European Journal of Psychological

Assessment
Factorial Invariance of the DASS-21 Among Adolescents
in Four Countries
David Mellor, Eugenia V. Vinet, Xiaoyan Xu, Norul Hidayah Bt Mamat, Ben Richardson, and
Francisca Román
Online First Publication, July 25, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000218

CITATION
Mellor, D., Vinet, E. V., Xu, X., Hidayah Bt Mamat, N., Richardson, B., & Román, F. (2014, July
25). Factorial Invariance of the DASS-21 Among Adolescents in Four Countries. European
Journal of Psychological Assessment. Advance online publication.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000218
 Original Article

Factorial Invariance of the DASS-21

Among Adolescents in Four
Countries
David Mellor,1 Eugenia V. Vinet,2 Xiaoyan Xu,3 Norul Hidayah Bt Mamat,4
Ben Richardson,1 and Francisca Román2
1
Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia, 2University de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile,
3
Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, PR China, 4UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract. The use of scales to measure constructs in populations or contexts other than that in which they were established is highly
controversial. Despite this, the use of scales without reference to ‘‘local’’ psychometric data is still widespread. In this study we examined the
factor structure of the short 21-item form of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales (DASS-21), when it was applied to adolescent samples
recruited from high schools in Australia (N = 371), Chile (N = 448), China (N = 558), and Malaysia (N = 388). Multigroup confirmatory
factor analyses revealed that the purported three-factor structure of the DASS-21 was supported in each location with structural invariance
across locations. While convergent and divergent validity studies are required to support this finding, the DASS-21 appears to be suitable for
use with adolescents in these locations.

Keywords: DASS-21, adolescents, depression, anxiety, stress, Australia, Chile, China, Malaysia

A fundamental issue faced by researchers and clinicians
who wish to apply an instrument developed in one cultural
context in another is whether the constructs under examina-
tion exist in the new setting. Dana (1993) observed that the
method generally used to establish cross-cultural validity of
tests is replication of the factor structure. If the factor
dimensions are stable, and present an invariant structure
across cultures, then cross-cultural validity may be inferred.
The aim of the current study is to investigate the struc-
tural validity of the 21-item short form of the 42-item
Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS; Lovibond
& Lovibond, 1995a) when it is used with adolescents in
four different cultural contexts, including that in which
the DASS was developed. The DASS-21, which includes
seven rather than 14 items for each subscale, has a number
of advantages over the full length DASS, in that it is more
acceptable for respondents with limited concentration, and
it omits items from the full 42-item DASS that have previ-
ously been identified as problematic (Henry & Crawford,
2005).
Of particular interest in the cross-cultural application of
the DASS-21 is that the dimensions it purportedly mea-
sures, depression, anxiety, and stress, are aspects of adjust-
ment that have been suggested to manifest differently in
eastern cultures relative to western cultures. For example,
Marsella, Sartorius, Jablensky, and Fenton (1985) reported
that the symptomatology of depression varies across
cultures. Whereas in the West sadness and feelings of
worthlessness predominate, somatic symptoms such as lack
of appetite and difficulty sleeping predominate in non-
Western populations.
A small number of studies have investigated the factor
structure of the DASS-21. In a clinical study in Canada,
Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, and Swinson (1998) replicated
the purported three-factor structure using exploratory factor
analysis with participants with various psychological condi-
tions. However, in another Canadian study using confirma-
tory factor analysis (CFA), this time with depressed
patients, Clara, Cox, and Enns (2001) were unable to find
a three-factor solution that met all the fit criteria. Studies
in other contexts have also not fully supported the factor
structure of the DASS-21. For example, Daza, Novy,
Stanley, and Averill (2002) found a different three-factor
structure when they applied CFA to data collected from
people with anxiety disorders in Spain. Also in Spain,
Bados, Solanas, and Andrs (2005) concluded on the basis
of CFA of data obtained from a student sample, that the
three-factor model is ‘‘acceptable but not good enough.’’
Henry and Crawford’s (2005) confirmatory factor anal-
ysis of nonclinical data in Australia revealed that the model
with optimal fit had a quadripartite structure, which
included a general factor of psychological distress in addi-
tion to the depression, anxiety, and stress factors. Henry and
Crawford concluded that the DASS-21 subscales are valid,

Ó 2014 Hogrefe Publishing European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2014

DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000218
2 D. Mellor et al.: Factorial Invariance of the DASS-21 Among Adolescents

Table 1. Age and gender distribution across the four samples

Male Female Total
N Mean Age (SD) Age range N Mean Age (SD) Age range N Mean Age (SD) Age range
Australia 177 14.51 (1.87) 12–18 184 14.60 (1.90) 12–19 371 14.56 (1.88) 12–19
Chile 170 15.76 (1.43) 13–19 278 15.84 (1.35) 13–19 448 15.81 (1.38) 13–19
China 210 15.33 (2.02) 11–19 346 16.28 (2.13) 12–19 558 15.92 (2.13) 11–19
Malaysia 186 14.89 (1.63) 12–19 202 14.95 (1.92) 12–19 388 14.92 (1.79) 12–19

but that each of them also assesses a more general dimen-
sion of psychological distress or negative affect.
Studies with adolescents have reported similar results to
those with clinical and community samples of adults.
Willemsen, Markey, Declerq, and Vanheule’s (2011)
CFA study with a large sample of Belgian adolescents
revealed a good fit with the original three-factor model pro-
posed by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995b), and exception-
ally good fit with the hierarchical model proposed by Tully,
Zajac, and Venning (2009) who, like Henry and Crawford
(2005), contended that depression and anxiety are highly
related due to the common latent factor of negative affect.
To compare the fit of these two models, an S-B v2
difference test was conducted. It was found that
Tully et al.’s hierarchical model fit best the data. The cor-
relations between the three factors were very high
(depression-anxiety = 0.82 for boys and 0.78 for girls;
depression-stress = 0.89 for boys and 0.78 for girls; and
anxiety-stress = 0.90 for boys and 0.93 for girls). This
appears to be an important limitation since the DASS-21
aims to discriminate between depression, anxiety, and stress
(Willemsen et al., 2011).
Similarly, Szab (2010) conducted a CFA within an
adolescent Australian sample. The one-factor and two-
factor models yielded high and significant Chi-squares
indicating poor fit. However the three-factor (depression,
anxiety, and stress) model showed good fit, which was even
better when a four-factor model which incorporated ‘‘nega-
tive affect’’ as proposed by Tully et al. (2009) was exam-
ined. However, correlations between factors were again
found to be too high (depression-anxiety = .81; depres-
sion-stress = 0.87; and anxiety-stress = .93).
Hashim, Golok, and Ali’s (2011) recent study reported
on the use of the DASS-21 within a large Malaysian
adolescent sample. CFA revealed a reasonable fit overall
(one-factor model). However, the differentiation between
depression, anxiety, and stress was weak as a result of
extremely high intercorrelations which were approach-
ing collinearity (depression-anxiety = 0.83; depression-
stress = 0.87; and anxiety-stress = 0.84). Additionally,
an analysis involving a four-factor model (depression,
anxiety, stress, and negative affect) was conducted, since
negative affect is common to the other three factors,
and can thereby determine shared variance of items
between the three DASS-21 factors. This analysis
showed nonsignificant unstandardized factor loadings on
each of the three factors for 19 of 21 items, thereby
indicating a lack of convergent validity (Hashim et al.,
2011).
In summary, the DASS-21 has good general support in
relation to its factor structure when it has been evaluated in
predominately Western contexts, with researchers to date
generally accepting the three-factor structure despite some
reports of high inter-factor correlations. The purpose of this
study is to investigate the degree to which the factor struc-
ture is supported when it is used with adolescents in four
countries. Specifically, our aim is to test the construct valid-
ity of the DASS-21 when it used in adolescent samples in a
Western context (Australia), a Latino context (Chile), and
two Eastern contexts (China and Malaysia).
Method
Participants
The sample of 1765 participants was recruited from second-
ary schools in Australia, Chile, China, and Malaysia.
It included 371 students from Australia, 448 from Chile,
558 from China, and 388 from Malaysia. Table 1 shows
the gender and age distribution across the four subsamples.
The Australian sample was recruited from schools in a
middle class suburb in eastern Melbourne, the capital city
of the state of Victoria. The Chilean sample was recruited
from middle school in Temuco, the capital of Araucana
Region. It included students from municipal, subsidized pri-
vate, and other private schools, and therefore included stu-
dents of different socioeconomic status. In Malaysia, the
participants were recruited from schools located in middle
class suburbs of Kuala Lumpur, the national capital.
The Chinese data were collected in urban Chengdu, a large
city in Southwest China, and the capital of Sichuan prov-
ince. Thus, all participants were drawn from large urban
environments.
Measures
The DASS-21 is made up of three seven-item subscales that
measure the three dimensions specified in Lovibond and
Lovibond’s (1995a) tripartite model of affect: low positive
affect (Depression), physiological hyperarousal (Anxiety),

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 D. Mellor et al.: Factorial Invariance of the DASS-21 Among Adolescents
and negative affect (Stress). The psychometric properties
of original 42-item version of the DASS are well-
established (see Antony et al., 1998; Brown, Chorpita,
Korotitsch, & Barlow, 1997; Clara et al., 2001; Lovibond
& Lovibond, 1995b), and the short form maintains these
properties. Item examples include ‘‘I experienced trembling
in the hands’’ (Anxiety), ‘‘I felt that I had nothing to look
forward to’’ (Depression), and ‘‘I found it hard to wind
down’’ (Stress). A four-point response scale ranging from
0 to 3 allows respondents to indicate how much each state-
ment applied to them over the past week. Scores for each
subscale are obtained by adding the responses to the rele-
vant items. Lovibond and Lovibond (1995a) suggested that
these scores may then be doubled to make them directly
equivalent to those derived from the full version of the
DASS because the DASS-21 encompasses the full range
of symptoms measured by the full version.
In Chile, China, and Malaysia the DASS-21 was trans-
lated into languages appropriate for the setting – Spanish,
Chinese, and Bahasa Malaysia, the national language, and
the language of instruction in schools. Translation followed
a rigorous process of translation back translation (Brislin,
1980; MuÇiz & Hambleton, 1996; Werner & Campbell,
1970).
Procedure
Approval to undertake this project was obtained from the
relevant university ethics committees in each setting.
In addition, approvals to conduct the research in schools
were obtained from the relevant education authorities.
In Australia, schools in the eastern suburbs of Melbourne
were contacted and invited to participate. Two schools
which showed an interest and were able to provide an
appropriate sample size, were provided with plain language
descriptions of the project to be sent home with students.
Questionnaires were sent out to each school, where they
were administered by class teachers across a range of year
levels to all students whose parents had consented to their
involvement. All adolescents also completed a consent
form, then the anonymous questionnaire in small, well-
spaced groups. The questionnaire took approximately
5 min to complete.
In Chile, a randomly selected range of municipal, subsi-
dized private, and private schools were approached to par-
ticipate in the study. After securing each principal’s
agreement, parents were asked to sign an informed consent
form to permit their child to participate in the study.
Students whose parents were agreeable were asked for their
consent, and if they agreed they completed the DASS-21
under the supervision of one of the teachers and a research
assistant in the student’s classrooms. The average response
time for the DASS-21 was 5–8 min.
In China, data were collected from one school in the
city of Chengdu. After obtaining the principal’s and teach-
ers’ agreement, questionnaires were administered by class-
room teachers to those students whose parents provided
consent.
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3
In Malaysia the principals of five schools in the state of
Selangor were approached to allow students from their
schools to participate in the study. Four schools agreed,
and a similar procedure to that described above was
followed.
Analytic Procedure
Multiple group confirmatory factor analysis in Mplus v6.11
was used to test for measurement invariance across the four
samples. Given the response scale of the DASS, it was most
appropriate to treat indicator variables as ordinal categorical
rather than continuous and thus the model was estimated
using a weighted least squares approach (WLSMV).
Comparing all four groups simultaneously in a single model
introduces considerable complexity into the invariance test-
ing and for this reason, invariance was tested by comparing
the Australian sample separately to the other three samples
(Chilean, Chinese, and Malaysian). The Australian sample
was chosen as the baseline for comparison as the DASS
was developed in Australia and has been extensively vali-
dated in that population. For each comparison, three models
were evaluated: (i) an unconstrained model where loadings
and thresholds were free to vary across groups, (ii) a par-
tially constrained model where factor loadings were con-
strained to equality across groups while thresholds were
free to vary, and (iii) a fully constrained model where load-
ings and thresholds are equal across groups. Measurement
invariance is present when the more restricted model does
not fit the data significantly worse than the less restricted
model. Fit of the nested models was compared using crite-
ria recommended by Chen (2007) for large sample sizes.
Specifically, invariance is present when the more restricted
model shows a drop in CFI of  0.01 supplemented by an
increase in the RMSEA of  0.015. Overall model fit was
evaluated using v2, CFI, TLI, and the RMSEA (SRMR is
not available when WLSMV estimation is used). Hu and
Bentler (1999) recommend that CFI and TLF values of
0.90 or greater indicate adequate fit (and over 0.95 indicates
excellent fit). RMSEA values of less than 0.06 indicate
good fit.
Results
Data screening revealed a small number of missing values
(items were missing between 0 and 2.6%, average 1.84%)
which were replaced using a single imputation strategy
(expectancy maximization). Mean subscale scores for par-
ticipants within each country are presented in Table 2.
Results from the main analyses showed that, except in some
cases where the RMSEA was slightly above 0.06, in all
models fit surpassed recommended cut-offs for adequate
fit. These results indicated that the three-factor structure
was an appropriate fit for the data (see Table 3). Applying
recommendations from Chen (2007), measurement invari-
ance was clearly present between Australia and China as
European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2014
4 D. Mellor et al.: Factorial Invariance of the DASS-21 Among Adolescents

Table 2. Mean DASS subscale scores grouped by gender Table 4. Standardized factor loadings
and country
Australia China Malaysia Chile
Mean Mean Mean
Depression (a = .89) (a = .81) (a = .82) (a = .85)
depression (SD) anxiety (SD) stress (SD)
Item 3 0.75 0.64 0.60 0.73
Australia Item 5 0.69 0.60 0.63 0.50
Females 5.48 (5.05) 4.51 (3.95) 5.92 (4.75) Item 10 0.81 0.65 0.76 0.91
Males 3.98 (4.65) 3.55 (3.77) 3.71 (4.06) Item 13 0.87 0.79 0.77 0.79
Chile Item 16 0.85 0.64 0.67 0.57
Females 6.72 (5.02) 5.50 (3.98) 7.55 (4.28) Item 17 0.90 0.73 0.77 0.85
Males 4.79 (4.09) 4.05 (3.23) 5.93 (3.62) Item 21 0.82 0.77 0.67 0.92
China Anxiety (a = .80) (a = .75) (a = .74) (a = .72)
Females 5.65 (4.34) 6.51 (3.91) 7.68 (4.41) Item 2 0.41 0.51 0.42 0.39
Males 5.28 (4.37) 6.08 (4.43) 6.59 (4.66) Item 4 0.55 0.58 0.48 0.44
Malaysia Item 7 0.72 0.52 0.50 0.61
Females 5.69 (3.97) 6.25 (3.75) 6.72 (3.99) Item 9 0.79 0.68 0.71 0.66
Males 5.56 (4.43) 5.30 (3.91) 6.24 (4.30) Item 15 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.78
Item 19 0.64 0.52 0.62 0.55
Item 20 0.85 0.65 0.67 0.73
Stress (a = .85) (a = .80) (a = .80) (a = .79)
well as for Australia and Malaysia (see Table 4). However, Item 1 0.60 0.64 0.66 0.40
the situation was less clear for the Australia/Chile compar- Item 6 0.66 0.63 0.51 0.46
ison where the constrained models showed a CFI drop of Item 8 0.78 0.72 0.73 0.59
greater than 0.01 relative to the less constrained model. Item 11 0.82 0.80 0.74 0.57
However, this change was not accompanied by a change Item 12 0.81 0.78 0.80 0.91
in the RMSEA of greater than 0.015 and thus it was con- Item 14 0.76 0.55 0.57 0.60
cluded that measurement invariance was present. All three Item 18 0.79 0.52 0.59 0.71
factors were highly correlated (between 0.60 and 0.71).

invariance across the four contexts in which the study

Discussion
In this study we set out to investigate the structural validity
of the DASS-21 when it is used with adolescents in four
different cultural contexts. The instrument is a simple and
easy way to screen for elevated levels of depression, anxi-
ety, and stress, making it a useful tool for mental health
practitioners such as school counsellors. To date however,
there have been few studies of its structural validity when
it is applied to adolescents, particularly in contexts other
than that in which it was developed, Australia. Our analyses
established support for the existing three-factor structure.
Results also established that there was measurement
was conducted and thus, scores from these different groups
can be meaningfully compared.
Our finding is consistent with the studies that have
reported general, although not unequivocal support for the
three-factor structure of the DASS-21 in various contexts
including, Australia and Malaysia. However, in contrast
to the approach of other studies, which have tended to treat
the item level data as continuous, our data were treated as
ordinal categorical. Given the four-point nature of DASS
items, this is a more appropriate way to model these data.
Thus, we may have greater confidence that the DASS-21
can be meaningfully used with adolescents in the four con-
texts in which our study was undertaken. Despite this, it is
notable that the three factors were highly correlated with

Table 3. Fit indices for confirmatory factor analyses

v2 (df) CFI TLI RMSEA
Australia vs. China
Unconstrained model 1101.3 (372) 0.950 0.943 0.065
Partially constrained model (thresholds free) 1107.3 (390) 0.950 0.947 0.063
Fully constrained model 1287.4 (429) 0.941 0.942 0.066
Australia vs. Malaysia
Unconstrained model 774.8 (372) 0.970 0.966 0.053
Partially constrained model (thresholds free) 759.2 (390) 0.972 0.970 0.050
Fully constrained model 934.1 (429) 0.962 0.963 0.056
Australia vs. Chile
Unconstrained model 894.4 (372) 0.964 0.960 0.059
Partially constrained model (thresholds free) 1088.7 (390) 0.952 0.948 0.066
Fully constrained model 1446.3 (429) 0.930 0.932 0.076

European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2014 Ó 2014 Hogrefe Publishing

 D. Mellor et al.: Factorial Invariance of the DASS-21 Among Adolescents
each other, suggesting that there is a considerable lack of
differentiation between the constructs being measured.
While this study included data from large samples in
each of the locations, it is not possible to determine the rep-
resentativeness of each sample, and having established that
the factor structure of the DASS-21 is invariant across the
settings, further studies are now required to establish the
convergent and divergent validity of the subscales for ado-
lescent respondents in the various contexts. Such studies
could use other established measures of the three constructs
targeted by the DASS-21, or clinical diagnoses if suffi-
ciently large samples of clinically diagnosed participants
could be accessed.
Acknowledgments
The study reported here was in part supported by grant
number 80110035 from the Atraccin de Capital Humano
Avanzado Del Extrajero (Attraction of Advanced Human
Capital from Abroad) program of the Chilean Comisin
Nacional De Investigacin Cientfica Y Tecnolgica.
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Date of acceptance: March 11, 2014
Published online: July 25, 2014
David Mellor
School of Psychology
Deakin University
Burwood 3125
Australia
Tel. +61 3 9244 3742
Fax +61 3 9244 6858
E-mail mellor@deakin.edu.au
European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2014