Introduction to Cell Signaling

 Communication is essential for  Cells communicate with each

human beings. It keeps us
connected to our family, friends,
and community. Communication
allows our societies to function,
innovate, and grow.
other for a variety of reasons
including to regulate growth,
coordinate their movement,
change the amount or type of
molecules they metabolize,
and initiate programmed cell
death if a cell is infected or not
functioning correctly.

 It turns out that

communication is just as
important for the cells that
make up our bodies. Almost
everything cells do depends
on their ability to sense their
environment. This is done by
sending and receiving signals.
 The cell that receives a signal
can start changing its
 A human body contains more
behavior in several ways: by
than 100 trillion cells all working
altering expression of certain
together to carry out the
genes, remodeling the cells
processes that sustain life. But
cytoskeleton, changing the
how do cells coordinate their
concentration of cellular ions
activities? In this scrollable,
and small molecules
we’ll explore how and why
(metabolites) and by
cells communicate through a
activating or deactivating
process called cell signaling.
biological catalysts (enzymes).
  Cells that are not touching but
are still in the same local area
can send messages via
 Often changes to the
paracrine signaling. The prefix
receiving cell’s behavior result
“para” is from the Greek
from a combination of these
“alongside.”
factors.

 We define different type of

cell signaling according to
how close the two cells are to
one another.

 Hormone-producing cells in
endocrine glands send signals
 Some cells need to be in that are received by cells
direct contact in order to located far away in the body.
exchange signals through This process is referred to as
proteins on their surfaces. This endocrine signaling.
type of signaling is referred to
as direct or juxtacrine
signaling. The prefix “juxta” is
from the Latin for “near/close
to.”

 Now let’s explore examples of
each type signaling to see
why each is so important.
 Epithelial cells, like those that
 When one epithelial cell’s E-
 Two cells that are growing
close together can signal to
each other to stop growing
through interactions of
proteins on their surfaces. This
is an example of juxtarine
signaling.
make up our skin, express a
protein on their surface called
E-cadherin. E-cadherin is a
protein that is necessary for
mechanically holding cells
and tissues together. The E-
cadherin of one epithelial cell
binds the E-cadherin of a
neighboring cell, holding both
cells together.
cadherin binds the E-cadherin
of a neighboring cell, the
binding initiates signals that
cause both cells to stop
growing. Upon E-cadherin: E-
cadherin binding between
two cells, a signal is
transmitted in each cell from
the E-cadherin on the cell
surface to the cell’s nucleus,
where genes necessary for cell
growth are turned off.
  E-cadherins are necessary for
both holding epithelial tissues
(like skin) together and for
suppressing tumor growth in
these tissues.

 Neurons are examples of cells

that communicate using
 As the E-cadherin of one cells paracrine signaling. A
bind the E-cadherin of another signaling neuron
cell, each cell prevents its communicates with a target
neighboring cells from growing neuron by releasing small
and dividing. molecules called
neurotransmitters into the
 In some skin and other space between the two cells
cancers, less E-cadherin is (called a synapse).
expressed on the surface of
cells. This results in a loss of  A signaling neuron
control of cell growth and communicates with a target
division, leading to neuron by releasing small
uncontrolled cell proliferation. molecules called
neurotransmitters into the
 Because tumors are the space between the two cells
consequence of uncontrolled (called a synapse). This
cell growth, proteins involved specific type of paracrine
in suppressing cells growth are signaling is therefore called
called “tumor suppressors.” E- synaptic signaling.
cadherin is an example of a
tumor suppressor.

 When E-cadherin levels are

low, control of cell division is
lost and cells begin to divide
and multiply out of control. This
uncontrolled cell division can
lead to the formation of a
tumor.
 Neurotransmitters are the
signaling neurons use to
communicate. One example
of a neurotransmitter is
serotonin. Here the signaling
neuron is releasing serotonin to
communicate with the target
neuron.
 The adjacent target cell can
only receive the signal if it is
expressing a protein on its
surface that can interact (or
bind) specifically with the
neurotransmitter. This protein is
called a receptor.
 Shortly after being released,
serotonin is reabsorbed by the
signaling neuron to be
released again later. Synaptic
signaling is very rapid and
short-lived.
 There are many types of
neurotransmitters and the
messages they carry can lead
to changes in mood, energy,
movement, and many other
aspects of our physiology.
Serotonin is one example of a
neurotransmitter. Serotonin
regulates sleep, appetite,
digestion and other behaviors.
 Too little cells from serotonin is
associated with depression.
Medications called selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs) are often used to treat
depression. SRRs prevent the
signaling cell from taking back
serotonin so serotonin can
remain in the synapse to
communicate with the target
cell.
 We have just seen how
important paracrine signaling
is through the example of the
neurotransmitter serotonin,
and how our understanding of
cell signaling allows us to
design drugs like
antidepressants.
 Sometimes cell need to send
signals beyond their neighbors.
For example, cells in endocrine
glands secrete hormones that
carry messages that impact
the behavior of cells
 throughout the body. as part of our “flight or fight”
Signaling over a long distance response.
like this is called endocrine
signaling.  The ability of a hormone to act
on a multiple organs
throughout the body is a key
characteristic of endocrine
signaling. In the case of
epinephrine, being able to
stimulate the liver, lungs, and
heart is necessary to provide
the body with energy needed
to respond to a potential
threat.

 As we have seen, cells can

change a lot about their
function or behavior by
sensing signals from their
 Hormones like epinephrine environment.
(also known as adrenaline) are
secreted into the bloodstream  It is important for cells to
and carried throughout the communicate the right signal
body to their target cells. Only at the right time, in the same
those cells with receptors way it is important for people
specific for epinephrine can to communicate
bind to the hormone and Understanding how cells
receive the signal. communicate allows us to
develop treatments for
 By stimulating the liver, lungs,
diseases and preserve human
and heart, epinephrine causes
health.
an elevated heart rate with
elevated amounts of glucose
(from the liver) and oxygen
(from the lungs) in the blood to
supply the body with extra
energy. This is often referred to