PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Model: Gold
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has lustrous
beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes.
Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin
remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty centuries ago. Another important
characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in
hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear
gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for
its beauty but also for its utility.

What is paragraph? A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of relate
sentences develops one main idea. A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten
sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to
develop the main idea clearly.
PARAGRAPH

3 structural parts 2 additional elements

Topic supporting concluding unity coherence sentence sentences sentence

The topic sentence:
+ Every good paragraph has a topic sentence.
+ Topic sentence states the topic and controlling idea of the paragraph.
+ It's a complete sentence.
+ It's usually the first sentence.
* A topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea. It names the topic, and then limits the
topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of the single paragraph. A topic sentence gives only
the main idea; therefore, it's the most general statement in the paragraph. It doesn't give any specific
details.
Convenience
*How to write a topic sentence: + Read the topic carefully.
+ Limit the topic.
+ Write the topic sentence
Notes: 1. A topic sentence should be neither too general nor too specific
2. Do not include too many unrelated ideas in your topic sentence; if you do, your paragraph will be
ununified.
Topic : American food
Too general: American food is tasteless and greasy because American use too many canned, frozen, and
prepackaged and because everything is fried in oil and butter.
Good: American food is tasteless and greasy.
Topic Statement which limits the topics

1. Soccer is now played in the United State(place)

2. Soccer has become more popular within the past five

years (time or period of time)

3. Soccer is a physically demanding sport. (quality)

4. Soccer and football have a great deal in common. ( showing

similarities)

5. Soccer is more dangerous than tennis.( showing

differences)

6. A soccer player can receive various kinds of penalties during a

game (a number of things; a list)

7. The world cup Soccer create interests from soccer fans all over the
Championship Games world ( effect)

8. soccer is dangerous for several reasons ( cause; reason)

What are eight kinds of statements which a writer can use to limit his topic?
a. . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . e. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .
b. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . f. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .
c. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . g. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .
d. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . h. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .
THE CONCLUDING SENTENCE

A concluding sentence serves three purposes;

1. It signals the end of the paragraph.
2. It summarizes the main point of the paragraph.
3. It gives a final comment on the topic and leaves the reader with the most important ideas to think

about. END-OF-PARAGRAPH SIGNALS

These are followed by a comma These are followed by a clause

 Finally, As a result, We can see that........
In conclusion, Indeed, It is clear that.....
In summary, In brief, These examples show that.......
Therefore, In short, There can be no doubt that.........
Thus The evidence suggests that ............

1. . Choose from the eight categories the one that is used to limit the topic in the following topic
sentences:
a. place b. time c. quality d. similarities e. differences
f. number g. effect h. cause
1. Soccer has become increasingly popular in the United States in the last ten
years. 2. Team sports develop an athlete' sense fair play.
3. Libraries have three basic kinds of materials.
4. Women are paid less for equal work than men in certain US companies.
5. Pollution has caused three major problems in our town in the last five years.
6. Air travel is more convenient than train travel for at least three reasons.
3. After reading each of the following paragraphs, select the most suitable topic sentence from the
three choices following it , and write the sentence which you have selected in the blank. Then try to
explain why each of the other two items is not appropriate. Follow the example. Possible reason for not
choosing an item might be that:
It is too general.
It is too specific.
It is not a complete grammatical sentence.
It does not relate to the supporting sentences.
Example:
I. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling. Where Britons end certain
words with -se, Americans usually end the same words with -ce, ( British practice versus American
practice); the reverse is sometimes true, too (British defence versus American defense). Notice also the
British preference for final -re fover the American -er (metre versus meter). Finally, most Americans
consider neighbor a correct spelling, but a Briton characteristically adds a u and spells the word Choose a
Topic Sentence:
A. British and American English are not the same.
B. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling.
c. The endings of British and American words are not the same
Defend your choice:
1. I did not choose letter A because it is too general ( some aspects are not the same; others are) 2. I did
not choose letter C because it is too general ( some endings are not the same). II. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . The operation of both devices can be thought of as being divided into three phases ; input,
processing, and output. In the case of the computer, the information which is fed into the machine - the
date- is the input; the internal operations of the machine constitute the processing; and the result- usually
a printout- is called the output. The telephone, too, acts on information presented to it and produces a
result. The input is the actual dialing of the number. The switching system which locates the number can
be considered the processing phase. Finally, the telephone rings on the other end of the line, indicating
that the call has been completed; this constitute the output. Choose a Topic Sentence:
A. Both the computer and the telephone are helpful inventions.
B. Computer terminology, such as input and output, is frequently used in other contexts. C. Despite
apparent differences, the operation of the computer and the telephone have much in common. Defend
your choice:
1. I did not choose letter. . . . . because. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. I did not choose
letter. . . . . because. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III.. . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . The jack is a portable device for raising the car. It
operates by means of force applied to a level on which the car is balanced. The lug wrench is a tool with a
fixed "jaw" for gripping the lug. ( the type of screw used to hold a tire in place). It has along handle so
that it is effective in turning the lug, either to tighten or to loosen it. These two tools, which are usually
found in the trunk of the car and are kept there at all times so that the motorist can use in case of a flat
tire.
Chose a Topic sentence:
A. Flat tires constitute a serious problem for the motorist.
B. How to change a flat tire.
C. The two tools necessary to change a tire are considered standard equipment on new US automobiles.
1. I did not choose letter. . . . . because. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. I did not choose
letter. . . . . because. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .. The first one is the small pocket dictionary. Dictionaries of this type are usually only abridgments
of earlier, more comprehensive dictionaries. The definitions found in a pocket dictionary are rather
sketchy, and few or no example sentences are given to help the international student understand how the
word is actually used in a sentence. Equally inadequate is the bilingual dictionary ( Thai-English,
Spanish-English, Russian-English). This type of dictionary is often based on the idea of making word-for-
word translations, a notion which shows no understanding of the idiomatic nature of all languages.
Moreover, bilingual dictionaries are often hastily and sloppily compiled, as well as hopelessly out of date
even before they are published.
Choose a Topic sentence:
A. A number of dictionaries are inappropriate for the international students.
B. Some dictionaries aren't comprehensive enough.
C. The worst kind of dictionaries.
1. I did not choose letter. . . . . because. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.
I did not choose letter. . . . . because. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V.. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In 1980, there were approximately 25 millions Americans who
were sixty-five or older. By the late 1980s, the number of these senior citizens had risen to over 30
million. This trend toward an increasingly older population, attributed largely to better health care, is
expected to continue. in fact, the US Census Bureau projects that the number of elderly Americans in the
year 2020 will reach over 50 million, double the 1980 figure.
Choose a Topic sentence:
A. The population of older people in the United States has and will probably continue to increase
rapidly. B. The increasing population of senior citizens.
C. Health care in the United States is getting better for older people.
1. I did not choose letter. . . . . because. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.
I did not choose letter. . . . . because. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.
Write two topic sentences for each of the following topics:
a. Music
b. Superstitions
c. Gasoline
d. Working mothers
e. Pollution
f. Smoking cigarettes.
g. Space exploration
Exercises:
1. Study the following pairs of topic sentences and check the one you think would be a good, clear
topic sentence for a paragraph:
a. 1. Snow skiing on the highest mountainsides requires great skill.
2. Snow skiing is fun.
b.1. Exercise is healthful.
2. Jogging is healthful for several reasons.
c. 1. Camping is a great outdoor activity.
2. Camping requires a variety of special equipment.
d. 1. The legal age for drinking alcoholic drinks should be twenty-one for several
reasons. 2. Drinking is dangerous to your health.
e. 1. Small cars are popular.
2. Driving a VW Rabbit saves money.
2. Write a concluding sentence for each of the following topic sentence. You may begin the concluding
sentence with a conclusion phrase followed by a comma:
a. Writing a paragraph in English is easy if you follow these steps.
b. The cafeteria is an expensive place to eat.
c. My first day of school was a frightening experience.
d. Everyone in a car should fasten his or her safety belt.
e. Watching television situation comedy is a good way to learn English
I. Read the following paragraphs. The topic sentence in each of the following paragraph is
underlined. If the topic sentence is weak, rewrite it in the space provided:
1. Even though the procedures followed to enroll in an American University vary according to each
University, some steps are the same. First, you should contact the registration office of the university you
want to attend to get the necessary forms and information concerning that particular university’s entrance
requirements. Then, you must follow the steps outlined in their response. You probably have to spend
copies of your high school diploma, get letters of recommendation, and write an essay on why you want
to study there. You may have to achieve a certain score on the WOEFUL test and have your scores
forwarded to that university. Finally, you will have to contact the American Embassy to start the
procedures to obtain a student visa.
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 2. Many students cannot afford a car. The city bus
service usually passes the university so those students can get to class on the bus. Many universities have
a special shuttle bus that is provided for student transportation. Some students like to ride to class on
bicycle than to find a parking place for a car on a crowded university campus. Those students who live
close to campus or on campus can enjoy a leisurely walk to their classes.
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 3. Apply to a foreign university is difficult. First, a
student may feel alone by being far from family and friends. Also, difficult in understanding a foreign
language can be very frustrating and can affect the students grades. It can be very expensive to pay the
cost of travel and housing in a different country. Finally, if there is an emergency at home it is hard to get
home in a hurry.

. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 4. There are several kinds of airports. From an
international airport, flights go to other country as well as to cities in the same country. A national airport
usually only serves the cities within its nation. Rural airports usually link a town with a nearby national
airport. Private airport are those on airport military base or a hospital. Individuals and companies can own
their private airport.

. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 5. There are several features of spoken English that
make it difficult for me to understand. First, many words are not pronounced as they are spelled, so when
I learn new words through reading, I sometimes don’t understand them when they are spoken. Second,
native speakers contract words and phrases “ what are you doing?” becomes “ whacha doin?”. Third,
native speakers have a wide range of accents. British accent is very different from a Texas one. Fourth,
there are a lot of idioms and slang expressions. These expressions also differ depending on the area a
speaker is from. Finally, there are sounds that don’t exist in my language that do exist in English and vice
versa. These sounds are difficult for me to
distinguish. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .

II. Add the topic sentence for the following paragraph:

. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . First, the fast-food restaurant is good for people
who must have a quick bite because of a busy schedule. Second, the food is inexpensive yet tasty. a
person can eat an enjoyable meal out an stay within a limited budget. Finally, the food is usually
consistent. For example, a cheeseburger from a well-known fast food restaurant looks and tastes about the
same no matter where in the world it is purchased. Consequently, buyers know exactly what they are
getting.
III. Many paragraphs can be made better by adding details. Read the following paragraphs.
Although seat belts have been shown to save lives, people give a number of reasons for not using them.
First, many people think they are nuisance. Second, people are lazy. Third, some people don't believe they
will have an accident. Finally, some people are afraid the seat belt will trap them in their car. All of these
reasons seem inadequate, since statistics show that wearing seat belts saves lives and prevents serious
injuries.
The paragraph can be improved. Read the following questions:
(a) Why don't people like seat belts?
(b) In what way are people lazy?
(c) Why do people think they won't have an accident?
(d) Under what circumstances might people get trapped?
Asking and answering these kinds of questions will help strengthen the paragraph. Now read the
paragraph with details. Notice how adding the answers to these questions has improved it. Although seat
belts have been shown to save lives, people give a number of reasons for not using them. First, many
people think they are nuisance. They say the belt is uncomfortable and inhibits freedom of movement.
Second, many people are lazy. For them it is too much trouble to put on and adjust a seat belt, especially
if they are going a short distance. Third, some people don't believe they will have an accident because
they are careful and experienced drivers. They think they will be able to respond quickly to avoid crash.
Finally, some people are afraid the seat belt will trap them in their car. If they have an accident, they
might not be able to get out of the car that is burning, or they might be unconscious and another person
won't be able to get them out. All of these reasons seem inadequate, since statistics show that wearing seat
belts saves lives and prevent serious injuries.
Rewrite the following weak paragraphs by answering the questions and using answers within paragraph:
1. When you plant a tree, you are helping your environment in many ways. Your tree will provide a home
and food for other creatures. It will hold the soil in place. It will provide shade in the summer. You can
watch it grow and someday show your children or even grandchildren the tree you planted. (a) What kind
of home would the tree provide?
(b) What kind of food would the tree provide?
(c) What kind of creatures might use the tree?
(d) Why is holding the soil in place important?
(e) Why is shade important?
2. Airplanes and helicopters can be used to save people lives. Helicopters can be used for rescuing people
in trouble. Planes can transport people to hospitals in emergencies. Helicopters and airplanes can be used
to provide medical services to people who live ion remote areas.
(a) In what situations do people need rescuing by helicopters?
(b) What kinds of disasters might happen?
(c) What kinds of emergencies may require transporting people to hospitals?
(d) How can helicopters and airplanes be used to provide medical services to people in remote areas. 3.
Studying in another country is advantageous in many ways. A student is exposed to a new culture.
Sometimes he or she can learn a new language. Students can often have learning experiences not
available in their own countries. A student may get the opportunity to study at a university where a
leading expert in his or her field may be teaching.
(a) How can exposure to a new culture be an advantage?
(b) How can learning a new language be an advantage?
(c ) What kinds of experiences might a student have?
(d) What are the benefits of studying under a leading expert?

METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS

When supporting sentences are arranged in a step- by -step sequence which tells how something
is made or done, this development is called process. Process development is, in fact, a kind of
enumeration, but here we are usually dealing only with steps or stages( and not, for example, with kinds
or types). If we wanted to give a more visual representation of process development, our diagram might
look something like this:

PROCE
SS

Step 1
Step 2
 Step 3
Step 4
and so forth

Model paragraph

In his will, Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the science awards he
endowed are to be selected. First, each year the Swedish of Sciences ( physics and chemistry) and the
Caroline Medical Institute ( physiology and medicine) solicit nearly 2,000 recommendations from past
laureates, university professors, and other experts from all over the world. The second step is the review
of recommendations received and the selection of preliminary candidates by special committees within
the two Swedish institutions. The committee members are specifically instructed that those chosen " Saab
have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind", and that no consideration be given to the candidates'
nationalities. Next, after lengthy investigation and discussion, the final choices are made for each
discipline. Finally, telegrams informing them of their wards are sent to the new Nobel laureates about one
month prior to the award ceremony.

LISTING SIGNALS
Process paragraphs often use listing signal. Group 1 listing signals can be used, but the structures which
follow them are usually different:
GROUP 1 (PROCESS)
First, Send out the recommendations.
(command form of the verb)
Second, You must send out the recommendations
(Next (should, must, can + verb)
Then)
Third, The committee Sends out the recommendations (Next, (simple present
form)
Then)
Last, The recommendations are sent out by the committee (Passive form)
(Finally)
Listing signals Common sentence structures for Process Paragraphs
GROUP 2 (PROCESS)
The first
The second
(The next)
The third STEP
(the next) STAGE
The last PHASE
 (the final)

Listing signals Process Enumerators

TIME CLUES, REPETITION, AND PRONOUN REFERENCE

In addition to the sequence signals, there are other indicators which a writer can use to develop a
process paragraph. They are:
1. Time clues, which include choice of verb and tense
2. Repetition, which provides links between your sentences, thus helping the reader following your train
of thought.
3. Pronoun reference, which provides still another kind of link between your
sentences. TIME CLUES:
Study the following paragraph. It illustrates time clues. Later in this chapter it is used to illustrate
repetition and pronoun reference.
Even if you don't know how to cook, you'll never
starve to death if you know how to prepare
scrambled eggs. You begin by melting one tablespoon
of butter in a pan over low heat. While the butter is
melting, break three eggs into a bowl. add 1/4
teaspoon of salt, 1/4 teaspoon of paprika, and 3
teaspoon of milk to the eggs in the bowl and mix
them for about a minute. Pour the mixture into
the pan. As the eggs to thicken in the pan, break
them into shreds with a fork, or stir them with
a spoon until they become solid. When they are
cooked, serve them with lightly buttered toast.

Verb choice
Time indicate the first step
phrase Time clause
indicate either simutaneous or sequential
actions

Verb choice: In the model paragraph, the choice of the verb begin indicates the
 first step or stage. another appropriate verb choice would be start. There are other verbs which can be
used to indicate the various parts of the process. Some of them are:

STEP (STAGE) VERBS

First begin, start

intermediate continue, become, develop

final end, finish

Time clauses: time clauses and phrases also help show the continuity of development in a process. In the
model paragraph, the time clauses explain the time relationship between events just as sequence signals
do.
While the butter is melting,
As the eggs begin to thicken
When they are cooked
The most common time words used to introduce time clause are before, after, when, while, as and until.
Study the following box:
Simultaneous action ( while, as)

While the butter is

melting, break
eggs into a bowl
As

Sequential action:

When the eggs thicken

serve them with toast
After have thickened
( fisrt
action) ( second action)

The eggs must be thickened ( before) you serve have thickened

them ( Fisrt action) ( Second action) ( Second action) ( Fisrt action)

Do not serve eggs until they thicken

Participial phrase: Sometimes clauses may
be reduced to participle phrases. Study the following box: note that the structure of the (participle) time
phrases.
Stimunious actions (while)
Clause: while you are melting the butter, break three eggs into a bowl.
Phrases: While melting the butter,. . . .
Sequential actions: (when, after, before)
Clause: When/ after you have beaten the eggs, pour them into the pan
Phrase: Having beaten the eggs. .. .
after having beaten the eggs,. . . . .
Clause: You must beta the eggs before you pour them into the pan.
Phrase: . .. . . . . . . before pour them into the pan.

Sentence connectors of time: Sometimes, instead of making one of the sentences into a time clause, we
can join the two sentences by a sentence connector of time. This can be either a word or a phrase. Study
the following box. Notice the use of the semicolon. A semicolon is used to punctuate the two sentences
which are being joined by the sentence connectors in each of the examples. That is, the semicolon
combines two grammatically distinct sentences into one. This is done because of the strong meaning link
between them, expressed by the sentence connectors. The semicolon is commonly used to punctuate the
sentence when the sentence connectors are used.

Sentence connectors of time:

A. Melt the outer in the pan; during this period beat the eggs.
at the same time
meanwhile

B. Beat the eggs well; after wards

after that
then pour them into the pan.
following that
at that point

Exercise: All time clues have been removed from the following paragraph. Add a few time clues to make
it read more smoothly. Remember the four kinds of time clues:
1. Verb choice which indicates process.
2. Time clause.
3. Participle phrase of time
4. Sentence connector of time
 In order to find a suitable apartment, you must follow a very systematic approach. You must
decide which neighborhood would be most convenient for you. You must determine how much rent your
budget will allow. You must check the classified ads in the newspapers. Be sure to check these ads
regularly, since new listing appears each day. Telephone the apartments which seem likely choices. Begin
your long journey to inspect each one of them.

2. The following two groups of sentences constitute paragraphs on the process known as the scientific
method. However, the sentences have been given a disordered sequence- that is, they have been
scrambled. Place them in their correct order

1. Following this method, the researcher first observes some aspects of nature and then poses a specific
question about what has been observed.
2. Experiments based on this hypothesis are designed and conducted to test each
contingency. 3. In order to answer this question, pertinent data are collected.
4. After through experimentation, the research validates, modifies, or rejects the original hypothesis. 5.
Originating from the branch of philosophy called epistemology, what we know as the scientific method
provides guidelines for the systematic acquisition of knowledge.
6. On the basis of these data, a hypothesis is exposed to explain them.
CAUSE AND EFFECT

In a cause and effect development, there is always a casual relationship between the topic sentence and
supporting sentences, or even between major supporting sentences and minor ones. This means that your
supporting sentences become a list of either effects or causes ( what a certain situation has led to or has
resulted in ) or causes ( reasons or explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the
way it did)
FOCUS ON CAUSE FOCUS ON EFFECT
Cause # 1 Cause #1

Cause#2 Situation Situation Cause# 2

Cause# 3 Cause#3
Cause and effect development:
Focus on effect
Model paragraph
Some scientists warn that the gradual warming of the earth's atmosphere, known as the Greenhouse effect,
will cause dramatic changes in the world as we know it. First of all, because of the increase in
temperature of up to 10 degrees F by the end of the next century, which some believe has already begun,
there will be changes in existing patterns of agriculture. Such fertile areas as the US. Great plains may
 become deserts, while the now arid lands in Saudi Arabia may become grain producing farmland.
Secondly, since rainfall patterns will change, water supplies in some areas will diminish. Experts predict,
for instance, that the rice fields in south east Asia will someday require irrigation to sustain crops.
Changes in water levels will also be responsible for altered living patterns. Coastal areas such a dramatic
rise in water levels that they will fall below sea level and become uninhabitable. In other areas, like the
Great Lakes, water levels will fall consequently, they will no longer be able to support industry with
energy supplies and a ready means of transportation. Since most experts on the Green House are
convinced that it is irreversible, they advise us to plan now for how best to cope with a changing world.

Analyzing a cause and effect paragraph (focus on effect)

Directions: Fill in the following chart, which is based on the preceding model paragraph:

T.S: Some
scientists warn
that the gradual
warming of the
earth
atmostphere, known as the Greenhouse Effect, will cause
dramatic changes in the world as we know it
CAUSE EFFECT AGRICULTURE changes in Agriculture Patterns

temparature
increase ( Great plains
Saudi Arabia)
Examples

WATER SUPPLIES

Greenhouse
Effect

Examples

LIVING PATTERNS Examples

CAUSE AND EFFECT STRUCTURAL SIGNALS

Group I: Sentence connectors: These are words and phrases used to join two complete grammatical
sentences. A semicolon (;) is often used before a sentence connector. However, since each of the
sentences can stand a lone and be considered grammatically correct, a period (.) can also be used after the
first sentence. In either case, a comma (,) is used after the sentence connector:
In some areas, water levels will fall; as a result, these areas will no consequently., longer
be able to support
therefore, industry
because of this,
hence,
( Cause) ( effect)
Group II. Conjunctions: Unlike Group 1 signals, conjunctions of cause and effect are always preceded
by commas. Because the sentences generally do stand alone, a period is not used between them. A. In
some areas, water levels will fall, so these areas will no longer be able to support industry. B. Some areas
will no longer be able to support industry for water levels will have fallen in these areas.
Group III: Clause structures: Box A of this group consists of signals whose parts are separated: so.. . .
that, such. . . .that, and such a. . . that
A. The rise in temperature will be so great that agriculture happen so fast that patterns will
dry out so much land that change
destroy so many crops that
cause such terrible damage that

B. Since
Because rainfall patterns will change, water supplies will diminish. because of the fact that
Due to the fact that
Group IV: Phase structures: Because a phrase ( a group of words ) is not a complete sentence, it must be
connected to the main sentence

Because of
Due to the increase heat, the agricultural patterns will change.
As a result of
In view of
Group V: Predicate structures: The predicate of a sentence includes everything from the verb to the end.
In this group of structures, the cause effect relationship is indicated by the verb or the word following it.
A. Changes in water levels will cause
result in
be a reason for changes in living patterns
be responsible for
contribute to
lead to

B. Drastic changes in living result from

patterns will be a result of
 be a consequent of changes in water levels
be due to
follow from
Group VI. Participal phrases:
Notice that the participal phrases in the following box (1) have no subjects, and (2) contain verbs which
are in the ing form. Since a participal phrase has no subject, it must be connected to the main sentence.
Some of the structures in group 4 can be used to create such phrase.
A. Water levels will change, causing
leading to changes in living patterns.
contributing to
resulting in

B. Living patterns will change, resulting from changes in water levels.

following from
CAUSE AND EFFECT: FOCUS ON CAUSE

Model paragraph:
Why is that American working women complain about job discrimination? Statistics suggest that there is
a basis for their grievances. According to recent Census Bureau statistic, nearly 45 5 of all women of
working age are in the labor force. Although they have made progress in recent years, women are still
underrepresented in traditionally male professions. For example, women constitute only 9.4% of electrical
engineers, 17.4 % of doctors, and 15.2 percent of lawyers. A second area of complaint is women' median
weekly and yearly earnings in comparison with men's. The average made factory worker earns $ 3336 per
week, while a female worker earns only $ 225. Further, the story gap is even more pronounced among
women with higher educations. The average woman college graduate makes $ 21,889 annually, but the
average male college graduate makes $ 33, 934, a difference of 55 %.
ANALYZING CAUSE AND EFFECT PARAGRAPH

T.S Why is it that American working women complain about job crimination?
Statistics suggest that there is a basis for their grievances.

CAUSES EFFECT
 traditional male professions
Women's
complaints of job
Median weakly/ Yearly earnings 1. 2.
The average factory worker a. Male a.
b. female Discrimination
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

COMPARISON

Model paragraph:
Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S. presidents, Abraham
Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the names Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven
letters. Both men had their selections legally challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for
their interest in civil rights. Lincoln became president in 1860; and Kennedy in 1960. Lincoln's secretary
was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy's secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Nether men took the advice of the secretary
not to make public appearance on the day on which he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both
killed on a Friday in the appearance of their wives. Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey
Oswald, have fifteen letters in their names, and both were murdered before they could be brought to trial.
Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson, so was Kennedy. Andrew
Johnson ( Lincoln' successor was born in 1908. And finally, the same caisson carried the bodies of both
men in their funeral processions.

Structures of comparison

Group I: Adjective/ preposition

Kennedy was killed on exactly
almost the same day of the week as Lincoln.
particularly
Kennedy's death was somewhat
rather similar to Lincoln's in that they both died..
very
quite

( degree of similarity) Adj Prep ( Basis comparison)

Kennedy's death was somewhat like Lincoln's in that they both died in the. . rather
preposition
Like Lincoln, Kennedy refused to heed his secretary's warming.

Preposition Basis of comparison

Group II.: Attached statement
Kennedy was succeeded by Southern Democrat, and Lincoln was, too.
and so was Lincoln.
Kennedy's assassin was not brought to trial, and Lincoln's wasn't either.
and neither was Lincoln's.
Group III: Correlative conjunctions.
A. Both Kennedy and Lincoln had their selections legally challenged.
Neither Kennedy's wife nor his children were expecting anything unusual to happen that day.
Just as Lincoln died in the office, so Kennedy was still president when he was just assassinated.
Group V. : Sentence connectors:
Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson; similarly,
correspondingly,
likewise,
in the same way,
by the same token,
Lyndy Johnson , a democrat from the South, succeeded Kennedy.
Group VI: Punctuation only
A. Andrew Johnson was born in 1808; Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908.
CONTRAST:
Model paragraph:
According to the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustay Jung, every person's personality can be somewhere on a
scale running from extreme extroversion ( an outgoing personality) to extreme introversion ( a withdraw
personality). The typical extrovert is particularly fond of people and people oriented activities: he or she
sociable, likes parties, has many friends, needs to have people to talk to, and does not like reading or
studying alone. The typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of person, introspective,
fond of books rather than people. Unlike the extrovert, who craves excitement, take chances, and is
generally impulsive, the introvert shuns excitement, takes matters of everyday life with proper
seriousness, and likes a well-ordered mode of life. Whereas the extrovert tends to be aggressive and loses
his or her temper easily, the introvert tends to keep his or her feelings under close control, seldom behaves
in an aggressive manner, and does not lose his or her temper easily. The introvert may often be subject to
criminal psychopathic behavior, in contrast to the introvert, who may be exhibit neurotic tendencies. A
further difference between the two involves the ability to remember. Studies have tended to show that the
extrovert learns faster than the introvert but, in the end remember less.
STRUCTURES OF CONTRAST:
Group I: -ER . . .. THAN; MORE . .. . THAN; LESS. . . . THAN; AS. . . AS
A. The introvertis quitter than the introvert
is more reliable than
is less optimistic than
learns more slowly than

B. The extrovert isn't as quiet as the introvert.

isn't as reliable as
doesn't learn as slowly as
Group II: Prepositions

Unlike the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well Contrary to
ordered mode of life.
As opposed to

Group III: Adverbial clauses

Whereas the extrovert oses his or her temper quickly, the introvert seldom
While does.

Group IV: Verbal structures

contrasts with
The introvert differs from the introvert in regard to his or her temper. is different from in
respect to

METHODS OF CONTRAST
Method I: SOCIABILITY The Extrovert The
Introvert
RISKTAKING The Extrovert
The Introvert
( AND SO FORTH)
Method II:
Sociality
Risk Taking
THE EXTROVERT Feelings, Aggression Reliability,
optimism.
Abnormal tendencies
Ability to Remember

Sociality
Risk Taking
THE INTROVERT Feelings, Aggression Reliability,
optimism.
Abnormal tendencies
Ability to Remember