 ICa-PLAGIOCLASE I + Na + Si0 2 I
~ ALBITE I + Ca
3 I SMECTITE 1 + K - ? MIXED-LAYER + Si0 2 + (Ca, Mg, Na)
OR ILLITE + H20
4 ISMECTITE I + Fe, Mg ~ ICHLORITE I + Si0 2 + (Ca, Na)
+ H2 0
5 IKAOLINITE I+1 K-FELDSPAR I --?-IILLITE I
6 IMAFIC MINERALS I + H 0 2 ---;::. ICLAY MINERALS I + Si0 2 + (Mg, Fe)
7 IVOLC. GLASSI + H 0 2 ~ ZEOLITES, + Si0 2 + (Na, K, Ca)
SMECTITE

CARBONATES

8 ICALCITE I + Mg ~ IDOLOMITE I + Ca
9 [CALCITE I + Fe, Mn, Mg --? Fe-CALCITE, Fe-DOL.,
ANKERITE, SIDERITE + Ca

REACTIONS WITH ORGANIC MATTER

10 ORGANIC MATTER + O2
(trom bacterial reduction of Fe 2 0 3 , S04--' etc.) --;.. CO 2

11 ORGANIC MATTER + THERMOCATALYSIS ~ CO 2 + CH 4

Remarks: The aid of organic acids in dissolving minerals in meteoric flow systems is
omitted. Reactions 2, 4 and 5 occur mainly at deep burial. Reaction 9 requires redu-
cing conditions; the new minerals may form directly from solution without aprecursor
calcite. Pressure solution of carbonate and quartz as weil as redox processes affecting
sulfates and sulfides are not induded in the list.

Fig. 13.19. Major mineral reaetions in diagenesis, the transformation of calcite to dolomite ean also
simplified and not balaneed. For more speeifie infor- oeeur without the release ofCa++ ifbesides Mg++ also
mation see text and referenees eited in text. Note that suffieient C0 3++ is added
13.3 Chemical Diagenesis
13.3.7 Mineral Reactions and
Major Diagenetic Regimes
Mineral Reactions
Ifthe thermodynamic equilibrium between the various
sediment partic1es, inc1uding earlier cement, and the
pore fluid is disturbed, then a number of minerals be-
come instable. This is brought about by the influx of
pore fluid of different composition or changes in tem-
perature and pressure. As a result, the instable minerals
slowly dissolve or are transformed into stable mineral
phases. During this process the minerals release spe-
cific cations, anions and water to the surrounding pore
fluid or they take up dissolved components from the
pore water.
The maj or silicate mineral reactions in diagenesis
are listed in a simplified way in Fig. 13.l9 (Nos. 1-7).
Most ofthese reactions occur at shallow burial depths,
where the relatively instable minerals (feldspar, mafic
minerals, smectite, and volcanic glass) are transformed
into more stable phases, mainly c1ay minerals. Some of
these, e.g. kaolinite but also smectite, are later, i.e. at
increased temperature and pressure, converted to illite
or chlorite.
The behavior of the major carbonate minerals has
been briefly mentioned in Sects. 3.4.7 and 6.4.6. Re-
placement of calcite by dolomite can take place in two
different ways:
(1) Uptake ofMg++ from the pore fluid and release of
Ca++ (Reaction No. 8, associated with a volume loss or
gain in porosity of 12%). This process is reversed dur-
ing dedolomitization.
(2) Uptake ofboth Mg++ and C0 3" from the pore fluid.
Then the volume of the newly formed dolomite in-
creases by 75% (e.g. SalIer and Henderson 1998).
Carbonate cements containing Fe++ and Mn++ (ferroan
calcite and dolomite, ankerite and siderite; Fig. 13.l9,
No. 9) are precipitated at low redox conditions from
fluids with relatively high Fe++/Ca++ ratios (e.g. Morad
1998). Sulfate is normally not present under these con-
ditions; it is either earlier reduced to sulfide by bacteria
under release of CO 2 (Fig. 13.19, No. 10), or it was
initially absent.
All of these processes imply water-rock interac-
tions. Of particular interest is the release of Ca++, Si0 2
(or a water-bearing compound such as H4Si04), and
H 20 at greater burial depth (Reactions Nos. 3-5). This
allows the formation oflate quartz cement (apart from
pressure solution) and, in conjunction with the release
of CO 2 (Reactions Nos. 10 and 11) the precipitation of
late carbonate cement. The limited amount of re1eased
water can maintain some late compaction flow.
679
Major Diagenetic Regimes (Overview)
The most important diagenetic processes taking place
mainly in sandstones and calcarenites at early, interme-
diate and late diagenesis are surnmarized in Fig. 13.20.
Early diagenesis. As long as the sediment bodies are
completely submerged be10w sea water or fresh lake
water, they commonly maintain their initial thermody-
namic equilibrium between sediment particles and pore
water for some time. During this phase, the sediments
are not subjected to marked diagenetic changes. An
exception to this rule is early dolomite replacing cal-
cite (matrix-dolomite) which can form as long as pore
water is exchanged through well-permeable carbonates
with sea water. In addition, some quartz may precipi-
tate if opaline silica was present in the primary sedi-
ment. The presence of organic marter commonly leads
to reducing conditions within the sediment and thus to
the formation of some pyrite.
As soon as parts of these sediment bodies emerge,
hydrologically open systems are established, allowing
meteoric water circulation. The same is true of all con-
tinental environments. The intensity of this water cir-
culation and the resulting products of early diagenesis
strongly depend on the c1imate and the relief of the
system considered. Humid conditions lead to strong
flushing ofthe aquifers and thus to significant carbon-
ate and feldspar dissolution along the main flow paths
(e.g. channel fills). This process is supported by soil-
derived carbon dioxide and organic acids causing a
first generation of secondary porosity and the export of
considerable amounts of dissolved marter to other ar-
eas. Limited amounts of more stable minerals, such as
calcite and kaolinite, are reprecipitated in areas of slow
fluid flow.
In contrast, continental or emerged basin fills in arid
to semiarid regions lose lirtle dissolved material by
meteoric flow. They tend to form near-surface
calcretes, dolocretes, and silcretes and, if affected by
sabkha brines, a first cement generation of calcite, do-
lomite, ankerite, chalcedony or quartz, gypsum and
anhydrite. Independent on the c1imate, iron released
from silicate minerals may form iron hydroxide which
can be transformed later to hematite (red bed
diagenesis ). If organic marter generates reducing con-
ditions, ankerite and siderite can form during this and
later phases.
Intermediate diagenesis (mesodiagenesis). Due to me-
chanical compaction and interbedded low-permeable
muds, sediment bodies at intermediate burial depths
tend to approach c10sed diagenetic systems. Chemical
compaction resulting from pressure solution starts ear-
lier in carbonates than in quartzose sandstones (cf.
Sect. 13.3.3) and can provide large amounts of carbon-
ate and quartz cements (mineral overgrowths and void-
fillings). Smectite is transformed to illite releasing
Si02 , cations and water.
680 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

MAJOR PROCESSES IN VARIOUS DlAGENETIC REGIMES

DIAGENETIC SANDSTONES CALCARENTITES

REGIME
KARSTIFIC .,
MOLOS, VUGS

some QZ, ± HEM

EO- (with OM : ± 51D)
CAlCRETE,
DIAGENESIS
SABKHA DOLOCRETE, WARM, DRY
(OPEN, NE SILCRETE
METEORIC)

CC, DOL, HE CC, GYP, AH, DOL ARAG, Mg CC,

GYP, AH, some QZ some QZ + OP, OPAL
(with OM : ± ANK, SID) ± ANK
- - - -- - - - - - - ---- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -.. -- ---- - -- - -- --
SHALLOW-MARINE MARLY MUD
DEEP COMPACTION
EARLY
MARINE
( ± OPEN)

lITTLE CONCRETIONS
CHANGE PY

± DEEPLY CC, ± DOL, Fe -CC, ANK

MESO- COMPACTION CIRCULA TING
DIAGENESIS METEORIC WATER . "

SMEC~KAOl II~J U :E~~~gt~~~;:A~7~r,;

(CLOSED
OR OPEN) QZ, some CC
± ANK, Fe-CC;
-----------------7/I-FRACTURING
".. ",'

t-
LATE
VEIN FILLINGS

rt{)
DIAGENESIS
QZ, SMEC -ILL Fe-CC, CC, DOL, ANK
(± CLOSED)

1
some CC KAOL + K-FELD+ILL
SMEC + MAFIC + CHL

o
PERVASIVE DOLOMITIZATION
CARBT-DISS., 9Z-PREC . Ca-PLAG -ALBITE () CC, Fe-CC, QZ, CLA Y MIN.
1\ AH , BA, CEL ± BITUMEN,
INFLUX OF HIGHL Y SALINE FLUIDS BASE METALS
(Na, CI, Ca, Mg, S04' ete.)
QZ-DISS ., CARBT-PREC . ± HYDROCARBONS ± .BASE METALS ± OPEN SYSTEM
L/

MINERALS PROCESSES

ARAG ARAGONITE QZ QUARTZ GYP GYPSUM -_ DISSOLUTION

OP OPALINE S. AH ANHYDRITE ,...., LEACHING, MIN . TRANSF.
Mg CC Mg CALCITE
BA BARITE ~ PRESSURE SOLUTION
CC CALCITE FELD FELDSPAR
CEL CELESTITE C(" GRAIN COATING
DOL DOLOMITE PLAG PLAGIOCLASE
ANKERITE KAOL KAOLINITE PY PYRITE [!] RECRYST ALLIZATION
ANK
SID SIDERITE SMEC SMECTITE HEM HEMATITE [] REPLACEMENT
CARBT CARBONATE ILL ·ILLITE OM ORGANIC 6) VOID FILLING
CHL CHLORITE MATTER C) SECONDARY POROSITY
13.3 Chemical Diagenesis
At this stage and even more so in the deep-burial
stage, differential compaction or tectonic motions may
create new conduits for fluid flow in indurated strata.
As a result, deeper pore water, e.g. from overpressured
zones, can escape upwards, or meteoric water circula-
tion can start again and affect relatively deeply buried
sediment bodies. Particularly the second process, af-
fecting limited zones within a large sediment body, can
generate both secondary porosity and filling of veins
with cement. Repeated dissolution events and cement
generations in the same fracture or in cross-cutting
veins have been described by several authors. Circulat-
ing meteoric waters saturated with respect to calcium
hydrogen carbonate can bring ab out dedolomitization.
Late diagenesis. In closed systems, pressure solution
and associated reprecipitation of the dissolved matter
as pore-filling cement slowly cease. However, water
circulation in sandy convection cells can lead to the
redistribution of quartz and carbonates, the latter being
precipitated at the lower end of the loop (Fig. 13 .20;
cf. Fig. 13.16f). Increased temperatures and pressures
favor the formation of illite, chlorite and albite in sand-
stones and claystones. The released Si02 and cations
allow some further cementation by quartz and
(Fe,Mn,Mg)-carbonates, e.g. in combination with CO 2
produced by thermocatalysis of organic matter (cf. Fig.
13.19, No. 11). Organic acids favor the precipitation of
illite. Significant amounts of water and cations ex-
pelled from mudrocks can contribute to the diagenesis
in overlying strata. The mudrocks in turn tend to be-
come enriched in immobile elements (A1P3' Ti0 2, Zr,
and rare earth elements).
The influx of highly saline brines (high concentra-
tions ofCl, S04, Na, Mg, Ca) from underlyingormore
remote evaporites can reactivate diagenesis. Fluids
flow along or across strata which have preserved some
permeability or have been fractured. Mixing with for-
mation water of different composition creates either
new porosity or renewed cementation, including sul-
fate minerals, such as anhydrite, barite and celestite.
Fractures frequently show traces of bitumen and hy-
drocarbons which indicate that the diagenetic system
reached the oil window (cf. Fig. 13.15).
The processes operating during the different stages of
diagenesis are discussed for specific sediment types in
the Sects. 13.4 and 13.5.
Fig. 13.20. Principal processes during early, interme-
diate, and late diagenesis of sandstones and
calcarenites (overview). Early diagenesis is largely
controlled by the depositional environment and cli-
mate (continental vs. subaquatic, humid vs.
semiarid). Intermediate and late diagenetic phenom-
681
13.3.8 Porosity and Permeability of Sandstones
and Carbonate Rocks
The diagenesis of sandstones and various carbonate
rocks (grainstones, packstones, etc., cf. Sect. 3.4) is of
particular interest in hydrocarbon exploration and
hydrogeology, because these rocks provide reservoirs
and conduits for water, oil, and gas. One of the princi-
pal problems in petroleum exploration is the question
whether, for example, the sandstones maintained or
regained significant porosity and permeability, when
hydrocarbons started to migrate. It mayaiso be impor-
tant to know whether meteoric water has circulated in
the deeply buried sandstones.
The initial porosity of sands and calcarenites (fre-
quently between 25 and 40%) is first reduced by me-
chanical compaction, i.e., rearrangement and deforma-
tion of grains (cf. Fig. 13.22a; cf. Sects. 13.1.3 and
13.2). At increasing burial depths, the evolution ofpo-
rosity and permeability are mainly controlled by pres-
sure solution and pore-filling cementation as well as
the creation of secondary porosity by dissolution
events and fracturing in the subsurface. The method
for discriminating between the various types of poros-
ity loss and an example of a quartzose sandstone and
its loss in thickness are shown in Fig. 13.21d,e.
Even siliciclastic sands can lose a major part of their initial
porosity by grain rearrangement, i.e. twice as much as they
do by ductile grain deformation (McBride et al. 1991). This
type of porosity reduction preferentially takes place in the
uppermost 1000 m of their burial history. At greater depths,
pressure solution and cementation by quartz, kaolinitization
and illitization of feldspars and, to a minor degree, by car-
bonate become most important. At 3-4 km burial depth, com-
paction may completely cease. Permeability has dropped to
very low values at this stage, whereas some porosity is still
preserved. However, compaction is frequently retarded by
overpressure and the entry of hydrocarbons (e.g. Bjorlykke
1991; also see below).
Bioclastic carbonates containing metastable carbonate
phases may lose most oftheir initial porosity and permeabil-
ity at shallow burial depths. Numerous case studies of car-
bonate petroleum reservoirs, containing information on po-
rosities and porosity types, have been published in special
volumes (e.g. Roeh1 and Choquette 1985; Budd et al. 1995).
High porosities and permeabilities are frequently preserved
in skeletal shoals and reefs, whereas the sediments of tidal
flats and fine-grained slope and basinal carbonates com-
monly display moderate to low porosities and very low
permeabilities (Jordan and Wilson 1994). The initial porosity
of Jurassic ooid grainstones (-45%) of the Gulf of Mexico
was reduced mainly by pressure solution and to a smaller
degree by carbonate cementation (Heydari 1997).
ena in ± closed systems record increasing tempera-
tures and pressures, but mayaiso become overprinted
by the opening of new conduits (fractures) for re-
newed meteroic flow or the influx of highly saline
brines. See text for further explanation
682 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

0 d 10
CEMENT 1%.1
20 30 40
n:
~
INITIAL
SED. VOLr
e 62% LOSS OF INITIAL
_40 o 0 -.... POROSITY BY MECH.
;F. u 1= 100%)
COMPACTION AND
UJ :r:~ PRESSURE SOLUTION
~ u-
UJZ
INTER· 40
-.f"~SIDUAL POR.
~ 30 GRANULAR
...J ~O 16
0 POROSITY
> ~§ 11 I
a: <1)-'
-« 20
-'
00<1) 0
oU)
I CEMENT. PARTLY
I FROM PRESS. SOl.
~ ...Jch
Z >-<I) SOLIDS I
« I-W
ffi 10
a:
-a:
U)o..

LU ~e
I- eZ
~ 0..«
0 '00
00 '00
COMPACTION AND CEMENTATION
POROSITY LOSS BY CEMENTATION (%)

POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY C PORE TYPES

1000
PlATFORM MARGI
o (BASINWARD)
E 100
>-
t- 10
:::i

'fiI~ ....
öl
«
w
:2 NDSTONES
a: 0,1
w
a..
~
~PLATFORM INTERIOR b
0.01
10 20 30
1000
DOLOMITE AND
ANHYDR(TE < 5%
a
0 100
E PT 4
>-
t-
10
:::i
öl
«
w
:2 0,1 ROTLlEGEND SANDSTONE
a:
w (lOWER PERMIAN)
a..
0.01
0 10 20 30
POROSITY (%)

Fig. 13.21. Relationship between porosity and per-
meability of some rock types. a Deeply buried Perm-
ian Rotliegend sands tones from northem Germany
and the northem Netherlands. (After Gaupp et al.
1993; Amthor and Okkerman 1996, schematized).
b Platform dolomites, Texas, showing marked differ-
ences between platform interior and outer platform
margin. (After SaUer and Henderson 1998, simpli-
fied). b,c Sandstone values grouped according to
specific pore types (c). Only types 3-5 are iUustrated
which provide intermediate to high values of porosity
and permeabilipj. (After Ehrlich et al. 1991, simpli-
fied). d Method for discrirninating between porosity
destruction by compaction (mechanical compaction
and pressure solution) and cementation. e Example
of porosity reduction in Jurassie reservoir sandstone,
Utah (quartzose sandstone with feldspar, indicated
by circle in d) and loss in total height or volume of
sediment. (After Houseknecht 1987, simplified)
13.3 Chemical Diagenesis
The relationship between porosity and permeability of
the rock matrix (fractures are neglected here) is an im-
portant but very complex topic. This relationship ini-
tially depends, among other factors, on the size of the
particles and the grain size distribution or sorting of
the sediment which control the geometry of individual
pores and their connection with neighboring pores. F or
example, well sorted sands of a certain grain size have
higher porosities and permeabilities than poorly sorted
sands with the same medium grain size. These differ-
ences are enhanced and modified by compaction and
various types of cementation. Authigenic clay minerals
in the pores reduce the permeability of sandstones.
The two diagrams in Figure 13.21 show the overall
trend of a rapidly decreasing permeability with the loss
of porosity. F or example, a decrease in the porosity of
sandstones from 20% to 10% may bring about a re duc-
tion in permeability by two to three orders of magni-
tude. Grain overgrowths and beginning ofpore-filling
first narrow and then close pore throats and fine pores,
whereas wider pores, vugs and molds still remain
open. With prograding cementation, however, the re-
sidual pore space can become very irregular. For this
reason, certain pore types have been defined (Fig.
13.21c) which allow better estimates for the variable
relationship between porosity and permeability (Fig.
13.21 b). In many carbonate rocks (e.g. reef-type struc-
tures) this relationship is even less clear.
Mudrocks maintain a relatively high total porosity
of 5-10% at burial depths of about 5 km, but their
permeabilities are extremely low at this state of com-
paction.
The theoretical background of these problems is treated in
detail, e.g., by Dullien (1992) and Howard (1992). Further
information is found in textbooks on hydrocarbon explora-
tion and production (cf. Chap. 14). A classification ofpore
types in relation to reservoir characteristics has been pro-
posed by Ehrlich et a!. (1991).
Plug sampies of sandstones (Middle Jurassic, burial depth
around 4000 m) recovered from two oilfield wells in the
North Sea, one from the oil-filled crest and the other from
the water-filled flank, have shown a much higher permeabil-
ity of the oil-filled pore system (Ehrenberg and Boassen
1993). This is caused by differences in the pore-size distribu-
tion and intergranular macroporosity, whereas the bulk com-
position of the sandstones, their degree of diagenetic alter-
ation and porosity are about the same. In the lower-perme-
ability weil, the illite is more widely distributed in the pore
system than in the oil-filled pores where illite grew only in
the residual water-filled pores.
The great differences in the evolution of porosity and per-
meability ofvarious carbonate rocks is not only a function of
the diagenetic realms but is also largely controlled by the
nature ofthe carbonate sediments (e.g. McIlreath and Mor-
row 1990). While the behavior of chalks under increasing
sediment load is relatively weil predictable (e.g. Brasher and
Vagle 1996), that of reefs is highly variable. In many cases
fractures only provide rock permeability. Dolomitization can
both increase and reduce porosity and permeability. How-
ever, dolomites lose porosity more slowly than limestones
683
during deep buria!. They are therefore the principal reservoir
rocks in many ancient carbonate rocks (e.g. Su 1995). Salier
and Henderson (1998) have described a case study from the
Permian of Texas, where the porosity and permeability of
dolomites are strongly reduced due to the effect of
hypersaline waters at the platform interior, while at the
basinward platform margin high values have been maintained
(Fig. 13.21 b). Mowers and Budd (1996) have determined the
specific surface of the pore system of dolomites to quantity
porosity and permeability reduction resulting from calcite
cementation. Whereas limited calcite cementation in moldic
pores (Fig. 13.22e) generated little change in permeability,
abundant late calcite cement, occupying both intercrystalline
and moldic pores, caused a 10 to 1000-fold decrease in per-
meability.
Many sandstones exhibit secondary porosity in con-
trast to shales, which commonly maintain their state of
compaction and cementation they have achieved dur-
ing diagenesis. Secondary porosity is frequently ob-
served in thin sections as voids after the leaching of
clastic grains (e.g., feldspar, bioclastic carbonate) or
carbonate cement (Fig. 1322). This dissolution pro-
cess commonly takes place in a hydrologically open
system with fluid flow. This also applies to pervasive
dolomitization which can create substantial secondary
porosity. Dissolution, recrystallization, and. transfor-
mation of mineral phases in place can in fact change
the distribution and geometry of pores, but these pro-
ces ses do not significantly enhance the overall poros-
ity. The same is true of fracturing by overpressure
(Sect. 13.2) or tectonic movements. Dolomitization of
calcium carbonate can create both an increase in poros-
ity by 12% (cf. Fig. 13.19, No. 8) or a porosity reduc-
tion. The second possibility applies to diagenetic sys-
tems in which not only Mg++, but in addition C0 3"" can
react with CaC03 and thus enhance the mineral vol-
urne. It appears that in many cases both reactions take
place and therefore do not allow any predictions for
the porosity evolution.
One of the most important processes for providing CO 2 for
the dissolution of carbonate or dolomitization in deep-burial
diagenesis appears to be the maturation ofkerogen (Schmidt
and McDonald 1979; Bj0rlykke 1988). It is, however, only
the humic type ofkerogen with a high OIC ratio, which en-
ables substantial leaching of carbonate. Other mechanisms
for the dissolution of carbonate and possibly other types of
cement are the circulation of acid meteoric water and convec-
tive flow (Fig. 13.l6f).
For the migration and storage of hydrocarbons it is
crucial that sufficient primary (or secondary) porosity
and permeability are preserved at eritieal burial depths
(approximately 3 to 5 km). Thus, the time and depth
range of pore spaee reduction (or seeondary increase in
pore spaee) control the quality of sands as reservoir
rocks. Onee the pores have beeome filled with oil (Fig.
13.22c), the residual water is no longer effective as
means ofmass transfer. Then the reservoir can more or
less maintain its porosity and permeability, whereas
684 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

a c
INTERGRANULAR POROSITY POROSITY INTRA- MATRIX
.....-_ ___),.. PARTICLE
POROSITY > POROSITY
...------, /1
DEPTH

PRIMARY DEPO-
SITIONAL POROSITY
SY MECHANICAL
COMPACTION
1
POROSITY REDUCTION EARLY CEMENTATIO N
(LiTTLE MECH. COMP.)

LATER CEMENTS
MINERAL 1: REPLACING EARLIEA
OVERGROWTH CEMENTS
POROSITY REDUCTION
SY "CHEMICAL CQM-
PACTION'(PRESSURE DENUDATION

1
SOLUTION, DISSOLUTION· AND SELECTIVE
REPRECIPITATION)
d LEACHING
OF CEMENT

:~ _ i
DUCTlLE-
GRAIN
DEFORM.
b
Yt.... . .~b.
~_1-..1
I
PRESSURE SOLUTION
-1'-

OVER-
PRESSURE

I
I
I
I

OlL
I
I I :.:.:.:.:.:
e CARBONATES
INTERGRYSTALLINE
~ NO FURTHER REDUCTION
IN PORE SPACE) /
SEC~~DARY
:!:
POROSITY
FRACTURING

MOLDIC AND SECONDARY ' ~ PARTIALLY FILLE 0

VUGGY P O R / , Y FRACTURE

PRESSURE
SOLUTION
DURING
DEFOR-rv1ATlON

Fig. 13.22. Evolution of sandstone porosity with in-
creasing burial depth and time. a Reduction of poros-
ity by mechanical and (iso )chemical compaction pre-
dates late (allochernical) cementation. b Same as a
but prograding pore space reduction is hampered or
terminated by overpressure and oil fill. c Early ce-
mentation largely prevents mechanical compaction
and pressure solution; secondary porosity by leaching
of cement and unstable grains. d Selective leaching
of cement and unstable grains after uplift and denu-
dation. e Some features of secondary porosity in car-
bonates. (PartiaHy based on SeHey 1976; Mitra 1988)

neighboring rocks with water-fiHed pores are further

affected by processes changing their porosity.
13.4 Early Diagenesis 685

13.4 Early Diagenesis in shells, particularly those consisting of aragonite, are

Major Sediment Types frequently dissolved or replaced by pyrite.
Somewhat deeper, but still within the sulfate reduc-
Syndepositional and early diagenesis commonly refers tion zone, the decomposition of organic matter causes
to changes occurring during burial up to a few hundred the formation of authigenic carbonate, often in the
meters, where elevated temperatures are not encoun- form of concretions. Diffusive transport of methane
tered. The diagenetic system is partially open in this from below may stimulate anaerobic sulfate reduction
zone because of exchange of dissolved constituents and provide the alkalinity for the precipitation of car-
bonate (CH 4+S0t= HC0 3'+HS-+ H 2 S). A slow sedi-
with the overlying water body and the underlying strata
mentation rate or a break in sedimentation favors the
(cf. Fig. 13.23a). The processes and products of early
formation of concretions. In particular cases, salinity
diagenesis vary strongly according to the depositional
variations in the overlying water body may be recorded
environment and the type of sediment.
in the mineral phases of concretions and their isotopic
composition. Normally, the early formed carbonate
concretions are nonferroan, since the pore fluids are
13.4.1 Marine Muds under Oxic and depleted in iron by the preceding iron sulfide precipita-
Anoxie Conditions tion. Many concretions show a sort of zonation during
their growth which reflects the changing chemical en-
Fine-grained marine sediments deposited slowly under vironment with increasing burial depth.
oxic bottom waters display the following early If sulfate is exhausted and can no longer be suffi-
diagenetic subzones (Fig. 13.23a,b). The upper sedi- ciently supplied by downward diffusion, the precipita-
ment layer below the interface is kept in an oxygenated tion of pyrite and isotopically light carbonate ceases.
state by down ward diffusion of dissolved oxygen from Further decomposition of organic matter is now ac-
the overlying water column. Hence this layer can be complished by microbial fermentation reactions,
colonized by benthic organisrns and aerobic bacteria, which produce isotopically light methane and heavy
which consume and oxidize organic matter reaching carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide may be reduced to
the sea floor. Burrowing organisrns in turn promote provide oxygen for anaerobic respiration. These pro-
mass transfer from the sea water into the sediment and ces ses are frequently summarized under the term
vice versa. If all the organic matter is used up and iron methanogenesis (Fig. 13.23b). Characteristic authi-
and manganese are oxidized to form oxyhydrates, genic minerals and concretions in this zone are carbon-
brown or reddish brown sediment may result which is ates rich in ferrous iron and l3C (ferroan calcite, dolo-
no longer affected by organic processes (cf. Sect. mite, ankerite, and siderite). In addition, the growth of
5.3.3). If some reactive organic matter is left over be- iron-rich chlorite minerals has been observed in the
low the oxidation zone, a very thin zone of bacterial zone of methanogenesis. However, iron-poor marine
nitrate reduction and a somewhat thicker zone of an- muds, for example pelagic carbonates, only form small
aerobic sulfate reduction develop. In this way, CO 2 and quantities of pyrite in the sulfate reduction zone and
H 2S (and srnall amounts ofNH3) are produced, which little or no authigenic carbonates in both the sulfate
may migrate to the sea floor by upward diffusion or reduction and the methanogenesis zones.
react with other ions to form new minerals, for exam-
pie pyrite. Early iron-bearing carbonates and siderite can form in fi~~­
Sediments deposited more rapidly under anoxie grained marine sediments when the rate ofrelease (from SIli-
conditions are commonly rich in organic matter and cates or iron hydroxide) and reduction of iron exceeds the
have astronger tendency to form early diagenetic rate of sulfate reduction. Then, the dissolved sulfide is insuf-
authigenic minerals. Nitrate reduction occurs in the ficient to precipitate all the available dissolved ferrous iron,
as observed in late Holocene marsh and sandflat sediments
water column and sulfate reduction operates both on the Norfolk coast, England (Pye et al. 1990). Siderites
above and below the sediment-water interface (Fig. formed in such marine environments are commonly impure
13.23a,b). Since normal benthic organisms are absent, (in contrast to freshwater siderites) and rich in Mg and Ca
comparatively large amounts of organic matter are (Mozley 1989). The concretions tend to develop a flatter
available for bacterial sulfate reduction. A shortage in shape than in the sulfate reduction zone. Some ofthe carbon-
the sulfate content in the pore water can to some extent ate in the concretions may be derived from dissolution and
be replenished by downward diffusion of sulfate from reprecipitation of detrital, biogenic carbonate. Even the oc-
the sea water reservoir. Hence, considerable quantities currence of rhodochrosite (MnCO 3) has been reported (e.g.,
von Rad and Botz 1987).
of CO 2 and H 2 S can be produced. Iron released from The lowered BC content of carbonate concretions reflects
minerals and reduced to Fe + is precipitated as some bacterial fractionation of carbon isotopes. The lower
2

(metastable) monosulfide and stable pyrite, particularly boundary of this zone may ]je several meters up to 10m be-
in the upper part of the sulfate reduction zone. Com- low the sea floor. Early diagenetic phosphogenesis (cf. Sect.
monly, early diagenetic pyrite occurs as fine-grained 5.3.6) is related to the processes taking place in the sulfate
framboidal grains and aggregates, but it mayaiso form reduction zone.
within internal moulds of fossils. Calcareous fossil
686 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

a VADOSE ZONE
LOW HIGH SED. BEACH ROCK GOETHITE
SEDIMENTATION RATE (+ ORG. (ARAGONITE, HEMATITE

_L __________~-~AL~~
RATE MATTER) \ HIGH Mg

~ ~ ~~*:~ - --- ---- ---IZ'

~-: SIDERITE
--- z __, "'":'__' I~AOLINITE
I " ~- - ..)t _ __~
DEEP PHREATIC ZONE ~-~-__ - - --:
(MARINE PORE FLUID , BRINES) -- ~-- -.... _
I PHREATIC ZONE
{- (METEORIC' WATER i

I
EARL Y DIAGENESIS OF
I
I
MUDDY MARINE SEDIMENTS
I
I
I
I
I PROCESSES I
I I PRODUCTS
DIFFUSION CONCENTRATION
I J.
_ : WATER
H2 S, C02 (HC0:3)- - -\- - -- --
.. SEDIMENT
PYRITE (FeS2) "
BACTERIAL
SULFATE REDUCTION
CALCITE, DOLOMITE
(LOW Fe CARBONATES) - - -----r---
S04' "

(C02 ISOTOPICALLY CH 4(+C02 ) ,,/ .

SQMEWHAT LIGHTER) HIGH Fe CARBONATES " ?-HC0 3
(CALCITE, DOLOMITE, •..!
LMIICFIO~IIAL METHANO- ANKERITE, SIDERITE, i' .
GENESIS (FERMENTATION RICH IN C-13) " ,
(ISOTOP. HEAVY C02'
BUT LIGHT CH 4 ) Fe -RICH CHLORITE MIN.
!.Ä
CH 4

C02 ' CH4' OTHER 11111tlll/

THERMOCATALYTIC HYDROCARBONS
DECARBOXYLATION SIDERITE LATE DIAGENESIS

IRON-POOR SED. (CARBONATES) : LlTTLE OR NO AUTHIGENIC CARBONATES

IN ZONES OF SULFATE RED. AND METHANOGENESIS

C FRESH WATER ENVIRONMENTS (POOR IN S04)

WATER
~-- -- ------- --- - - - ---
;;'DK~l LlTTLE PYRITE SEDIMENT

:~0m!t-- ABUNDANT SIDERITE

Fig. 13.23. a Overview of various realms of anoxie bottom water and rapid burial (right column).
diagenesis. b,c Proeesses and produets of early C Same as b but for fresh water environments. (Based
diagenesis: b in marine sediments with oxygenated on several sourees, e.g., Bj0r1ykke 1983; Curtis
bottom water and slow burial (left column), and with 1987). See text for further explanation
13.4 Early Diagenesis
The processes mentioned above are described in more
detail, e.g., by Lippmann (1973), Irwin et al. (1977),
Goldhaber and Kaplan (1980), Rudson (1982), Kelts and
McKenzie (1982), Gautier and Claypool (1984), Curtis
(1987), Carpenter et al. (1988), Coleman and Raiswell
(1995), Middleton and Nelson (1996).
The zone of microbial methanogenesis extends deep
below the sea floor, but a specific depth range is diffi-
cult to define. In organic matter-rich sediments on the
continental margins of the present oceans, methane oc-
curs in large quantities in the form of gas hydrates
(clathrates; cf. Sect. 14.3.6).
Infresh water environments where pore fluids are
poor in sulfate, the sulfate reduction zone and the pre-
cipitation of pyrite are sub ordinate or absent (Fig.
13.23c). As a result, the zone of methanogenesis ex-
pands upward. Under anoxic conditions, it may extend
into the water body. The principal authigenic mineral
is siderite, which may occur in large quantities, while
pyrite is rare.
13.4.2 Biogenie Carbonates
(Muds and Grainstones)
Fine-grained sediments rich in carbonate (e.g., hemi-
pelagic oozes and marls), but also grainstones, show
additional early diagenetic features, which result from
the relatively good solubility ofthe primary carbonate
minerals. Aragonitic and high-Mg calcitic skeletal par-
ticles, in particular, are easily dissolved and
reprecipitated as carbonate cement in neighboring lay-
ers (Figs. 13.l6a,b and 13.24). Some cement types are
illustrated in Fig. 13.27. With increasing burial depth,
pressure solution may become an important mecha-
nism providing carbonate cement (Sect. 13.3.3).
In this way, indistinct primary bedding is enhanced
by diagenetic overprint. Even minor variations in pri-
mary composition and pore space are sufficient to
cause significant diagenetic modifications. Typical
examples demonstrating this internal carbonate redis-
tribution process are limestone-marl successions, lay-
ered carbonate concretions, and nodular limes tones
(Fig. 13.24). Hardgrounds may result from both the
reaction of surface sediment with the overlying sea
water and internal carbonate redistribution. Marked
differences in compaction between limestone concre-
tions, limestones, and adjacent marls testify to the fact
that carbonate is commonly redistributed at relatively
shallow burial depths (several meters to tens of me-
ters). In contrast, pelagic oozes consisting predomi-
nantly of calcite skeletons usually dissolve and
recrystallize at deeper burial depths (cf. Fig. 13.3e,f).
The diagenesis of shallow-water carbonate buildups
and reefs is briefly described in Sect. 3.4.7. It largely
depends on the lithofacies and pore types of these
rocks (mudstones, wackestones, packstones, . grain-
stones, boundstones). Lagoonallime muds and skeletal
687
shoals may become dolomitized soon after deposition
via direct contact and water exchange with the overly-
ing, possibly hypersaline water body. If such an envi-
ronment is maintained in a subsiding basin for consid-
erable time, thick dolomites of early diagenetic nature
can be built up. The late diagenetic transformation of
thick limestones into dolomites (pervasive dolo-
mitization) requires a different mechanism (Sect.
13.5.3).
Pressure solution occurs in those layers, which have not been
lithified by previous cementation (e.g., Rird and Tucker
1988; J~s and Bone 1989). The dissolved carbonate is
transported by diffusion over short distances (a few to tens of
centimeters). For further details see, e.g., Ricken (1986),
Ricken and Eder (1991), Bathurst (1987, 1991). A compre-
hensive and detailed treatment of carbonate diagenesis, in-
c1uding descriptions ofthe various cement types and numer-
ous references, has been provided by Bathurst (1975) and
McIlreath and Morrow (1990). For abriefsummary see, e.g.,
Jordan and Wilson (1994). Detailed studies of carbonate
cements, inc1uding their response to sea-level changes, have
been carried out by many workers (e.g. Budd et al. 1995;
Koch anel Liedmann 1996; Schroeder et al. 1996; Grötsch
1996; Westphal 1998).
13.4.3 Biosiliceous Sediments
The diagenesis of siliceous, predominantly deep-sea
sediments is described in Sect. 5.3.5. The phenomena
of silica diagenesis in shelf carbonates are in many
ways similar to those observed in pelagic carbonates.
Due to more pronounced undersaturation of shallow
waters with respect to silica, however, opal skeletons,
such as sponge spicules, are frequently dissolved and
replaced by carbonate as long as theyare in diffusive
contact with sea water. Opaline silica preserved within
the sediment usually forms early diagenetic chert nod-
ules which are little affected by compaction. Under
special conditions, calcareous fossil remains become
silicified. This may result, for example, from silica-
rieh alkaline pore fluids below hypersaline lagoonal
waters. Silicification of carbonate mayaiso occur at
the contact with fresh pore water, when some of the
dissolved silica in saline pore fluids is precipitated due
to lowered pH.
For further information see, e.g., Brachert et al. (1987),
Iijima (1988). Chert in oceanic sediments is usually found in
sections ofMiocene age and older. However, very early chert
formation has been detected in sediment cores from the
southernmost Atlantic ocean where the siliceous ooze is little
diluted by terrigenous material (Bohrrnann et al. 1994).
In highly saline, alkaline, sodium carbonate-bicarbonate
lakes, a special type of early diagenetic chert may be precipi-
tated (Sheppard and Gude 1986). This was first observed in
Upper Pleistocene deposits of Lake Magadi in Kenya, but
since then has been found il1 many lake deposits of Jurassic
to Pleistocene age. This Magadi-type chert occurs as thin,
discontinuous beds or as plates and nodules of irregular
688 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

LlMESTONE-MARL DIAGENESIS tic, ductile state and undergo compaction up to great

PRIMARY SIGNAL burial depths (several kilometers).
PRIMARY
SEDIMENT ~
STRONG LESS DISTINCT
---.- - ~ I 13.4.4 Early Diagenesis of Sands
SOME '- HARDGROUND
~ CEMENTATION
. .
PRIMARY
CEMENT _ _ _ + Sands are little to moderately affected by mechanical
compaction and therefore tend to maintain their rela-
:~~.~ : <:: ::: - - - - CONCRETIONARY tively high initial permeability at considerable burial
~~:I; :~;~~~;'~___"-E_~E.NTAT10N depth as long as they are not cemented (cf. Sect.
13.3.8). In this state they act as favored conduits for a11
kinds of flow.
AND CHEMICAl ~
COMPACTION
Significant early diagenesis of fluvial, coastal and
shallow-marine sands occurs where they are circulated
INTENSIVE _-- - by gravity-driven meteoric waters with low ionic
---
BIOTURBATION_ - - - - - NODULAR LIMESTONE
strength (open diagenetic realm; cf. Figs. 13.20 and
23a). As a result, the unstable and easily soluble min-
eral phases of the sands are removed or altered (cf.
;;:~:'~~-::~" '.
•~.:~,~;.",.-"~ EVENT BED
- - . - ".: ":'.
: : , . ~ .• '
EVENT BED
CEMENTATION Sect. 13.3.7). In particular the carbonate fraction of
~~~ ~;~~~r:t2~\~: ..::: '. ~ ;'~: . - sands tends to become easily dissolved, whereas unsta-
ble silicates require more time to be altered to clay
- CEMENTED DIFFERENTIAl minerals, thereby releasing some components to the
UNDERBED DISSOLUTION
pore water. In humid climates with substantial ground-
-----__
---- AND CEMENTATION
water water recharge, most of the dissolved matter can
be flushed out from the sandy aquifer. However, some
CARBONATE M I G R A T I O N .
of the dissolved carbonate and silicate may be
PRESSURE DISSOLUTION . .
reprecipitated either as overgrowths on the surfaces of
SEAMS • ~ various grains (meniscus cement) in the vadose zone,
or as pore-filling cement (e.g. equant low-Mg calcite)
------ _----------
'-"-_--J:l.c:.:-::.:-:..-__
CaC03
in the deep phreatic zone where water circulation is
GRAIN SIZE AND / OR CaC03 very slow (cf. Fig. 13.27a,b). Pressure solution at the
contact between carbonate grains can promote carbon-
Fig. 13.24.. Various types of diagenetic overprint and ate cementation at this depth (cf. Sect.l3.3.3).
accentuation of indistinct primary bedding features in Sands rich in volcaniclastic material (cf. Sect. 2.4)
fme-grained calcareous sediments. LeJt-hand side tend to be altered rapidly during diagenesis, because
Uncompacted primary sediment. Right-hand side they contain high proportions ofunstable minerals and
Selected sections after mechanical and chemical
compaction, as well as cementation of particular volcanic glass which are easily converted into new,
beds. Several ofthese processes may operate simuIta- more stable minerals such as zeolites and clay miner-
neously in the same sediment. (After Ricken and als. These form rims and coatings around the grains
Eder 1991) and more or less fill the pore space, thus reducing the
primary porosity and permeability of the sands.
In warm climate, shallow-marine waters are fre-
quently supersaturated with respect to calcium carbon-
shape. Typically, the chert is dense and translucent and has a
white rind. It probably formed from a primary precipitate of ate. Hence, coastal and foreshore sands which are in
hydrous sodium silicate. The conversion of the precursor contact with these waters tend to precipitate carbonate
mineral to chert is accompanied by a loss of sodium and wa- cement (Fig. 13.23a). Under dry conditions, emerged
ter and a reduction in volume. Magadi-type chert is an excel- carbonate-bearing sands may develop calcrete and
lent indicator of past environmental conditions. silcrete close to their surface (cf. Fig. 13.20; Sect. 9.2)
and calcite cements in the vadose zone. Along beaches
Both fine-grained deep-sea carbonates and siliceous dissolved carbonate can be reprecipitated as aragonite
sediments commonly Iithify as a result of recrys- or high Mg calcite cement thereby lithifying the loose
ta11ization and cementation at burial depths of a hun- sand to beaeh rock (Fig. 13.23a). Wood and pre-exist-
dred to several hundred meters. Sha11ow-water carbon- ing carbonate, including calcareous fossils, are fre-
ates containing high proportions of unstable mineral quently silicified by silica released from unstable sili-
phases, however, tend to Iithify earlier. Hypersaline cate minerals or siliceous fossil remains.
conditions frequently promote the formation of In fluvial sands or sands oflake shores, processes in
hardgrounds at or slightly below the sea floor. In con- the water-unsaturated vadose zone are of particular
trast, siliciclastic shales and marls maintain theil' plas- interest. This zone above the groundwater table is
13.5 Late, Deep-Burial Diagenesis
commonly well aerated, but oxidation also affects the
upper part of the saturated, phreatic zone. As a result,
primary sediment partic1es containing ferrous iron and
manganese are oxidized and partially replaced by
oxyhydrates of iron and manganese (e.g., limonite,
goethite). These iron minerals can be later transformed
into hematite forming coatings around larger grains
(red-bed diagensis; cf. Sect. 6.3). While unstable sili-
cate minerals tend to be transformed into kaolinite in
humid c1imates, arid conditions may lead to the
neoformation of potassium feldspar.
Sands in deeper marine environments, on the other
hand, are affected neither by meteoric waters nor by
carbonate-supersaturated sea water. Since most oftheir
common mineral phases (quartz, feldspar, c1ay miner-
als) are more or less in equilibrium with sea water,
there is little cause for reactions between the sand par-
tic1es and the marine pore fluid during early diagenesis
(cf. Fig. 13.20). Above or near the redox boundary
(Fig. l3.23a,b), some glauconitic minerals and iron-
rich chlorites and chamosites may form (cf. Sect. 6.1).
In the sulfate reduction and methanogenesis zones,
pyrite and various carbonates may locally fill the pore
space.
Where relatively thin sand layers and sand bodies
act as drains for upstreaming compaction flow (Sect.
13.2.3) supersaturated with respect to carbonate and
silica, small amounts of quartz cement and possibly
larger volumes of carbonate may precipitate. However,
cooling of the ascending pore fluids may reduce pre-
cipitation because the solubility of carbonate increases
with lowering temperature. Sands in direct or indirect
contact with evaporative brines frequently exhibit sul-
fates, halite, and zeolites as early pore cement. After
uplift and exposure to subaerial weathering, former
cements of deeper burial are altered, e.g. siderite to
goethite or felds pars to c1ay minerals.
These processes are described for various sediments and ba-
sin settings in numerous pub1ications (see, e.g., Füchtbauer
1988; Bj0r1ykke 1984, 1991; Hesse 1989b; Muchez et al.
1992; Houseknecht and Pittrnan 1992; Burley and
MacQuaker, Gaupp et al. 1993; Crossey et al. 1996; Gaupp
1996; Cookenboo and Bustin 1999). Further references are
listed below).
13.5 Late, Deep-Burial Diagenesis
13.5.1 Trend to a Final, Inactive Stage?
Meteoric water circulation, being frequently a major
mechanism in early diagenesis, particularly in well per-
meable sands and bioc1astic grainstones (cf. Sect.
l3.4.4), normally ceases in deeply buried sediments
sealed by overlying low-permeable strata.
At deep burial depths the sediments are subjected to
increased temperature and ejJective stress which pro-
mote the dissolution of several major mineral species
689
(e.g. that of quartz). Other minerals that are stable at
surface temperature become unstable and tend to trans-
form into new minerals and to release some water (Fig.
l3 .19). Pressure solution and diffusion transport prin-
cipally act without fluid flow (advection). However,
their effects slow because of the increasing contact
areas between neighboring grains (cf. Fig. l3.11d) and
decreasing diffusion coefficients.
With increasing temperature and burial depth, the
zone of microbial methanogenesis is followed by the
zone ofthermocatalytic decarboxylation (Fig. 13.22b;
cf. Sect. 14.2). This process is generally ascribed to
late diagenesis. Its products are methane, carbon diox-
ide, and various hydrocarbons. In addition, siderite
may form in minor quantities. If the decomposition of
kerogen releases some sulfur, small quantities of late
diagenetic pyrite may result. Thermocatalysis tends to
end when all reactive organic matter is consumed. Sol-
ute transport by the various flow mechanisms de-
scribed in the previous sections becomes less effective
as a result of decreasing rock matrix permeability.
All this may lead to the conc1usion that late
diagenesis generally operates very slowly and finally
approaches a ± inactive final stage, unless substantially
increased temperature and pressure conditions trigger
the on set ofmetamorphism (see below). The approach
to an inactive diagenetic stage is certainly true for
many cases where the rocks have become more or less
sealed against influences from outside and have not
been affected by substantial subsequent tectonism (e.g.
subsidence or uplift).
13.5.2 Reactivation of Late-Stage Diagenesis
On the other hand, many examples of the diagenetic
his tory of rocks have been described where late
diagenesis has been reactivated by continued or re-
newed fluid flow and the import of low-salinity or
evaporitic brines from overlying, laterally located, or
underlying strata (cf. Sect. l3.3.7). This is reflected by
formation waters of markedly varying composition
(Sect. l3.3.6), by late-stage cementation and secondary
porosity, as well as by cement minerals formed coeval
with or later than hydrocarbon migration (cf. Sect.
13.3.7). Where pore fluids of differing composition
mix, as stated earlier, a new suite of cement minerals
can be generated andlor older cements and primary
minerals are dissolved or replaced by other cements.
This mechanism has been quoted as one of the most
important pro ces ses in late diagenesis.
Syn- and post-depositional faulting in conjuction
with overpressured systems, differential subsidence
and compaction, as well as other tectonic processes
can bring about a change from the normally c1osed,
deep-burial diagenetic system to an open one. Fractur-
ing, uplift and emergence of part of the basin filling
can reactivate meteoric flow. Ifthe new fluid conduits
690
are connected with shallow-burial meteoric flow sys-
tems, even deeply buried sediments may experience a
secondary phase of meteoric circulation leading to sim-
ilar results as mentioned for early diagenesis (leaching,
dedolomitization, etc.), particularly elose to fractures.
In addition, deeply operating flow systems may again
become more active due to increased hydraulic heads
and temperature gradients, or tectonic stress. Several
ofthe above mentioned processes can operate simulta-
neously or partially follow each other.
Although the general rules for these processes are
fairly well known, it still appears to be difficult to pre-
dict the deep-burial diagenetic evolution of an individ-
ual sequence with confidence. There is hardly a sedi-
mentary section which behaves diagenetically in ex-
actly the same way as another one. This problem is
demonstrated below by some case studies. In the fol-
lowing section the controversial interpretation of late
dolomitization only is addressed.
13.5.3 Large-Scale Fluid Flow Systems and
Late Dolomitization
Long-distance fluid flow. Fluid flow on a basin-wide
scale (basin geofluids) has been advocated recently by
a number of workers (e.g. Lawrence and Comford
1995; Monta ez et al. 1997) for the interpretation of
some diagenetic phenomena which otherwise are diffi-
cult to understand. One of these phenoma is the occur-
rence of highly saline pore fluids in sediment sections
which do not contain evaporites or brines derived from
dissolved evaporites originally present within the se-
quence. However, evporites are known in these cases
far away from the site of investigation. Therefore it is
assumed that large-scale, deep-reaching subsurface
flow systems have transported solutes (ineluding hy-
drocarbons) via permeable layers over long distances.
Another indicator of large-scale, deeply circulating
fluid flow is the high-temperature diagenesis observed
in some sequences which were never deeply buried
and could not have been affected by fluids from the
directly underlying rocks. In these cases, a kind of
basin-wide hydrothermal system must have developed
which transported not only heat, but also various sol-
utes from deeper buried strata to marginal locations
where the basin fill is limited in thickness.
The high-temperature (up to 150°C) diagenesis ofintermedi-
ately buried (never more than 1.8 km) Pennsylvanian sand-
stones and limestones in the distal part of a foreland basin
(Cherokee basin, Kansas) can be explained only by ascend-
ing pore fluids from more central, deeper buried parts of the
basin (Wojcik et al. (1997).
Such flow systems are also discussed as a means oftransport-
ing hydrocarbons over long distances (e.g. Bachu 1997;
Rostron et al. 1997; cf. Sect. 14.2).
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
These and additional findings have led to the develop-
ment of large-scale conceptional models in which the
diagenetic evolution of the basin fill is mainly con-
trolled by the tectonic setting and the hydrological
flow regimes operating in the basins (Heydari 1997):
- Passive margin settings. The burial diagenesis is
characterized by extensional tectonics, ± growth faults,
and relatively slow and steady subsidence. The hydro-
logical flow regimes of these settings are (1) near-sur-
face (up to 1 km depth), topographically-driven mete-
oric flow directed basinward (cf. Fig. 13.12d), (2)
compaction flow with a vertical and horizontal, strata-
bound flow component, and (3) thermohaline circula-
tion (convection flow). Sediments deeper than 3 km
may become overpressured. Above this zone, the con-
centrations of cations and anions in the pore fluids
tend to increase with burial depth.
- Collisional margin settings (Fig. 13.25a) are charac-
terized by compressional tectonics and thrust faulting,
extensive fracturing, and episodic fluid flow in re-
sponse to tectonic loading. Hot saline and highly pres-
sured fluids ("tectonic fluids") move laterally from the
collision zone toward the craton using permeable strata
and fracture zones as conduits. The may have taken up
some fluids from magmatic sourees, from metamorphie
processes, and dehydration water from altered clay
minerals.
- Post-orogenie settings (Fig. 13.25b) are dominated
by topographically-driven fluid flow and high flow
rates (1 to 30 mlyear). The groundwater composition
(1 to 100 g/l TDS, cf. Sect. 9.2) is controlled by rock
types.
The diagenetic evolution of rift basins resembles that
of passive margin settings, but may be complicated by
higher tectonic activity, stronger subsidence, and dras-
tic changes in the depositional environment. The prin-
ciples of the conceptual models can also be applied to
other basin settings. Considering long time periods,
some basin fills may experience two or even more fun-
damental changes in their diagenetic evolution.
The passive margin diagenetic realm is exemplified by the
northern Gulf of Mexico. The various phenomena of this
margin have been described by several authors (e.g. Ranor
1994; Reydari 1997; Land et al. 1997; Morse et al. 1997; see
also Sect. 6.4.8).
Rowever, this exarnple cannot be applied to all passive mar-
gins because it is in some ways specific due to the underlying
Jurassie evaporites, extensive salt structures, and high sedi-
mentation rates.
The example from Kansas mentioned above (Wojcik et al.
1997) seems to represent mainly the collisional margin set-
ting. The intermediate and late diagenetic history of the
Pennsylvanian (Late Carboniferous) limestones shows two
episodes ofbrine injection of differing composition and tem-
perature.
Some sediment sections from deep drill holes in the
Variscan foreland basins of Europe have revealed a multi-
13.5 Late, Deep-Burial Diagenesis
phase diagenetic history (e.g. Swennen et al. 1996; Muchez
et al. 1995). In Pennian to Tertiary sediments of the Eastern
Alps, several generations of deep-burial carbonate cements
have been identified (Zeeh et al. 1997) which are related to
saline fonnation waters or metamorphic waters. Some of
these fluids must have come from crystalline massifs to the
north ofthe Alps. In Cretaceous hydrocarbon reservoir rocks
ofthe Rocky Mountains, both basin-wide fluid flow and flow
systems restricted to smaller compartments in the subsurface
have been identified (Surdam et al. 1996).
Late pervasive dolomitization. The dolomitization of
thick, deeply buried calcium carbonate deposits has
been frequently discussed. The main problem is that
the Mg content of normal marine pore waters and com-
paction flow is not sufficient for transforming large
volumes of calcium carbonate into secondary dolomite
(pervasive dolomitization). Mg-rich bittem salts are
rare in the subsurface, and small quantities of Mg re-
leased in conjunction with the transformation ofunsta-
ble to stable clay minerals (cf. Sects. 13.3.7) are, at
least partly, consumed by the formation of chlorite.
Thus, pervasive dolomitization requires another large
Mg source.
Early dolomitization of marine lime mud and
calcarenites can by explained by downward Mg trans-
port from the sea water reservoir by diffusion and
some advection (cf. Sect. 13.4.2). This process contin-
ues during slow sediment aggradation and may gener-
ate thick dolomite sequences. In contrast, late deep-
burial dolomitization requires another system provid-
ing the large amounts of Mg necessary. Some authors
have mentioned convective flow or deep meteoric wa-
ter circulation. In both cases, Mg-rich brine must be
available to be transported to the site of dolomitization.
It is now the deep meteoric water circulation which
is most favored. Near-surface or buried evaporites are
dissolved in topographically high parts of the basin,
e.g. in front of an overthrust belt, and their solutes mi-
grate basinward until they are forced by impermeable
barriers to ascend again to the surface (Fig. 13.25c).
This kind offluid flow normally moves very slowly (a
few mm up to 1 m per year; see also Pinti et al. 1997),
because the hydraulic gradients and the permeabilities
ofthese flow systems are low. Buried platform carbon-
ates on the opposite side of the basin can be
dolomitized in this way, particularly along the princi-
pal, ± vertical flow conduits and basinward dipping
permeable strata into which the fluids can penetrate.
This late dolomitization is very common and forms
coarse-crystalline dolomite, thereby destroyingprimary
sedimentary structures in contrast to early, fine-grained
dolomitization which can preserve these structures.
Some features of dolomitization as observed in thin
sections are shown in Fig. 13.27.
In the example ofthe Cambrian Cathedral Fonnation in the
Canadian RockyMountains (Fig. 13.25c; Yao andDemicco
1997), a basin-wide meteoric flow system is assumed follow-
ing the topographic gradient from an uplifted magmatic arc
691
to the distal craton. The deeply circulating water probably
dissolved evaporites along its flow path and reached temper-
atures of 100-200°C, salinities of 10-25 wt%, and had a
CaJMg ratio of 1:2 (detennined from fluid inclusions). At the
transition from the "shale basin" to the carbomate platfonn,
which was characterized by fractures and later overprinted by
tectonism, the brine ascended and fonned vertical pipes and
dikes of secondary dolomite. Then the fluids penetrated into
stratafonn sheets ofthe platfonn tens of meters thick, thereby
cooling. Dolomitization did not reach the most distal, land-
ward parts of the platfonn. The massive replacement dolo-
mization (2nd generation) ofthe fonner calcareous and par-
tially dolomitized platfonn (1st generation) is assumed to
have taken place in the time period from the Middle Silurian
to the Late Devonian (i.e., in -60Ma).
Regional deep-burial dolomitization caused by long-dis-
tance, topographically driven fluid flow, has also been re-
ported from the Devonian of western Canada (Mountjoy et
al. 1997). Here, the geohistory and diagenetic evolution dis-
play two phases of subsidence, the first one reflecting a pas-
sive margin setting, the second one orogenetic compression.
In total, five episodes of fracturing and three dissolution
events, including stylolite fonnation and dedolomitization, as
weil as several generations of dolomite (replacement dolo-
mite, saddle dolomite, fracture-filling dolomite) were identi-
fied. The hydrothennal fluids mainlyused fracture zones and
penetrated prior to or after hydrocarbon migration. Fe-poor
calcite is, as in many other instances, the latest cement min-
eral. Another Canadian example are Devonian reef com-
plexes of Alberta which were affected by pervasive
dolomitization in response to long-distance flow (Rostron et
al. 1997).
Another example of late, regional dolomitization is the
Lower Carboniferous of southern Ireland (Hitzman et al.
1997). Here, the study of C and Sr isotopes has revealed that
the north-directed, moderately hot and saline fluid flow
seems to have changed laterally in its composition.
Saddle (or baroque) dolomite is a common cement min-
eral in deep-burial carbonates and sandstones. It is character-
ized by irregularly curved crystal boundaries and sweeping
extinction under the microscope. Fluid inclusions have
shown that saddle dolomite mostly fonns at temperatures
between 90 and 160°C from fluids with a salinity greater
than that of sea water (Spötl and Pitrnan 1998; cf. Fig.
13.25d).
Further publications dealing with pervasive dolo-
mitization and dedolomitization (the process of calcite re-
placing dolomite) include Chilingar et al. (1979), Land
(1985), Lee and Friedman (1987), Füchtbauer (1988), Moore
(1989), Tucker and Wright (1990). Experiments and theoreti-
cal considerations have shown that high temperatures
(e;80°C) and a low Ca++/Mg++ favor dolomitization
(Usdowski 1994).
13.5.4 Geohistory and Diagenesis (Case Studies)
The highly variable burial his tory and regional differ-
ences in the diagenetic evolution of certain strata has
been documented by a considerable number of case
studies. Sophisticated methods (cf. Sect. 13 .8.1),
which were not available for earlier investigations,
have allowed a much better identification and under-
standing of the complex processes operating in diage-
692 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

d SHAllOW AND DEEPER BURIAl CARBONATE DIAGENESIS

(MIDOLE TAIASSIC, EPICONTINENTAL, S. GERMANYI
SHALLOW BURIAL OEEPER BURIAL EXHUMATION
120 80
METEORIC AECRISTALLIZATION/DOLOMITIZATION

S
CALCITE (AI EVAPORITES (80-110'CI

J: 2 BLOCKY CALCITE ~ 'COMPACTION,

\i::w (B AND CI \ PAESSUAE SOLUTION
o BLOCKY CALCITE 10, S 50' C.
± MARINE POAE WATERI
DEEP BURIAL
(RHINE GRABEN)
200 160
I I
TRIASSIC JURASSIC CRETACEOUS TRERTIARY +

C BASIN-WIDE FLUID FLOW AND REGIONAL DOlOMITIZATr

AAC ·SHALE BASIN " CARBONATE PLATFORM
L_.-h--..--...._
LIMESTONES AND EARL Y DOLOMITES

~ 2
:J:
1-4
c...
w
06

8
100 km
10L-------~------~

ab EXAMPLES OF BURIAL DIAGENETtC REGIMES

-
COlLlStON MARGIN POST-TECTONIC REGIME
5
~ 0
I 5
I-
fu 10 ".;:;. PRESSURE-DRIVEN
o
o 15 . / .•••::::::~:~:f: SLOWL Y MOVING HOT .•.•:::••.TOPOGAPHICALL Y

:ti~~t~j~~~t~~:~M::~ES
.,.. .·::::::::::::::: DRIVEN METEORIC FLOW
20 200 km 4 .:::::::;::::;::::::::.... 200 km
~

Fig. 13.25. a,b Conceptual models of basin-wide
fluid flow: a tectonically driven hot and highly sa-
line, very slowly moving brine; b deep meteoric
flow. See text for further explanation. (After Heydari
1997, modified). c Regional, deep-burial dolo-
mitization of Cambrian carbonate platform, south
Canadian Rocky Mountains, by long-distance fluid
flow. The pore fluids ascended along the platform
margin and penetrated into carbonate sheets causing
a second generation of massive dolomite. (After Yao
and Demicco 1997, modified). d Subsidence history
and diagenesis of Upper Triassie shallow-marine
limestones (Muschelkalk), southem Germany. The
limestones are underlain by evaporites. Most of the
strata studied were moderately buried and then ex-
humed, but a small portion has been deeply buried in
the Rhine graben where hydro thermal activity has
locally maintained high-temperature diagenesis.
(Modified after Geng and Zeeh 1995)
13.5 Late, Deep-Burial Diagenesis
netic systems. Here, only a few examples can be
briefly mentioned. They all come from Europe, be-
cause some general aspects of these locations are de-
scribed in other sections of this book.
Middle Triassie shallow-marine limes tones, south-
em Germany. The classic Triassic sequences of central
Europe were deposited in a slowly subsiding intracon-
tinental basin (cf. Sect. 12.3.2, Fig. 12.17). The Middle
Triassic (Muschelkalk Group) was characterized by a
major marine transgression leaving behind two
shallow-rnarine limestones sequences separated by
marine evaporites including halite. The relatively sim-
ple burial history and diagenetic evolution ofthe upper
limestone sequence was investigated in drill holes and
outcrops (Geng and Zeeh 1995, Fig. 13.25d). The ce-
ment sequence (A to D) reflects the initial influence of
an arid clirnate and the increasing burial depth and
temperature with time. Dolomitization occurred rela-
tively early and is not pervasive. The deepest burial
and thus the peak of this development is reached at the
beginning of the Cretaceous. It is marked by the for-
mation of saddle dolomite at temperatures of 80-
110°C. Then the Middle Triassic was slowly exhumed
due to uplift, except those parts buried deeply below
younger deposits in the Rhine graben (cf. Sect. 12.1,
Fig. 12.2).
Exhumation reactivated meteoric flow and led to a fur-
ther calcite generation (E 1) and dedolomitization. Lo-
cal subsidence in the graben and possibly the influence
ofhydrothermal fluids caused the generation offurther
saddly dolomite and siderite.
Upper Triassic fluvial sandstones, Paris basin (Fig.
13.26; cf. Fig. 14.10). Texturally and compositionally
immature sands (lithic arkoses or feldspathic lith-
arenites) of distal alluvial fans, braided and slightly
meandering rivers were deeply buried (about 2 km).
They rest on strata free of lacustrine deposits and
evaporites and are covered by marine Mesozoic and
Tertiary sediments in the center of the Paris basin. Far-
ther to the east, the Upper Triassic (Keuper Formation)
contains evaporites. The burial history of these imma-
ture sandstones was investigated in a representative
well (Fig. 13 .26b) which revealed the following se-
quence of diagenetic phases (Spötl et al. 1993):
- An early meteoric phase in semiarid climate charac-
terized by extensive carbonate cementation, particu-
larly dolocrete, and hematite (red-bed-type diagenesis ),
paleokarst and secondary porosity caused by leaching.
The basinal brine had a high
- A deeper burial phase (after compaction) in which
gravity-driven lateral fluid flow imported evaporitic
Keuper-brines from the uplifted eastem basin margin.
These brines had high ö 18values and reached tempera-
tures up to 140°C. They mixed with Keuper formation
693
water (lower salinity, low ö 18values; Fig. 13.26c). The
resulting diagenetic minerals include ferroan carbon-
ates, authigenic albite and K-feldspar, quartz, sulfates,
sulfides, and clay minerals.
- A second phase of long-distance lateral fluid flow,
but this time from the south (low salinity, low
ö 18value). Mixing with the pre-existing basinal brine
reduced the salinity of the pore fluid to 50-100 g/l TDS
(concentration of the present-day brine).
- Fluids from the Keuper sandstone ascended along
faults within the basin center, crossed the Liassic
mudstones, and contributed to the cementation of
Dogger carbonates (Worden and Matray 1995).
In total, more than 20 different cements were identified
in the Keuper sandstones; some of them formed co-
evally or repeatedly, before hydrocarbons were
emplaced. The two different flow systems and fluid
mixing phases, operating during mesodiagenesis, are
inferred from the study of fluid inclusions, oxygen,
carbon, and strontium isotopes, C1IBr ratios, catho-
doluminscence, and radiometric dating of illite.
Lower Permian (Rotliegend) sandstones. These
deeply buried sandstones (2-5 km) below the North
Sea, the northem Netherlands and northem Germany
have received much attention because they host large
amounts of hydrocarbons (mainly gas). The fluvial,
eolian, and partly lacustrine (playa) sandstones were
deposited in an arid continental environment on top of
the coal-bearing strata ofthe Carboniferous and below
the thick evaporites ofthe Zechstein Formation (Upper
Perrnian; cf. Sect. 6.4.3 and Fig. 12.17c). The diagen-
esis of these sandstones is not only controlled largely
by the depositional environment, but also displays
markedregional differences. Relativelyshallow-buried
fluvial and interdune sandstones ofthe southem Neth-
erlands were rapidly cemented by dolomite, anhydrite
and quartz in an early meteoric regime and show no
influence ofPermian sea water or evaporites. Sands of
eolian dunes and dry sand flats have preserved good
porosities (mean value 17%) and permeabilities (mean
10 mD; cf. Fig. 13.21) under these conditions. More
porosity was lost by dolomite and anhydrite cementa-
tion than by pressure solution of quartz. In addition,
secondary clay minerals and hematite have reduced the
porosity. Isotope studies on drill cores from northem
Germany have revealed that the early Rotliegend ce-
ments resemble the cementation pattern 0 modem
playa lake basins.
At greater burial depths and in regions affected by
faulting, cross-formational and lateral fluid exchange
between the strata of uplifted horst blocks and sub-
sided graben structures have brought about late cemen-
tation by quartz, Fe-carbonates, anhydrite and clay
minerals (e.g. authigenic illite). The isotopes of C, S
and Sr found in the cements indicate that small vol-
umes of Zechstein-fluids have been injected. Some
cement types formed several times during the
694 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

DIAGENESIS OF KEUPER SANDSTONES, PARIS BASIN

a GEOLOGICAL MAP b GEOHISTORY ANALYSIS
TERTIARY

1st FLUID MIXING

I (+ SALINE BRINE I
t-1
a..
UJ
o
CARBONATE
CEMENTS
(LOW-Eh SOLUTIONSI,
PRECIP . OF K-FELDSPAR,
ALBITE , SOME ANHYDRITE ,
AND VARIOUS SULFIDES
2

INCREASING SALINITY 2nd FLUID MIXING

OF PORE FLUIDS (+ METEORIC W .I

250 200 150 100 50 o

TIME (Mal
C PORE FLUID MIXING
KEUPER BRINES 1st MIXING
(METEORIC W . +
RESIDUAL HALlTE- ____ 1
SATURATED BRINEI ~ 0
--
_---------- ~ -1
... - - / //' -2
I DOLOCRETE, SILICA,
PALEOKARST / ~ -3
,/~ ~ -4
INITIAL /~ 0
KEUPER
/
~~ J: -5
PORE W . / 0 -6 CHLORIDE MASS BALANCE
I " ~
I ~ '0 -7
~
1,/
k -8+----.--......,.....---'Z.-?llll4--~
o 20 40 60 80 100
BASINAL BRINES MIXING (%1 METEROIC WATER

Fig. 13.26. Diagenesis of Upper Triassic (Keuper)
sandstones in Paris Basin. a Geological map showing
outcropping basement and Triassic strata along the
margin of the present-day structural basin. An east-
em source delivered saline brine and a southem
source meteoric water to the basin center (study
area). The present-day pore water salinity increases
from the southem basin margin via the basin center
to the eastem margin. b Geohistory of Keuper sand-
stones, phases of fluid mixing, and cement succes-
sion. c Pore fluid mixing, derived from oxygen iso-
topes and chloride mass balance, controlling main
phases in the diagenetic evolution. (After Spöt! et al.
1993, simplified)
13.5 Late, Deep-Burial Diagenesis
geohistory of these sandstones (e.g. carbonates, an-
hydrite and illite); earlier cements were partly dis-
solved and reprecipitated.
Rotliegend sandstones in horst position in the North
Sea (Leman field, maximal burial depth 3.5-4 km,
present depth ~2 km) were affected by fluids from
both the underlying coal seams and the overlying
evaporites as well as by late meteoric flow. After basin
inversion, the low-pressured Rotliegend sandstones
seem to have acted as drains for fluids.
These results and more details about this example have been
reported by Gaupp et a1. (1993), Platt (1994), Sullivan et a1.
(1994), Amthor and Okkerman (1998). Radiometric dating of
the extensive authigenic illite in Carboniferous (horst posi-
tion) and Rotliegend sandstones (graben) revealed a slowly
prograding illitization front (0.2 mmlyear between ~200 and
150 Ma) from the horst to the graben (Zingmann et a1. 1998).
The transgressive Zechstein conglomerate, ~3 m thick in
aborehole in Belgium, is affected by late pervasive replace-
ment and pore-filling ankerite (De Craen and Swennen
1992). The Fe-rich fluids are probably derived from elastics
of the underlying Carboniferous. Deeply buried Carbonifer-
ous (Westphalian) sandstones ofthe coal district of Aachen,
Germany, are rich in dolomite, ferroan carbonates, siderite,
and quartz. They were later uplifted and experienced a sec-
ond phase ofmeteoric flow (Swennen et a1. 1996).
Further descriptions ofthe diagenetic processes in various
rock types and tectonic settings inelude Muchez et a1. (1995),
Khanna et a1. (1997), Land (1997), Munz et a1. (1998),
O'Reilly et a1. (1998) and references listed above.
13.5.5 Cement Sources and
Cement Mineral Sequences
Cement sources . In the past the question after the
sources for specific cement minerals could not always
answered with confidence. In the shallow meteoric
regime, import and export of dissolved matter is nor-
mally no problem because large volumes of water pass
the sediment. In addition, considerable amounts of
solids are dissolved and reprecipitated within the sedi-
ment considered. Sabkha brines may provide highly
soluble salts which are not available in humid climates.
Our question is more difficult to answer for the ce-
ment sources at greater burial depths. There is no
doubt that pressure solution and short-distance molec-
ular diffusion are very effective mechanisms in local
redistribution of carbonate and silica, but quantitative
investigations have shown that the mass balance be-
tween dissolved and reprecipitated matter in certain
strata is often either negative or positive. The various
reactions releasing water and dissolved constituents in
the deep subsurface do not provide enough mass to
account for the large volumes of cement observed in
many lithified rocks. Even in the case of relatively eas-
ily soluble carbonates, ab out 100 000 volumes of pore
water are needed to fill one volume of pore space
(Bathurst 1975). Therefore, the import of carbonate
695
from the meteoric zone or the dissolution and import
of carbonate from the deeper subsurface are often
quoted as a mechanism for providing additional car-
bonate, for cementation. The latter process may be pro-
moted by the release of carbon dioxide from the de-
composition of organic matter and kerogen.
Particularly the source of silica for quartz cement,
which is the most important cement type besides car-
bonate, has been frequently discussed in the literature.
Quartz sandstones, for example, may import or export
silica. Shallowly buried sandstones may receive silica
from meteoric water rich in silica due to intensive
chemical weathering. Deeply buried sandstones have
to import silica from under- and overlying shales if
pressure solution cannot account for all the silica
needed for quartz cement. In some regions, convective
flow in large circulation cells (Fig. l3.l6t) may trans-
fer silica in considerable quantities from deeper and
hotter to more elevated and cooler portions of a sand
body.
Mass balances reveal that thousands of pore water volumes
are required to supply alone the Si0 2 needed for the quartz
overgrowths in the sandstones (e.g. Lynch 1996; see also
Bj0rlykke and Gran 1997, Sect. 31.3.2). The amountofwater
necessary to produce the diagenetic modifications of sand-
stones normally is much larger than that present in the entire
formation.
The same is true ofpervasive dolomitization (see above).
Sulfate cements such as anhydrite, barite, and celestite, as
weIl as base metals are often not available in the sedimentary
sequence investigated. These constituents must have come
from distant sources, often transported along fracture zones.
It has been frequently observed that cementation is more in-
tense elose to faults and fractures than farther away from
these fluid conduits.
So, the answer to our question is, at least in a number of
cases, that long-lasting and long-distant fluid flow delivers
considerable amounts of solutes which cannot be derived
from the neighborhood of the site studied.
Cement Mineral Sequences. The previous discussion
on the various realms of diagenesis and systems of
mass transport in different rocks and rock sequences
demonstrates that a comrnon rule for the succession of
cement minerals (diagenetic mineral paragenesis ) can-
not exist. In addition, the numerous mineral reactions
involved, including the dissolution and replacement of
earlier cement by later generations of mineral phases
(cf. Fig. l3.22c) and recrystallization, render it diffi-
cult in many cases to establish the true, complete ce-
ment sequence. Differing coeval cements and cement
successions, caused by primary differences in grain
size and fabric, skeletal structures, pore sizes and per-
meability etc., enhance this problem. Early cements of
the vadose and phreatic meteoric regime, in particular,
vary greatly in response to climate change.
N eglecting these early cement variations, neverthe-
less the following major cement sequences can be fre-
quently observed:
696 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

VADOSE (METEORIC) C MARINE CALCITE CEMENT SEQUENCE

• SILT (BURIAL AND EXHUMATION)

'--41)f-.'-----p--:..---.....,a ~ PH

ST ALACTITIC

RADIAXIAL-
FIBROUS
b
d MARINE CALCITE SEQUENCE
(BURIAL AND EXHUMATION)
1) MARINE
2) VADOSE
3) DEEP PHREATIC

MATRIX DOLO
(RECRYSTALLIZED )

CEMENT TYPES OF SANDSTONES

Fig. 13.27. Some examples of cement minerals fre-
quently observed in thin sections of bioclastic car-
bonates and quartz sandstones. a Carbonate cements
in the vadose meteoric zone. b Early cement succes-
sion reflecting the change from marine to vadose and
deep phreatic conditions. (a,b After McIlreath and
Morrow 1990). c Typical cement sequence in pri-
mary pores of marine carbonates which experienced
moderate burial and subsequent uplift. Cement
growth is elucidated by cathodoluminescence. d Var-
ious stages of matrix dolomitization, dedolo-
mitization, and pore-filling cements observed in Ju-
rassic microbial sponge mounds. (c,d After
Schroeder et al. 1996). e-h Various types of
Rotliegend sandstone diagenesis (Lower Perrnian): e
early sabkha type; f hematite type, characteristic of
eolian sandstm:e; g ankerite-siderite type, late
diagenesis influenced by fluid flow; h kaolinite type,
late diagenesis. (After Gaupp 1996). Symbols are
explained in Fig. 13.20
13.6 Transition from Diagenesis to Metamorphism
- In sandstones. Clay minerals (e.g. kaolinite) - quartz
- carbonates (including dolomite) - sometimes sulfates
(anhydrite) and chlorides. Late calcite is often found to
replace quartz. In volcaniclastic sands, glass may be
followed by zeolites which later trans form into feld-
spar or mica. Greywackes and sands rich in feldspar
and lithic components develop a matrix consisting of
altered primary particles and cement which was precip-
itated later (clay minerals, chlorite, and other silicates).
- In shallow-marine carbonates or mixed siliciclastic-
carbonate sediments. High-Mg calcite (in addition to
aragonite) - ankeritic calcite (Fe,Mn<:Mg) - ferroan
calcite -low-Mg calcite. In each ofthese stages, calcite
may be replaced by dolomite.
Recent work has demonstrated that the number of ce-
ment generations is often much higher than listed here.
In many instances 10 to 20 generations have been
identified. The main reason for these findings is the
fact that meteoric and basin-wide fluid flow have reac-
tivated the diagenetic processes in the deep-burial
stage. As a result, some cement types formed repeat-
edly and then are labelled, e.g. calcite I, 11, III, etc.
Some examples of cement minerals frequently ob-
served in bioclastic carbonates and quartz sandstones
are illustrated in Fig. 13.27. Detailed descriptions are
presented in many publications on carbonate and sand-
stone diagenesis.
Numerous publications contain infonnation on cement min-
eral sequences, besides observations on burial depths, frac-
turing and dissolution events of certain rock types in specific
tectonic and environmental settings (e.g. Schmidt and Mc-
Donald 1979; Edman and Surdam 1984; Füchtbauer 1988;
Schroeder 1988; Dreyer et al. 1990; Schroeder et al. 1996;
Swennen et al. 1996; Heydari 1997; Wojcik et al. 1997).
More references are listed earlier in this chapter.
13.6 The Transition from Diagenesis
to Metamorphism
At deep burial depth, hydrous mineral phases tend to
trans form into denser, less hydrous phases (Fig. 13.28;
cf. mineral reactions in Fig. 13.19). Smectite, for ex-
ample, forms illite at temperatures between 60 and
100°C, or kaolinite is converted to illite and quartz
(120 to 150°C). Zeolites, derived from volcanic glass,
and other unstable minerals form chlorite, low-temper-
ature feldspar (preferentially potash feldspar or albite),
and quartz. Oxyhydrates of iron and manganese form
less hydrous compounds or, after reduction, may be
ineorporated into carbonates. Most of these reaetions
release water and dissolved species and thus modify
the ionic strength and composition of the pore fluids.
In conjunction with continued porosity reduetion,
possibly enhanced by lateral tectonic stress, shales
transform into slates. Their porosities drop tovalues
around 3% and less. This transition from deep-burial
697
diagenesis to low-grade or "sub-greensehist facies"
metamorphism is characterized by increasing
crystallinily 01 illitelmuscovite (e.g., Dunoyer de
Segonzac et al. 1968; Frey 1987; Robinson 1987).
A clear boundary between diagenesis and metamor-
phism cannot be set. Evaporites and organic matter
show significant transformations earlier than the com-
mon silicate materials. Many authors hold the opinion
that metamorphism of silicate rocks commences at
temperatures of 150±50°C (Bucher and Frey 1994).
Beyond this limit, a number of specifie minerals ap-
pear, such as glaucophane, lawsonite, ete.
Regional metamorphism norrnally oecurs in deeply
subsiding basins accumulating great thicknesses of
sediment::;. Metamorphism at shallower burial depths is
caused by specific faetors, such as abnormally high
temperature gradients and lateral compressional stress,
or along the contact to ascending hot plutonic rocks or
magma.
Assuming a ± normal geothermal gradient of 30°Ikm, a spe-
cific rock unit must be buried almost 7 km in order to attain
the temperature needed for the onset of significant low-grade
metamorphism (around 200°C).
Some specific problems related to the smectite-illite trans-
formation in mud rocks are discussed by Awwiller (1993).
13.7 Thermal History of Basin Fills
13.7.1 Subsiding Basins Affected by
Conductive Heat Flow
The temperature distribution in a sedimentary basin is
eontrolled by conductive heat flow from the deeper
ernst and, in particular cases, by advective heat trans-
fer due to meteoric water circulation. In addition,
changes in the thermal conductivity due to variations
in the eomposition and compaction (porosity) of the
basin-filling sediments have to be considered.
Figure 13.29 demonstrates examples of the recon-
strnction ofthe thermal history and temperature distri-
bution of basins assuming that meteoric flow was ab-
sent or insignificant. Rift basins evolving into passive
eontinental margin basins experience an early phase of
enhanced conductive heat flow (Sect. 8.3), i.e., high
temperature gradients, which is followed by cooling
and decreasing temperature gradients. Such scenarios
have been modeled for a number ofbasins; two exam-
pIes ofthe North American Atlantic margin are shown
in (Fig. 13.29a,b).
In the model for the Georges Bank basin offNewfoundland,
it is assumed that the stretching factor (lithospheric attenua-
tion) was ß=2.5 (cf. Sect. 8.3). During the initial rifting stage,
200 Ma before present, the temperature gradient may have
been about 50°C/km, but later it dropped to approximately
30°C. Because ofthe rapid subsidence and sediment accumu-
lation during the Jurassic, the base of these sediments
698 Chapter 13 Diagenesis

DEPTH SEDI- POROSITY (%) TRA NSFORMATION OF CLAY MINERALS

MENT TEMPERATURE
(km) TYPE (Oe)
SOFT U)
TO U)

FIRM <t
...J
(!)
CLAY
MUD cj
...J
'" 0 .5 o
Cf) >
+
Cf)
CLAY -
W STONE.
Z
MUD -
w STONE.
C,!)
« MARL-
STONE
Cl
SHALE

3
3-5 100-150°
w
z REPLACED
o
N SLATE
MAINLY SY
CHLORITE,
I Na-FELDSPAR
()
z AND
« QUARTZ
5-10 ",200° REPLACED SY
I- ILLlTE, CHLORITE,
W PHYL-
=F LlTE AND QUARTZ
ä
W

Fig. 13.28. Diagenesis of pelitic sediments with most important mineral transformations. (Based on Frey et al.
1980; Heling 1988)

reached a temperature of 125°C within a time period of about
40 Ma (subsidence curve crossing temperature lines in Fig.
l3.29a). About 110 Ma B.P., the maximum temperature was
established at a burial depth of approximately 6 km. Then the
temperature at the base ofthe Jurassie (as weil as in younger
strata) remained more or less constant. During rapid subsi-
dence, a temperature of approximately 125°C is thought to
be necessary for the generation of oil. Later, the minimum
temperature for oil generation can drop (Fig. l3.29a), be-
cause oil generation is controlled by both the temperature
and the time elapsed since deep burial (Waples 1980; Tissot
and Weite 1984).
For the deeply filled Baltimore Canyon trough farther
south, thermal modeling predicts a subsurface temperature
distribution as shown in Fig. 13.29b. During the Late Juras-
sie, thermal gradients in the center of the trough (containing
Triassie sediments at burial depths ofup to 15 km) and far-
ther offshore reflect the rifting and early drifting stage and
therefore were greater than at present. For a specific sedi-
ment layer, however, the temperature still increased some-
what during the last 140 Ma, because subsidence and sedi-
ment accumulation in the passive margin basin continued.
The sediments below the 200°C isoline are considered
overmature with respect to oil generation. They should dis-
play the characteristics of low-grade metamorphism.
Further examples of modeling the thermal evolution of
various basins are given, e.g., by Hermanrud (1993), Person
et al. (1996), and Weite et al. (1997). Papers and references
on thermal conductivity of sediments and thermal regimes of
continental lithospere are found in Balling and Decker
(1995), Lee and Deming (1998).
13.7.2 Thermal Effects of Subsidence
Followed by Uplift
If a phase of subsidence is followed by uplift and sig-
nificant denudation, the thermal history of a specific
sediment body exhibits both a phase of conductive
heating and a phase of cooling. This is a common fea-
ture in fold belts, but here the reconstruction of the
thermal and stress history of certain rock units is com-
13.7 Thermal History
a AGE B.P. (Ma )
E
:.
J:
I-
0..
W 100
o
6 'E-BURIAL DEPT H ~
SUBSIDENCE ----
CURVE FOR BASE
OF JURASSIC
b LATE JURASSIC
E
:.
J:
I- PR ESENT
0..
W
o
Fig. 13.29. Temperature-depth history of sediments
not affected by meteoric water circulation. a On pas-
sive Atlantic continental margin of North America,
Georges Bank basin, COST weH G-2. b Cross sec-
tion of Baltimore Canyon trough, Atlantic continen-
tal margin of North America, with results of thermal
plex due to tectonic implications. A relatively simple
case is the uplift of formerly deeply buried sedimen-
tary rocks such as those of plateaus which were not
affected by subsequent folding or thrusting (Fig.
13.29c).
Colorado Plateau, North America. Here, Permian sedi-
ments were buried under 2700-4000 m ofyounger sediments
and heated to 100-140°C, assuming a geothermal gradient of
30°CIkm (Meyer et al. 1989). After a short period of
nondeposition, the Colorado Plateau and its sediment cover
were uplifted and about 2500 m of the post-Permian sedi-
ments were removed. To verify the estimation ofmaximum
temperature and its date, three independent additional meth-
ods were applied (see below): (1) investigation of fission
tracks in apatite, (2) study of fluid inc1usions, and (3) deter-
mination ofthe vitrinite refleetanee ofthe organie matter. All
three methods showed that the maximum temperature
reaehed during the burial history of the Permian sediments
was between 120 and 140°C. Thus, signifieant ehanges in the
evolution ofthe thermal gradients or strong effeets ofmete-
orie water eireulation ean be ruled out. As a result ofuplift
and exhumation, the Permian sediments underwent eooling
699
c AGE B.P. (Ma)
200 100 0
Or---.---.----r--~--~
INCREASING I I UPLIFT
~ AND ""
DENUDATION
TEMPERATURE (OC)
JURASSIC AND
TRIASSIC
OVERMATURE
model for late Jurassic and present time. (a,b After
Sawyer 1988). c Thermal history of Permian sedi-
ments of the Colorado Plateau, reflecting increasing
burial and subsequent uplift and denudation. (After
Meyer et a1. 1989)
from ~ 100°C down to about 30°C during the last 65 Ma
(Fig. 13.2ge).
13.7.3 Thermal Effects ofMeteoric Water
Circulation
As discussed in Sections 13.2 and 13.3, partiaHy or
entirely emerged sediments are more or less affected
by meteoric water circulation. In these cases, the
subsurface temperature distribution caused by conduc-
tive heat flow may be greatly disturbed or completely
modified.
In an elevated former fore land basin sloping away
from a thrust belt, groundwater circulation tends to
develop a pattern as generalized in Fig. 13.30a).
Western Canadian Prairies basin. The model in Fig.
13.30a is based on observations in the retro-foreland basin of
the Roeky Mountains (Jones and Majorowiez 1987; see also
Rostron et al. 1997). Below the area of regional recharge (A),
the geothermal gradient and thus the vertieal heat flow den-
sity in the upper part of the basin fill (Mesozoie-Cenozoie
700
sediments) are less than in the underlying Paleozoic strata. In
the area of regional discharge (B), temperature increases rap-
idly with depth in the basin iill. Under specific conditions,
temperatures in the fIuid-discharge area of a foreland basin
may be higher than in deeply buried strata closer to the re-
charge area. This was inferred from the study of coal ranks in
the Carboniferous foreland basin of Wales (Gayer et al.
1998).
Local areas not affected by this basin-wide redistribution
of heat by groundwater fIow may be of interest for the explo-
ration of oil and gas. Such areas displaythe original tempera-
ture field and thus indicate the presence of impermeable
rocks favorable for the retention ofhydrocarbons.
A subsurface temperature distribution sirnilar to that in
Fig. 13.30a was calculated for the Paleozoic Illinois basin
(Fig. 13.30b, Bethke 1989). It is also caused by regional,
long-distance groundwater circulation.
The marked influence ofthe permeability or hydraulic
conductivity of the rock or sediment mass on the dis-
tortion of conductive heat flow is demonstrated for a
situation with high relief (Fig. 13 .30d,e). If hydraulic
conductivity is relatively high, the thermal gradients in
the basin fill are significantly affected by groundwater
circulation. All these thermal effects have to be taken
into account in the interpretation of inorganic and
organic processes in diagenesis.
In the model, the difference in elevation between groundwa-
ter recharge and discharge zones was assumed to be 500 m
over a distance of a few km (Smith et al. 1989). If the sedi-
ment mass is homogeneous and has a very low permeability
(k= 10. 18 m2 , corresponding with a hydraulic conductivity of
about 10.6 mlday or 0.4 mmlyear), conductive heat fIow lines
and the geothermal gradient are only slightly disturbed (Fig.
13.30d). However, if the permeability increases by three
orders of magnitude (hydraulic conductivity around 0.4
mlyear), conductive heat lines and thermal gradients are
strongly affected (Fig. 13.30e). Other examples are reported,
for example, by Chapman and Rybach (1985).
13.8 Special Methods and
Processes in Diagenesis
13.8.1 Temperature, Degree, and
Age of Diagenetic Reactions
Classical methods for identifying dissolution phenom-
ena and cement minerals are thin sections (cf. Fig.
13.27), their staining, X-ray diffraction, and various
geochemical methods.
In addition, scanning electron microscopy and
microprobe analysis can be used. The different stages
in the growth of carbonate cements and their varying
contents of iron and manganese are frequently studied
by using cathodoluminescence microscopy (cf. Fig.
13.27c). Digital image analysis has become acommon
method for investigating porosities and pore geome-
tries.
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
The maximum temperature a sediment body has
experienced can be determined by several methods. If
particulate organic matter is present, its state of
diagenesis, defined by the vitrinite reflectance, is a
function of temperature and time (cf. Chap. 14).
Traces of organic matter in conodonts (biogenic phos-
phate) and their degree of maturation can indicate the
maximum burial depths of Plaeozoic to Triassic sedi-
ments.
Fluid inclusions, frequently present in secondary
crystals precipitated in rock fractures or in large pores,
are a very common objective in the study of late
diagenesis. At normal temperatures the inclusions con-
sist of a fluid phase and a gas phase. By heating them
under the microscope, one can observe that the fluid
and gas are transformed into a homogeneous fluid.
From the homogenization temperature, corrected for
the effects of pressure and considering other sources
of error, one can reconstruct the temperature and pres-
sure at the time the inclusion was formed (e.g. Roedder
1984).
Stable isotopes, for example the Ö180 values of car-
bonate cements, can be used to deterrnine the tempera-
ture and burial depth at the time the cement mineral
was formed (e.g. Heydari 1997). However, one has to
be cautious, because these values may be affected by
the mixing of pore fluids derived from sea water and
meteoric water. In addition, one must take into account
that the isotopic composition of ocean water changed
from the Paleozoic to the present time (Garrels 1986;
Veizer et al. 1986; Carpenter and Lohmann 1989). For
example, the Ö180 values increased, but carbon and
sulfur isotopes fluctuated during Phanerozoic time
(Schidlowski et al. 1984). To investigate such a ques-
tion, one must search in ancient sediments for primary
minerals or early cements which formed in equilibrium
with the former ocean water and were preserved unal-
tered. On the other hand, these isotopes, including
those of strontium, allow identifying the mixing of
pore fluids originating from different formations.
The timing 0/ thermal events can be deterrnined by
dating cement or recrystallized minerals containing
unstable isotopes. The age of late illite formation has
been assessed in some examples by K-Ar dating (e.g.
Budeyet al. 1992; Zingmann et al. 1998).
In specific cases, fission tracks in apatite, other min-
erals, and volcanic glass (e.g., Naeser 1979; Odin
1982; Faure 1986) can indicate the time ofheating and
thus an unusual event in diagenesis. Fission tracks are
caused by nuclear particles emitted from uranium-238
impurities. Theyare obliterated if the temperature ex-
ceeds a certain limit (for example 100 to 120°C for
apatite) and start to form again and grow with time if
the temperature drops below this boundary. Hence,
fission tracks indicate that the rock sampie has been
exposed to elevated temperatures a certain time ago.
13.8 Special Methods and Processes in Diagenesis
a d
REGIONAL RECHARGE REGIONAL DISCHARGE
TEMPERATURE
n---------~ r~--------~
:r
I-
Q.
W
b
o
c HIGHER PERMEABILITY
STRATIGRAPHIC
BOUNDARIES
Fig. 13.30. Subsurface temperature distribution dis-
turbed by meteoric water circulation. a,b Foreland
basin of the Canadian Rocky Mountains, displaying
rnarked differences in thermal gradients of the re-
charge and discharge areas. (After Jones and
Majorowicz 1987). c Temperature distribution calcu-
13.8.2 Diagenetically ControlIed Ore Deposits
From the processes discussed in this chapter, it is obvi-
ous that the generation, migration, and accumulation of
oil and gas (Chap. 14), as weB as the formation oflow-
temperature ore deposits are related to the various
mechanisms operating during diagenesis. Ofparticular
interest with respect to hydrocarbons and base metal
deposits is deep burial diagenesis. In this regime the
elevated temperatures needed for the generation of oil
and gas are established, and many of the deep pore
fluids are highly saline and contain metals in concen-
trations sufficient to be precipitated when the pore
fluids move to areas of lower temperature.
Thus, rnany sediment-hosted ore deposits can be
explained without the aid of magrnatic exhalations or
metal-bearing hydrothermal fluids derived from the
701
VERY LOW PERMEABILITY
(k = 10· '8 ".f)
2
2 km 4
e
( k
U r - -_ _ = 10. 15 m2)
lated for Mesozoic groundwater flow system in the
Illinois basin. (After Bethke 1989). d,e Disturbance
of conductive thermal regime in areas of high relief
(e.g., entirely or partially elevated sediments on nar-
row shelf) in relation to sediment permeability. (Af-
ter Smith et al. 1987)
zone of metamorphism. Hot, often basin-wide migrat-
ing brines, particularly those rich in chlorine, have the
capacity to leach metals (Zn, Pb, Ba, Cu, U, Ag, and
other elements such as Ba and F) from deeply buried
strata. Such strata may consist of continental, fluvial or
shallow-marine c1astics derived from igneous and vol-
canic rocks. The metal content of these deposits may
become relatively enriched by weathering processes,
either prior to deposition or in situ.
In Mesozoic extensional basins, for exarnple, inunature syn-
rift sediments frequently alternate with evaporites and are
overlain by post-rift, thick marine shales. Such basins appear
to provide a favorable tectonic setting for the formation of
strata-bound, diagenetically-formed ore deposits ofthe Mis-
sissippi Val/ey type (MVT-type, Maynard 1982; Large
1988). Due to low-permeable shales acting as caprocks in
more central parts of the basin, sediment compaction forces
702
the hot, Cl-rich, metal-bearing brines to migrate laterally up-
ward. As they pass black shales, the brines may take up addi-
tional metals, before they escape along more permeable lay-
ers toward the basin margins. Alternatively, the brines may
migrate upward along syngenetic (i.e., post-rift) faults.
Cooling, changing Eh and pH conditions, and mixing
with shallow pore fluids from other sources cause the
precipitation of metals, mostly as low soluble sulfides
(e.g. those of Pb, Zn, and Fe). However, several ele-
ments, such as Ba, Mn, and U, behave differently.
Variations in the chemical conditions over time lead to
special successions of ore minerals (ore mineral
paragenesis ), as in the case of the common cement
minerals.
Diagenetically generated ore deposits are found in
siliciclastic and carbonate host rocks. The ores may fill
macropores and voids, as weH as faults and fracture
systems. Carbonates with initially high porosities, such
as oolitic wackestones, packstones, and bioherms, and
rocks with karst cavities and massive dolomites, are
particularly promising host rocks. The ascending
highly saline fluids may react with shallow evaporites
and dolomites and dissolve and brecciate part of these
host rocks.
One can distinguish between several phases and types of ore
genesis, for example between early diagenetic cementation of
pores (disseminated ores), replacement of carbonate,
sulfidization of carbonates, secondary concentration of pri-
mary ores (formation of discontinuous flat beds and nests),
and filling of fractures.
The precipitation of metal sulfides in areas outside ofthe
sulfate reduction zone is difficult to understand, possibly be-
cause two different types of pore fluids are needed. One pore
fluid has to provide the metals in solution (in part as chloride
complexes at high temperatures or as organic complexes),
while the other (probably from shallow sources) has to de-
liver sulfur in the form of HS' from the sulfate reduction
zone. However, an alternative model has been proposed (see,
e.g., Roberts and Sheahan 1988), in which sulfur migrates
with the metals to the site of deposition.
Precipitation of metal sulfides may be followed by the
formation of barite and other compounds characteristic of
oxidizing conditions. The deposition of metalores in carbon-
ates and shallow evaporites is frequently associated with
dolomitization, dissolution and/or brecciation, and occasion-
ally with silicification.
The special conditions of ore precipitation at the contact
with evaporites have been described, for example, from the
GulfCoast basin ofthe United States. Here, the intrusion of
salt into the overlying argillaceous sediments had several
significant etfects (Holmes 1986). As in the Mediterranean,
a 125 m thick Tertiary/Quaternary sediment section on top of
drilled salt diapirs displays upwardly decreasing pore water
salinity. In addition, the increased heat flow through salt de-
hydrated the clay minerals at the salt-sediment interface at
relatively shallow burial depth. The chemical reactions be-
tween the pore water containing sulfate and the sediments
rich in organic matter created a diagenetic sulfide-rich front.
Within this zone, metals such as zinc and lead were concen-
trated. Anhydrite residue from evaporite dissolution, trans-
formation of anhydrite to gypsum, and newly precipitated
carbonate form the cap rock ofthe salt domes.
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
For further details and examples see, e.g., Amstutz et al.
(1982), Maynard (1982), Guilbert and Park (1986), Friedrich
and Herzig (1988), Muchez et al. (1994), Warren and Kemp-
ton (1997).
13.8.3 Pore Water Expulsion and Hydrothermal
Systems at tbe Sea Floor
Most ofthe hydrothermal systems described in the lit-
erature, ineluding those at active spreading centers on
mid-oceanic ridges (e.g., Fyfe and Lonsdale 1981), are
fed either by sea water or meteoric water circulating in
fracture zones or highly permeable layers through vari-
ous rocks. If there is no difference in hydraulic head,
such systems are driven by a magmatic heat source or
by local differences in the geothermal gradients. Hot
water is forced to move upwards to the sea floor or
land surface and discharges through vents or springs,
but this water has to be simultaneously replaced by
downward moving sea water or meteoric water.
However, hydrothermal systems can also originate,
partially or entirely, from the expulsion of pore water
from young, soft sediments. Two types of such sys-
tems occur in the present oceans. Their origin is
closelyrelated to the topics ofthis chapter. Whether or
not they significantly contribute to the formation of
mineral deposits is not yet sufficiently known.
Expulsion of pore water from young spreading
trougbs. In young, narrow ocean basins and pull-apart
basins (cf. Chap. 1 and Sects. 12.1 and 12.8), the ac-
cretion of new oceanic crust does not take place at
sediment-starved oceanic ridges, but in spreading
troughs collecting large quantities of sediment.
This can be observed, for example, in the central
graben ofthe Red Sea and in special basins in the Gulf
of Califomia (Guaymas basin). Since these spreading
troughs represent the deepest depressions in the total
depositional area and are situated elose to terrigenous
sediment sources, they are commonly characterized by
high sedimentation rates. In such cases, the upwelling
basaltic magma intrudes into soft sediments and tends
to generate horizontal sills as soon as the magma pres-
sure exceeds the lithostatic pressure and tensile
strength ofthe sediments (Fig. 13.31a).
During Leg 64 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project in the Gulf
of California, such basaltic sills were encountered in several
drillholes in the Guaymas basin at burial depths between
approximately 50 and 350 m (Curray, Moore, et al. 1982;
Einseie 1982b and 1986). Two of the shallowly buried sills
were still hot. Downhole measurements showed that the po-
rosities of the sediments were reduced by 20 to 40% within
several tens of meters above and especially below the sill-
sediment contacts (Fig. 13.3lb). Sediment porosity is re-
duced by "thermal tamping" (Walker and Francis 1987),
which is caused by heat transfer from the hot magma into the
neighboring sediment, as weil as by the emplacement of
heavy magrnatic loads on top ofhighly porous sediments. In
13.8 Special Methods and Processes in Diagenesis 703

SEA FLOOR
a PRESS URE . STRENGTH
b POROSITY (%)

f
I
I lITHOSTATIC
I \ PRESSURE OF
I \ SEDIMENT
I \
SOFT
----------------+--
SEDI-
.MENTS ~ MAGMA I 100 I
I

jI l:L
~\ PRESSURE I
I \\ RANGE E
I ,\ OF SILL I
\\ INJECTON l-
n.
\ \ '--_ --- ______t.
I __ w
o
\
\
--- -----, 200 :1
':::::::::::' IGRADE : •
---
\ ~ --TEN SI LE-- "" __
!;:::::::::::l iMETA- ..
lMORPHISM
STRENGTH
MAGMA DEPTH OF SEDIMENT :... DISSOLVED
MICRO-FOSSIL

300 MEASURED
POROSITY
POROSITY CURVE
c NOT AFFECTED
BY SILLS

HYDROTHERMAL
DEPOSITS
SAND -MUD
TURBIDITES
HOLE 477 A 477
?
481 A
4 20
DECREASING HEAT FLOW
478 HFU
~ 2.9
lITHIFIED INCREASING AGE OF UPPERMOST SILL
LAYER

d
SPREADING TROUGH
SILL-SEDIMENT COMPLEX

10
""-ft..r.c~.~llilii1I!I~~20 30m 30
:J
i

40 ka

LOW
GRADE
~ META-

10 1111111 MORPH
40 ka

PRECOMPACTED +-H-+ NORMAL

DIKES
FEEDER DIKE OF
GREAT MAGMATIC
BY OLDER SILL SPREADING CENTER PULSE

Fig. 13.31. Basaltic sill-induced expulsion of pore
water and hydrothennal deposits in young, Gulf of
Califomia-type spreading center. a Emplacement of
sill in soft sediment. The magma pressure has to
overcome the lithostatic pressure and tensile strength
of the sediment. b Porosity-depth curves of sill-af-
fected sediments in the Guaymas Basin (DSDP, Leg
64)_ The hatched areas signify sill-induced reduction
of porosity_ Older, more deeply buried sills are asso-
ciated with lower values of heat flow (HFU), because
sill-induced thennal anomaly dissipates with time.
c Model of successive sill intrusions and expulsion
of pore water from neighboring sediments. Hot water
migrates along sand layers and growth faults and may
deposit minerals on the sea floor. d Buildup of sill-
sediment complex on top of sheeted dike zone as a
result of magmatic pulses (1 through 4) in time inter-
vals of about 10 ka; fixed spreading center, half-
spreading rate 3 cmla. (Einse1e 1982b, 1986)
704
a c
46"
:r
I-
Co
PACIFIC UJ
o off the Pacific coast of
42 ° PLATE
o HIGH SEDIMENTATION RATE
b gen sulfide and/or
PORE FLUID VENTING
(H'l&' METHANE)
2 \
3 due to increased verti-
4
5 km
km
addition, siliceous and ca\careous microfossils tend to dis-
solve.
Sediments below thick sills and not far above the sheeted
dike zone ofyoung oceanic ernst (Fig. 13.23d) may be fur-
ther altered by high-temperature, low-pressure metamor-
phism ranging from anhydrite-dolomite to chlorite-pyrite-
albite-epidote-sphene associations. Dike and sill intrusions
may cause hydrothermal convection systems, due to the
marked thermal anomalies they create, and thus produce
metal deposits (Tarkian and Garbe 1988; see also Gibb and
Kanaris-Sotiriou 1988).
Such an interaction between the injection of basaltic
magma and soft sediments leads to the expulsion of
great volumes ofpore water (in terms ofheight on the
order of 30 m). Ihis water moves upward to layers of
relatively high permeability which act as lateral con-
duits to fractures (Fig. 13 .31 c). Along such growth
faults in the spreading center, the hot water escapes to
the sea floor where it reacts with sea water and precipi-
tates some of its dissolved constituents. Ihis type of
hydro thermal system is controlled by special magmatic
pulses and is thus subject to considerable variation in
space and time.
Ihe interaction between rapidly accumulating sedi-
ments, ongoing ocean spreading, and discontinuous
large basalt injections in young oceanic basins may
create special sill-sediment complexes (Fig. 13.3ld).
Expulsion of pore water along subduction zones.
When the sediments on top of a subducting oceanic
Chapter 13 Diagenesis
POROSITY
Fig. 13.32. Simplified
model of Cascadia
accretionary complex
SUBDUCTION·
RED UCEE> North America, show-
POROSITY ing vents with dis-
charge of hot pore wa-
ter containing hydro-
methane, and other
dissolved constituents.
a Location map.
b Cross section with
vents. c Dewatering of
sediment caused by
reduction in porosity
cal and lateral stress.
(After Suess and
Whiticar 1989; Han
and Suess 1989)
SUBDUCTION
plate reach the seaward edge of an accretionary wedge
(Fig. 13.32), theyare deformed by two processes: (1)
increasing overload due to underthrusting, and (2) ad-
ditional lateral stress originating from compressional
forces. As a result, the sediment porosity is reduced
and pore water expelled.
This mechanism has been described from several modern
examples (e.g. Bray and Karig 1985; Masc1e, Moore, et al.
1988; Briickmann 1989; Pickering et al. 1989; Han and
Suess 1989; Suess and Whiticar 1989; Carson and Screaton
1998; von Huene et al. 1998; Zhao and Moore 1998; Suess
et al. 1998).
At the Barbados Ridge accretionary complex, the porosity
(initially 50-75%) in the uppermost 300 m of pelagic to
hemipelagic sediments was found to be reduced by about
25% some km landward ofthe deformation front. The rate of
pore water expulsion is about 1000 m 3/year per I km strike
of the subduction zone. Along the Aleutian subduction zone
(800 km in length) the major part of the pore water is lost in
a zone 2-16 km landward ofthe deformation front. Subma-
rine springs venting pore fluids at the toe of accretionary
complexes were observed and sampled at several sites, e.g.,
at the Cascadia subduction zone (Fig. 13.32) offthe Oregon
coast and along convergent plate boundaries in the Pacific
(Boulegue et al. 1987). They indicate that pore water expul-
sion is focused along fault zones above the decollement. The
role of dispersed or diffuse intergranular flow in dewatering
accretionary wedges is unc1ear. Most authors assume that its
contribution is small due to the 10w permeability of the fine-
grained sediments involved, but it mayaIso be a major fac-
tor. At the Nankai subduction complex, Japan, -70% ofthe
13.8 Special Methods and Processes in Diagenesis
incoming pore water may ultimately leave the accretionary
wedge via diffusive flow and less than 1% via focused flow
along the decollernent; roughly 1% is subducted (Saffer and
Bekins (1998). Dewatering of smectite at burial depths in
excess of 1 km at least contributes to the freshening of the
escaping pore water.
The submarine vents discharge not only water with
elevated temperatures, but also pore fluids reflecting
the chemie al properties of the sulfate reduction zone
and the zone ofmethanogenesis (cf. Sect. 13.4). Ifthe
subducting sediments have been deposited rapidly and
are rich in organic matter, the expelled pore water may
contain hydrogen sulfide andJor methane in consider-
able quantities (Fig. 13.32). Some of the methane is
oxidized near the surface and gives rise to the precipi-
tation of calcium carbonate cement (and barite) which
may lithify sand and form chimneys at the vents. Near
13.9 Summary (Chemical Diagensis)
Major processes in chemie al diagenesis and rock
lithification are dissolution and altering of ther-
modynamically unstable pre-existing minerals,
replacement of older and precipitation of new
mineral phases.
Dissolved matter is transported in the subsurface
by molecular diffusion (over short distances)
and by various flow systems (cf. Sect. 13.2.9),
partially at a basin-wide scale.
Early diagenesis (eodiagenesis), particularly that
of continental or emerged marine deposits, is
mainly controlled by the depositional environ-
ment (e.g. humid vs. arid, oxidizing vs. reduc-
ing), as well as by topographically driven mete-
oric flow, pedogenesis, or sabkha brine migra-
tion. One can distinguish between vadose,
phreatic, and marine cements.
Sandstones may experience a kind of red-bed
diagenesis with the formation of hematite,
anhydrite and c1ay minerals.
Submerged muddy sediments with organic mat-
ter may be strongly affected by sulfate reduction
and methanogenesis (formation of pyrite and
carbonate concretions).
The compaction and lithification of chalk and
biosiliceous sediments often takes place in dis-
tinct steps.
The deeper burial diagenesis is characterized by
pressure solution at grain contacts (beginning at
705
these vents, faunal communities, including giant c1ams
and large tube worms adapted to methane, hydrogen
sulfide, and warm water, were observed.
Such phenomena can also be expected in ancient
subduction zones. In addition, overpressuring of sedi-
ments may cause liquefaction and fluidization. As a
result, sediment is forced upward to form mud diapirs
and mud volcanoes, or it is injected vertically and lat-
erallyas dikes and sills into neighboring deposits (cf.
Sect. 12.5.2). In this way, chaotic structures of large
dimension can form which resemble phenomena
known from thick debris flows or tectonic melange
zones. The dewatering of accretionary prisms is an
important process in the deformation, stress release,
diagenesis and subsequent metamorphism of sediments
at convergent plate boundaries.
~ 1 km burial depth for quartz, but earlier in car-
bonates) and continued cementation. Quartz
and ferroan carbonates are most abundant. Un-
stable silicate minerals (e.g. smectites and
zeolites) transform to more stable phases,
mostly under the release of Si02 and water.
- Mixing of pore fluids of differing composition
can lead to secondary porosity and the precipi-
tation of new mineral phases. Hot evaporitic
brines from nearby or distant sources, or re-
newed meteoric water circulation, aided by
fracturing, may reactivate the diagenetic sys-
tem. They enable, among other effects, regional
(pervasive) dolomitization, late sulfate cements,
and base metal concentrations.
- Uplift and exhumation of deeply buried strata is
frequently accompanied by meteoric water cir-
culation, dedolomitization, and final Fe-poor
blocky calcite cementation.
- The matrix permeability of most rock types is
drastically reduced by diagenesis, whereas
some porosity can often be maintained.
- The thermal evolution of basin fillings controls
the maturation of organic matter and the
prograde or retrograde solubility of minerals.
- The dewatering of accretionary complexes cre-
ates specific phenomena along subduction
zones.
14 Hydrocarbons and Coal
14.1 Source Rocks, Kerogen Types, and
Hydrocarbon Potential
14.1.1 Source Rocks
14.1.2 Kerogen Types and Hydrocarbon Potential
14.2 Generation and Migration ofHydrocarbons
14.2.1 The Evolution of Organic Matter
14.2.2 Kerogen-OiVGas Transformation
14.2.3 Expulsion and Migration ofOil
Expulsion of Oil (Primary Migration)
Secondary Migration (in Liquid Phase)
Other Transport Mechanisms
14.3 Examples ofHydrocarbon Habitats
14.3.1 Lacustrine Source Beds
14.3.2 Marine Deltas
14.3.3 Rift Basins and Shallow Epicontinental Seas
14.3.4 Carbonate Shelf: the Middle East
14.3.5 Hydrocarbons in Other Basin Types
14.3.6 Gas Hydrates
14.3.7 Conclusions
14.3.8 Summary (Hydrocarbons)
14.4 Evolution ofCoal
14.4.1 General Aspects ofCoal Formation
14.4.2 Preservation ofPeat
14.4.3 Coalification and Composition ofCoal
14.4.4 Example of a Coal Basin
14.4.5 Summary (Coal)
14.1 Source Rocks, Kerogen Types, and
Hydrocarbon Potential
14.1.1 Source Rocks
The source rocks, the generation and migration of
hydrocarbons and their exploration and production
are a very broad and extensive topic. Here, a few
basic principles and processes are briefly introduced.
Hydrocarbon source rocks may be defined as fine-
grained sediments which in their natural setting have
generated, are generating, or will generate and re-
lease enough hydrocarbons to form a considerable
accumulation of oil or gas (Brooks et al. 1987).
Whether such an accumulation is commercial largely
depends on economic considerations. A potential
source rock has the capacity to generate hydrocar-
bons in substantial quantities, but has not yet reached
sufficient organic maturation.
Oil shales contain thermally degradable organic
material, usually about 20% of the total organic mat-
ter, TOC, the remainder consisting of insoluble com-
pounds (kerogen, see below). Oil shales and coal
must have a very high organic matter content to be of
economic interest. In contrast, hydrocarbon source
rocks may release only very small proportions of oil
or gas per unit rock volume to form an important ac-
cumulation in reservoir rocks. This is possible if the
source rocks represent a large and sufficiently sub-
sided rock mass. The following brief discussion fo-
cuses on hydrocarbon source rocks, but also inc1udes
to some extent other types of organic-rich sediments.
The depositional environment of these sediments is
discussed in Sections 5.3 and 10.3.
The preservation of organic matter is, among other
factors, a function of the oxygen content of bottom
waters, the sedimentation rate, and the intensity of
benthic life (cf. Sect. 10.3.3). The infl.uence of these
factors is sumrnarized in Fig. 14.1. With water oxy-
genation and benthic activity decreasing, the zone of
methane fermenting bacteria expands upward at the
expense of the sulfate reduction zone. As a result,
more and also less stable organic matter can be pre-
served in the sediment.
Many so-called oil shales exposed in outcrops or drilled in
the subsurface are immature and have never delivered
thermocatalytic oil and gas. They may have produced some
biogenic methane at very shallow burial depth (microbial
methanogenesis). The situation is different for oil sands
which represent heavy oil deposits. The sands have trapped
oil which was provided by the normal type of hydrocarbon
source rocks and migrated via carrier beds into the sands.
The giant oil sand deposits of Alberta, Canada, are stored
in Cretaceous sands, but the oil comes from Devonian car-
bonate rocks and was transported by long-term meteoric
groundwater flow (Garven 1989). Increased solubility of
oil due to high water temperatures (around 100°C) facili-
tated the oil transport in aqueous solution. Later, the rela-
tively light components of the oil sand were lost due to
biodegradation and dissolution at or elose to the erosional
lowering of the land surface.
14.1.2 Kerogen Types and
Hydrocarbon Potential
During burial and under increasing temperature, the
organic matter undergoes aseries of geochemical
14.1 Source Rocks, Kerogen TyPes
DESTRUCTIVE OXIC
PROCESSES
BAC TERIAL
AEROBIC
OXIDATION
LARGE
BENTHIC
SCAVENGERS
SULFATE AND
NITRATE REDUCING - -'---'''- - ''.
BACTERIA
METHANE FERMENT ·
ING BACTERIA
SEDIMENTATION <ö----- HIGH
LOW ...
LOW ...
RATES
~~~~~~~DTYPES INERTINITE VITRINITE
HYDROGARBON GAS-PRONE TO
POTENTIAL NON SOURCE
Fig. 14.1. Dominant kerogen types and hydrocarbon
potential of aquatic petroleum source rocks in rela-
tion to benthic environment and sedimentation rate.
reactions leading from "biopolymers" to "geopoly-
mers" (Fig. 14.4), often collectively called kerogen.
Besides kerogen, the organic matter of buried sedi-
ments still contains a small fraction of organic com-
pounds which are similar to the compounds origi-
nally produced by organisms. Such "geochemical
fossils or biomarkers" provide evidence for the
source of organic matter and, to some extent, also for
the depositional environment (cf. Fig. 10.13).
Biomarkers are also found in crude oil and thus tes-
tify to the origin of petroleum from the remnants of
animals and plants.
Carbonate sediments containing at least 0.3 to
0.6% organic carbon and shales with 0.5 to 1% or-
ganic carbon may already be regarded as hydrocar-
bon source rocks. These lower limits of potential
source rocks depend, however, on the kerogen type
present in these rocks. The composition of kerogen in
the different source rocks is significantly controlled
by the processes shown in Fig. 14.1. Low sedimenta-
tion rates under well oxygenated conditions only al-
low the preservation of the so-callcd inertinite (usu-
ally in very small amounts), whereas anoxie
depositional environments enable the preservation of
comparatively large quantities of the H-rich liptinite
(see below) and thus strongly enhance the hydrocar-
bon potential.
707
SUB-OXIC ANOXIC
ER
<!.'---
- HIGH INFLUENCE UNCLEAR
VITR EXIN. EXINITE lIPTINITE
MOOERATELY STRONGLY
OlL- PRONE TE>
OIL- PRONE
GAS· PRONE
(After Demaison and Moore 1980; Brooks et al.
1987, modified)
Principally, the organic matter of hydrocarbon
source rocks is subdivided into two groups (Fig.
14.2):
- Bitumen is organie matter soluble in organie sol-
vents. It represents only a small proportion of the
total organic carbon, TOC.
- Kerogen is organic matter which is insoluble in
organic solvents, nonoxidizing mineral acids, and
aqueous alkaline solvents. Keregon always represents
the bulk of TOC.
Whereas the extractable bitumen is already in a
migratable state, the kerogen is fixed in the sediment,
but has the potential for generating migratable crude
oil and gas. A thorough study of the amount and
composition of kerogen in source rocks is therefore
an important modem tool in evaluating the hydrocar-
bon potential of lacustrine and marine sediments.
With the aid of such methods, kerogen can be classi-
fied into four main groups (Fig. 14.2):
(1) Liptinite-type kerogen. Derived mainly from the
lipid components of algal material after partial bacte-
rial degradation, altered by decomposition, condensa-
tion, and polymerization. Liptinite-rich deposits are
typically dark, finely laminated or structureless, and
rich in TOC. They commonly form in lakes and 1a-
708 Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal

KEROGEN

ORGANIC MATTER (C-org,

e.g., 3 % OF SOURCE ROCK)

SOLUBLE ORGANIC MATTER

MIGRATABLE HYDROCARBONS,
e.g 3 %0 OF KEROGEN)

LlPTlNlTE E<XINITE VITRINITE INERTINITE

VEfW·H-RICH: H,RICH; H-POOR; NO.I:i;

ALGAE SPQf1lES WOOD GHARC0AL
l'HYTO- POLLEN fiUMIC OXfD1ZED
PLANKTON
CUTICLE TISSUES TISSUES
MICRO-
COAL
ORGANISMS

ORIGIN Fig. 14.2. Süluble and in-

süluble (kerügen) ürganic
matter üf hydrücarbün
TYPE* süurce rocks (kerügen type
after Tissüt and Weite
HYDROCARBON 1984) and hydrücarbün pü-
tential. (After Broüks et al.
1987, müdified)
* AFTER TISSOT AND WELTE

güüns, but liptinite is also. an impürtant cünstituent in
the ürganic matter üf marine envirünments (cf. Fig.
10.11). Liptinite is relatively rich in hydrügen and
therefore exhibits a high H/C ratio.; it has a lüw üxy-
gen cüntent and lüw O/C ratio. (Fig. 14.3). Liptinite-
düminated kerügen is classified as Type I kerogen.
Liptinite-rich süurce rücks have a very güüd pütential
für the generatiün üf üil.
(2) Exinite-type kerogen. Derived mainly früm rela-
tively resistant membranüus plant debris such as
spüres, püllen, leaf cuticles etc. Resins and waxes
also. belüng tü this grüup. Such plant particles are nüt
ünly produced ün land and swept intü lakes and
swamps later fürming certain varieties üf cüals, but
they also. grüw in lakes and in the ücean (e.g.,
dinüflagellates and üther phytüplanktün). Exinite has
a high H cüntent and H/C ratio. (but lower than
liptinite) and a medium 0 cüntent and O/C ratio. (Fig.
14.3). Many marine sediments and hydrücarbün
süurce rocks cüntain a rnixture üf liptinite, exinite,
and vitrinite (see belüw) which is classified as Type
Il kerogen. Exinite-rich süurce rocks have a güüd
pütential für generating üil, cündensate, and wet gas
(see belüw).
(3) Vitrinite-type kerogen. Derived mainly from
wüüdy material üf higher plants, müre ür less
degradated. Vitrinite has a relatively lüw H cüntent
and H/C, but a high initial O/C ratio. (Fig. 14.3). It is
the main cünstituent üf müst cüals. Hüwever, it also.
üccurs in marine and lake sediments in varying quan-
tities. Vitrinite-dürninated ürganic matter cürrespünds
tü Type III kerogen, which has a high pütential für
generating gas, but ünly a lirnited pütential für üil
and cündensate.
 14.2 Generation and Migration of Hydrocarbons 709

KEROGEN TYPES AND THEIR MATURATI ON

INCREASING
TEMPERATURE

LlPTINITE
< MATURATION
PATHWAY

2.0 rTYPE I")

o
EXINITE
~
CI: 1.5 ("TYPE 11")
Ü
~
o Fig. 14.3. Kerogen-types in
~ van Krevelen-type diagram
showing H/C versus OIC
~ 1.0
:z: and pathways of organic
maturation. (After Brooks et
al. 1987). With increasing
burial depth and tempera-
ture, kerogen eomposition
0.5 moves to lower H/C and
INERTINITE ("TYPE IIIb" ) OIC values (relative enrieh-
(ALTERED WOODY
MATERIAL )
cr "TYPE IV" ment of carbon, loss of H 20
and CH 4) . All kerogen types
mature to final produets of
similar eomposition with
more or less constant C, H,
o 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 and Ovalues
O/C ATOMIC RATIO

(4) Inertinite-type kerogen ("dead earbon", Type ///b
or Type IV kerogen). Blaek opaque debris of highly
altered, frequently resedimented older organic matter,
mostly derived from plants. Due to previous oxida-
tion and/or high levels of carbonization, the H eon-
tent and the H /C ratio of inertinite are very low.
Rocks eontaining only inertinite practically have no
potential for oil or gas.
The van Krevelen-type diagram (Fig. 14.3), based on
the ratios of the three most important elements of
kerogen, C, H, and 0, elearly displays the different
kerogen types and is therefore widely used. How-
ever, this is applicable only for immature organie
matter. With inereasing maturity, i.e., under growing
temperature due to subsidence and burial beneath
younger sediments, the elemental eomposition of the
initial kerogen types gradually ehanges, and the
curves of the different kerogen types tend to merge.
All types of kerogen beeome relatively richer in C,
but lose Hand 0, beeause they release H 20, CH4,
and other hydroearbons.
More infonnation on these topics is found in a number of
textbooks and in many special articles (e.g. Tissot and
WeIte 1984; Brooks et al. 1987; Tissot et al. 1987; Littke
1993; Magoon and Dow 1994; Horsfield and Rullkötter
1994; Katz 1995; Radke et al. 1997; WeIte et al. 1997).
Bitumen and kerogen types are investigated by using
optieal methods (organie petrography), physi-
coehemieal methods, and organie geoehemieal analy-
ses including the identification of biomarkers (see,
e.g., Durand 1980; Tyson 1995) and referenees listed
below.
14.2 Generation and Migration
of Hydrocarbons
14.2.1 The Evolution of Organic Matter
The evolution or maturation of organie matter from
biopolymers to geopolymers with inereasing burial
depth (and temperature ) is shown in the overview of
Fig. 14.4. As a result of different biochemieal, ehem-
ical, and physieoehemieal processes, the primary
organie eompounds are transformed into insoluble
kerogen or, in the ease of eoal evolution, into sub-
bituminous brown eoal. This first stage of evolution
is referred to as diagenesis (cf. Seet. 13.3); it ends as
soon as extraetable humie acids are more or less used
up.
In the zone of catagenesis, part of the kerogen is
eonverted into hydroearbons. It is the main zone of
oil and wet gas generation ("oil kitehen"). The eoal
710 Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal

EVOLUTION OF ORGANIC MATTER AND COAL

COMPOSITION OF MAIN EVOLUTION OF COAL

INHERITED DISSEMINATED HYDRO- RANK STAGES
BITUMEN ORGANIC MATTER CARBON USA
BIOPOLYMERS ~~f~~gf. GENER. ~~Ä~ttEH~~~A. BIO·
GENIC
~~f --- --- T ---- - - ~- --
BIOCHEMICAL I GAS
DEGRADATION I
T I
PEAT PEAT

1
POLYCONDENSATION I
I
I
DIA· SOFT
FULVIC GENESIS B. C.
I- ACIDS LIGNITE
Z I METHANE
W I
I- INSOLUBILIZATION BROWN
Z I
0 I COAL
U

1
a: DULL
w
< B. C.
SUB·
~
Cl
z
if.i
GEOPOiMERS BRIGHT
B. C.
BITUMINOUS

------- - -- - (SO-80°C. R .~ 0.5) I - - - + - - - - - + - - - - - - l

<
~ 1
U
w
0
I
THERMAL
C~A'
GENESIS OlL BITU·
MINOUS
HIGH
VOLATILE
BITU·

1
DEGRADATION I HARD MINOUS
H. C.
I II COAL MEDIUM

-V
-------1'-- (JOO-150oC,RI"' 2)+----i
(CRACKING) WEl GAS
LOW
SEMI·ANTHA.
~~tSIS ANTHRACITE

-----1----- (R~:;~.---
CARBONIZATION METHANE
ANTHRACITE
10
0 GRAPHITE META·ANTHA.
(%) GARBON RESIDUE MORPHISM 100 % C

Fig. 14.4. Overview ofthe evolution of organic mat-
ter from young, organic-rich sediment or peat to the
deep-burial metamorphic zone. The source rocks
generate hydrocarbons (oil and gas) or are trans-
formed to coal (simultaneously releasing gas and
some oil). Note the logarithmic depth scale; Ra signi-
fies vitrinite reflectance (optical measure for matu-
rity). (After Tissot and Welte 1984; coal ranks after
Stach et al. 1982)

evolution proceeds to the development of bituminous
hard coal, which also releases gas and some oil. In
the next zone, namely that of metagenesis, both hy-
drocarbon source rocks and hard coal mainly release
gas. In oil source rocks the carbon-rich residue re-
mains disseminated in the shale as a minor constitu-
ent. In coal deposits (Sect. 14.4), the carbon-enriched
residue forms anthracite and, after the onset of meta-
morphism, graphite.
The relationship between increasing kerogen ma-
turity with temperature (and depth) and the release of
rnigratable organic compounds, i.e., the generation of
hydrocarbons, is demonstrated in more detail in Fig.
14.5:
- At shallow-burial depths the immature organic mat-
ter can only release biogenic methane gas produced
by methane fermenting bacteria (cf. Fig. 14.1 and
Sect. 13.4.1) and small quantities of heavier hydro-
carbons.
- Early to mid-mature stage. Large quantities of oil
are generated within the temperature range between
60-80°C and 120-150°C. The relatively heavy oil is
predorninantly composed of moleeules with 15 and
more C atoms (C 15+ hydrocarbons) and contains con-
densates of lighter molecules (C S• 15 hydrocarbons),
such as paraffins and aromatic compounds.
- Late mature zone for oil generation. At tempera-
tures higher than about 130°C, part of the large or-
ganic molecules are cracked to form light hydrocar-
bons of the C2•7 fraction (wet gas) and methane (dry
gas).
The temperature ranges of these zones can be corre-
lated with burial depths if the geothermal gradient of
the basin in question is known. Locally, the matura-
tion of organic matter and the expulsion of hydrocar-
bons can be accelerated by the intrusion of hot
magma.
14.2 Generation and Migration ofHydrocarbons 711

----
O~~~~~~~~~-------------r-------,
BIOGENIC METHANE _ _ _ _

....
IMMATURE
50 ..... .

t
OlL
EARLY
MATURE
FOR
OlL
~ 100
L1J
a:
::J
~"'~~ W'ND01W. M~~RE
~ ~, 1-----==-----1
a: \ , LATE
w
0.. \ \ MATURE
:::ii
\ \ FOR
~ 150 \ \ OIL/

,\
\
l
\
\ /
//
/

Fig. 14.5. Hydrocarbon generation

I \ GENERATION
in relation to temperature (burial
I \ OF GAS depth) leading to different stages of
200 METHANE I \ source rock "maturity". Horizontal
CH4 I \ axis shows amount of generated
(DRY GAS) hydrocarbons in mg/g TOC (total
I \ organic carbon) in source rock with
type 11 kerogen. The temperature
scale is adjusted to North Sea con-
250 ditions; the trends for temperatures
~ 160°C are not well established.
(After Brooks et al. 1987)
o 100 200 300 400 500 mg /g TOC

14.2.2 Kerogen-Oil/Gas Transformation
The percentage of oil and gas that the kerogen can
generate if subjected to adequate temperature during
a sufficient time period, is referred to as genetie po-
tential or transformation ratio. The optimal condi-
tions, in terms of thermal and burial history, to reach
a maximum transformation ratio vary between differ-
ent source rocks.
Type I kerogen has a genetic potential up to 80-
90% (e.g., some lacustrine bituminous shales as pres-
ent in the Eocene Green River Formation of North
America). The common Type 11 kerogens of many
marine shales have a genetic potential of about 60%,
but carbonaceous shales rich in Type III kerogen
(vitrinite, coal) only reach about 25%.
In the example of Figure 14.5, the horizontal axis
indicates the amount of oil and gas which can be gen-
erated by 1 gram of total organic matter, TOC. The
fraction of the primary production which can finally
be converted into hydrocarbons, after losses in the
water colurnn and in the benthic degradation zone of
the sediment, is shown schematically in Fig. 14.6.
These values vary greatly from site to site, but one
can again see the enormous difference between the
preservation of organic matter and the hydrocarbon
potential of oxic and anoxic sediments.
For practical reasons, the term source potential index SPI
was introduced (Demaison and Huizinga 1994). This is the
maximum quantity of petroleum which can be generated
within a column of source rock per unit area (1 m 2) of this
rock, regardless of its thickness. Losses during oil expul-
sion and migration have to be subtracted from this quantity.
High SPI values range from 5 to 15 metric tons per square
meter. This values also depend on the "drainage area" of
the "carrier" strata which take up and transfer the expelIed
oil to reservoirs.
14.2.3 Expulsion and Migration of on
Expulsion of on (Primary Migration)
Figure 14.7e displays a hydrocarbon source rock at
different burial depths in a subsiding basin. Genera-
tion and expulsion of heavy oil can begin when the
712 Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal

PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
(HIGHLY VARIABLE,
: TERRESTRIAL
PLANT DEBRIS)

.. NEW PRODUCTIVITY .. 3-30%

(LEFT OVER AT ~------~
WATER DEPTH
OF 100 m)

OXIC BASIN ANOXIC BASIN

",,10%

PRESERVED IN SEDIMENT ~ Fig. 14.6. Percentage

of primary marine
d
"'5%
'" O. 1% / BELOW ZONE OF BENTHIC production of organic
DEGRADATI()N
, matter (=100%)
which can be con-
,
. ..

verted ultimately into

1
/
'~ ORGANIC G.ARBON I. '" '"
oil and gas after
__ IN SEDIMENT _ _ - losses in the water
0.5-1 %-- 2-10 % column and in the
fresh sediment. Note
that these values
POTENTIAL HYDROCARBON 2-4% represent orders of
magnitude and vary
GENERATION greatly from location
'" 0.01 % (AFTER MATURITY, WITHOUT
~ SIGNIFICANT LOSSES, to location
GAS + OlL OlL + GAS

lowermost part of the source bed has reached early
maturity. After deeper burial most of the source bed
has become early, mid-, or late mature and can yield
heavy and light oil including condensate.
The released hydrocarbons first accumulate in the
intergranular pore system (Fig. 14.7a-d). As long as
their amount is less than the residual oil saturation of
the pores (Fig. 14.7c), the oil cannot move. Later
during oil generation, oil saturation can reach 15-
75%, i.e., this percentage of the entire pore space is
fi1led with oil, the remainder with water. The mineral
surfaces and tiny pores remain water-wet because of
the difference in capillary pressure between the oil
and water phases.
Then the oil starts to migrate upwards through the
relatively widest intergranular pores of the source
bed (primary migration). It is driven by buoyancy
("buoyancy drive") due to the fact that oil has a lower
density than water. Furthermore, the expulsion of oil
is promoted by high fluid pressures (pressure-driven
oil expulsion) which evolve mainly from continuing
compaction of impermeable or low-permeable sedi-
ments (cf. Sect. 13.2) and may cause fracturing. High
geostatic pressure accelerates the movement of a dis-
crete hydrocarbon phase in different rock types.
These processes have to be maintained for a long
time period in order to accomplish a significant hy-
drocarbon accumulation. As long as the pore fluids
are highly pressured, gas is dissolved in oil or forms
condensate. When the pressure is reduced, gas is lib-
erated and exists as tiny bubbles or larger continuous
gas threads within the pores (Fig. 14.7d). In coal-
bearing strata, CO2-rich gas accumulations (super-
critical fluids), originating from maturing coal beds,
may aid oil expulsion, either directly from coal beds
or by generating microfractures.
Hydrocarbon expulsion from a source rock can
become effective in an early stage if thin carrier beds
are interbedded (Fig. 14.7f,g). Theyallow the migra-
tion of heavy, early mature oil, as weil as a high oil
14.3 Hydrocarbon Habitats
expulsion efficiency (50% and more), even if the
total organic carbon content is relatively low. Conse-
quently, the yield of lighter hydrocarbons, conden-
sate, and gas is reduced after further burial. In con-
trast, thick homogeneous shale source rocks require a
higher organic carbon content and an advanced level
of maturity to expel oil in a certain period of time.
Hence they tend to retain a large proportion of heavy
oil products until they reach higher maturity in the
course of further subsidence. Then they expel light
oils, condensate, and gas, but their expulsion effi-
ciency is lower (5 to 25%) than that of the
interbedded source rocks.
Secondary Migration (in Liquid Phase)
After expulsion from their source rocks, the hydro-
carbons enter the water-saturated wider pores of
more permeable carrier beds and finally reach reser-
voir rocks. This secondary oil migration commonly
occurs as multiphase flow. Oil globules, liquid gas
(high pressure!), or gas bubbles in por.e water tend to
move upward sole1y due to buoyancy or driven by
hydrodynamic conditions. The hydrocarbons tend to
move upward into reservoirs located in structural
highs (Fig. 14.7e). Oil and also gas are trapped if
they can no longer be pressed through fine rock
pores. The pore space of traps is, however, never
fully occupied by petroleum, but always contains
some residual water which cannot be replaced by
hydrocarbons (Fig. 14.7b).
Other Transport Mechanisms
It has been frequently discussed whether and to
which extent the oil generated in source rocks mi-
grates as a liquid hydrocarbon phase separated from
water (two-phase flow) or in molecular solution in
pore water. Most workers now assurne that the first-
mentioned process is most important. The oil moves
as a immiscible liquid phase through water-saturated
rocks (volume flow or Darcy flow), preferentially in
the coarser layers of carrier beds.
Transport of hydrocarbons by molecular diffusion
plays some role for small hydrocarbon molecules
(including natural gas) and over short distances (cf.
Sect. 13.3.4). Considering the long time periods in-
volved and the fact that diffusion transport can over-
come layers practically impermeable for water, this
mechanism may be relevant under certain circum-
stances, for example for the dissipation of gas.
Source rocks generating abundant gas and little oil
may carry this oil in gaseous solution, which may
bring about a certain fractionation of this oil.
Hydrocarbon transport by water in molecular solu-
tion cannot be very effective during primary migra-
713
tion because the solubility of hydrocarbons in water
is low and the volume of compaction flow is limited
(cf. Sects. 13.2.3 and 13.3.2), particularly at the
depths where the source rocks become thermally ma-
ture. The situation may be different for secondary
hydrocarbon migration. Large-volume, long-Iasting
meteoric water flow, passing the top of a source rock
expelling low quantitities of oil per time unit, may
take up most of this oil in solution and carry it along
the preferential flow paths of an aquifer system to a
reservoir. This "water-drive" seems to be a major
mechanism in transporting oil in those cases where
the tops of the petroleum transporting strata have
very low dips (generally less than 5°). For these rea-
sons, some authors see large-scale regional
subsurface flow systems as an important medium for
secondary migration of oil and gas (mostly in solu-
tion) in permeable rocks.
The problems mentioned in this section have been ad-
dressed by many workers (e.g. Magara 1978; Roberts and
CordeIl 1980; Durand 1987; Davis 1987; Mann 1990;
Leythaeusser and Poelschau 1991; Demaison and Huizinga
1994; England 1994; Killops et al. 1996; Krooss and
Leythaeusser 1996; Matthews 1996, and further articels in
Schumacher and Abrams 1996; Baskin 1997; Surdam
1997). Long-distance hydrocarbon transport in solution has
been advocated, e.g., by Toth (1980), Bachu (1997),
Rostron et al. (1997). Further references are listed above
and below.
14.3 Examples of Hydrocarbon Habitats
The general concept of hydrocarbon generation in a
subsiding basin (Fig. 14.7e) is demonstrated here in a
few examples of well known oil and gas fields.
We mainly follow the concept proposed by Demaison
(1985) which was later discussed and supplemented by
Magoon and Dow (1994). Detailed descriptions of oil and
gas fields all over the world have been published in numer-
ous articles and a number of special volumes (e.g. Roehl
and Choquette 1985; Shannon and Naylor 1989; Magoon
and Dow 1994; Tankard et al. 1995; Surdam 1997;
MacGregor et al. 1998).
14.3.1 Lacustrine Source Beds
Lacustrine black shales deposited in rift basins and
buried sufficiently deep below younger strata repre-
sent excellent source rocks for the generation of hy-
drocarbons (cf. Sect. 2.5.8; Sladen 1994) in some
regions. However, small lake basins have a limited
reservoir potential. The organic matter of lake depos-
its is either autochthonous (predominantly algae;
kerogen type I) andJor originates from land-derived
plants as often observed in wet tropical regions.
These basin settings are frequently associated with
714 Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal

a PORE TYPES b MULTI-PHASE dOlL AND GAS

IN RESERVOIRS
PORE FILLINGS

MATRIX

DEAD-END
PORE

ISOlATED
' - - _ - ' '-_--J PORE

C
INCREASING OlL SATURATION
\

BUOYANCY

INSULAR
)!:;:j(a~'{? (RESIDUAL)
OlL

e PRIMARY AND SECONDARY HYDROCARBON MIGRATION

LlMITED BURIAL DEPTH GREATER BURIAL DEPTH

. ........... .
. . ............... . . . ... . . . . ........ .. .. . GAS OlL· · ··· · · · ···· · · · · ·· · ·· · · ···
. '.' -: . SEAL : : -: -: -: -: -: -: -: -: -: -: -: . ' .. : : :: SECONDARX, ~IGRATIÖN

CLAYEY SOURCE ROCK WITH THICK HOMOGENOUS CLAYEY

THIN SANDV INTERBEDS: SOURCE ROCK:
HIGHLY EFFECTIVE DRAINAGE RESTRICTED DRAINAGE
14.3 Hydrocarbon Habitats
SONG LI AO BASIN
200 km
..
DEEP LAKE
SOURCE BEDS
(IMMATURE)
Fig. 14.8. Oil fields associated with bituminous lake
sediments and delta sands in the Songliao Basin,
northeastern China. (After Demaison 1985)
the early phase of continental rifting. Ongoing rifting
leading to subsiding subbasins and intrabasinal struc-
tures, e.g. horsts, often creates effective petroleum
systems.
Songliao basin, northeastern China. This
intracratonic, rift-style basin contains the largest
known oil accumulation in a non-marine setting (Fig.
14.8). It experienced tow phases of rifting and is
filled with fluviatile and lacustrine sediments of late
Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary age. The
depositional environment of the basin evolved from
fluvial via deep to shallow lake back to fluvial condi-
tions (cf. Sect. 11.3.3), including some short marine
ingressions. Synsedimentary and postdepositional
Fig. 14.7. a Pore types; isolated and dead-end pores
do not contribute to permeability. b Pores may be
filled by three phases: water (wetting grain surfaces),
oil, and gas. c Increase in oil saturation of sand from
immobile (residual) oil to flowing oil (with residual
water). d Release of gas (dissolved in oil) by de-
creasing reservoir pressure and change from pure oi!
flow via flow of both oil and gas to pure gas flow.
(a-d After Mayer-Gürr 1976). e Progressive matura-
715
tectonic deformations (horsts, half-grabens, and fault
blocks) created structural traps. The oil released by
the thermally mature source rock migrated into these
traps and accumulated mainly in the deltaic sand-
stones. The giant Daqing oil field is located immedi-
ately updip from the center of the oil-generating ba-
sin. The maximum distance of oil migration is less
than 40 km.
During the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous highly oil-
prone black shales (kerogen type I), 500 to 700 m thick,
were deposited in a large lake. Their average organic car-
bon content ranges from 0.5-2%. The main river entering
the lake formed a delta with elongated distributary channel
sands and lenticular subaqueous mouth bar sands (see Sect.
3.5.2) extending into and building up with the shale in the
subsiding basin. In the basin center, these deposits were
buried under 1500 to 2000 m younger sediments.
More information on this basin is given by Demaison
(1985), Ma Li (1985), Liu Zhaojun et al. (1993), Wangshui
Ru et al. (1998). For a more general evaluation of ancient
lake basins in China and Southeast Asia see, e.g., Katz and
Liu (1998).
14.3.2 Marine Deltas
Large marine deltas are favorable settings for the
formation of hydrocarbon source rocks, co al seams,
and the accumulation of oil and gas. Whereas peat-
derived coal frequently originates from swamps 10-
cated on the deltaic plain (Fig. 10.13 and Sect. 3.5.3),
hydrocarbon source rocks commonly accumulate on
the delta slope in marine environments. Although
such sites receive large amounts of terrigenous mate-
rial, delta slope sediments may become sufficiently
rich (0,5 to 1%) in land-derived and marine organic
matter to act as hydrocarbon source rocks. The disad-
vantage of their relatively low content in organic car-
bon is compensated for by their large rock volume
accumulated in a short time period.
The delta front and river mouth sands provide res-
ervoirs which are sealed by the overlying, fine-
grained deposits of the delta plain. As a result of
delta front prograding and rapid sediment accumula-
tion, the delta complex subsides considerably. Hence,
the source rocks reach thermal maturity after a rela-
tively short time span and can generate hydrocar-
bons.
tion of hydrocarbon source rock and expulsion of oil
(primary migration) with increasing burial depth.
Early mature source rock generates heavy oil, mid-
and late mature rock also delivers light oil and con-
densate. Secondary migration in carrier beds may
reach reservoirs. f,g Differences in hydrocarbon
drainage and migration due to the presence or lack of
interbedded permeable layers. (After Brooks et al.
1987, modified)
716 Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal

a NIGER DELTA "/OUTCROPPING

. U. CRETACEOUS

Fig. 14.9. a Major oil

fields of the Tertiary
Niger Delta on top of
downwarped oeeanic
basement, seaward of
the continental edge.
b Cross seetion dem-
MAIN OlL ZONE
b MARINE
SHALES ~
CONTINENTAL NNE
onstrating the pro-
grading delta eom-
SSW
PARALIC plex, the down-fault-
mg of eontinental and
o~------~--~-=~~ oeeanie ernst, and the
subsided and buried
growth faults gener-
ated along the former
20 delta front. (After
km Evamy et al. 1978;
Tissot and Weite
200 km 1984)

Niger delta. This Tertiary delta is one of the best
known examples for this type of petroleum habitats
(Fig. 14.9; cf. Sect. 3.5.2). The hydrocarbons aceu-
mulate in sands of the paralic sequenee sealed by
shales. The giant oil and gas fields are coneentrated
in the area of maximum thickness of the deltaic sedi-
ment wedge where sufficient sand traps are available
in the subsurface. The oil fields largely produce light
waxy paraffinie oils, partially transformed bacterially
to heavier crnde oil. Within a given structure the gas-
bearing rocks become more important downdip.
The prograding delta eomplex has reaehed a thiekness of
9000 to 12000 m on top of down-faulted oceanie erust
(Fig. 14.9). The huge sediment wedge ean be subdivided
into three main units (from bottom to top): marine shales
(prineipal souree rocks with an organie C eontent of about
1%, mainly type III kerogen), a paralie sequenee (shales
and sands ofthe delta plain with distributary ehannels), and
fluvial sands and gravels of the alluvial plain. Deep-reaeh-
ing basement faults and shallower gravity-indueed growth
faults ereated separate struetural units for the migration and
aecumulation of hydroearbons. The marine shales of these
units are generally over-pressured. They release oil and gas
at depths in exeess of 3000 In, but the temperature gradient
varies eonsiderably (from about 2.7 to 5.5°C/100 m) due to
the eooling effeet of loeally deeply eireulating groundwa-
ter.
For further information on this example see, e.g.,
Evamy et al. (1985), Doust and Ornatsola (1990), Cohen
and MeClay (1996), Rouby and Cobbold (1996).
14.3.3 Rift Basins and
Shallow Epicontinental Seas
Paris basin. This weil explored basin (Fig. 14.10)
represents a classic example of a slowly subsiding,
wide basin on eontinental ernst, which was filled by
altemating eontinental and shallow-marine sediments
of Triassie to Tertiary age. The center ofthe basin
appears to have been affected by rifting during
PermianlTriassic time. The younger basin fill reaches
a maximum thiekness of 3000 m. The moderate oil
production of the basin is provided by Middle Juras-
sie limestones; the souree rocks are Liassic
(Toareian) shales eropping out as bituminous
marlstones along the rim of the basin. They are also
known from other parts of Western Europe and rep-
resent a kind of anoxie event with kerogen type IL
Although souree beds and reservoirs are separated by
a thick shale sequence, the produeing fields lie within
or very close to the central part of the basin where
14.3 Hydrocarbon Habitats
o
/ o
f o
7i
o
o o
o
o
o 00
PARIS BASIN
//
100 km
Fi~. 14.10. a Petroleum zone of the Paris Basin re-
strlcted to the basin center where Liassic (Toarcian)
shales have reached maturity for the generation of
oil. b Type 11 kerogen development of Toarcian shale
the Toarcian source rocks are most deeply buried
(2000 to 2500 m) and mature for the generation of
oil. The evolution of the Toarcian kerogen with in-
creasing burial depth is compared with values from
deeper burial sites in northwestem Germany (Fig.
14.1Ob). Outside the central depression of the Paris
basin no oil or gas could be found. According to geo-
chernical mode1ing, the fraction of kerogen which
has been converted to petroleum decreases from the
center of the basin outward (from about 150 to less
than 50 g petroleum per kg organic carbon).
North Sea. The failed rift zone of the North Sea,
which has not evolved into a wide, deep ocean basin,
has become one of the major oil and gas provinces of
the world (Fig. 14.11). The principal source rocks for
oil are marine shales (largely with kerogen type 11) of
Late Jurassic age.
The oil moves to the nearest available reservoirs
(e.g., Middle Jurassic sands or Upper Cretaceous
chalk) in tilted fault blocks or in structures associated
with salt swells (Fig. 14.l1 b). Virtually all the oil
717
o / 4~ ~ 1.00
o ~, . %~
////
/ / / / / /I%@*tl MATURE
• OlL FIELD
o OlL FLOW
o SHOW 0.25 ':--....,-,0-- - - - - ' - 1
o DRY HOLE
with incr~asin~ burial depth, based on sampies from
the Paris basm and deeper buried sampies from
northem Germany. (After Tissot and Weite 1984;
Demaison 1985, modified)
and gas fields lie within or very near the oil generat-
ing depression containing mature Kimmeridgian
source rocks. The fields with the largest reserves
tend to be elose to the center of the generative de-
pression.
In the center of the rift zone, these source beds are found at
depths in excess of 3000 m. At subsurface temperatures of
at least 90°C, the source rocks are fully mature and actively
generating and expelling oil. In areas of lower burial depth,
where temperatures are lower than 90°C, no significant oil
generation has taken place. For further information see,
e.g., Nielsen et al. (1986), Ziegler (1982 and 1988). The
geological evolution of the North Sea, its stratigraphy from
the Paleozoic to the Cenozoic, and recent advances in hy-
drocarbon exploration are summarized in Glennie (1997).
Late Jurassic bituminous shales of large areal extent
were also deposited in the Western Sibirian basin, an
intracratonic downwarp (cf. Sect. 12.4). Where the sha1es
are thermally mature, they act as source rocks of the giant
fields in this very important petroleum province. All the oil
fields are located elose to the center of this large hydrocar-
bon generating basin.
718
b JURASSIC (INClUDING
KIMMERIDGIAN SOURCE ROCKS)
BASEMENT DEVONIAN AND ROT LIEGEND
Fig. 14.11. a Oil and gas fields in the rift zone of the
North Sea with mature Kimmeridgian source rocks.
(After Demaison 1985, modified). b Cross section of
14.3.4 Carbonate Shelves: the Middle East
OU Province
This hydrocarbon habitat is demonstrated here by an
example of a large shelf sea which was later incorpo-
rated into a foredeep. It represents the richest hydro-
carbon province of the world, the Middle East oil
province around the ArabianIPersian Gulf (Fig.
14.l2a).
Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal
ZECHSTEIN SALT TRIASSIC
the central North Sea showing fault blocks and oil
fields in structural highs or on flanks of salt dome.
(After Ziegler 1982)
During the Mesozoic this area was characterized
by a broad stable platform on the southwestern side
of the Tethys ocean. On the landward side of the
platform, ramp-type, mixed carbonate-c1astic units
were deposited during regressive phases. The central
and northeastern, seaward parts of the shelf were
differentiated into broad regional highs, horsts, tilted
faultblocks, and salt swells. These areas were domi-
nated either by carbonate sediments accumulated un-
14.3 Hydrocarbon Habitats 719

a N b
N
I INTRA · SHEl F
BASIN

, .
.. ,
SAUDI,

\ ).,. ~
ARABIA

200 km

MIDDLE EAST OlL PROVINCE

200 km
MAJOR OlL/ GAS ACCUMULATION

Fig. 14.12. a Principal oil fields of the Middle East,
associated with source beds deposited in intra-shelf
basins of a very large Jurassic-Creataceous carbonate
platform (after Stoneley 1987). b Depositional envi-
ronment during the Upper Jurassie (late Oxfordian to
early Kimmeridgian). c Simplified, undeformed cross
section of central gulf displaying the relationship
between major hydrocarbon source beds, reservoirs,
and seal rocks. (After Murris 1985)
720
der eUXlmc conditions in intra-shelf basins, or
shallow-water carbonates and evaporites on the
higher parts ofthe platform (Fig. 14.12b). The hydro-
carbon source rocks accumulated from middle Juras-
sic to late Cretaceous times in the starved shelf bas-
ins, especially during transgressive periods. The rich-
est basinal source rocks (thinly laminated lime-
mudstones, kerogen type 11) are of Oxfordian to
Kimmeridgian age. They usually contain between 3
and 5% organic carbon, and their oil yield can be as
high as 2% of the total rock volume. The neighboring
marginal reef mounds, ooidal grainstones and other
shallow-water sands were used as reservoirs.
The porosity of these rocks was improved in pi aces by
subaerialleaching during times of low sea-Ievel stand. The
reservoirs are sealed by shales and supratidal evaporites
(Fig. 14.12c). The temperature gradient from Jurassie to
present time varied only slightly around 3.5°C/lOO m. At
2000 m depth ab out 90°C and at 2700 m approximately
110°C are reached in drillholes. Upper Cretaceous and
Tertiary source rocks remained immature.
During the Upper Cretaceous the outer shelf region was
affected by the onset of orogenie movements creating a
foredeep along the Tethys margin. The deposition of plat-
form sediments continued up to the late Alpine orogeny in
the Miocene, when the northeastem part of this area was
overthrust by the Zagros chains and anticlinal traps formed
in the foredeep now occupied by the Gulf (Fig. 14.12a).
For further information see, e.g., Murris (1985), Stoneley
(1987), Watts and Biome (1990), Beydoun et al. (1992),
Alsharhan and Naim (1997).
Several giant oil fields on the south side of the Gulf
are associated with relatively shallow burial depths
of the older source rocks. The oil has a relatively
high sulfur content indicating the marine euxinic
depositional environment and possibly the influence
of the intercalated sulfate rocks. Cross-strata migra-
tion of oil from deeper source beds to higher reser-
voirs appears to have been facilitated by (oil-filled)
microfractures. Gas fields coincide with those areas
where the source rocks are buried below 5000 m and
have reached the zone of metagenesis.
The exceptionally prolific habitat for oil and gas
of the Gulf region is not a result of extraordinary rich
andJor thick source rocks, but rather originates from
the vast horizontal dimensions of the depositional
platform area (2000 to 3000 km wide and 5000 km
long). In addition, abundant highly porous and per-
meable reservoirs as weH as efficient seals lie in
elose proximity to the source rocks. Tectonic struc-
tures are simple and of very large scale, aHowing
comparatively long-distance migration and a high
degree of reservoir fill. FinaHy, the area was not af-
fected by a major phase of post-depositional erosion
and intensive, deep meteoric water circulation.
Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal
14.3.5 Hydrocarbons in Other Basin Types
Many petroleum systems evolved in passive conti-
nental margin settings, e.g. along both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. A number of
these systems are associated with extensive reef
growth at the shelf edge or salt structures in deeply
buried thick salt deposits (cf. Sects. 6.4.8 and 12.2).
Oil and gas fields have been frequently described
from foreland basins, e.g. those of North America in
front of the Rocky Mountains (summary, e.g., in
Shannon and Naylor 1989). Hydrocarbon habitats of
puH-apart basins, e.g. those of California, are nor-
maHy limited in size. The general principles of gener-
ation, migration, and storage of hydrocarbons are
largely the same as briefly outlined above, although
in detail many special features have to be taken into
ac count (see references listed above).
South Caspian basin. A unique hydrocarbon habitat
in some ways is the South Caspian basin ineluding
the Kura depression in Azerbaijan. The evolution of
this backarc basin is associated with the elosure of
one part (the Paratethys) of the former Tethys Ocean
and is not fuHy understood. Its extremely thick Me-
sozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary sequence (up to
25-30 km?) at least partly rests on a fragment of oce-
anic crust. The specific features of this basin in terms
of a petroleum system are:
(1) Rapid subsidence and high sedimentation rates,
especiaHy since the Upper Miocene (3000-5000 m in
thickness, sedimentation rates up to 2500 mlMa dur-
ing the last 2 Ma).
(2) High excess fluid pressure and widespread devel-
opment of mud diapirism and mud volcaneos.
(3) Very low geothermal gradients (1.0-1.8°C/l00
m).
As a result, the present-day depth of oil generation in
the Caspian Sea is about 9 km and that of gas 14 km;
farther to the west, the oil window occurs at depths
of 6000-12000 m. Oil generation commenced late (at
the end of the Pliocene) and is ongoing today. Struc-
tural traps in deltaic silts and sands began to form
during the Middle to Late Pliocene. The peak of tec-
tonic activity was reached in the Quaternary leading
to vertical displacements up to > 1000 m, tight folds,
and mud diapirs.
The reservoirs consist of sands embedded in a shale se-
quence and are found mainly at depths of 3-9 km. The
many oil and gas-condensate accumulations in the neigh-
borhood ofthe city ofBaku, mostly found in Pliocene sedi-
ments, have been exploited since many years. For further
information see, e.g. Narimanov (1993), Bagirov et al.
(1997), Inan et al. (1997).
14.3 Hydrocarbon Habitats
14.3.6 Gas Hydrates
Gas hydrates, containing methane and possibly some
other natural gases, occur in enormous quantitities at
shallow burial depths below the present-day sea
floor. The amount of methane carbon stored in the
form of gas hydrates below the sea is estimated to
exceed the carbon known from fossil fuel sources
and has therefore received much attention during the
last decade.
Gas hydrates are solid, ice-like substances consist-
ing of a lattice of water molecules which enclose gas
molecules. The gas is usually biogenic methane pro-
duced by bacterial activity within shallowly buried
sediments containing organic matter (cf. Sect.
13.4.2), but thermogenic methane and higher-order
hydrocarbons derived from deeper-buried sediment
can locally contribute to the natural gas content of
the hydrates.
The gas accumulating in the pore system of fine-grained
sediment is first dissolved in pore water which is facilitated
by increasing pressure. If the amount of methane dissolved
is in excess of the local solubility of methane, gas hydrates
(or clathrates) can form. The hydrates fill only part of the
pore space (a few percent up to about 20-30%; methane
saturation 1-5%) besides water which is still present in thin
films around the sediment particles. This process is closely
related to the formation of ice in the small pores of soils
where part of the water cannot freeze. Similarly, the tiny
hydrate particles sometimes combine to small nodules or
lenses by exerting crystallization pressure onto the neigh-
boring grains and ~ushing them aside. 1 m 3 of hydrate con-
tains up to 164 m methane and 0.8 m3 water (at standard
conditions).
Besides high pressure (around 50 bar or 500 m water
depth) gas hydrates require relatively 10w temperatures
(~7°C) to become thermodynamically stable at this depth.
However, because two principal factors, i.e., pressure and
temperature, control the stability field of the hydrates, their
occurrence in nature cannot be defined by a fixed bound-
ary. With increasing pressure, for example at 3000 m water
depth, they are stable at temperatures weIl above 20°C. The
vertical range of gas hydrates is often 500-1000 m within a
sedimentary colurnn. Farther below, the temperature within
the sediment becomes, due to the geothermal gradient, too
high for the hydrates to remain stable. The 10wer boundary
of the hydrates is marked in seismic records by the so-
called bottom simulating reflector (BSR). Below this re-
flector, methane is present as free gas or dissolved in pore
water.
The various aspects of the gas hydrates have been ad-
dressed in many publications (e.g., Hesse 1986; Collett
1993; Maslin et al. 1993; Kvenvolden 1993; Paull et al.
1996; van Wearing et al. 1997; Haq 1998; Sloan 1998;
Clennell et al. 1999).
The stability field of the gas hydrates and the occur-
rence of organic matter in most of the hemipelagic
sediments indicate that gas hydrates must be very
common on the lower continental slope and rise of
the present-day ocean basins. The water temperature
721
at a depth of 500 m is normally low, even in low-Iati-
tude regions such as along the western margins of the
continents. In high latitudes, gas hydrates occur at
shallower water depth (around 250 m), and in perma-
frost regions they can form in shelf regions and even
on land.
It is not yet clear whether or not these huge hydro-
carbon reservoir can be used as an energy source in
the future. The concentration of methane per unit
volume of sediment is low and it is difficult to ex-
tract the gas from the fine-grained material deep be-
low the sea in an economic way. However, two other
important processes, caused by the natural release of
methane from gas hydrates, become increasingly evi-
dent:
- The triggering of submarine slope failures and
- The influence of gas hydrates on rapid climate
change.
When the gas hydrates thaw, due to increasing tem-
perature with depth or decreasing pressure in re-
sponse to sea-Ievel fall, they release large quantities
of methane and fresh water. A significant drop in sea
level, for example, as known from the late Pleisto-
cene, mnst have raised the base of the gas hydrate
stability zone by about 20 m. Such a process can di-
minish the shear strength of slope sediments and
therefore generate large-scale slope failures in wide
areas of the ocean. These in turn facilitate the escape
of methane into the atmosphere where this green-
house gas, similar to carbon dioxide, may lead to
rapid warming and termination of a glacial period.
14.3.7 General Conclusions for
Petroleum Systems
All these examples have in common that the hydro-
carbon source rocks reached aburial depth in the
order of 1500 to 3000 m with a temperature of at
least 60-90°C. In this depth range (except some spe-
cific cases) part of the kerogen is or was transformed
to petroleum and/or gas under the influence of both
subsurface temperature and time. Areas underlain by
source rocks undergoing such processes are called
petroleum generative depressions or "hydrocarbon
kitchens" (Demaison 1985). A generative basin may
contain one or more hydrocarbon kitchens. Hydro-
carbon kitchens associated with carrier beds and res-
ervoir rocks protected by seals are called petroleum
systems (Magoon and Dow 1994). For the effectivity
of such a system it is crucial that carrier beds and
reservoirs at higher elevation or in structural highs
are ready to store the hydrocarbons released from the
source rock.
The largest petroleum accumulations tend to occur
in reservoir rocks located close to the center of the
722
generative basins or on structural highs neighboring
deeper generative depressions. Large volumes of hy-
drocarbon source rocks and long time spans for their
drainage are aprerequisite for giant oil and gas accu-
mulations. Evaporites and fine-grained, water-wet
elayey shales and mudrocks, which must not have
open fractures, act as efficient seals on top of the
porous oil and gas traps. Such seal rocks prevent oil
(lower density than water!) and gas from migrating
upward to the surface over long time periods, if the
petroleum system is not affected by subsequent
strong tectonic activity destroying the traps. Large oil
and gas fields still exist in Paleozoic basins, for ex-
ample in North America, North Africa, and in the
territory ofthe former Soviet Union.
Oil usually migrates over distances not more than
a few tens of km in the updip drainage area of indi-
vidual tectonic structures. Most of the producible
hydrocarbons and the largest oil fields occur within
the ranges of generative depressions. These conelu-
sions apply to different types of basins (e.g.,
intracratonic basins, rift basins, passive margin bas-
ins). Long-distance oil migration is documented from
some foreland basins. Migration of gas, however, is
frequently more difficult to predict.
14.3.8 Summary (Hydrocarbons)
Petroleum systems consist of source rocks, car-
rier beds, and reservoirs which must be sealed
by impermeable layers (shales or evaporites).
Insoluble organic matter (kerogen types I-III) is
converted to liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons
at temperatures beyond 60-90°C which are
mostly reached at burial depths of 1500-3000
m.
- Biogenic methane gas, occurring in huge quan-
tities as solid gas hydrates in shallowly buried
hemipelagic sediments of the present-day conti-
nental slope and rise, are not considered as part
of a petroleum system.
Kerogen type I has the highest potential (80-
90%) for generating hydrocarbons, but only a
very small fraction of the prirnary organic pro-
duction is finally converted to hydrocarbons.
- Prirnary migration of hydrocarbons within the
source rocks mainly occurs in liquid phase and
Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal
Subsurface mapping of hydrocarbon generative
basins, ineluding kerogen analyses and an evaluation
of the thermal history of the basin, is one of the most
important tasks in petroleum exploration. In addition,
the three-dimensional facies distribution and archi-
tecture of the depositional system, reservoir and seal
rocks in the neighborhood of the source rocks, and
the tectonic structure of the basin fill have to be in-
vestigated.
New frontiers in hydrocarbon exploration include the lower
slope and continental rise of passive margins as weil as
foredeep sediments buried under thin-skinned thrust belts
(e.g. Picha 1996; Wessely and Liebl 1996). Proven re-
serves, improvements of the methods for extracting oil and
gas, and undiscovered hydrocarbons allow hydrocarbon
production well into the 22nd century (Schollenberger
1998). A crucial point is sustainable development and use
of these energy reserves in combination with increased
efforts to replace them by other energy sourees. Whether
the huge reservoir of gas hydrates below the ocean (mainly
biogenie and still present in the porous source sediment)
can be used in the future as an important energy source, is
an open question.
is aided by overpressure of the pore fluids and
buoyancy (oil has a lower density than water).
Grain surfaces and tiny pores remain water-
wet.
Secondary migration in permeable carrier beds
mainly takes place as two-phase mass flow. In
some cases, hydrocarbons dissolved in water
are transported in significant quantities by me-
teoric flow. Transport by molecular diffusion
may play some role for light hydrocarbons in-
eluding natural gas.
- Large petroleum accumulations tend to occur
in reservoir rocks located elose to the center of
the generative basins (oil kitchens). The extent
and volume of source rocks is crucial for giant
hydrocarbon generation, but not necessarily a
high content of organic matter.
14.4 Evolution of Coal
14.4 Evolution of Coal
14.4.1 General Aspects of Coal Formation
In contrast to oil and natural gas, coal remains in its
primary position within a sedimentary body, but with
continued burial it undergoes processes similar to the
diagenesis and catagenesis of hydrocarbon source
rocks. Coals contain 75-100% and coaly shales 25-
75% dry organic matter. Coals originate from the
detritus of terrestrial plants forming peat in "mires".
Important prerequisites for the formation of substan-
tial volumes of coal are:
(1) The evolution ofplant life on the continents.
(2) A relatively high plant productivity under favor-
able climatic conditions with sufficient nutrient sup-
ply.
(3) Very low input of detrital material into the peat-
accumulating basin.
(4) A depositional environment where plant remains
can be preserved.
In modem environments, the peat production rates
are highest in wet tropical areas (3-6 mmla) and me-
dium in warm temperate climates (1-3 mmla). Peat
growth is favored by groundwater discharge rich in
nutrients. Dilution of peat by clastic material is lim-
ited in areas where the river systems develop stable
channels with levees (e.g. in anastomosing systems),
or the trunk-channel belts of rivers crossing large
alluvial plains are diverted from the centers of peat
formation. The latter scenario has been quoted for
the formation of widespread coal intervals in
intracontinental basins (Belt 1993). Another favor-
able situation may be given where the shorelines re-
main ± stable. Furthermore, the interplay between the
vertical growth rates of peat and the rate of accom-
modation space provided by subsidence and relative
change of the groundwater table (acting as base-
level) control the formation and preservation of coal
in ancient environments. It is important to note that
the potential growth rates of peat are much higher
than the normal rates of subsidence and thus also the
average subsidence rates of the coal-bearing strata.
Therefore, the common coal seems resulting from
one phase of peat growth cannot be interpreted alone
by subsidence. In these cases, additional accommo-
dation space is required for the accumulation of peat.
This can be provided by several processes:
- Rapidly rising groundwater table (in continental
settings). This may result from rapid change to wetter
climate or fast aggrading alluvial plains creating
backswamp areas.
- Rapid relative sea-level rise causing a rise in the
water level of coastal swamps and shallow lakes in-
cluding the groundwater table of neighboring areas.
723
This can also be accomplished by step-wise subsi-
dence.
- Sediment load-driven increased subsidence in areas
of rapid sediment accumulation and associated sub-
stantial sediment compaction (e.g. in delta areas).
Under these circumstances, aided by tectonic subsi-
dence, a kind of balance can be reached between op-
timal peat growth and necessary accommodation
space. If the rate of gaining accommodation space
exceeds peat growth, the peats become drowned and
finally buried under clastic sediments. With accom-
modation too low, the growing peat is exposed to the
air and cannot be preserved, or it is reworked.
In coastal areas, peat formation is therefore fa-
vored by relative sea-level rise, but this rise must not
be too slow or too rapid. Thus, the growth of peat
also depends on the frequency and amplitude of the
sea-level changes. It appears that 4th or 5th order
sea-level fluctuations of some amplitude and the time
span between the late LST and early HST (often the
late TST) within these variations are most appropri-
ate for the formation and preservation of significant
coal beds (cf. Sects. 7.6.2 and 7.6.4). This is the rea-
son why coal cycles or cyclothems are very common
in transitional environments.
The eoal facies within individual, 3-4 m thiek paralie
seams, formed during parasequenees, may evolve from
huminite-rieh bright eoal to dull clayey eoal rieh in
liptinite, alginite and pyrite. In these eases, an aeeeierated
rise in sea or base level outpaeed peat growth (Petersen et
al. 1998; see also Holz 1998).
The a\erage sedimentation rate of Permian eratonie
coal-bearing strata in Australia, eontaining 12-18% coal,
was about 50 mlMa, whereas in the proximal part ot the
Sidney foreland basin the rate was 500 m1Ma (6-8% eoal;
Hunt 1989). If the eoal seams were deposited at the same
rate as the coal-bearing strata, the sedimentation rate for
coal alone would have been 0.05 or 0.5 mm/a, respeetively.
Especially the value for the cratonic coal basin appears to
be too low compared with the modem peat production
rates. The substantial compaction of peat is probably not
sufficient to explain this discrepancy.
These findings imply that very thick peat accumula-
tions, required for the generation of coal seams of
some tens of meters in thickness, must have grown
intermittently. In fact, such discontinuities have been
identified in thick coal beds (Shearer et al. 1994).
According to the depositional environment we
distinguish between:
- Limnic coals of shallow freshwater lakes and
swamps (cf. Fig. 10.13), and coals of fluvial p1ains;
cf. Sect. 2.2.3), and
- Paralic coals of brackish transitional environments
such as those observed in coastal and marine deltaic
areas (cf. Sect. 3.5.3).
724
Limnic coals normally have low sulfur contents be-
cause meteoric waters are poor in sulfate providing
the sulfur required for the formation of iron sulfides.
Coals deposited in backswamp areas of marine deltas
with switching lobes are characterized by coal seams
of limited extent with intermediate sulfur content;
coals accumulated in supratidal marshes of coastal
regions frequently display a wide lateral extent and
high sulfur contents.
Summaries on coal-forming environments are given, for
example, by Teichmüller (1973), Galloway and Hobday
(1983, 1996), Lyons and Alpern (1989), DiesseI (1992),
Cobb and Cecil (1993), Phillips and Bustin (1996), Bohacs
and Suter (1997) and in many special articles (e.g. Liu
Guanghua 1990; Dreesem et al. 1997; Liu G et al. 1998).
Coalification is described by Teichmüller and Teichmüller
(1979), Tissot and Weite (1984), Alpern (1987), and in
some of the earlier references. Regional studies are pub-
lished in special volumes or journals, e.g. in Rahmani and
Flores (1984) and in the International Journal ofCoal Ge-
ology.
14.4.2 Preservation of Peat
In both limnic and paralic environments, the plant
debris has to be protected from rapid microbial de-
composition under oxic conditions. This is accom-
plished by a water level standing just at or above the
surface of the deposited plant material. To maintain
such conditions for longer time periods, the
depositional area has to subside and/or the water ta-
ble has to rise. Only that part of the plant accumula-
tion can be preserved which is kept under the protec-
tion of a water cover or water-saturated sediment.
Some of the peat may still be subjected to aerobic
decomposition by bacteria and fungi, while deeper-
seated parts undergo changes by anaerobic bacteria.
The decomposition of peat under restricted oxygena-
tion generates a low pR and antiseptic compounds
that facilitate peat preservation. In this biochemical
phase of early diagenesis, some biogenie methane is
produced.
14.4.3 Coalification and Composition of Coal
After burial, geochemical pro ces ses take over to con-
vert the peat into brown coal and, later, into bitumi-
Fig. 14.13. a Map showing location of section from
the Ruhr coal distriet (Rhenish Massi!), NW Ger-
many, via the Ibbenbüren coal mine to the North Sea.
b Cross section indicated in a displaying degree of
coalification at the top of the Carboniferous. The
approximate position of isolines for mean vitrinite
reflectance, % Rm, is added in parts of the sec ti on.
Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal
nous hard coal and anthracite (cf. Fig. 14.4). These
processes are summarized under the term coali-
jication. Special investigations, such as the determi-
nations of the moisture and volatile matter contents,
carbon and hydrogen contents, the reflectance of
vitrinite (see below), and the calorific value, allow
distinguishing between several stages of coali-
fication. These stages are referred to as rank levels
which indicate the maturity of coal.
Peat and coal contain various organic components
(macerals) which, similar to the components of the
hydrocarbon source rocks, are affected by the
coalification process in different ways. The three
main groups of macerals are (Tissot and WeIte 1984;
Robert 1985):
(1) Huminite and vitrinite. Remains of woody and
humic substances which are the major components of
brown coals and bituminous hard coals.
(2) Liptinite or exinite. These are remains of lipid-
rich plant relics (resins, waxes, spores, cutic1es, al-
gae).
(3) Inertinite. Oxidized or reworked older carbon-
rich particles.
Over all, the organic components of coal resemble
kerogen type III described earlier for hydrocarbon
source rocks. Their potential for generating hydrocar-
bons is similar to that of this kerogen type.
Prograding coalification leads to the following
physical and chemical changes:
- Decrease in water content and porosity, increase in
density.
- Condensation of organic molecules, polymeriza-
tion, aromatization, and loss of functional groups.
The net result of these processes is a relative enrich-
ment 01 carbon with increasing burial depth and tem-
perature (or coal rank). These changes are accompa-
nied first by substantial mechanical compaction and
the expulsion oJ pore water. Then, carbon dioxide,
gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons are generated and
released as follows (cf. Fig. 14.4):
- At shallow burial depth: carbon dioxide and
bio genie methane.
- At medium burial depth (range of medium volatile
bituminous coal): large amounts ofmethane and mi-
Note influence of post-orogenie uplift in the south,
young subsidence in the north, and magmatic intru-
sion in the Ibbenbüren area. For further explanation
see text. c Relationship between burial depth, mean
vitrinite reflectance, coal rank, and generation of gas.
(After Teichmüller et al. 1984)
 s AUHR DISTAICT MONSTER BASIN
b LOWEA SAXONIAN BASIN
RHENISH KNICK . QUATERNARY
MASSIF ....,,~ DRILL POINT AND TERTI ARY
2P \5 2,5 2.b HOLE ___ .1_ ..... __
O~=-~~-
. II 1,0-o.s- CRETACEOUS ----1---------
'' .. - CRETACEOUS
-2
TRIASSIC

-4 +fIlt-~ -4
,..,;,.~ ___ ........ __ .... ~iJ·""
~_ . C . ,.' ---
YOUNG UPLIFT '
+ '-
.........
-6 ·6
-----_.- ,.....-/------_....----'".......----.... ..."' '~
.... ,
km ;,,- ...
,-"--_. ... ,,,.,
__ ......... , ......
-- km
" -,
'"
TOP OF YOUNG SUBSIDENCE . .
CARBONIFEROUS

50 km
c HIGHLY VOLATILE
BITUMINOUS COAL
a NORTH SEA

MEDIUM VOLATILE . 1.8 VITRINITE REFLECTANCE

BITUMINOUS COAL
(DEGREE OF COALIFICATION)

STEPHANIAN

o WESTPHALIAN
BREMEN
11
C
B 11

N
A
N NAMURIAN

'IJ. GAS FIELDS

COAl BASIN, CARBONIFEROUS,

RUHR DIST RICT, NW GERMANY

t;J
(JI
726
nor volumes of heavier hydrocarbons including oil.
- At deep burial depth: thermogenic methane.
Some of the generated hydrocarbons can be stored in
coal under high in-situ pressure and temperature.
However, especially the generation of methane
greatly exceeds the storage capacity of coal. The bulk
of the methane therefore migrates into structural
traps with reservoir rocks, or it escapes into the atmo-
sphere.
Coal beds contain a mixture of gases in which methane
makes up 80-99% (Flores I 998a). One metric ton of coal
holds <1 up to ~ 19 m 3 gas (heat combustion about 8500-
9300 cal/m 3). Apart from a minimum amount of "free gas"
present in fractures, this gas is sorbed on micropore sur-
faces of the coal. Some of the gas migrates into adjacent
sandstones. The other components of coal-bed gas include
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur di-
oxide. Coal-bed methane has been and still is a hazard in
underground coal mining, but during the past two decades
efforts have been made to use this gas as an energy source
(see, e.g., Flores 1998b; Lyons 1998).
14.4.4 Example of a Coal Basin (NW Germany)
The Carboniferous in northwestern Germany, ex-
tending from the Rhenish Massif with the Ruhr dis-
trict to the North Sea (Fig. 14.13), is one ofthe best
explored coal basins. It demonstrates various stages
of coalification, the influence of burial depth and
later exhumation, and the release of natural gas.
The coal accumulated in a foredeep of the
Variscan orogen and was subsequently deeply buried
and moderately folded, particularly in proximal posi-
tion close to the evolving mountain range. In con-
junction with the exploration of gas fields, the top of
the coal-bearing strata was drilled at numerous sites.
Vitrinite reflectance data (% Rm), apatite fission
track analysis, Rock-Eval pyrolysis, and model calcu-
lations for the degassing of Ruhr coal (Fig. 14.14)
were used to unravel the his tory of this coal basin.
The cross section in Fig. 14.13 shows several charac-
teristic features and is interpreted as folIows:
- The relatively high-rank coalification of the folded
Upper Carboniferous (Namurian and Westphalian) is
found at the present land surface in the south close to
the Variscan Rhenish Massif. Coalification is less
advanced farther north (e.g. in the Münster basin and
along the co ast of the North Sea) where the coal-
bearing strata are still deeply buried.
- The peak of coalification was reached during maxi-
mal burial depth (and temperature) under late Car-
boniferous sediments (5800 m in the south and
around 3000 m farther north), i.e. prior to the main
phase of orogenesis. The less intense coalification in
Chapter 14 Hydrocarbons and Coal
the presently buried northern part of the section is
explained by lower synsedimentary subsidence.
- At the end of the Carboniferous and during the
early Permian, uplift and subsequent deep erosion
exhumed the coal seams in the south. In the north,
the exhumed coal-bearing strata again subsided and
were buried under younger deposits (Fig. 14.13). In
regions of young (Tertiary and Quaternary) subsi-
dence, coalification may still be in operation.
- The temperature gradient is generally relatively low
in the region, but higher in the north than in the
south.
- According to a model calculation based on the re-
sults of experimental heating of coal, the history of
degassing of the initial, highly volatile bituminous
coal may have proceeded in a way similar to that in-
dicated in (Fig. 14.14b). During the first 16 Ma of
heating, only H20, CO 2, and CO were released. Then
methane, hydrocarbons, and some nitrogen were pro-
duced. This process continued until about 40 Ma af-
ter the onset of heating. Over all, the coal has lost
more than 30% of its weight and evolved from a
highly volatile coal into C-rich anthracite.
This calculation is made with the assumption that the initial
shallow-burial coal subsided during a time period of 20 Ma
(Fig. 14.14a) which may in fact be too long. During burial,
the temperature exerted on the peat may have risen from 20
to 140°C, which corresponds to a heating rate of 6°ClMa
or about 1.6 x 1O·8°C/day. These results are based on work
ofTeichmüller et al. (1984), Tissot and Weite (1984, based
on Jüntgen and Klein 1975) and later somewaht modified
by Büker et al. (1995).
- With the onset of uplift and exhumation, the tem-
perature of the coal seams decreased. This cooling
had no further significant effect on the coal and its
degassing, because the coal was already highly ma-
ture prior to this development
- Most gas fields occur where the vitrinite
reflectance varies between 1 and 2% Rm. Reservoir
rocks are sands of the upper Carboniferous, the
Permian (Rotlit:gend), and Lower Triassic (Bunter
sandstone). They are sealed by evaporites of Permian
and Triassic age.
- The striking maximum in the coal rank of the
Ibbenbüren mine district (4-5% Rm, Fig. 14.13b)
results from an Upper Cretaceous magmatic intru-
sion, causing a very high temperature gradient. Local
strong uplift and exhumation brought the coal-bear-
ing strata to or close to the present land surface.
The general principles outlined for this example can
also be applied to other coal deposits of various
burial and uplift histories.
14.4 Evolution of Coal 727

eOAL EVOLUTION AND RELEASE OF GAS

MEDIUM
HIGH-VOLATILE AND LOW SEMI-ANTHRACITE
k BIT UM. COAL 3l!lOL. C;;:k AND ANTHRACITE
1 : 1 DECREASING
do 35 1 28 1'00/0VOLATILE MATTER)
b +--+---1f--+---I-...---r-"I-t-t-I-+---t--I---1 ... "1----+-+
100+ 1-4--+-4--+-~!~+II-4~I-+-+~:~~~~=t~~
-'- .... - - - CH 4
, : I /~I
+--+--f-+--l--t-~-t+-blL...f-t---t---t ... -f---+--+

0;
I I 11
80+--+--f-+--l-+--t-!--iJ'+--t-+---t---l.... '1<--+--+
~
C')
......
I l I
..... r--+--+ '
E
I
+--+--I--+--f-+--i-~-+---l--t--+-i
~ I J 1 1
+--+-I---+----1~+--+_+H__--+--+--t--t----1 ..... f---+--+
60
I /' I
Cf)
«
(!) Fig. 14.14. Evolution of
0
LL r-r-III-r-lt!/ft~i,11""'::j:::i1::::t::::t····1:::+=~ -- H2 0 Carboniferous coa1 of the
40 +--+--f-+--l--I--f1bo"""-t---t-7---t---l'" ..1---+--+ Ruhr area, western Ger-
UJ
Cf)
«
, ./'r , l many, according to coa1
UJ
y~-t--I-,-+--+----+,--+---1'" .. t--t---t- "cö 2
+-+-+--+---I--+:. heating experiments. a In-
20+-+--+--+--i7L!1-'-J+--t~--~T-"1---1""'\-+-+ ,.. CO
...J
UJ creasing buria1 depth and

t±~t/~"'~I~L)Jt:::lr:~i§§·····t:~=E ~~
ce
temperature of the coa1
with time, followed by de-
-~ :J' He
0
, L I"'" I ......I-j::-t-t- ' " N2 crease of these parameters
due to up1ift and exhuma-
tion, here assumed to have
, UPLIFT
1 occurred 40 Ma after deep
,
1 J
a 150

, ~/ 1 burial. b Release of differ-

iTEMPERATURE
/i J\ '*' 125 ~ ent types of gas as a result
,
1 I I! l\ UJ of (a). G.T Geothermal
.s 0
1'.
"- / I 1 1 ... t-
100 a::
~
gradient. (After Tissot and
Welte 1984). For further
I ;
I 1000 ~
I-
Cl. 2000 !/ ~ ... 1 1 .~ t-- ~ t- 't-
50
a::
~
explanation see text
UJ
0
3000 V "I ,I I 1
V :::iE
UJ
I-
DEPTH' 1 I ~ -~

o 8 16
I
24
I1 32
.'.
40 48 224228
o
TIME (Ma)

14.4.5 Summary (Coal)

Coa1 is found, in contrast to oi1 and gas, in the
depositiona1 environment where peat accumu-
1ated (fluvia1 and eoasta1 p1ains, shallow 1akes
and swamps).
- Optimal growth and preservation of peat oceurs
in environments and time periods in whieh the
high growth rate of peat is matched by ga in in
accommodation space provided by both subsi-
dence and relative rise of lake level or ground-
water tab1e. Para1ic coa1s of coasta1 areas there-
fore frequently formed during the transgressive
systems traet. Thick coa1 beds grew intermit-
tently in areas of 1itt1e terrigenous sediment
supp1y.
The organie components of peat and eoa1
(macera1s) inc1ude humic substances, lipid-rich
plant relics, and oxidized or reworked older
carbon-rich partic1es. In total, these compo-
nents resemb1e kerogen type III of hydrocar-
bon source rocks.
During coa1ifieation, carbon is re1ative1y en-
riched in coa1 (increasing eoa1 rank). Simulta-
neous1y, HP, CO 2, biogenie CH4, heavier hy-
drocarbons and, at great depth, thermogenic
methane are re1eased.
Some of the thermo genie hydrocarbons ean be
sorbed by the coa1, the major part migrates to
traps or dissipates into the atmosphere.
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Subject Index
Italized numbers refer to figures, T to tables
accretionary wedge (also s. deep-
sea trenches)
chaotic layers and melange 588
decollement zones 584-587,
12.19b-f, 12.20,12.21
internal structures 587
mud diapirs, volcanoes 588
sediment budget 584, 12.21
sediment successions 12. 1geeg,
12.24e
specific sedimentary structures
587
tectonic deformation etc. 588,
592, 12.22e
accommodation potential s. sequence
stratigraphy
accumulation rates (also s. sedi-
mentation rates) 455-456
conversion into sedimentation
rates 10.1
actualistic, nonact. systems 283
adjacent sea basins s. also water
circulation, Black Sea, Gulf
of Califomia, Red Sea etc.)
166-181
"arid" basins 168, 4.2b
"humid" basin 167, 4.2a
stratification 167
advection s. compaction flow
advective heat transfer 697
Aegean Sea 628, 12.40e
Afar, rift zone 551
aggregation of clay and mud (also
s. clay pellets) 190
albedo 239
Aleutian trench 587
allodapic limestones s. carbonate
turbidites
allogenetic, allocyclic sequences
294-295, 348-350
allomemeber, allostratigraphy
7.3d, T7.2
alluvial fans 35-37,2.7, 2.11a
current directions 37
vertical sequences 37, 2.12
stream gradients 36
Alps, uplift 451
denudation 439
lateral extrusion 12.40be
Altiplano, Bolivia 601
amalgamation 103,218
Amazon
dissolved river load 430,
9.9a-e
shelf 127
deep-sea fan 231,327, 5.22
anastomosed rivers 46, 2.18
anchimetamorph zone 697
Andaman Sea 604,12.23
Andes (s. also S. America)
sub-Andean retro-foreland
basins 600-60 I
intramontane basins 622,
12,3gee
Anoxie events 246
antidunes 32, 2.9
anti-estuarine water circulation
168,4.2b
Apennines, foredeeps, flysch
basins 223,610, 12.33
Appalachians, uplift 450
ArabianlPersian Gulf(also s.
Persian Gult) 169, 180, 4.7
hydrocarbon province 716,
14.12
"aragonite" ocean 355
Aral Sea 494, 11. 7b
arc-trench systems s. deep-sea
trenches
Argentina, Permian eolian dunces
58
astronomical time scale 359-361,
7.37
Atlantic (also s. North Atlantic)
clay minerals 424
conjugate margins 12. ged
decreasing clastic sed. rate
506-508,11.15
margin, North America, subsi-
dence 407, 8.14, 8.16, 8.17ab
northwestem, sediment accumu-
lation 531, 11.32cd
river-supplied calcium and
silica 507
shelf, incised valleys 338
shelf, N. America 127
water circulation 187, 5.1 e
atrnosphere, evolution 284, 6.18
atrnospheric CO 2 244, 5.24, 5.25
atmospheric-oceanic feedback
system 289
aulaeogen 5, 1. 1c
Australia
Cretaeeous seaway 127
denudation 446
dune fields 54, 58
Perrnian coal 723
rivers 47
carbonates, southern shelf
136 .
subsidence, shelf 409, 8.17e
authigenic minerals 205
autogenetic, autocyclic sequences
294-295, 348-350
autotrophie organisms 467
Bab el Mandeb, Red Sea 177, 180
backarc basins (s. also retroarc
basins) 6,599-604, 1.2a,
12.18
basin evolution 602, 12.29
examples 602-604
lifetime 599
marginal basins (W. Pacific)
12.28
modem examples 602-604, 12.30
preservation and identification
605
sediment successions 600-602
plate-tectonic setting 599,
12.18,12.29
backstripping s. subsidence history
badlands, denudation 440
Bahama archipelago 563, 12.12
Bahama bank, platform 145
BaikaIlake, rift 79,405
Baja Calicornia margin 567
Baltic Sea 167,4.2a
Baltimore Canyon trough, thermal
history 697, J3.29b
banded chert, quartzite s. Pre-
cambrian sediments
banded ironstones 288-289, 6.18
Barbados accretionary wedge 587,
472, 12.22e
Barents shelf 28, 136
barrier-island complexes 119-123,
3.l0b-d,3.18
ebb- and flood tidal sands
121,3.18
preservation in geologie
record 123
response to sea level change
123,3.17,3.18
sedimentary structures 121,
3.18
subenvironments 121, 3.18
transgressive, regressive
systems 123,3.17,3.18
782
base level of erosion 10, 298,
1.6, 7.3a
Basin and Range Province, USA 545
basin filling models (s. also denu-
dation-accumulation systems)
13-14
"balanced" basins 536
ciosed lakes 490-494, 11.6,
11.7
ciosing basins 508-510, 11.16
dynamic models 484,494-514
extensional basins 497-504,
I UO-Il.i5
general concept 484-486
modeling 483-484
open lake systems 487-488,
11.4
over-supplied basins 535,
II.2a
pull-apart basins 507-508
rift basins, growing 501-508,
11.12-11.14
sediment-starved basins 536
steady-state systems 483-484
basin inversion 639-640, 12.46
basin plains, abyssal plains 229,
5.18
basin sediments between submarine
ridges 210, 5. lOb
basin types 3-9, 1.1-1.4
pre-, syn-, postdepositional
basins 10, 1.5
morphological, depositional
environments 10-13, 1.7, 1.8
tectonicallydefined 3-9, 1.1-
1.4, T 1.1
basin type transitions (polyphase
basins) 637
examples 641-642
Bass Strait, rifting 12.2b
beach ridges 99, 3.2e
beach rock 13.23a
beach-shoreface zone 97-99,3.1-
3.3
bed forms, sedimentary
structures 97-99, 3.1, 3.3
offshore sand bars 97, 3.3
sand budget, sand belt 99, 3.3a
vertical sequences 99, 3.3b
bedded nodular limestones 687,
13.2
bedding couplets, bedsets, bundles,
interbeds 972, 7.1
Bengal Fan 227, 233,
sediment budget 528, 11.31
benthic boundary layer, degradation
loss 472, 10.6
basin-filling models (s. also
sediment budget) 497-504,
1.11-11.14,11.20
bioerosion 137
bio-events s. event stratigraphy
biologic response to sedimentolo-
gical events 296
biosiliceous sediments s. siliceous
sediments
bitumen s. kerogen types
Black Sea 168, 173,446-447, 4.4
Holocene development 173, 4.4
hydrocarbon potential 173, 175
Miocene-Pliocene development
173
organic matter, sapropel 173,
4.4d
sediment budget 489, 11.5
tectonic setting 604
water circulation 168, 4.2a
black shales 194-195, 5.4ag
definition 478
in redox cycies 363-364
in various environments 478,
10.11
related to sea level changes
363,7.42be
black smokers 251
Blake Plateau 208, 563
bluegreen algae, cyanobacteria 287
Boso peninsula, Japan 595
Bosphorus 168
bottom life on the sea floor 472
Brahmaputra River, Bangladesh 40
braided rivers, braidplains (s.
fluvial systems)
Brazil, barrier-lagoon system 524,
11.28
breakup of supercontinents 355
breakup unconformity (also s. con-
tinentaI margin) 403, 555
bryomoI facies 136
bulk density 456, 10.1
bundle s. beds
Buntsandstein, Europe 35
bypassing ofsediment 107, 3.8b
calcite compensation depth (also s.
carbonates, deep-sea) 192-193,
5.3b,5.4
"calcite" ocean 355
calcrete, caliche 418, 9.1 a, 9.2
Califomia
continental borderland 208
pull-apart basins 508, 11.19
Canary Basin, slide 224
carbon flux in the oceans (s. also
preservation of organic matter)
468,471, 10.5, 10.6, TlO.2
carbonate buildups, platforms (also
s. carbonate sediments, reefs)
134-141
backreefzone,lagoons 141-143,
3. 25a, 3.26a
drowning 143-146,731-732
economic significance 152
emergence, karstification 147,
3.30c
evolution, vertical growth rates
327,3.29
pelagic carbonate platforms 143
pro- and retrograding 147, 3.28
ramps 138, 3.24
response to sea level changes
143-146
carbonate diagenesis (s. also diage-
nesis) 147-152,687, 3.30,
13.24
cement sequences 149,3.30a
dolomitization 150-152,690-691,
3.30,13.25
carbonate-evaporite transitions
6.7
carbonate sediments, shallow water
(also s. carbonate buildups)
back-barrier zone 141-143
carbonate-producing organisms
134, 136-137, 3.23
cool-water carbonates 136
depositional environments 134-136
hardgrounds 138, 144
non-skeletal particies 137
oolitic sands 138
reeflimestone types 143,3.26b-d
whitings 127
carbonate turbidites s. turbidites
carbonates, deep-sea (s. also deep-sea
sediments) 192-193, 5.3b, 5.4
biogenic carbonate production 192
calcite compensation depth, CCD
193, 5.3b, 5.4ae
lysociine 193,5.3b
recycling of carbonate 193
Caribbean Sea 170, 172
tectonic evolution 12.40d
Cascadia subduction zone 584-587,
704,12.22,13.32
Caspian Sea 87,260
denudation area 447
mud volcanoes 718
oil and gas 718
sediment budget 494, 11. 7b
tectonic setting 604
catagenesis s. hydrocarbon generation
Cayman trough, Caribbean 626,
630, 632, 12.40d
CCD s. calcite compensation depth
celadonite, celadonitic minerals
250,6.1
cement mineral sequences, cement
sources 695, 13.27
cementation s. pore cements
Chad basin, Africa 88, 446, 11. 7a
chalk in deep and shallow seas
192
chaotic structures in subduction
zones 588
chemical diagenesis s. diagenesis
closed systems (isochemical
diagenesis) 668, 13.16, 13.20
open systems (allochemical dia-
genesis) 668, 13.16, 13.20
chemocline 184
chert s. siliceous sediments,
evaporites, concretions
China
river loads 440 Ok

Tarim basin 641
Xigaze forearc basin 597
chlorozoan association 136
clay dunes 60-61
clay minerals 416, 9.1 c
derived from parent rocks 421
in marine sediments 423-424
in suspended river loads 420
indicators of climate,
provenance 423
lateral fractionation 156, 3.22
neo-minerals 416
types 422
clay pellets (also s. aggregation)
60-61, 190
climate, early Earth 286
climbing ripples
eolian 55, 2.21a, 2.22b
glacifluvial 23, 2.3, 2.4c
coal cycles s. coal deposits,
cyclothems
coal evolution, composition 723-
724,14.4
coal macerals, ranks 724
coalification 724, 14.4
coal deposits in various depositional
environments 339-344, 724
cyclothems with coa1342, 7.28
in delta sediments 163-165,
3.35b,3.36
in fluvial environm. 49,2.19c
lagoonal sediments 123, 3.18
peat growth controlled by base
level 723
coastal dunes 57, 2.23
coastal processes 94-97,3.1-3.3
coastal sabkhas 265-267, 6.8
coastal upwelling (also s. upwelling
or oceans) 195
coastline evolution 96, 3.2ab
collapse breccias (s. also mega-
breccias) 274, 6.11e
collision-related basins 7-8,
622-629, 1.3
Colombian basin, caribbean 172
Colorado Plateau, uplift and
cooling 699, 13.29c
compaction 653
differential compaction, com-
paction ratio 653,657,
13.6-13.8
compaction flow 657, 13.9, 13.10
relation to sedimentation rate
662, 13.1 Oa-c
concretions (s. also diagenesis)
carbonate 297,685
siderite 84, 685
silica, chert 198,588,5.6
condensed sections, hardgrounds
207,210,321,5.10,7.17
conductive heat flow 697, 13.29
consolidation of sediments 648-650
continental borderland 208
continental escape, extrusion
624-626, 12.40
continental margin, subsidence
Atlantic, North America,
407-409,8.15,8.16
southem Australia 409, 8.17c
continental margin basins and
sediments
Atlantic-type margins 563,
12.11
breakup unconformity 561
coastal basins 566
conjugate margins 565, 12.9cd
salt structures 563
shelfmorphology 561
syn- and post-rift stage 12.11
types, structural 561, 12.10
volcanic passive margins 561,
12. JOb
sediment-starved 567, 12.13,
12.14
young and mature margins 563,
567
continental rise, slope 12-13, 1.8
sediments 232
continental shelves (s. also se-
quence stratigraphy 125-133
facies models 3.20,3.21
large-scal sand bodies 131,
3.22
sediment-starved 131
continental slopes, sediments 569,
12.17c
carbonate slopes s. slope deposits,
sequence stratigrphy
mass wasting 569, 12.15
out- and upbuilding 570, 12.14c
shelf edge deltas 570
slope anticline 570
contour currents (also s. ocean)
187-188
contourites 235-238, 5.23
convective fluid flow s. subsurface
flow regimes
Coorong model, Australia (primary
dolomite) 152,3.30d
Corioli's forces 99-100, 3.4a
Cretaceous
chalk 192
oceans 246
sea level 7.48
cross-bedding, longitudinal,
trans verse 114
crustal extension (s. also
extension, rift basins)
pure, simple shear 544-545,
12.1ab
crustal rebound s. isostatic r.
cyclic and rhythrnic bedding (s. also
cyclic sequences) 361, 7.38
limestone-marl altemations
361-362
redox (black shale) rhythms
363-364
cycle correlation (carbonates),
platform-basin 368-372,
7.42-7.44
783
cycle hierarchy s. sequence strat.
cyclic sequences (s. also sequence
stratigraphy)
allogenetic, autogenetic cycles
294-295, 348-350
coal cycles, cyclothems 338-342,
344, 7.28b-d
continental flooding cycles (mega-
cycles) 365, 7.35, 7.36
cycle symmetry 320,396, 7,lj,
7.15d
general characteristics 292-297,
7.1,7.2
in alluvial fans 27,2.12
in delta sediments 3. 36ce
in fluvial sed. 348-352, 7.32, 7.33
in lake sed. 84,87,90-91,
345-348, 7.30, 7.31
in siliceous sed. 298, 364, 5.5, 5.6
Loferites 365-366, 7.40
orders, periodicities 294,359-361,
7.2, 7.37
peritidal, lagoonal, subtidal
carbonate cycles 365-366, 7.40,
7.41
scales of cycles 294
cyclostratigraphy 359-368
cyclothems 294, 339-342
Danube delta 155
Dead Sea 88-89, 346, 630, 632,
11.18
debris flows s. gravity mass flows
decompaction s. subsidence history
deep-sea charmeis 233
deep-sea erosion 235-238
deep-sea fans 225-234, 5.18-5.22
channel deposits 227, 5.18
charme1-levee complexes 229,
5.18,5.21
overbank deposits 229, 5.18
paleo-current directions 229
proximal-distal trends 227-229,
5.18
response to sea level changes
231,5.20-5.22
switching of fan lobes 225, 5.18
types of 225-227, 5.17
vertical sequences 231, 5.20
deep-sea sediments (also s.
carbonates,
deep sea, upwelling sediments)
biogenic 190
classification 189
contourites 235-236
deep plateaus and seamounts 207,
5.10
manganese nodules 194
overview 188-192,5.23
phosphorites (also s. phosphorites)
201-205, 5.7,5.8
red deep-sea clay 194, 5.4de
sediment drifts 235-236, 5.23
sediment sources 188-190
siliceous (also s. siliceous sed.)
784
197-200,5.5,5.6
transport mechanism 189
deep-sea trenches (s. also accretio-
nary wedges) 5,579-583,
1.2ab,12.18be
examples 590-592, 12.23, 12.24
identification in ancient record
605
relation to sediment supply 581,
12. 19b-j
sediment sources and distribution
580-581, 12.19a
tectonic erosion 581, 12. 19f9,
12.20b
trench fill and accretionary
wedge 583,12.20-12.22
deflation 52,2.21
Delaware basin 264, 347
delta foresets 22-23, 2.4
deltas, lacustrine s. lake sed.
deltas, marine (also s. delta
sediments) 153-165
beachridgebarrier 3.3lc, 3.33a
constructional, destructional
phases 158-153,3.34,3.35
distributory channels 155, 3.32
fluvial-dominated (birdfoot delta)
155-157,3.32.3-35
lobate deltas 155, 3.31, 3.32
morphological features, sub-
environments 155-156
shallow- and deep-water deltas
163, 3.36b, 7.20
shifting of delta lobes 163, 3.35b
swamps, marshland 155
tide-dominated 158, 3.33b
types (overview) 153-155, 3.31
wave-dominated 158-162, 3.33a
delta sediments (also s. deltas, marine)
delta front sands 156, 3.32, 3.33b
facies associations 155-163, 3.33,
3.35
growth faults, depobelts 155-158,
3.36,13.8
prodelta sediments 156
response to sea-level changes 155,
3.36
river mouth bars 156, 3.31e, 3.32
sedimentary structures 156, 3.32
vertical sequences 160, 3.34, 3.36
densities of crust, mantle, sediments
387,8.1a
denudation
definition, general aspectc 424
processes, methods 424, 9.5
denudation rates
chemical 424-432
chemical, in morpho-climatic
zones 432, 9.10
chemical, in various rock types
425-427, 9.6
chemical versus mechanical 442,
9.14
geomorphologicalconsequences
432-434, 9.11
very low rates 446
global chemical rate 432
mechanical (s. also solid river
load) 434-447
from basin fills, sediment budget
s. denudation-accumulation syst.
mechanical, generallaws 441-442
mechanical, glaciated areas 439
mechanical, global mean 441
long-term (from landform recon-
struction) 443-447,9.15, T9.1
mechanical, major river catch-
ments 9.12
mechanical, mean values 9.14
mechanical, modem rates 435
mechanical, modem vs. long-term
446-447,9.16
mechanical, in various rock
types 440
denudation-accumulation systems
(also
s. sediment budget) 484-514
general concept 484-486, 11.1
depositional environments
"balanced" basins, long-persisting
536
overview 12, 1. 7, 1.8
depositional events, discyclic bedding
(s. also event stratigraphy) 374
deserts 54
detachment zone 545, 12.1bc
dewatering of sediments s. expulsion
of pore water
diagenesis (also s. carbonate d.,
concretions, diffusion, dolomi-
tization, pore cements, pressure
solution, silica d., solute
transport)
authigenic carbonate minerals 685
biogenic carbonates 687
cement minerals 695, 13.27
cementsources 695
chemical-mineralogical 668-681
clay mineral transformation 697,
13.28
definition 647-648
diagenetic regimes, overview
679,681, 13.20
early (shallow-burial) diagenesis
679, 685, 13.20, 13.23
examples of long-distance subsur-
face solute transport 691-695
marine muds 685, 13.23
mechanical (s. also compaction)
648-653
methanogenesis 685
microbial fermentation 685
nitrate, sulfate reduction 685,
13.23
mineral reactions 679,13.19
late (deep-burial) diagenesis
681,689, 13.20
ooze-chalk-limestone transition
651, 13.3ef
sandstones 688, 693, 13.26
siliceous sediments (s. silica
diagenesis) 198,687, 5.6
specific methods and processes
700
diagenesis of evaporites 274-276,
6.11-6.13
cementation 276, 6.11
collapse breccias 276, 6.11 e
dolomitization 276
exhumation 277
in various depth zones 274
phase changes of salt minerals
274
diagenetic overprint of primary
bedding 297
diffusion, molecular 673-674,
13.17, 13.18
mean diffusion path length 674
influence of sea water, evapo-
rites 674, 13.17, 13.18
discyclic bedding (s. also event
stratigraphy 738, 7.38b
dissolved river load 428-430
groundwater component 425-427,
9.7
in major rivers 428-430, 9.8
specific transport rates 432,
9.5
Dolomites (Alps), Triassic 563
dolomitization (also s. diagenesis)
150-152, 276,3.30b-d
late dolomitization 690-691,
13.25e
Drake passage 145
draped lamination 23, 2.4e
dropstones 22, 25, 2.5
drowning of carbonate buildups
143-146,731-732
dune sequence 58,352, 2.23, 7.34
duricrusts (also s. calcrete,
silcrete, soils) 418, 9.2
early life 286-287
East African rift 549, 12.3ab
lakes 346,498-499
subsidence 405
Ebro foreland basin 615,618,620
12.37
Ebro delta, Spain 325, 520
Ediacaran fauna 287
elastic rigidity, lithosphere 390
eolian dust, loess 61-63
clay dunes 60-61
composition 61
sources, transport 61. 2.21 b
in the ocean 62, 190
eolian sand 52-60
bed forms, sed. structures
55-58, 2.22, 2.23
color, composition 54
distinctive features 60
provenance 54,60
texture, sorting 55-57, 63
transport 52-55, 2.21
eolian sediments 50-63

dune types 55-58, 2.22, 2.23
facies associations 58,
2.23a
interaction with marine sedi-
ments 58-60, 2.23
interdune area 58
epeiric seas s. shallow seas
epicontinental seas s. shallow
seas
equilibrium, summit elevation
453,481-483, 9.19
erosional base level (s. also
sequence stratigraphy) 10,
1.6
erosional unconformities (also s.
sequence stratigraphy) 205
estuarine water circulation 166,
4.1
estuaries 166-167, 4.1
densitiy stratification 167,
4.1cd
sediments 167
tidal influence 111
Europe, Mesozoic 571-574
paleogeography, rift systems
and sediments 12.16ab
Germanic facies province 573,
12.16c
Triassic carbonate platforms
571, 12.16a
eustatic sea-Ievel change (also s.
sea level) 25
evaporites, marine (also s. salt
deposits etc.) 258-274
brine reflux 260
bull's eye pattern 259, 6.4a
evaporitic carbonates 258
chicken-wire pattern 267, 6.8d
complex evaporite model 267-268,
6.9
cyclic evaporite sequences 264-
265, 6.7, 6.8
diagenesis of evaporites 274-276,
6.12,6.13
euxinic stage in evaporite basin
263,272, 6.5bc
evaporative drawdown of water
level 259, 6.4a
evaporative pumping 265
giant salt deposits 268-271
models for evaporite deposition
259-268,6.4-6.9
salt lagoon, barred basin 260,
6.4c
secondary and tertiary evaporites
274-277
sedimentary structures in evapo-
rites 272-274, 6.11
sedimentation rates 271-272
seepage basin 260, 6.4d
tear drop pattern 6.4c
trace elements, isotopes in evapo-
rites 277
varves inhalite, anhydrite 271,
6.11
vertical sequences with evaporites
272, 6.4ef, 6.5c, 6.7, 6.8
event beds s. discyclic bedding
event stratigraphy 374-377
recurrence intervals 374, 7.45
biological, ecological 377
excess pore pressure s. pore water
pressure
expulsion of pore water 702-705,
13.31 bc, 13.32
extension, stretching model (also s.
subsidence) 400,8.2,8.8
Exmouth plateau, Australia, depo-
sitional his tory 567
Eyre basin, Australia 575
facies, definition 536-537
facies architecture 15
facies associations 535-539
general trends 14-15
lateral successions 537-538
vertical successions 537
proximal-distal trends 539
failed rift 5, 1.1 c
fan deltas 37,39,153, 2.lIb,
2.13,3.31a
vertical sequences 37,2.13
fluctuating water level 39,
2.14
fecal pellets 190
feedback system s. atmospheric-
oceanic
first-cycle
fluvial sands tones 49
sedimentary rocks 422
weathering 422
fission tracks s. uplift and
denudation
flat pebble conglomerate 102, 3.7c
flexure ofthe lithosphere, down-
warping 390-393, 402, 8.3,
8.11,8.17
Florida shelf 138
flow regimes 31-35, 2.9, T2.1
fluid inclusions 700
fluvial channels 30-31,2.8,2.15
avulsion 43
chute channels, bars 44, 2.10,
2.17
lateral accretion 35, 2.10
sinuosity 40, 44, 2.8, 2.15
fluvial sediments
bed forms 31-32, 2.9, T 2.1
climatic control 49-51
compositional, mineralogical
maturity 49
current directions 37
facies, architectural elements
35, 43, 2.10, 2.16, T 2.2
facies associations, large-
scale 47-48,2.19,2.20
lag deposits 2.9
lateral accretion deposits 2.10
overbank deposits 35, 2.7,
2.10,2.17
785
reservoir properties 49
sedimentary structures 31-32,
2.9,2.10
fluvial systems 29-31,2.7
anastomosedrivers 47,2.18
bed-Ioad systems 30, 2. 7
braided rivers, braidplains
40-43,2.15,2.16, T 2.2
channel types 2.8
evolution 49, 2.20
flow regimes 2.9
levees, crevasse splays 44,
2.17
meandering systems 30, 44-47,
2.7,2.17
mixed-load systems 30, 2.7
point bars 34, 2.17
suspended load systems 30
flysch 606-610
definition 606
migrating flysch troughs
12.31,12.32ab
sequences 223, 5.16, 12.33
food chain 467
Foramol association 136 neu
forearc basins 592-598, 1.2, 12.25
ancient examples 597, 12.26,
12.27
basin evolution 593
identification in ancient
record 595
intraoceanic, modern 595
sediment sources 593-594
sediment successions 594
types 592-593, 12.25
foreland bulge, forebulge 610,
613, 12.34cd
foreland basins 610-621, 1.3
evolution 610-612, 12.34
flysch, molasse, definition
606
geohistory analysis 12.36a
megacycles 618
modem examples 612-613
paleo-valleys 618
satellite, piggy back basins
612, 12.36de
sediment composition 615
sediment distribution and
facies change 618-620, 12.35
sediment successions 12.35,
12.37
segementation 620,12.38
subsidence history and basin
filling 613-615
tectono-sedimentary units 620,
12.37
thrusting episodes, rates 612
types ofbasins 12.34,12.37
unconformities 620, 6.37c
formation waters 676,13.18
forward modeling, subsidence
400-403, 8,1 7a
Franciscan subduction complex 597,
12.26
786
Fraser River delta 523, 11.26
gabbro-eclogite transition 393, 575
Ganges-Brahmaputra delta 155
gas hydrates (clathrates) 221, 721
Georges Bank basin, thermal his-
tory 697, 13.29a
geostrophie eurrents 100
geothermal gradients 700, 13.30
during rifting 390, 8.2
Gennanie facies provinee, Triassie
(also s. Europe) 573, 12.16e
Germany, southern, denudation
444
Gibraltar 170
Gilbert-type delta 155
glaeial environment and sediments
(also s. glaeifluvial ete.)
19-28, 2.1-2.4
diamiet, diamieton 19-21
kame terraees 21, 2.1
preservation potential 19
till, tillite, types of 19-21,
2.1
till, tillite, orthotill, para-
till 19
glaeiation, major periods 356, 7.36
Glaeier Bay, Alaska, denudation 437
glaeiers
eold-based, wet-based 19
glaeifluvial sediments 20
outwash fans, rivers, plains 20,
41,43,2.1a
jökulhlaups 20
glaeial-interglaeial sequenee 19-20,
28,2.1
glaeiolaeustrine sediments 22-24,
2.3,2.4
graded beds, turbidites 23, 2.4e
varves, rhythmites 23-24, 2.4f-g
glaeiomarine sediments 25-28, 2.5,
2.6
biogenie produetivity 28
eyclie sequenees 25, 28, 2.6b-e
facies assoeiations 25, 2.6a
iee-eontaet fans 25, 2.3a, 2.5a
glaueonitie minerals, glaueony faeies
205, 250, 6.1
glendonites (ikaite) 25, 2.5d
Goban Spur, Biseay 409,567,
12. 13ab
grain-to-grain stress 672, 13.11 e
Grand Banks, mass movements 214,
223
Grand Sillon Houiller, Franee 624
gravel, fluvial
clast-supported 31, 35
fabrie, imbrieation 31,2.9
gravel bars 35,41, T2.1, 2.15,
2.16
matrix-supported 35
gravity rnass flows, movements
210-216,5.11-5.13
debris, mud flows 214-216,5.13
in deltaie environments 217,
5,12a,7.17b
in the deep sea 214, 5.12
Iiquefaetion 213
meehanisms, types 210-214, 5.11
shelf-break erosion 214
transition to turbidity eurrents
216
transport distanees 223-225
volume of disloeated masses
223-225
Great Bahama Bank 13 7, 141
Great Barrier Reef 141
Great Salt Lake 88-89,493-494,
Jl.6b
Great Sand Dunes, Colorado 35
Great Valley foreare basin, Cali-
fornia 557, 12.26
green marine clays 249-252, 6.1
green particles 250
in modern oeeans 250
greenhouse, ieehouse state
355-356
Greenland, Triassie lake sed.
346, 7.31
Greenland-Seotland Ridge 245
groundwater ehemistry 425, 9.7
growth faults 155-158,553,
3.36, 12.11e, 13.8, 13.12,
14.9
Guadalupe Mountains 147
Guatemala foreare basin 595
Guaymas basin model 635, 12.44
Gulfof Aden 177-180
Neogene sediments 179
teetonie setting 177
Gulf of Alaska 28
GulfofCalifornia 175,499,
635,4.5,11.19,12.44
mud turbidites 175
passive margin, young 567,
8.12a, 12.13ed
plate teetonie evolution
635
rates of spreading and sedi-
mentation 635-636, 12.44be
sediment budget 508, 11.19
sediments, varves 175
subsidenee 407, 8.12a
water eireulation, upwelling
167,175
Gulf of Mexieo
sediment budget 529-531,
12.32a-e
clay minerals 423
salt struetures 6.17a-e
shelf, ineised valleys 338,
7.26
storm beds 102,3.6
Gulf of Suez, esearpment 444
halfgraben struetures, sediments
(s. also rift basins) 545,
12.1e, 12.4
halokinesis s. salt struetures
hardgrounds (also s. diagenesis)
207-210,5.10
Hatteras abyssal plain 216
Heinrieh layers 25
herringbone stratifieation 114,
3.13
heterotrophie organisms 467
hiatus s. stratigraphie gaps
High Atlas rift 553, 12.2e, 12.6
high-resolution stratigraphy
382,7.47
Himalayas
foreland basin 613, 12.36e
upllift, denudation 442-443,
451, 11.31
Himalayas-Bengal Fan, basin ehain
539, 11.31
hinge line, zone 7. 10, 7.11, 8.17
Holoeene transgression 338,
7. 26bd
hydroearbon generation (s. also
kerogen)709-711,14.3-14.5
generative basins, oil kitehen
721
genetie potential, souree
potential index 711
oil window 14.4,14.5
hydroearbon habitats 713-720
hydroearbon migration 711-713
hydroearbon index 466, 10. 5e
hydroearbon potential 706-708,
14.2, 14.6
hydroearbon souree roeks (also s.
blaek shales) 706, 14.1
hydroearbon storage 713, 14.7a-d
hydrologieally c10sed basins
(also s. lakes) 490-494
hydrosphere, early evolution 286
hydrothermal systems 702, 13.31,
13.32
hypereoneentrated flows 20, 67
hyper-, hyposaline basins 166
iee-eontaet lakes 22, 2.3
ignimbrites 65, 2.24b
Illinois basin 575, 12.17ed
illite erystallinity 697
immature oeean basins 166
Imperial Valley, California 636
inland sabkhas 84-87, 2.33b
Indus fan 232,233
river, denudation 446
intraeontinental (intraeratonie)
sagbasins 4,574-578, 1.la,
12.17
examples 575-577, 12.17a
faeies, c1imate ehange 577
meehanism of subsidenee 459
mega-sequenees 12.17e
multi-phase evolution 575,
12.17b
subsidenee history 575
intramontane, intra-are basins,
troughs 622-624, 1.3b,

12.39
intratest porosity 550
Ionian abyssal plain 216
lrish Sea 127
iron ooides, oxyhydrates s.
oolitic ironstones
island shelves 210
isostasy, isostatic compensation
(s. also subsidence) 387-
388,8.1ab
isostatic rebound 448-449, 9.17
isotopes of carbon, oxygen 242,
542,5.26
itabirite s. banded ironstones
289
Japan trench 581,587, 12.20a
denudation rates 440
Jökulhlaups 20
Jordan, phosphorites 205
Kara Bogas GoI 87,260
karstification 426
Karoo supergroup, Permo-Craboni-
ferous, S. Africa 558
Kellwasser crisis 356
kerogen types, bitumen 706-709,
14.1-14.3
Keuper (Upper Triassie, s. also
Europe)
lake sediments 90
Kosi alluvial fan, India 37
Kupferschiefer, Permian (s. also
Zechstein) 268
lahar (volcanic debris flow) 65,
2.24b
lag sediments 376-377, 7.16, 7.46
lagoonal sediments 121, 123, 3.18
climate control 123
sedimentation rates 123
Lake
Baikai 79
Burdur, Turkey 39,2.14
Chad 88, 1l.7a
Eyre basin, Australia 87,88
Messel, Germany 91
Qinghai, China 514, 11.22
Ries lake 89
Tanganyika 90,496-497, 545,
12.2a
Turkana, East Africa 496,
514, 11.22
Victoria 90
lake chemistry 81-87,2.31
cloride, soda, sulfate 1. 84
evolution, modeling 512-514,
11.22
hard-water lakes 79, 2.29
isotopes, fluid inclusions 91
rare elements 92
residual brines 92
saline lakes 81-83,2.31,2.33
soft-water lakes 79
lakes 75-93
closed systems 81-83,2.28b,
2.33
lifetime of lakes 91
open systems 78-81, 2. 28a,
2.29
perenniallakes 81, 2.33a
physical processes 76-78, 2.28a
playas 84,87, 2.33b, 2.34
organic production 79, 89
types oflakes 76-78, 2.28
water stratification 76-78,
2.28
lake sediments 78-93
black shale 79-90, 92
biogenie sediments 79
carbonates 79, 83-84, 2.32
chert, chert nodules 82
detrital clastics 78, 2.29
diagenesis of evaporites 92
dolomite 84
Gilbert-type delta 78, 2.29a
gyttja, sapropel 79, 81
post-glaciallakes 79, 2.30
salt precipitation 81-83, 2.31
sediment successions 90-91,
2.32,2.33
sedimentation rates 91
siderite 84
types (overview) 78-79,2.28
varves 79, 2.28c
landscape evolution 451-453
cuestas 432-434, 9.11
inverted relief 9.11
orogenie belts 453, 9.19
lateral extrusion, basins 624-626,
12.40
lava sheets, plateau basalts 71-72
life, early evolution 286-287
limestone-marl altemations (s. also
rhythmic bedding, cyclic sequ.)
361
diagenetic overprint 297,687,
13.24
periodicities 364
lithographie limestones 374
lithospheric flexure s. flexure
lithostatic pressure s. pressure
loess, loessite 22, 62, 2.1 a
accumulation rates 62
Loferites s. cyclic sequences
10ngshore sand transport 96, 3.2b
Los Angeles basin 630
Louisian-Texas coast 127
lysocline (also s. deep-sea sed.,
carbonates) 193, 5.3b
Macleod basin, Austra1ia 260
Magda1ena basin, Colombia 641
Main River, disso1ved load 430,
9.9de
Makran wedge, Pakistan 584
mangrove 116, 3, 14
mantle asthenosphere 387, 8.1a
mantle upwelling 390, 8.2b
marginal plateaus, submarine 207
787
5.10
Mariana are 597
marl-limestone rhythms s. cyclic
sequences, rhythmic bedding
mass extinction, mortality 195,
356
maturity of sediments
chernical-mineralogical 423
Mazagan Plateau, Morocco 208
carbonate buildup 563
meandering rivers (also s. fluvial
systems, sediments) 44-46
meander belt 2.17a
oxbow lakes 2.17
point bars 2.17
swamps, backswamps 46, 2.18
Mediterranean Sea 170, 4.2b
Miocene evaporites 170, 268,
271
sapropel1ayers 170
clay minerals 423
Tyrrhenian Sea, evolution
559, 12.15ab
megabreccias 216,332,7.24
mega-rifting, Europe 571-574,
12.16
mega-turbidites 216
melange 588
Messinian evaporites 268,271
metamorphism (also s. dia-
genesis) 697, 13.28
Meteora monasteries, Greece 39
methanogenesis (also s. hydro-
carbon generation) 685
methods in the study of sedi-
ments 11
Michigan basin 577, 12.17
Middle East oil province 716,
14.12
Milankovitch cycles (s. also
cyclostratigraphy) 657-661,
7.37
within third order sequences
377,7.14
mineral phase transitions, s.
subsidence
Mississippi
delta plain 155
deep-sea fan 231,5.21
river load 447
modes ofbasin fill 517-519,
11.24
coastal progradation
524-526, 11.28, 11.29
point sourees, deltas 579,
11.24-11.27
sediment transfer to deep-
sea fans 526-528, 11.30
molasse, definition s. foreland
basins
mud aggregates, transport, deposi-
tion 189-190
mud diapirs 563, 588, 12.11 c
mud flows s. debris flows,
gravity mass flows
788
mud turbidites 220-222, 5.17
types, composition 221
mud-dominated river systems 47
c1ayaggregates 47
mud vulcanoes 87
muddy shelves 528
Murzuk, Kufra basin 577
Nankai trench, Japan 581,
12.20a
nepheloid layer, plume 190
Newark supergroup 91
lacustrine cyc1es 346
Niger delta 155-157, 3.31e
c1ay minerals 423
hydrocarbons 715, 14.9
Nile delta 155
c1ay minerals 423
nodular limestones (s. also
diagenesis) 297
North African sag basins 577
North Anatolian fault 352,
12.40e
North Alpine foreland basin s.
Alpine
North Atlantic rift basins
553-558, 12.2de, 12.7,
12.8
general trends 558
rifting phases and sedim.
history 555-556, 12.8
North Carolina shelf 131
North Sea 114, 127
barrier-Iagoonal systems
525,11.29
mud flats 114
oil and gas 716, 14.11
subsidence 405, 8.13b
storm sands 102
tides 111, 3.4a
Viking graben, diagenesis
13.14
Norwegian fjords 446
Norwegian-Greenland Sea 172, 245,
4.3
c1imate change, cyclic sedi-
ments 224
ocean, ocean water
bottom, contour currents 187-
188, 235-238
conveyer belt 242-244, 5.27a
Corioli's forces 187,5.2be
density, salinity of sea water
183-184, 5.labd, 5.2a
density stratification 184
Eckman spiral 184, 5.2b
equatorial convergence, divergence
187, 5.1e, 5.2c
mass transport, nutrients 188
pycnoc1ine 184
sediment transport 188-189, 5.3a
temperature 183, 5.1 ae, 5.2a
thermo-haline circulation 187,
5.1e
two-Iayer ocean 183
wind-driven circulation 187
upwelling, downwelling 187-188,
5.2ed
oceanic sag basins 6, 1.11
oceanic sediments s. deep-sea
sediments
oceanography, physical, s. oceans,
water circulation
oil and gas fields s. hydrocarbon
habitats
oil, generation, expulsion and
migration s. hydrocarbon
generation
oil shales s. hydrocarbon source
rocks
Okinawa trough 604
olistostromes, olistoliths (also s.
gravity mass flows) 216
Olympic Mountains, Washington
587, 12.22d
Ontong-Java plateau 567
oolitic ironstones 252-254, 6.2
chamosite 252
effects of sea-Ievel changes
253-254, 6.2e
in the Earth's history 254
minette ores, Lorraine 253
ooid formation 252, 6.2b
provenance of iron 252-253
reworking effects 253, 6.1
ore deposits, diagenetic 701-702
Mississippi Valley type 702
related to evaporites 287,
702
organic matter (also s. preservation,
production)
adsorbed onto minerals, organo-
mineral aggregates 468
decomposition, mineralization
469-470, 10.6
definition, types 463
dissolved in sea water 468
preservation (also s. preservation)
469-476
terrestrial, to the ocean 466,
JO.5, TIO.I
Orinoco delta 155
overpressure s. pressure
fracturing of rocks 663
overthrust belts s. loreland basins
thrust sheet migration 612
oxygen in the earlyatmosphere
284,6.18
Pacific, southwestem, backarc
basins 602, 12.28-12.30
Pakistan, denudation 440
paleoceanography 238-248
atrnospheric CO 2 exchange 5.25
carbon, oxygen isotopes fractio-
nation 242, 5.26
biological, solution pump 240-
242,5.24ab
Cretaceous ocean 246
feedback systems 239
greenhouse gases 239
low sea-Ievel effects 244
oceanic gateways 245, 5.27b
post-Cretaceous cooling 247
paleosols 20, 416-420, 9.1-9.4
Panama strait 245
Pangea 355
Pannonian basin, Hungary 626,
12.41
Parmonian-type basins 8, 626-628,
1.3b
examples 628
Paradox Basin, USA, evaporite
cyc1es 264
Parami basin, S. America 575, 577
parasequences s. sequ. stratigr.
Paris Basin,
hydrocarbons 716, 14.10
subsidence 405, 8.13b
passive margin basins (also s.
continental margin) 6, 1.1 d
pebbly mudstone 216
perialpine lakes 488
periglacial features 22, 2.1 ag, 2.2
periodic and discyc1ic sequences s.
cyc1ic sequences, event strat.
peripheral bulge 392, 8.3b
peritidal carbonate cyc1es s.
cyc1ic sequences
permeability 681, 13.21
Permian reefcomplex, Texas 147
Permian cold water carbonates 137
Persian (also s. Arabian/Persian)
Gulf 169,180,4.7
Peru-Chile trench 583, 12.20b
petroleum generation s. hydro-
carbon generation
phosphorites 201-205,210
phosphate precipitation 201-202,
5.7b,5.8
phosphorite formation through
time, giant phosphorites 205
secondary enrichment 202, 5.8,
5.9b-d
sources of phosphorus 201-202
Po delta, Italy 519, 11.25ab
polyphase basins 637-642
basin-type transitions 637,
12.45,12.47
examples 641-642
at convergent margins 640,
12.47
porcellanite 198
pore cements (also s. diagenesis)
695-697,13.20,13-27
overgrowth, meniscus cement
etc.13.27
pore water flow, refraction 663,
13. lOde
pore water pressure 663, 13.11
hydrostatic, lithostatic 633
overpressure, excess pressure,
subnormal 663
porosity 456,681,10.1, 13.21

at sill-contact 702, 13.31 b
secondary 152,633,13.22
porosity-depth curves (also s. com-
paction) 13.3, 13.4
analytical equations 653, 13.5
calculation of burial depth
654
in various sediment types
650-653, 13.4
post-rift sediments s. rift basins,
continental margins
Precambrian sediments 287-290
banded ironstones 289
carbonates, dolomites 287
chert, evaporites 288, 290
paleosols 287
stromatolites, phosphorites 288
placer deposits 284
red beds 289
preservation of organic matter
469-471, JO.8
benthic degradation loss 472,
10.6
clastic dilution 473,10.7, 10.8
in anoxic environments 10.7-
10.JO
in model basins 474, JO.9
preservation factor 474,10.10
pressure solution 672-673, 13.11 c
dissolution seams, stylolites 673
production of organic matter (s. also
organic matter, preservation)
463-469, 10.5
carbon fluxes 468,471, JO.5ae,
JO.6
export, new production 467,
JO.5bde, TlO.2
high-fertility belts in the
oceans 467,469, 10.11, TlO.2
paleofertility 476
plankton blooms 467
primary production 464,466-467,
10.5b, Tl 0.1
standing crop and annual produc-
tivity 464
pull-apart basins (s. also Guaymas
basin) 7, 630-633,1.4,12.42
asymmetric basin fill 12.43
slip rates, subsidence 630-632,
12. 42de
volcanism 632
pure shear (also s. rift basins)
12.1a
pycnocline 184, 5.1 d
Pyrenean foreland basins (s. also
Ebro basin) 620,621, 13.37
pyroclastic flows, surges 65,
2.24b, 2.25a
Qinghai lake, China, s. lake
radiolarites s. siliceous sediments
rebound by unloading 496-497, 11.8
recycling ofsediments 11.33
regional s. foreland basins
global 422,538-540, 11.33
red beds 254-258, 6.3
depositional environments 257,
6.3
fluvial 47
primary red beds, lateritic
soils 255
red carbonates, sandstones 257
red deep-sea clay 194, 257
red pigment 254
secondary red beds 257,679,
6.3
Red Sea 168, 177-180, 4.2b, 4.6
evaporites, Miocene 177, 271,
6.17
lithified layers 180
rifting 549
sediments 177-180,4.6
tectonic evolution 177
redox cycles, b1ack shale-carbonate
363,7.42bc
reefs (also s. carbonate buildups,
carbonate sediments) 13 8-147
atolls 141,3.25e
bioherms and biostromes 140,
3.25a
growth, growth rates 143-147,
3.28,3.29
reeflimestones 142, 3. 26b-d
reef-builders 136-137
types (banks, fringing reefs,
knolls, mounds, etc.) 138-143,
3.25,3.26
relic basins 640, 12.45b
rernnant basins 606-610, 1.3a
12,31ab,12.32
flysch 606-610,12.38
reservoir rocks 681-683, 13.21
retroarc, retro-fore land basins
(s. also foreland basins)
6,599-602,610-621, 1.2b
Rhine graben 551, 12.5
sediments 12.5e
subsidence 404, 8.12b
structure, rifting 551, 12.5b
rhythmic bedding (also s. cyclic
sequences, event stratigraphy)
292,7.1
Ries impact crater, lake 89
rift basins 4-5, 1.1 b-e, 543
halfgraben basins, asymmetric
595,12.4
older examples 553
rift volcanism 547,549,551,
12.3b
sediments 547-549, 12. 3d, 12.4,
12.5c
transition to continental margin
basins 553-560, 12.7-12.9de
young examples 549-552
rift structures, zones (s. also
crustal extension)
graben shoulders 400-403,
8.8-8.11
789
inverted rift zone 553, 12.2e,
12.6
rift-drift stage 12.2f
segmented rifts, transfer zones
545, 12.2ad
updoming 545
rifting time 401,8.9
Rio Grande rift 551, 12.13cd
rip currents 96, 3.3a
ripples, dunes 31-32, 2.9
ripple drift 23, 32
Rotliegend 354, 7.34d
Ruhr district, Carboniferous
coal evolution 724-726,
14.13, 14.14
history of coalification
and degassing 725
Saar-Nahe basin, Germany 624,
12.39ab
Sahara 54
Salin basin, Burma 641
saline giants (also s. evaporites )
268-271
salinity crisis 268, 271, 6. ge
salt deposits in earth history
271
salt minerals s. evaporites
salt structures, diapirism 278-
283, 6.14-6.17
buoyancy halokinesis 279
depotroughs atop salt massifs
280, 6. 16cd
salt flow mechanism 279, 6.15
salt pillows, anticlines,
sheets 6.16, 6.17
San Andreas Fault system s. Great
Valley forearc basin
sand bars (also s. fluvial, coastal
and tidal sediments) 35,97,
2.10,3.3
sand dunes, inland types (s. also
eolian sands) 55-58, 2.22, 2.23
truncation of dunes 57, 2.22d
sand ridges, shelf 127, 3.20
sand seas 55
sand waves (s. also tidal sed.) 2.9
sandstone diagenesis s.diagenesis
Sao Francisco delta 155
saprolite (also s. soil) 417
Sardinia passive margin 567,
12.14ab
Sargasso Sea 467
sea-Ievel changes (s. also sequence
stratigraphy, cyclic sequences)
amplitudes 382, 7.48
causes 355-359, 382
eustasy 300
frequencies 359-361, 7.37
inflection point 7.3b
rates, relative change 301,
7.3c, T7.1
superposition of shorter and
longer oscillations 309, 7.9
790
2nd and 3rd order 356, 7.35
Sea of Japan 604
sea water composition 258, 6.4b
secondary porosity s. porosity
sediment budget (s. also sediment
supply, distribution)
closed basins (steady-state)
490-494
closing basins 505-506
dynamic denudation-accumulation
systems 494-497
extensional basins 497-506
general concept 484-486, 11.1
lacustrine evaporites 512-517
open basins 487-489
pull-apart basins 507-512
sediment distribution in water-
filled basins 517-533
general rules 517,519, 11.23
global, modem oceans 531
sed. transfer to marine deltas
519-523
to barrier-Iagoon systems
524-526
to deep-sea fans 526-528
sediment preservation potential
536,642
survival rate 536
sediment ridges, "drifts" 235,
5.23
sediment supply to basins
balanced basins 534
general trends 14-15
oversupplied basins 533
undersupplied, sediment-
starved basins 534
sedimentary basins, general aspects
definition, size, shape 3
morphology, depositional envi-
ronment 10-12,1.7,1.8
tectonic classification 3-10,
Tl.l,I.I-I.5
sedimentary cycles s. cyclic
sequences, sequ. stratigraphy
sedimentary structures, preser-
vation in soft and lithified
sediments 13
sedimentation rates 455-462, 10.3
actual and potential rates 457
conversion into accumulation
rates 10.1
carbonates and siliceous sed.
461,10.4
compared to rates of denudation,
sea-Ievel change, subsidence 462
definitions 455-456
in various depositional environ-
ments 459-462, 10.3
peat, coal, other specific envi-
ronments 462
short- and long-term 457, 10.2
separated intlow and outtlow,
basins 170-172, 4.3
sequence stratigraphy (also s. sea-
level changes, cyclic sequences)
accommodation space 303, 7.4
base level 258, T7.1
basic concepts, definitions,
terms 297-313, 7.3, T7.l, T7.2
carbonate systems 328-332, 7.21.
7.22
carbonate slopes 332-333, 7.24
carbonate-evaporite systems 335-
337,7.35
chronostratigraphic sequences
(Wheeler plots) 301, 7.3gh,
7. JOb, 7.15b
coal sequences 339-342
coastal and shallow-marine silici-
clastic systems 313-324
coastal plains, lagoons, playas
342-344, 7.29
condensed sections 306, 7.3gh,
7.17c, T7.2
deep-sea fans 327-328, 5.21, 5,22
drowing unconformities
(carbonates)
331, 7. 16e, 7.23d
eolian systems 352-354, 7.34
erosional unconformities, types
306, 7.9de, 7.16
tluvial systems 348-352, 7.32,
7.33
hierarchy of cycles 296, 354-359,
7.35
incised valleys 337-339, 7.26,
7.28c
lacustrine sequences and cycles
345-348, 7.30, 7.31
lags, reworked horizons 316,
320,7.15, 7.16
lowstand deltas 326, 7.20
marine deltas 324, 7.19, 7.20
parasequences 303, 7.9, 7.18
ramp rnargins, epicontinental seas
316-318,7.12-7.15
sequence boundaries 301,324,
7.3gh, 7.10b
shelf-slope margins, siliciclastics
318-324,7.17
shoreline migration 313-316,
7.12, 7.13
systems tracts, facies tracts
301,321, 7.17, T7.2
shallow seas, shelfseas (also s.
carbonate sediments 125,3.19
bottom currents 130, 3.21 hi
equilibrium conditions 126
general characteristics 125, 3.19
hydraulic regimes 127-130, 3.20,
3.21
shallow sea sediments, siliciclastics
facies models 126-131,3.20,3.21
lag deposits, hardgrounds 130
sand bodies, large 131,3.22
marls, lime mud 130
mud-dominated 127
sandridges 127,3.19,11.2
sand sheets 131,3.32
sedimentary structures 130
sediment-starved 131
vertical sequences 3.20,3.21
Shark Bay, Australia 116
sheet tloods 36
shelf seas s. shallow seas
shelf-break erosion 214
shelf ice, Antarctic 25
shell beds, skeletal concentra-
tions 376-377, 7.46
Shimanto belt, Japan 590, 12.24
Sibirian Basin, western 577
hydrocarbons 716
siderite s. concretions,
diagenesis
sieve deposits 36, 2.11 a
silcrete s. duricrusts, soils
siliceous sediments, marine 197-20 I,
5.5,5.6
bedded cherts 201, 5.5
distribution in oceans 198
general aspects 197
radiolarites 197-198, 5.5
silica diagenesis (also s. dia-
genesis) 198,5.6
siliceous turbidites 5.5
sill-sediment complexes 635, 12.44
simple shear 12.1 bed
slope anticline 517, 12.15
slopeaprons 214, 5.12a
slope collapse, carbonate platforms
214,216,5.12a
slope sediments s. continental slope
carbonate slopes 332-333, 7.24
slumps, olistostromes s. gravity
mass movements
soda ocean 286, 6.18
soil, soil profiles, paleosols
9.1-9.3
calcretes and duricrusts 418,
9.2
soil types 418, 9.2
effects of sedimentation and
erosion 9.3
solid, suspended river load (s. also
denudation rates) 435-442
artificial reservoirs 437
controlled by parent rocks,
reliefand climate 437-441.
9.13
element partitioning 422
high-Iatitude rivers 439
measurement 434-435
mineralogical composition
421-422
specific transport rates or
specific yield 9.12, 9.13
tropical rivers 439
Solomon Sea, foredeep 612
solubility of prograde and retro-
grade minerals 670, 672
solute transport in rivers s.
dissolved river load
solute transport within sediments
(also s. diagenesis, subsur-
face tlow regimes) 669-674

compaction flow 670
hydrodynamic dispersion 676
meteoric water, leaching 670
13.20, 13.23a
molecular diffusion (also s.
diffusion) 673-674, 13.17,
13.18
phreatic, vadose zone 13.23a
Songliao Basin, China, oil 715,
14.8
South America (also s. Andes)
backarc, retro-foreland basins
600
forearc basins 595
intra-arc, intramontane basins
622
South Atlantic, rifting 12.1 c
South Pyreneen foredeep (also s.
Ebro basin) 621
Southeast basin, France 642
spilites 74
spreading troughs s. Guaymas basin
stable isotopes
in evaporites 278
in carbonate diagenesis 700
storms and storm action 99, 3.4a
combined flow 100, 3.4b
geostrophic currents 100
storm deposits (tempestites) 103-
108,3.4ed-3.8
amalgamation 102,3.5b
bed forms, sedimentary
structures 100, 102, 3.5
bypass model 107,3.8b
faunal characteristics,
ichnofacies 102-103, 3. 7
flat pebble conglomerates 102,
104,3.7c
hummocky cross-stratification
100-102, 3.4c
lag deposits 102
mud tempestites 102. 3.5d
proximal-distal trends 107, 3.5e
tempestite sequences 107, 3.8
tempestites in basin analysis
108,3.8
storm-dominated seas 127, 3.20d
stratigraphic correlation s. cyclic
sequences
stratigraphic gaps 10.2a
in deep-sea sediments 236-238
in depositional sequences s.
sequence stratigraphy
stretching, crustal 389,400
stretching factor 8.8
strike-slip basins (also s.
pull-apart basins) 6, 1.4
stromatolites 116, 3.15
stylolites s. pressure solution
subduction complexes (also s.
accretionary wedges, deep-
sea trenches)
sediment loss, tectonic ero-
sion 538-539, 11.35
subduction-related basins 6, 1.2
submarine canyons 214,218,
229-231
submarine ridges and plateaus
207,567,5.10b
bank top sediments 207-208
subsidence (s. stretching) 389-413
crustal flexure by loading 390-
392,402,8.3,8.10
influence of rifting time and
lateral heat transfer 401-403,
8.9-8.ll
initial subsidence 389-390, 8.2,
8.8
isostasy (Airy model) 387-388, 8.1
mineral phase change 393
rift zones (McKenzie model) 400,
8.8
sediment-ftlled basins 389-390,
8.8,
8.ll
tectonic, thermo-tectonic subsi-
dence 8.12, 8.13
thermal subsidence, uplift 390,
8.2eb
total, cumulative 8.8
subsidence history, curves 404-413
arch-trench systems 413
backstripping 393, 8.5
corrections for compaction, paleo-
water depth, sea-Ievel change
395-399, 8.6
decompaction ofsed. 394,8.4
foreland basins 411-413, 8.18
foreward modeling 400-403,405-
409,
8.10, 8.ll, 8.15, 8.16
geohistory analysis 395-399,404
idealized curves 8.8
passive margins 405-411, 8.13-
8.17
pull-apart basins 413
rift zones 400-405, 8.8-8.11
subsurface flow regimes (s. also
solute transport, compaction flow)
663-667,13.12,13.13
convection 666, 13.12cd
example 667, 13.14
long-distance 690, 13.25, 13.26
meteoric flow 670, 688
thermobaric flow 665, 13.12a
sulfate reduction s. diagenesis
Sunda arc-trench system 590,
12.23
changes along trench axix 590
superposition of cycles s. sequence
stratigraphy
Surinam coast 127
suspended river load s. solid
river load
suspension sedimentation s. turbi-
dites
Swiss molasse basin 620, 12.35c
syn-rift sediments s. rift basins,
rifting
791
Taiwan, uplift 450
foreland basin 612
Tarim basin, China 641
Tasmania 136
tectonics and basin filling
10,1.5
temperature field in sediments
697-700, 13.29, 13.30
tempestites s. storm deposits
tephra deposits (also s. volcani-
clastic sediments) 64-74
ash cloud fallout 65, 2.24
ash turbidites 67, 2.24b, 2.27c
diagenesis, metamorphism 73-74
facies associations 70, 2.26
in basins of various tectonic
settings 70-73
pyroclastic surges, flows 65,
2.24b,2.25
submarine tephra 67, 70, 2.25d
tonstein 65
transport distances 70, 75,
2.26a
volume oftephra 70,73
terrane-related basins 7
terrestrial organic matter in the
sea 466, 1O.5a
Tethys Ocean, Tethyan carbonate
platforms s. Europe
siliceous sediments 198
Texas continental margin (also s.
Gulf ofMexico)
coastal plain 47,2.19
coastal progradation 529,
11.32a-c
thermal history ofbasin fills
697-700
affected by meteoric water
circulation 699, 13.30
examples 698-700
thermal uplift s. uplift
thermocatalytic decarboxylation 689
thermocline (s. ocean) 184, 5.1e
thrust sheet migration (also s.
foreland basins) 612
Tiber delta, Italy 519, 1J.25e
Tibetan plateau, uplift 451
tidal processes 109-112,3.9-3.11
tidal currents 109-112, 3.11 b
tidal ranges 109-112, T3.l
tidal waves 109,3.10a
tides and coastal morphology
112, 3.10b-d
tidal sediments 112-118
climate control 115-117,
3.12-3.15
distinctive features 118
faunal characteristics 115
neap-springtide cycles 114,
3.12
response to sea level change
117,3.17
sand ridges 127
sedimentary structures 114,
3.12-3.15
792
sedimentation rates 114
stromatolites 116, 3.15
vertical sequences 3.16
till, tillite 19
tilted block basins 8
time periods of cyclic phenomena
s. cyclic sequences)
Timor-Tanimbar trough 612
Tonga, forearc zone 595
tonstein 65
trace elements
in evaporites 277
traction carpet deposits 218,
5. 14a, 5.15d
transgression-regression cycles
s. sequence stratigraphy
transpression, transtension 630
Triassic lakes 91, 346
Tsunami waves 100
tunnel valleys, glacial 20, 2.1 a
turbidites, turbidity currents
216-223,5.14-5.16
amalgamation 223
carbonate turbidites, ca1ci-
turbidites 219, 5.16b
current directions 229
discrimination from tempes-
tites 223
erosional features 218,223,
5.15
frequency, recurrence inter-
vals 223-225
general characteristics 216-218
high- and low-density turbidity
currents 218
internat structures 218,
5. 14ab, 5.15bd
mud turbidites 221, 5.17
proximal-distal trends 223
trace fossils in turbidites
221,5.151
vertical sequences with turbi-
dites 5.16
Turkana Lake s. lake
Turonian carbonates, Tunisia 329
Tyrrhenian Sea, evolution (also s.
Mediterranean) 559,567, 12.15b
uplift
crustal rebound due to unloading
447-449,9.17
tectonic, rates 449-450
thermal 390, 8.2b
uplift and denudation, interplay (s.
also isostatic rebound) 449-454
rock and surface uplift 449,
9.17b
exhumation 439,451, 9.17b
fission track method 444
uplift-denudation models 451-454 ,
9.18,9.19
upwelling, sediments (s. also deep-sea
sediments) 195, 5.4a
black shales 195
coastal, equatorial upwelling 5.2d
faunal characteristics 195
oxygen minimum 195
trace metals 197
Utah, eolian dunes 60
varves s. lake sediments, evaporites
verdine facies, verdinization 250,
6.1
Vienna basin 628,633, 12.41 bc
vitrinite reflectance 14.4, 14.13
V 0ring Plateau 208, 12.9b
void ratio 13.5ab, 13.6a
volcanic eruptions 64
vo1caniclastic sediment components
(also s. tephra deposits) 64
volcanism, types of in different
basin settings 70-73
vo1canic margin, N.Atlantic 12.9ab
Walther's law 535
water circulation 166-168
adjacent basins, lagoons 167, 4.2
bottom, contour currents 187-188
anti-estuarine 168, 4.2b
estuarine 166, 4.1
ocean basins 184-188, 5.1c, 5.2bd
water depth curves s. sequence
stratigraphy
waves 94-96, 3.1 a
deep-water waves 94
refraction 95, 3.2a
shallow-water waves 94-96,
3.1a
wave base 94, 316, 3.1 a,
3.4b, 7.15
weathering, overview 414-416, 9.1
chemical-mineralogical 422
climate control 414-416, 9.1 a
first cycle weathering 422
physical 421
silicate weathering 242, 5.25a
weathering products
climate controlled 422, 9.1 c
rock-type controlled 421
Western Interior seaway 131-133,
246,620,12.38
wildflysch (also s. melange) 588
Wilson cycle 637, Tl2.1
wind ripples 57, 2.21, 2.22
wind-blown dust, sand s. eolian
dust, sand
wrench faults, basins 8, 1.4
Xigaze forearc basin, Tibet
597, 12.27
Yellow River 62, 440
Yellow Sea
sand ridges 127
sediment fill 486, ll.3b
Yucatan shelf 138
Zechstein basin 268,335,
6.10,7.25