ESSENTIAL OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Type of Production
Function in Manufacturing
Organization and Information Processing in Manufacturing
Production Concepts and Mathematical Models
 WHAT IS MANUFACTURING

Derived from two Latin words.

Manus (hand) and factus (make)

The combination means made by hand.

 MANUFACTURING DEFINED
the application of physical and chemical processes to alter the geometry,
properties, and/or appearance of a given starting material to make parts or
products; manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple parts to make
products.
 MANUFACTURING DEFINED

As a field of study in the modern context, manufacturing can

be defined two ways,
Technologic. Economic.
 MANUFACTURING DEFINED AS A
TECHNOLOGICAL
The processes that accomplish manufacturing involve a combination of
machinery, tools, power, and manual labor
MANUFACTURING
DEFINED AS A
ECONOMICAL

the transformation of
materials into items of
greater value by means
of one or more
processing and/or
assembly operations.
 MANUFACTURING DEFINED AS A
ECONOMICAL
adds value to the material by:
changing its shape or properties
combining it with other materials that have been similarly altered.

Example
iron are is converted into steel
sand is transformed into glass
petroleumis refined into plastic
plastic is molded into the complex geometry of a patio chair
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES AND PRODUCTS

Manufacturing is an important commercial activity performed by

companies that sell products to customers.

The type of manufacturing done by a company depends on the

kind of product it makes.

Let us explore this relationship by examining the types of industries

in manufacturing and identifying the products they make.
INDUSTRIES AND PRODUCTS
MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing Industries

Manufactured Products

Production Quantity and Product

Variety
 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Industry consists of enterprises and organizations that
produce or supply goods and services.

Industries can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary.

primary secondary tertiary

 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Primary industries cultivate and exploit natural resources, such as

agriculture and mining.
Secondary industries take the outputs of the primary industries and
convert them into consumer and capital goods.
Manufacturing is the principal activity in this category, but construction
and power utilities are also included.
Tertiary industries constitute the service sector of the economy.
 MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS
Final
products

consumer capital
goods goods
Final products made by the manufacturing industries can be divided into
two major classes: consumer goods and capital goods.
 MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS

Consumer goods
Are products purchased directly by consumers, such as cars, personal
computers, TVs, tires, and tennis rackets.
 MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS

Capital goods
Are those purchased by companies to produce goods and/or provide
services.
Examples :aircraft, computers, communication equipment, medical
apparatus, trucks and buses, railroad locomotives, machine tools, and
construction equipment.
 PRODUCTION QUANTITY AND PRODUCT
VARIETY

The quantity of products made by a factory has an important influence

on the way its people, facilities, and procedures are organized.
Annual production quantities can be classified into three ranges:

(1)low production, quantities in the range 1 to 100 units per year.

(2)medium production, from 100 to 10,000 units annually.
(3)high production, 10,000 to millions of units.
 PRODUCTION QUANTITY AND PRODUCT
VARIETY
Production quantity
Production quantity refers to the number of units produced annually of a particular product
type.
Some plants produce a variety of different product types, each type being made in low or
medium quantities.
Other plants specialize in high production of only one product type. It is instructive to identify
product variety as a parameter distinct from production quantity.
 PRODUCTION QUANTITY AND PRODUCT
VARIETY
Product variety
Product variety refers to different product designs or types that are produced in the plant.
Different products have different shapes and sizes; they perform different functions;
they are intended for different markets; some have more components than others; and so
forth.
The number of different product types made each year can be counted. When the
number of product types made in the factory is high, this indicates high product variety.
 PRODUCTION QUANTITY AND PRODUCT
VARIETY

There is an inverse correlation between product variety and production quantity in terms of
factory operations.
 OTHER FACTORY OPERATIONS

• material handling and storage,

• inspection and testing,

• and coordination and control.

 MATERIAL HANDLING AND STORAGE,
Part’s Time
95% moving or waiting (temporary storage).
5% machine tool.
1.5% actual cutting
3.5%
 TYPES OF PRODUCTION
The final decision regarding any particular method of
production is very much affected by the nature of the
products and the quantity to be produced. Production
methods may be broadly classified as

• Job Production

• Batch production

• Mass or Flow Production.

TYPES OF PRODUCTION
 JOB PRODUCTION
Under this method peculiar, special or non-
standardized products are produced in accordance
with the orders received from the customers. As each
product is non- standardized varying in size and
nature, it requires separate job for production. The
machines and equipment’s are adjusted in such a
manner so as to suit the requirements of a particular
job.
 JOB PRODUCTION
Job production involves intermittent process as the
work is carried as and when the order is received. It
consists of bringing together of material, parts and
components in order to assemble and commission a
single piece of equipment or product.
 JOB PRODUCTION
Examples:

Ship building

dam construction

bridge building

book printing
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
JOB PRODUCTION
• 1. A large number of general purpose machines are required.
• 2. A large number of workers conversant with different jobs will have to be
employed.
• 3. There can be some variations in production.
• 4. Some flexibility in financing is required because of variations in work load.
• 5. A large inventory of materials, parts and tools will be required.
• 6. The machines and equipment setting will have to be adjusted and re-
adjusted to the manufacturing requirements.
• 7. The movement of materials through the process is intermittent.
 LIMITATIONS OF
JOB PRODUCTION
1. The economies of large scale production may not be attained because
production is done in short-runs.

2. The demand is irregular for some products.

3. The use of labour and equipment may be an inefficient.

4. The scientific assessment of costs is difficult.

 BATCH PRODUCTION
Batch production pertains to repetitive production. It refers to the production
of goods, the quantity of which is known in advance. It is that form of
production where identical products are produced in batches on the basis of
demand of customers’ or of expected demand for products.
 BATCH PRODUCTION
This method is generally similar to job production except the quantity of
production. Instead of making one single product as in case of job
production, a batch or group of products are produced at one time. It should
be remembered here that one batch of products may not resemble with the
next batch.
 BATCH PRODUCTION
Under batch system of production the work is divided into operations and one
operation is done at a time. After completing the work on one operation it is
passed on to the second operation and so on till the product is completed.
Batch production can be explained with the help of an illustration. An
enterprise wants to manufacture 20 electric motors.
 BATCH PRODUCTION
The work will be divided into different operations. The first operation on all the
motors will be completed in the first batch and then it will pass on to the next
operation. The second group of operators will complete the second operation
before the next and so on. Under job production the same operators will
manufacture full machine and not one operation only.
 BATCH PRODUCTION
Batch production can fetch the benefits of repetitive production to a large
extent, if the batch is of a sufficient quantity. Thus batch production may be
defined as the manufacture of a product in small or large batches or lots by
series of operations, each operation being carried on the whole batch before
any subsequent operation is operated. This method is generally adopted in
case of biscuit and confectionery and motor manufacturing, medicines,
tinned food and hardware’s like nuts and bolts etc.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
BATCH PRODUCTION
1. The work is of repetitive nature.

2. There is a functional layout of various manufacturing processes.

3. One operation is carried out on whole batch and then is passed on to the
next operation and so on.

4. Same type of machines is arranged at one place.

5. It is generally chosen where trade is seasonal or there is a need to produce

great variety of goods.
 MASS OR FLOW PRODUCTION
This method involves a continuous production of standardized products on a
large scale. Under this method, production remains continuous in anticipation
of future demand. Standardization is the basis of mass production.
Standardized products are produced under this method by using
standardized materials and equipment. There is a continuous or uninterrupted
flow of production obtained by arranging the machines in a proper sequence
of operations. Process layout is best suited method for mass production units.
 MASS OR FLOW PRODUCTION
Flow production is the manufacture of a product by a series of operations,
each article going on to a succeeding operation as soon as possible. The
manufacturing process is broken into separate operations.
 MASS OR FLOW PRODUCTION
The product completed at one operation is automatically passed on to the
next till its completion. There is no time gap between the work done at one
process and the starting at the next. The flow of production is continuous and
progressive.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
MASS OR FLOW PRODUCTION
1. The units flow from one operation point to another throughout the whole
process.
2. There will be one type of machine for each process.
3. The products, tools, materials and methods are standardised.
4. Production is done in anticipation of demand.
5. Production volume is usually high.
6. Machine set ups remain unchanged for a considerable long period.
7. Any fault in flow of production is immediately corrected otherwise it will stop
the whole production process.
 SUITABILITY OF
MASS OR FLOW PRODUCTION
1. There must be continuity in demand for the product.

2. The products, materials and equipments must be standardised because the flow of
line is inflexible.

3. The operations should be well defined.

4. It should be possible to maintain certain quality standards.

5. It should be possible to find time taken at each operation so that flow of work is
standardised.

6. The process of stages of production should be continuous.

 ADVANTAGES
OF MASS PRODUCTION
1. The product is standardised and any deviation in quality etc. is detected at
the spot.
2. There will be accuracy in product design and quality.
3. It will help in reducing direct labour cost.
4. There will be no need of work-in-progress because products will
automatically pass on from operation to operation.
5. Since flow of work is simplified there will be lesser need for control.
6. A weakness in any operation comes to the notice immediately.
7. There may not be any need of keeping work-in-progress, hence storage
cost is reduced.
Production Concepts and
Mathematical Models

• Production rate Rp
• Production capacity PC
• Utilization U
• Availability A
• Manufacturing lead time MLT
• Work-in-progress WIP
/4
Production rate Rp
• Hourly production rate
• Work units completed/Hr
• Cycle time: Time that one work unit spends being
processed or assembled. It is the time between
when one work unit begins processing and next
unit begins.
• Not all time is productive.
• Cycle time consists of i) actual machining
operation time ii) workpart handling time
iii) tool handling time per workpiece
Operation Cycle Time

Typical cycle time for a production operation:

Tc = To + Th + Tth -------------------1
where
Tc = cycle time, min/pc
To = processing time for the operation, min/pc
Th = handling time (e.g., loading and unloading
the production machine), min/pc and
Tth = tool handling time (e.g., time to change
tools), min/pc
Tool handling time

• Time spent changing tools when worn out

• Time required for changing one tool to the
next.
• Tool indexing time for indexable inserts or for
tools on a turret lathe
• Tool positioning for next pass etc..
– These activities do not occur every cycle
– They must be spread over the number of parts
Production rate for
batch production
Time to process one batch(Q units) = Setup time +
processing time, i.e., Tb = Tsu + QTc------------------2
where
Tb = Batch processing time in min
Tsu = Setup time required for one batch in min
Q = Batch quantity, pc
Tc = cycle time per work unit in min/cycle
Tp = Tb / Q ,------------------------3
whereTp= Avg prod. Time/work unit , min/pc
Rp = 60 / Tb ,----------------------4
Where Rp = hourly production rate , PC / Hr
Production rate for
job shop production

Time to process one batch(Q units) = Setup time +

processing time, i.e., Tb = Tsu + QTc
For job shop production, Q = 1
So, Tb = Tsu + Tc = Tp How??
Tp = Tb / Q , where Tp = Average prod. Time/work unit ,
min/pc
Rp = 60 / Tb , Where Rp = Hourly prod rate, pc/Hr
Production rate for
mass production

Production rate = cycle rate of the machine

Tb = Tsu + QTc
For mass production, Q = very large
Tp = Tb/Q = (Tsu + QTc ) / Q = Tsu /Q + QTc/Q
Tp = Tsu/Q +Tc
As Q becomes very large, Tsu/Q  0
So, Tp = Tc
WKT, Production rate is reciprocal of production time
Rp = Rc = 60/Tc
Production rate for
flow line mass production

• Production rate = cycle rate of the production line

• Workstations are interdependent in the line
• Impossible to divide total work equally among all
workstations on the line.
• So, one station ends up with the longest
operation time ( Bottle neck station).
• Bottle neck station sets the pace to other
workstation.
• Work units should be moved from one
workstation to next ( Tr)
Production rate for
flow line mass production

• Cycle time = transfer time + longest processing time

Tc = Tr + Max To -----------------5
• Where Max To = operation time at the bottle neck
station i.e., The maximum of operation times for all
stations on the line
• Tr = Transfer time
Rc = 60/Tc ----------------6
Production capacity

• maximum rate of output that a production

facility (or production line, work center, or group
of work centers) is able to produce under a given
set of assumed operating conditions
• Operating conditions refer to the number of
shifts per day, number of days in the week (or
month) that the plant operates, employment
levels, and so forth.
Production capacity

Let PCw = the production capacity of a given facility under

consideration.
Let the measure of capacity = the number of units produced per
week.
Let n = the number of machines or work centers in the facility.
A work center is a manufacturing system in the plant typically
consisting of one worker and one machine. It might also be one
automated machine with no worker, or multiple workers working
together on a production line.
It is capable of producing at a rate RP unit/hr. Each work center
operates for Hs hr/shift.
Let Sw denote the number of shifts per week.
PCw = n Sw Hs Rp --------------------7
 Production capacity

• If we include the possibility that each work

unit is routed through no operations, with
each operation requiring a new setup on
either the same or a different machine,

• where no = number of operations in the routing

 Production capacity

Equation indicates the operating parameters that

affect plant capacity.
Changes that can be made to increase or decrease
plant capacity over the short term are:
1. Change the number of shifts per week (S). For
example, Saturday shifts might be authorized
to temporarily increase capacity.
2. Change the number of hours worked per shift
(H). For example, overtime on each regular
shift might be authorized to increase capacity.
 Production capacity

Over the intermediate or longer term, the following

changes can be made to increase plant capacity:
3. Increase the number of work centers, n, in the shop.
This might be done by using equipment that was
formerly not in use and hiring new workers.
4. Increase the production rate, Rp by making
improvements in methods or process technology.
5. Reduce the number of operations no required per work
unit by using combined operations, simultaneous
operations, or integration of operations.
Utilization
• Utilization refers to the amount of output of a
production facility relative to its capacity. Expressing
U=Q/PC------------9
Where U = utilization of the facility,
Q = actual quantity produced by the facility during a given
time period (i.e., pc/wk), and
PC = production capacity for the same period (pc/wk).
It is often defined as the proportion of time that the
facility is operating relative to the time available under
the definition of capacity.
Utilization is usually expressed as a percentage.
Availability

• Availability is defined using two other reliability

terms, mean time between failure (MTBF) and
mean time to repair (MTTR).
• The MTBF indicates the average length of time
the piece of equipment runs between
breakdowns.
• The MTTR indicates the average time required to
service the equipment and put it back into
operation when a breakdown occurs.
Availability
Availability is defined as follows:
Availability:

where MTBF = mean time between failures,

and
MTTR = mean time to repair
Availability is typically expressed as a
percentage
 Example :
1) A production machine operates at 2 shifts/day and 5 days a week at full
capacity. Its production rate is 20 unit/hr. During a certain week, the machine
produced 1000 parts and was idle in the remaining time, (a) Determine the
production capacity of the machine, (b) What was the utilization of the machine
during the week under consideration?
if the availability of the machine is 90%, and the utilization of the machines
is 80%. Compute the expected plant output.
Solution:
(a) The capacity of the machine can be determined using the assumed
80-hr week as follows:
PC = 80(20) = 1600 unit/wk
(b) Utilization can be determined as the ratio of the number of parts
made by the machine relative to its capacity.
U = 1000/1600 = 0.625 (62.5%)
(c) U=Q/PC or
Q= UxPCxA or UAxnSHRp
2) The mean time between failures for a certain production machine is 250 hours,
and the mean time to repair is 6 hours. Determine the availability of the
machine.
Availability: A = ?

3) One million units of a certain product are to be manufactured annually on

dedicated production machines that run 24 hours per day. 5 days per week, 50
weeks per year, (a) If the cycle time of a machine to produce one part is 1.0
minute, how many of the dedicated machines will be required to keep up with
demand? Assume that availability, utilization, and worker efficiency = 100%, and
that no setup time will be lost, (b) Solve part (a) except that availability = 0.90.
Solution: Tc= 1 min
Tb = Tsu+QTc = 0+QTc
Tp= Tb/Q = Tc
Rp=60/Tp = 60 Parts/Hr
n= PC/SHRp
= 1000000/(50x5x24x60)
= 2.77 = 3 machines
Manufacturing Lead Time

Manufacturing lead time (MLT) is the total time required

to process a given part or product through the plant,
including any lost time due to delays, time spent in
storage, reliability problems, and so on.
 Production consists of a sequence of individual processing and
assembly operations. Between the operations are material
handling, storage, inspections, and other non productive activities.
 Divide these activities as operation and non operation elements.
 Non operation elements are Handling, temporary storage,
inspection and other sources of delay when work unit is not in
machine.
Let Tc = the operation cycle time at a given machine or workstation,
Tno = the nonoperation time associated with the same machine.
no = the number of separate operations through which the work unit
must be routed
Tsu = Setup time required to prepare each production machine for the
particular product. If we assume batch production, then there are
Q work units in the batch.,
Given these terms, we can define manufacturing lead time as

where
MLTj = manufacturing lead time for part or product j (min).
Tsuji = setup time for operation i (min) for the product j,
Qj = quantity of part or product in the batch (pc),
Tcji = operation cycle time for operation i (min/pc),
Tnoji = nonoperation time associated with operation i (min),
and
i indicates the operation sequence in the processing; i = I,
2,... noj
To simplify and generalize the model,
let us assume that all setup times, operation cycle times, and non
operation times are equal for the noj machines.
Further, let us suppose that the batch quantities of all parts or
products processed through the plant are equal and that they are
all processed through the same number of machines, so that noj =
no , With these simplifications, Eq. becomes:

where
MLT = manufacturing lead time,
no = number of operations,
Tsu = setup time,
Q = batch quantity,
Tc = cycle time per part, and
Tno = non-operation time
• For a job shop in which the batch size is one (Q = 1), Eq.
(1.12) becomes
MLT=no(Tsu+TC+Tno)------------ (1.13)
For mass production, the Q term in Eq. (1.12) is very large
and dominates the other terms.
In the case of quantity type mass production in which a
large number of units are made on a single machine (no
=1). The MLT simply becomes the operation cycle time for
the machine after the setup has been completed and
production begins.
MLT = QxTc ------------1.14
4
For flow line mass production, the entire production line is
set up in advance. Also, the non operation time
between processing steps is simply the transfer time Tr
to move the part or product from one workstation to
the next. The station with the longest operation time
sets the pace for all stations:
MLT =no(Tr +Max To) = noTc --------------1.15
Since , (Tr +Max To) = Tc (1.5)
Since the number of stations is equal to the number of
operations (n = no) Eq. (1.15) can also be stated as
MLT =n(Tr +Max To) = nTc --------------1.16
A certain part is produced in a batch size of 100 units. The batch must be routed
through five operations to complete the processing of the parts. Average
setup time is 3 hr/operation, and average operation time is 6 min . Average
non operation time due to handling, delays, inspections, etc., is 7 hours for
each operation. Determine how many days it will take to complete the batch,
assuming the plant runs one 8-hr shift/day.
Solution:
Given:
Q = 100 units
no = 5
Tsu = 3hr/operation
Tc = 6 min
Tno = 7 hr/operation
The manufacturing lead time is computed from Fq
MLT = no (Tsu + QTc + Tno)
MLT = 5(3 + 100 X 0.1 + 7) = 100 hours
At 8 hr/day. this amounts to L00/8 = 12.5 days
 A certain part is routed through six machines in a batch production plant. The
setup and operation times for each machine are given in the table below. The
batch size is 100 and the average non operation time per machine is 12 hours.
Determine (a) manufacturing lead time and (b) production rate for operation 3

Solution:
Given:
Q = 100 units
no = 5
Tsu = 3hr/operation
Tno = 12hr/machine
A certain part is routed through six machines in a production plant. The
operation times for each machine are given in the table below. Suppose the
part is made in very large quantities on a production line in which an
automated work handling system is used to transfer parts between machines.
Transfer time between stations = 15 s. The total time required to set up the
entire line is 150 hours. Assume that the operation times at the individual
machines remain the same. Determine (a) manufacturing lead time for a part
coming off the line.(b) production rate for operation 3. and (c) theoretical
production rate for the entire production line.

Solution:
Given:
a) MLT = no(Tr+MaxTo)
b) Rp3 = 60/Tp ; But Tp = Tc = To
c) Rp = 60/Tp; But Tp = Tc ; But Tc =
Tr+Max To
Work-In-Process

Work-in-process (WIP) is the quantity of parts or

products currently located in the factory that
either are being processed or are between
processing operations.
WIP is inventory that is in the state of being
transformed from raw material to finished
product.
 Work-In-Process
An approximate measure of work-in-process can be
obtained from the following, using terms previously
defined:

where WIP = work-in-process, pc;

A = availability, U = utilization,
PC = plant capacity, pc/wk;
MLT = manufacturing lead time, hr;
Sw = shifts per week,
Hsh = hours per shift, hr/shift
TIP Ratio

The TIP ratio measures the time that the product

spends in the plant relative to its actual
processing time.
It is computed as the total MLT for a part divided by
the sum of individual operation time for the
plant.
The average part produced in a certain batch manufacturing plant must be processed
sequentially through six machines on average. Twenty (20) new batches of parts are
launched each week. Average operation time = 6 minutes, average setup time = 5
hours, average batch size= 25 parts, and average non operation time per batch = 10
hr/machine. There are 18 machines in the plant working in parallel. Each of the
machines can be set up for any type of job processed in the plant. The plant operates an
average of 70 production hours per week. Scrap rate is negligible. Determine (a)
manufacturing lead time for an average part, (b) plant capacity, and (c) plant utilization,
(d) Determine the average level of work-in-process in the plant.

a) MLT = no( Tsu + QxTc + Tno )

b) PC = A.U. n.SwHs.Rp/no
c) U = Q/PC
d) WIP = A.U.PC.MLT/SwHs