Exploration & Environmental

Geochemistry
Emmanuel Arhin
Introduction-this module will be in two
parts

Part 1-consist of Course work

In this course we will learn about:
Dispersion and behaviour of elements (e.g. Au) in stream
sediments, soils and in the regolith
Geological controls on geochemical data
Geochemical survey of streams, soils and termite: planning and
execution.
Guidelines for sampling (e.g. soil sampling)
Geochemical data interpretation or analysing geochemical data
Analytical methods in geochemistry
Quality assurance and control of geochemical data.
Part 2- Fieldwork
Assessment
Assessment will be in two ways:
Every 2nd week (starting in week 4) there will be a 20 minute multiple
choice test on ALL materials you will have covered so far (not just the
material covered in the previous 2 weeks)

Your marks will be posted by candidate/student number on the

Department notice board the following week so you can see how you
progressing.

The average of the multiple choice tests will contribute 40% of the mid
trimester course mark.

The remaining 60% marks will be for the Final examination marks.
What is Dispersion?

Refers to:
Distribution of a particular element in a particular rock,
regolith soil or streams etc.

During the dispersion processes the concentration of

the element gradually reaches the average value from
high concentrations wrt space.
Average value=Background of that element

It can be considered as primary or secondary

This is based on formational environment.
Dispersion explained in pictures
Dispersion explained

In residual soils:
High geochemical assays tend be closer to source
This implies the farther away from source mineralisation the
lower the assay
In transported sediments
Element distributions or dispersions appear erratic
This implies higher assays may not indicate closeness of the
source
Complex regolith environments also have similar
characteristics like transported sediment
Anomalies formed by

Chemical weathering often are residual and relates to

the underlying mineralisation.

However, in nature it is rare to have only chemical

weathering dispersing elements.
Physical weathering & Dispersion
Physical or Mechanical Processes contribute to every stage and
every scale to the evolution of landscapes:
From the initiation of weathering
To their destruction by erosion.
The same processes are involved in
Geochemical dispersion and
Hence it is important in determining the nature of the surface
expression of mineralisation
Main agents here are:
Water, and to a lesser extent, wind and organisms operating mainly
under the influence of gravity and temperature gradients.

Note: Gravitational and thermal effects alone have only a minor role in
mechanical dispersion.

Many of the processes are common to all climatic zones, but, nevertheless,
climate, relief, lithology and weathering history determines their relative
significance in any region.
Some illustrations
Dispersion halo from primary mineralisation-
Source: Arhins PhD thesis
Au as an example-mobilisation in
the regolith

Au mobilisation e.g. in regolith is through:

Chemical and/or physical processes
The processes can be hampered during these processes. The
hindrance of element mobilisation occur :

When laterite caps serve as barriers against Au upward migration

When precipitated clay minerals filled void spaces during
dissolution processes
These chemical processes reduces the permeability. Transported
sediments from depositional environments dilute or enhance the
surficial Au geochemical signatures.

Also transported sediments from depositional environments

dilute or enhance the surficial Au geochemical signatures.
 Mechanism of metal transport from
source mineralisation

Most minerals formed under igneous and metamorphic

conditions are:
unstable at low temperature and
under near-surface hydrous conditions and
Why are they unstable in the near surface or in the
oxidised environments? (Assignment, it will collected in
the next meeting)
To achieve stability they:
react to form dissolved components and
Consequently form new mineral precipitates (Scott and Pain,
2008).
 More on metals transport
The mobility of elements from primary minerals depends:
on the nature of regolith (i.e. on pre and postweathering
conditions):
its depth, and
aquifer characteristics (i.e. aquifer grain size and evaporation
rates).
In savannah regions (Nahon and Tardy, 1992) noted:
Rise in temperature activates chemical reactions and
Changes in climate accelerates or retards lateritization processes.
In rainforest regions increase in rains enhances chemical
weathering
Question: in your own words explain the behaviour and characteristics of e.g. Au
migrating from the bedrock mineralisation to the surface regolith, discuss all the
processes that may act on it till its signature is expressed in the surface regolith (about a
page or 500 words)
Metals mobility in oxidised environments

Metal
migration
Surficial Processes

via groundwater
and infiltrated
water
Move elements in solution
via pore spaces

Hydromorphic Chemical Physical

dispersion dispersion dispersion
Acts downwards Geochemical interactions Effective in surface layers
 Processes and elements migrations
differ

Each of these element dispersion mechanisms results in different element

signatures in the regolith

Modified after Butt et al., 2000

Critical to Know
Nature of dispersion haloes displayed in weathering profiles
relies on
a) flow directions of groundwater,
b) infiltrated water,
c) solution properties,
d) aquifer heterogeneity,
e) adsorption of elements onto specific regolith minerals,
f) elements forming complexes with appropriate ligands as well as
g) inherent geochemical interactions of elements and regolith
material types
(Anand 2001; Anand et al., 2005).

Qu. List seven properties in a complete weathering profile that have controls on
the metal dispersions. Explain how any of these two properties can influence
elements mobility.
 Element mobility in savannah regions

Modified after McQueen and McRae (2004); Taylor and Eggleton (2001).
Grade control sampling in a mine
pit in Ghana-
QUESTIONS

END OF LECTURE-MODULE 1
 Lecture 2-Geological Controls on
Geochemical Data
The first question is Does geology control geochemistry?
The answer is yes, it does
Meaning the fruitfulness of geochemical investigation hinges
upon the clear understanding of the geological relationships.

Thus any successful geochemical investigation must be

based upon the proper understanding of the geology and
not on high elements concentrations?
This implies that the crustal elemental levels or
backgrounds need to be known.
It is then that anomalous concentrations or depletions
can be detected.
Then Exploration SMARTNESS is not:
Submitting large numbers of samples to the laboratory if the relationship
between the samples is unknown and their relationship to the regional
geology is unclear.
Example 1: Consider a Greenstone
belt in which there are several
generations of melt and some have
associations with gold
mineralisation. A regional study in
which samples are collected on a
grid pattern may have a statistically
accurate feel and yet will provide
limited information on the source of
the gold.

Example 2: Consider a migmatic

terrain in which there are several
generations of melt produced from
a number of possible sources. A
regional study in which samples are
collected on a grid pattern may
have a statistically accurate feel
and yet will provide limited
information on the origin of the
migmatite Complex.
So WHAT SHOULD BE DONE !!

It is normal to use GEOLOGY to interpret

GEOCHEMISTRY.

Rarely is the CONVERSE true.

ALWAYS HAVE THIS IN MIND

Lets get to the question about what should be done..

WAY FORWARD >>>>>>>

Map the geology to establish the age relations between

the units present at an appropriate scale

Sample each unit separately

What is the benefit then>>>>
This will allow chemical variations within the units to be identified
Selection of an appropriate models for the different units can be
applied.

This approach leads naturally to the way in which geochemical data are
presented.
Geochemical Data Presentation
Can take the form of:
Bivariate plot or In these plots the variables are the
Trivariate plot geochemical data
Examples of Bivariate plots
If geology is also considered
then:
Additional variables of time and space may be plotted

Note: it can be informative on some occasions to

examine chemical variations with time in a sedimentary
pile or mine tailings or on refuse dumps.

Similarly it is often valuable to consider geological

controls for anomaly delineation
for Mineral Exploration or
Potential toxicological elements detection for
environmental health purpose.
Anomaly delineation: examining spatial
geochemistry of stream sediments

Source: Nude & Arhin (2009)

 Anomaly delineation: examining spatial
hydrogeochemical data from wells in Bongo area

Source: Arhin & Affam M.,(2012)

From this interpretation:
a. areas with prevalent high and low fluorine can be defined.
b. The source rocks releasing fluorine in the area can also be detected

We can do same for all elements of interest either for mineral exploration or
environmental health purpose.
Now how do we get the
data to analyse and
interpret
Conduct geochemical field
survey.
Typical for mineral
exploration are:
Stream and stream
sediment survey
Soil survey
Trench survey
Rock or lithological
survey
Termitaria survey
For environmental health
we may conduct surveys
for different types of
water e.g. bottled mineral The heart of Exploration and
water, shallow and deep Environmental Geochemistry
wells survey etc.
Stream sediment survey

Read:
Nude & Arhin 2009, Overbank sediments as appropriate geochemical sample media in regional
sediment surveys. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, vol. 103, p. 50-56.

Fletcher & Wenqin 1988, Size distribution of gold in drainage sediments: Mount Washington,
Vancouver Island. Geological Fieldwork, 1988, Paper 1989-1

To begin think about the following:

Size distribution of gold in stream>>this is useful in deciding on
where to sample
The size of sample (e.g. 50g, 1500g etc., and
What size fraction to analyse in stream sediment and heavy
mineral surveys for gold (250 , 150 )
 Stream sediment & Heavy mineral
Surveys
Used in the early stages of gold exploration

Results from these survey are often extremely ERRATIC

Difficult to reproduce or confirm if area is re-sampled

The non reproducibility of results arises from the

problems inherent in obtaining samples that are
statistically representative of the true abundance of rare
particles.

I cannot see how careful one can be to collect more representative sample
in stream sediments BUT we try
 Perhaps the non-reproducibility-
the notion

is a result of Hydraulic processes that

preferentially:
Sort and
Deposit
Heavy minerals during sediment transport
These processes can lead to development
of heavy mineral placers.
What should be the SIZE of
the sample?
Large or Small !!!

The sporadic presence of one or more particles in small

samples will give very STRONG, non-reproducible
anomalies
To reverse this high density survey may be needed but
this will be unnecessary for any new survey.
Fundamental notion of stream sediment survey

Is based on the assumption that samples collected from

the stream channel represent the products of weathering
upstream from the sample site.
True for homogeneous regolith areas.
Caution: This may not be so
In a complex regolith terrains (Nude & Arhin, 2009)

a) If this is the case then lets plan a stream sediment survey for an
area in northern Ghana (make a copy of the Wa field sheet).
b) Plan your own stream sediment survey on the map provided.
c) Give reasons why your selected sites are most appropriate for
anomaly detection.
Fieldwork is necessary for this !!!!!
This is part of Goaso field sheet. Use this to plan
stream sediment survey for gold exploration. Give
reasons for your site selections (5 marks)
Thematic Au plot of stream sediments survey at Mehame area of Goaso
field sheet is presented in the map below. Demarcate the anomalous areas
and prioritise them in order of importance for soil survey (10 marks for
correct answer) .

Colour plot of
this field sheet
is preferred
Thematic As plot of stream sediments survey at Mehame area of
Goaso field sheet is presented in the map below. Demarcate the
potential toxicological areas in As and prioritise them in order of
mitigating toxicity of As in soils (10 marks for correct answer)
Thank you for your audience
Lecture 3: Soil Survey

Soil surveys are normally conducted in grid patterns.

The grid or the systematic survey often depends on the trend of
mineralisation if known or the strike of the supposed
mineralisation is assumed to be parallel to the regional trend of
the underlying rocks.

The soil survey traditionally are conducted after stream

sediment surveys.
Often after an orientation survey has been conducted.

Soil samples are a widely used geochemical sampling

medium.
Plan soil geochemical survey at these target areas
assuming no information on mineralisation trend
Plan soil geochemical survey at these
target areas
Soil Sampling

Soil sampling is generally recommended in the following

situations:

Areas of residual soil over sap rock;

Areas with soil developed on in situ regolith;

Areas with soil developed over transported regolith that

is less than 5 m thick.