[ History and Culture of Pakistan 2059-Paper I]

History and Culture of Pakistan 2059-Paper I

Total Question = 5
To attempt = 3 (Q#1 is Compulsory)
Each Question Carries = 25 Marks

Section B
Part a = 4 marks = 7-8 Lines- 4 facts paragraphs
Part b= 7 marks 1 Page 2 Paragraphs = reasons based
answer
Part c= 14 marks at least 2 pages 4-5 paragraphs = analytical
based
Time = 1:30
Part a = 3-4 minutes
Part b = 7-8 minutes
Part c= 13-14 minutes
Section A
Part a= 3 marks small paragraph 3 problems from the text
Part b= 5 marks small pictures 5 facts from source
Part c= 7, marks why? Reason based question 2 paragraphs 1 page
Part d= 10 marks explanatory 3-4 paragraph 1.5 pages

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Topic:1 The Decline of the Mughal Empire ,

Aurangzeb (1658 -1707)
He was quite a controversial figure, continuous fighting against Marahthas
Shah Jahan had four sons: Dara Shikoh, , Shah Shujah, Murad and Aurangzeb

• They were all governors in different provinces.

• Dara was nominated by his father as his heir but Aurangzeb and other brothers were
not happy.
• Fighting broke out among his sons and Dara was defeated.
• Aurangzeb was an industrious and self-disciplined man.
• He was ambitious for power but had no lust for wealth. He was quite contented man.
• He could be ruthless to his enemies even to his own Kith and kins for power.
• Aurangzeb as a ruler
• He was a strict ruler and a strict Muslim and believed in Islamic laws.
• He tried to control the moral behavior of the people.
• He went back to use Islamic Calendar.
• He formed the council of theologians.
• To achieve the power and authority, he could use any mean.
• Jizaya Tax Lifted by Akbar and was re-imposed in 1679 by Aurangzeb.
• This was imposed on the non-Muslims because they did not fight for the defense of the
country and for the development and welfare of their religious places.
• The tax was controversial and was widely disliked the people.
• There was misconception among the Hindus that Aurangzeb wanted to convert Hindus
to Muslim

Detailed answer and information

The Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent in the time of Aurangzeb Alamgir, but it
collapsed with dramatic suddenness within a few decades after his death. The Mughal Empire
owes its decline and ultimate downfall to a combination of factors; firstly Aurangzeb's
religious policy is regarded as a cause for the decline of the Mughal Empire as it led to disunity
among the Indian people.

Although the aforementioned policy did lead to weakening of the empire but another major
cause of decline were unworthy and incompetent successors after Aurangzeb. The character

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of Mughal kings had deteriorated over a period of time. The successive rulers after Aurangzeb
were weak and lacked the character, motivation and commitment to rule the empire strongly.
They had become ease loving and cowardly. They totally disregarded their state duties and
were unable to detain the declining empire from its fall. These later Mughal rulers were
absolutely incompetent and weak. They were proven neither good generals nor good
statesmen who could control or administer the large empire which covered nearly the whole of
the subcontinent during Aurangzeb’s rule. The later rulers were pleasure loving and were
renowned for living an extravagant lifestyle with little thought to the effect it had on the
economy of the empire. They also lacked courage, determination and training. Money was
spent lavishly on fine buildings, jewellery, fine clothes and food. No infrastructure was created
for the improvement of administration, industry or agriculture.

The absence of any definite law of accession was another important factor. The war of
successions not only led to bitterness, bloodshed, and loss of money and prestige of the empire
over a period of time, but to its eventual fall. Wars of succession were also an important reason.
After the death of a ruler, the princess fought for the throne. This eroded the strength and led
to the instability of the Mughal Empire.Aurangzeb fought against his brothers DaraShiko and
Shuja, and later got Kamran killed. Infighting continued even after Aurangzeb likeMoazzam
who succeeded the throne under the name of Bahadur Shah after Aurangzeb, defeated his
brothers Azam and KamBaksh and killed them.Bahadur Shah ruled for 5 years and died in
1712. His sons also fought for the throne. The infighting for the throne greatly weakened the
Mughal Empire.

The raids by Nadir Shah(1739), and repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali(1761),
resulted in further weakening of the empire.The rise of Marathas in Deccan and the Sikhs in
Punjab weakened the Mughal power after Aurangzeb’s death. Mughal Kingdom was reduced
to an area 300 miles long and 100 miles wide near Delhi within 100 years after the death of
Aurangzeb.

The already weakened empire faced further encroachment by the British and the French,
which proved to be the last nail in the already drowning empire's coffin. The British and French,
who had initially come as traders, took full advantage of the weakening empire and soon
became masters of the whole of India. Therefore the rise of British power was the main reason
of the decline of the Mughals. The British took full advantage of the weakness of the Mughals
and gradually increased their power. The British expanded the territory under their control with

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the help of their superior administration and organization. A series of battles and annexations,
through steps like ‘Subsidiary Alliance’ and ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ and effective administration
the British gradually assumed control over a vast territory in the subcontinent. They also had
clear military advantage because of Industrial development in England (1750-1850). The
British had better weapons, superior war techniques and a well-trained and disciplined army.
The British possessed a strong naval force .The result was that by 1803 the British took over
Delhi and placed Shah Alam under British protection with a pension.

The degeneration of the rulers had also led to the moral degeneration of the nobility. Under
the early Mughals, the nobles performed useful functions and distinguished themselves both in
war and peace. But the elite under the later Mughals was more interested in worldly pursuit
and self-enhancement.The nobles who had once been talented men with integrity, honesty, and
loyalty, turned selfish and deceitful. Growth of hostile and rival clique in the court also
undermined the strength of the government. Widespread corruption in the administration
started and taking bribes became common.

One of the most potent causes of the fall of the Mughal Empire was the deterioration and
demoralization of the army. The military had not only become inefficient but also lacked in
training, discipline and cohesion. The army was outdated in regard to equipment. It consisted
of contingents maintained by various nobles, which was the main source of Army's weakness.
As the weakening of the nobles occurred, so did the army. This was because of the soldiers,
instead of identifying and uniting as Mughal Indians, identified themselves with different
ethnic groups like Persian, Afghans and Central Asians. The Mughals had no navy and only
maintained small ships that were no match for the well-equipped ships of the foreign traders.
It was this weakness that the French and the British used to their advantage, and were
eventually able to establish their control over India

Another factor contributing to the decline was the financial position of the Mughals, which
had become deplorable. The war of successions, rebellions and luxurious style of living had
depleted the once enormous treasury and had led to financial bankruptcy. During the time of
Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire had expanded to reach its maximum size. This vast areahad
become impossible for one ruler to control and govern from one centre. It was during the later
Mughals that Deccan, Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa declared their independence.

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Topic: 2 The Muslim Reformers

SHAH WALLI ULLAH (1703-1762)

Early Biographical detail:

Shah Wali Ullah Muhaddis Dehlvi was born on February 21, 1703 at Delhi, just when the
reign of Aurangzeb was nearing its end. He was named Qutb-ud-Din, but is better known by
his title of Wali Ullah, given to him by virtue of his goodness and piety. His father, Shah
Abdul Rahim, was a sufi and theologian of great repute. He was the founding member and
teacher of the Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah in Delhi.

Shah Wali Ullah received his academic and spiritual education from his father. He memorized
the Holy Quran and gained knowledge of Tafseer and Hadith. He also turned his attention to
the Sahih Bukhari and Islamic Jurisprudence. He also studied medicine and tibb. After
acquiring this knowledge, he taught at his father's Madrasa for 12 years. He left for Arabia in
1730 for higher education. During his stay in Arabia, he was influenced by Sheikh Abu Tahir
bin Ibrahim, a renowned scholar of the time. He studied in Medina for 14 years, where he
obtained his Sanad in Hadith. It is believed that while Shah Wali Ullah was in Arabia, he was
blessed with a vision of the Holy Prophet (SAW), and tidings that he would be influential in
organizing the reform of Muslims in India.

Beliefs:
In the 18th century, Islam in the Sub-continent was faced with menacing problems. Sectarian
conflict, low moral tone of the society, poor understanding of the Holy Quran and general
ignorance of Islam were just some of the issues which gave rise to fear that political collapse
would be accompanied by religious disintegration. This did not happen; rather an era of
religious regeneration was inaugurated, which was due more than anything else to the activities
of one man, Shah Wali Ullah.
By the time he returned to Delhi in July 1732, the decline in Mughal fortunes had started and
the emergence of Marathas began. The social, political, economic and religious conditions of
the Muslims were very poor. On his return to India, he not only identified the causes for the
decline of the Muslims, but also pointed out the remedies. Shah Wali Ullah believed that the
various problems Muslims faced were due to their ignorance about Islam and the Holy Quran.

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He, therefore, personally trained a number of students who were entrusted with the task of
spreading Islam.

Works:

1. Religious Services

Shah Wali-Ullah rendered many religious services. He completed the translation of Holy
Quran in Persian in 1738. Later on his sons Shah Rafi-ud-Din and Shah Abdul Qadir
translated the Holy Quran in Urdu. Moreover Shah Wali-Ullah termed the Hadith collection
by Imam Muttah as the most authentic and wrote its commentary in Arabic and Persian. Shah
Wali-Ullah also arranged the Hadith in respect of their topics. In addition he worked for the
renaissance of Islam and wrote 51 books. He propagated that Islam was a universal power and
thus the Muslims should be the dominant force in the Sub-Continent and elsewhere.

Shah Wali-Ullah trained students in different branches of Islamic knowledge and entrusted
them with the teaching of students. He recommended the application of Ijtihad against blind
Taqlid in his famous work -al-Ijtihad wa-al-Taqlid.

He studied the writings of each school-of-thought to understand their point of view, and then
wrote comprehensive volumes about what is fair and just in light of the teachings of Islam. He
adopted an analytical and balanced approach towards four major school-of-thought of
mysticism. In order to create a balance between the four schools i.e. Hanafi, Malaki, Shafii,
Hambali he wrote Al-Insaf. He worked out a system of thought, beliefs, and values, on which
all but the extremists could agree. He thus provided a spiritual basis or national cohesion.

2. Political Services :

Shah Wali-Ullah possessed a deep political insight. He tried to trace the causes of the decline
of Mughal Empire. In the middle of the 18th century Marathas had become a great political
power. They were threatening to occupy the crown of Delhi. At this critical juncture Shah
Wali-Ullah in order to check their advance prepared Najid-ullah (Rohilla Chief) and Shuja-
ud-Daulah (Nawab of Oudh) for Jihad. Moreover he wrote a letter to Ahmed Shah Abdali.
King of Afghanistan requesting him to save the Muslims from the highhanded-less of the
Marathas. Consequently in the Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmed Shah Abdali inflicted a
crushing defeat on the Marathas. Marhattas, were a constant threat to the crumbling Mughal
Empire. Shah Wali Ullah tried to reconcile the basic differences amongst the different sections

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of the Muslims and considered the government as an essential means and agency for
regeneration of the community. He wrote to Ahmad Shah Abdali; "...give up the life of ease.
Draw the sword and do not to sheath it till the distinction is established between true faith
and infidelity...”

In short, the Muslim Renaissance Movement launched by Shah Wali-Ullah was the forerunner
of all the future freedom movements of Indo-Pakistan. Maulana Mohammad Qasim founder
of Madressah Deoband and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan were among his followers. Later on his son
Shah Abdul Aziz founded the Jihad Movement which was carried forward by Syed Ahmed
Shaheed.

In his time Shias and Sunnis were aggressively hostile to each other and their rivalry was
damaging the Muslim unity. Shah wali ullah wrote Izalat-al-Akhifa and Khilafat-al-
Khulafa in order to remove misunderstanding between Shias and Sunnis. He refused to
denounce Shias as heretics.

After Mujaddid Alf Sani, Shah Wali-Ullah worked for unity of Muslims and to develop
separate National identify. He created separate national identity among Muslims and
convinced them to fight for their rights.

3. Social Services :

Shah Wali-Ullah was strongly opposed to integration of Islamic culture in the cultural cauldron
of the sub-continent and wanted the Muslims to ensure their distance from it.

Shah Wali-Ullah directed his teachings towards reorienting the Muslim society with the
concepts of basic social justice, removing social inequalities, and balancing the iniquitous
distribution of wealth. He established several branches of his school at Delhi for effective
dissemination of his ideas. In his book "Hujjat-ullah-il-Balighah", he pinpointed the causes
of chaos and disintegration of Muslim society. He advised the Muslims to give up
extravagance and wasteful expenditure on marriages, deaths, births and other occasions.
Wealthy Muslims were asked to look after the poor and the needy.

Briefly speaking,Shah Wali-Ullah was responsible for awakening in the community the desire
to win back its moral fervor and maintain its purity. To rescue a community's conscience,
belief and faith from destruction was no small achievement. Even after his death in 1762, his

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sons and followers carried on his work and noble mission. Many future Islamic leaders and
thinkers were inspired by his example.

Third Battle of Panipat 1761

Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was a devout Muslim and persecutor of Hindus.
Hindus of the Deccan rallied around a charismatic leader named Shivaji who was proclaimed
king of the Marathas in 1674. His movement continued to gain momentum after his death in
1680, reaching its zenith in the mid- 18th century when the Marathas Confederacy controlled
lands extending from Hyderabad in the south to Punjab in the north. But the quest for a restored
Hindu empire in India came to an end in 1761 when the Marathas were badly defeated by
Afghan forces under Ahmed Shah Durani at the Third Battle of Panipat. Although the Afghans
retreated from India, the Maratha Confederacy never recovered. The British East India
Company was the beneficiary and gradually supplanted the by-now-defunct Mughal Empire
and the warring Indian factions.

Syed Ahmed Reforms Shaheed Bareilvi (1786-1831)

• He was born in 1786 in Rae Bareilly, near Lucknow in a Syed Family.
• He got his early education from Madrassah-e-Rahimya and he was famous as a man of
action.
• He believed in taking practical steps to achieve the goals.
• He joined the army of Ameer Khan, Nawab of Tonk, and learnt military skills. He was
called a man of action-not just religious scholar.
• He wrote a book: “Sirat-e-Musatqeem”.
• He wanted to snub the growing power of Sikhs and the British.
• He wanted to curtail un-Islamic restrictions like Azan should called out and mosques
should not be used as stables.
• Before this Syed Ahmed Bareilvi was declared as prayer leader.
• He got the religious and political authority to unify the Muslims.
• Local Pathan tribal chiefs, Yar Muhammad Khan and Sultan Mohammad Khan were
bribed by the Sikhs and they betrayed Syed Ahmed Shaheed Bareilvi.
• Yar Mohammad Khan tried to assassinate Syed Ahmed Bareilvi when he was about to
attack Attock Fort.
• He shifted his headquarters from Peshawar to Panjtrar and then to Balakot.

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• Sultan Mohammad, brother of Yar Muhammad also betrayed him.

• Syed Ahmed Bareilvi was attacked by huge Sikh forces in 1831, and was martyred
there.
• He started the first armed struggle against non-Muslim rule.
• His work has been a source of inspiration for Muslim belonging of India to fight for a
common link.
Causes of Failure
• Lost local support as the tribal chiefs betrayed him and withdrew support for
Mujahedeen and Jihad Movement of Syed Ahmed Shaheed Bareilvi.
• He wanted to set up an Islamic State.
• He wanted to eradicate the unislamic practices which have crept into the Muslim
society.
• Some people N.W.F.P complained about the repression of Sikh ruler who was not
giving them permission to perform their religious obligations.
• Sikh would not pay respect to the religious places of Muslims.
• He started the Jihad Movement.
• For this purpose, he took the extensive tour to Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan and
Afghanistan.
• He gathered a force of 80,000 mujahideen.
• He set up his headquarters in Nowshera in 1826 and gave ultimatum to Ranjeet Singh
but Ranjit Singh dismissed it.

• Syed Ahmed Bareilvi fought his first battle at Akora Khatack in 1826 and remained
successful.
• He fought the second battle at Hazro in 1827 and remained successful.
• First two battles were won by Muslims and Ranjit Singh was disturbed by the power of
the Muslims, so he decided to win diplomatically.
• Some differences occurred among Mujahideen due to sectarianism.
• SASB tried to keep them united for a common cause.
• Sikhs exploited the situation in order to weaken the spirit of jihad.
Failure
• Lack of professional army.

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• Mujahdeens were mainly volunteers from various walk of life like; teachers, students
and scholars.
• Sikhs were trained army men and it was difficult for them to win for longer period.

Haji Shariat Ullah (1781-1840)

• He was born in 1781 in East Bengal in a poor family.
• He witnessed the plight of poor Bengali Muslim farmers under British rule being
exploited by rich Hindu Landlords.
• He was influenced by teaching of Sheikh M. Abdul Wahab, founder of Wahabi
Movement.
• He helped the Bengali Muslim and wanted to purify the Islamic Society from Un-
Islamic Society from un-Islamic practices.
• He opposed the unjust traditions imposed by Hindus (landlords on the Muslim farmers).
• He wanted the Muslims to be aware of their rights and duties so he started Faraizi
Movement.
Faraizi Movement
• The word ‘Farz’ means fundamental obligation and Faraizi word has been derived from
‘Farz’.
• He started the movement to insist the Muslims to observe their Faraiz.
• The Faraizi Movement was launched to counter both British and Hindu landlords as
both were anti-Muslims.
• British were exploiting the Muslims through authorities and Hindus were exploring
through economic exploitation.
• He declared the sub-continent as Dar-ul-Harb.
• He tried to mobilize the Muslims against British and Hindus.
• He believes that Jihad was needed to achieve the desired goals for improving poor
conditions of the Muslims.
• He linked the poor condition of the Muslims with their neglect of their religious
obligations.
• By observing Faraiz, Muslim could bring change in their daily lives and get rid of un-
Islamic practices and beliefs.

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• He urged the Muslims to observe religious duties and repent on the past sins and start
new life of piety.
• Hindu Landlords and British authorities were soon alarmed on seeing the Bengali
Muslim being influenced by Faraizi Movement.
• He was expelled from Dhaka and forced to live on exile in Nawab Ganj where he died
in 1840 but Faraizi movement continued by his son Dadu Mian (Mohsin-ud-Din)
• He introduced the economic measures to improve the economic condition of the
Muslims.
• He divided East Bengal into various circles and each circle was under the care of
Khalifa.
• He also opposed the unjust traditions imposed by Hindu Leaders.
• He asked the Muslim farmers to oppose undue taxes imposed by the British and Hindus.
• This caused unrest in East Bengal.
• Dadu Mian declared Jihad and he was arrested.
• He died in 1860 and Faraizi Movement ended.
• Faraizi Movement gave hope and courage to the Muslims.
• Muslims started improving their condition.
• Muslims of East Bengal stopped keeping un-Islamic practices and superstitions etc.
• This movement created political awareness in the Muslims and they became witness
against the oppressive policies of the British and Hindus.

Titu Mir
His real name was Mir Nisar or Mithar Ali who came to known as Titu Mir.

• He was a man of action like SASB.

• He also believed that through action goals should be achieved.
• He improved his community to defend their religious and way of life.
• He was a disciple of S.A.S.B
• He was against the unjust traditions imposed by Hindu landlords on Muslim farmers in
East Bengal.
• He organized the Muslim opposition against Hindu landlords.
• Krishan Dera Rai imposed tax on beard and enraged the Muslims.
• Titu Mir advised the Muslims to refuse the taxes
• Titu Mir gathered small army and made headquarter at Nerkelbaria near Calcutta.

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• Those who joined his army were known as hajis.

• This provoked the British and they considered him a challenge to their power.
• Titu Mir was martyred alongwith his followers in 1831.

Topic 3. Arrival of the British

• Queen Elizabeth I granted permission to a group of merchants in 1600 to set up East
India Company (EIC).
• The group (EIC) was trading or operating in away who were acceptable to the British
government and Mughal Empire.
• The company landed in Surat in 1608 and officially started its business in 1612.
• Shah Jahan. Governor of Gujrat, gave permission to trade.
• The merchant were hoping to break into spice trade in East Indies (Indonesia) and but
Dutch were already established there so they turned their attention to the sub-continent.

Presidencies
• As the influence of East India Company grew, they had a few bases at Bombay
(Mumbai) 1661 Calcutta (Kolkata) 1690 Madras (China) 1640.
• The British called these bases their presidencies and later became major provinces of
India.
• East India Company was interested in trade and not in any kind of politics.
• East India Company purchased spice, silk and cotton.
• British as well as Mughals were taking benefits from this trade.
• This was a very profitable trade and soon East India Company had its own private army
to protect its trading.
• In 1686 the East India Company had the audacity to fight against Aurangzeb’s forces
and East India Company was defeated, had to apologize and pay heavy fine.
East India Company turned its attention to other European nations’ companies and
kicked the French and Portuguese out of India.

Robert Clive and Battles

• He was a military genius and gave control and strength of different areas to East India
Company.
• In 1750s East India Company started to fortify its important post at Calcutta.

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• This was against the agreement they had sing bed with the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-
Daulah.
• French provoked Nawab Siraj-ud-Doulah to attack Caltucatta.
• But Nawab Siraj-ud-Doulah was unable to control.
• Battle of Plessey 1757 and Battle of Burner 1764.
• In 1757 Nawab was defeated and Mir Jafer was made Nawab of Bengal.
• Mir Qasim and Shah Alam II were defeated in battle of Buxar.
• Mir Jafar was forced to give company gifts of land and money which made the East
India Company’s officials very rich.
• Bengal was exploited by East India Company and it gained as much profit as it could.
• Official got personal gifts and properties.
• Many people died in series of famine.
• It is said, “Such a scene anarchy, bribery, confusion and corruption was never seen in
any country but in Bengal”.
• British government wanted to restore its image so it introduced a law.
Govt. of India Act 1784.
• Govt.of British Indroduced Govt of India Act 1784 to eradicate corruption and regain
its status.
• Govt. of Britain took direct control of India possessions. It appointed Governor General
Warren Hasting who could have control of three presidencies Calcutta, Madras and
Bombay.
• There were separate governors and commander-in-chief of armed forces.
• EIC continued its trade but lost most of its administrative powers and was restricted to
trade.
• Police force and legal system was set up on the lines of British.
• Civil service was also introduced.
• Governor General Warren Hasting signed a treaty to end the first Maratha war in 1782.
• It increased the influence of the British.
• In 1791, Governor General Wellesley invaded Mysore and killed Tipu Sultan.
• Nawab of Oudh was defeated.
• In 1803, the British forces entered Delhi and forced the emperor to accept that he was
ruling under the British protection.

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• In 1818, the Marathas were defeated by the British forces and were forced to accept the
British rule.
• Annexation of Sindh
• British wanted to make sure that Afghanistan did not fall in Russian hands.
• British agreed with Ranjit Singh that Afghanistan should remain independent.
• British hoped that Ranjit sight would help them to install a pro-British government in
Kabul.
• Ranjit Singh did not help and British went on their own.
• A rebellion in Afghanistan by early nineteenth century in 1841, the British troops in
Afghanistan were being killed.
• The British were more concerned about Russian expansion.
• The British felt that their pride had been hurt so they decided to turn on Sindh.
• The British wanted an excuse to attack Sindh. The territory ruled by collection of
Amirs. Who had signed a treaty of friendship with British in 1809?
• Charles Napier provoked the Amirs so much to make an excuse to attack Sindh.
• The Amirs attacked the British residence in 1843. Amirs were defeated and Sindh was
annexed by the British.
Annexation of Punjab
• Ranjit Singh had signed a treaty of friendship in 1809 but he died in 1839.
• The rival chiefs started arguing on the succession.
• The Sindh armies attacked the British possession and provoked the British.
• Treaty of Lahore 1846 followed by Gulab Singh Dogra who helped the British and was
given Kashmir as reward.
• The revolt of 1849 against the British led to the annexation of Punjab and N.W.F.P and
30th March 1849.
Doctrine of Lapse 1852
• Governor General Lord Dalhousie extended the British control by applying Doctrine of
lapse.
• When a ruler or Nawab died without a natural heir, the British would annex his land.
• Sitara, Nagpur, Jhansi soon fell into the British hands. It was un-popular policy and
caused much resentment.

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• Nawab of Ondh died in 1856. Inspite of having several legal heirs to the throne, the
British annexed the territory.
• The Dolhousie declared that Nawab had governed his people badly and took the control.

• Topic: 4 War of Independence (1857)

• Causes of War of Independence
1) Political causes 2) Religious causes 3) Military causes 3) Economic causes
4) Social causes

• Muslims lost past glory and Bahadur Shah Zafar was removed from throne.
• The little of king was going to be snatched by the British.
• Shifting of Royal family from Red fort to Qutub Sahib was taken as insult to injury
• Doctrine of lapse 1852 was also enforced to possess Indian states forcefully.
• Annexation of Sindh 1843, Annexation of N.W.F.P and Punjab 1849.
• People started thinking that British were greedy and land grabbers.
• Indian were not being offered any share in the administration.
• Some 20,000 landlords lost their lands to the British in Deccan only.
• The justice system was unfair.
Religious reasons
• Establishment of church and taxes on temples and mosques.
• Greased cartridges incident
• Hindu sepoys would hate being sent overseas for the fear of being out casted.
• Muslim sepoys would hate being made to fight against fellow Muslim beings.
• Christian missionary activities.
• They were trying to convert Indians to Christianity.
• There were cases of forced conversions.
• The Indian feared that their religions were in danger.
Military Reasons
• Indian sepoys were lowly paid.
• Indian sepoys had no promotions and all high ranked posts were reserved for the British.
• The Indian soldiers were religiously hurt like Tilak the scarf and beard.
• Unequal salaries of Indians soldiers.
• Missionary activities in Barracks and cantonment areas created further resentment no
allowances for Indian soldiers.

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• No timing for Indian soldiers and no retirement age and promotion.

• Most important was greased cartridge incident.
• Indian sepoys would hate being sent overseas.
Economic Reasons
• British would protect their goods
• British banned the Indian textile to promote
• Introduction of machines resulted unemployment and 60,000 families lost their earning
in one year.
• Local industry was closed and it also gave rise to unemployment
• British ruthlessly exploited the local resources
• British also stated transforming their assets to Britain and it did not go unnoticed by the
Indians.
• Heavy taxes on Indians
• British would buy local raw material at cheaper rates.
Social Reasons
• With the introduction of Western ideas, Indian feared that their local culture would be
undermined.
• Promotion of English education in schools
• Persian and sanskrit were replaced by English, From 1835 onward education in schools
was being imparted in English
• Banning of social practices, like Sattee and Parda also considered as interference by the
Indians.
• British had a sense of superiority and looked down upon Indians and they would not
mix up with Indians.
Results of WOI
• EIC being abolished in 1858, Indian were brought under crown-rule
• Offices of secretary of State was setup and viceroy and Indian army was re-established
• The policy of annexation and interference were given up.
• Indians were given share in the administration.
• Formation of political parties started.
Why did War of Independence Fail?
• Bahadur Shah - Delhi
• Hazrat Mehal - Lucknow

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• Nan Sahib - Cawnpore

• Rani of Jhansi - Lakshmi Bai from Jhansi
• The leaders of Indians had no coordination
• Lack of unity, no common leader, no common cause, no common planning and no
concept of nationalism
• Many Indian State Rules sided with the British and helped them. For example, ruler of
Kashmir, Punjab, Hyderabad and Nepal.
• No training of Indian soldiers and revolutionaries
• No proper supply of weapons
• No regular funds
• Strength of the British, superior weapons better fighting techniques, disciplined army,
regular supply of weapon and funds from England
The Events
• In January 1857, the British introduced a new rifle with a paper cartridge covered in
greased to ease the powder dry-before coding, the cartridge had to be bitten off. It was
removed that the greased was made out of cows and pigs fat which angered the sepoys.
Both the Muslims and Hindus refused to use the new rifle cartridges.
• In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy, defected his British officers and was executed.
• In May 1857, Sepoys in Meerut refuses to use new cartridges and were court-martialled
and put into Prison but their fellow-soldiers were freed and British officers and others
Europeans were killed. The soldiers captured Delhi Bahadur Shah became the unifying
symbol for uprising winning the support of Muslims and Hindus.
• The war spread quickly and British lost control of Mathura, Jhansi and Allahabad and
Delhi and Luckhnow was captured and British rule ceased to exist throughout, what is
now called Utter Pradesh.
• The British were powerful and could not be defeated by uncoordinated uprisings across
many areas. In September 1857, Delhi was regained. Bahadur Shah Zafar surrendered
and his son, Mirza Mughal, Miran Sultan and Mirza Abdu Bakar were murdered.
Luckhnow was also regained.
• After this, the main centre of opposition was Jhansi. The sepoys were led by Lakshmi
Bai, Rani of Jhansi. She was assisted by Tatya Topee, an Indian general of great ability.
In June 1858, Lakshmi Bai (dress in men’s clothes) was killed in battle. Tatya Topee
tried to escape but was captured and executed.

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• The British eliminated pocket of opposition and war was officially came to an end in
August 1858.

Topic:5 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born in 1817 in Delhi.
• He received a high quality education.
• He became a judge in Delhi in 1846.
• Wrote the book on archaeology called Athar-al-Sanadeed.
• He believed that armed struggle against British was pointless.
• He was appointed Chief Justice in Moradabad and later was transferred to Gazi pure.
• In 1864, he established a new college.
• Devoted himself to improve the position of Muslims in the Sub-Continent through
education. He died on 27th March, 1898.
Relation between the British and the Muslims
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan believed that the position of the Muslims only be improved if
relations with British were improved and Muslims gained higher-quality education.
• British put the entire responsibility of the war of Independence on the Muslims and
carried out polices of repression against the Muslims.
• There was a deep stated resentment of the British among the Muslims.
• The Muslims saw the British as foreign invaders and thought that they were trying to
convert them to Christianity.
• Muslims rejected all Western ideas because they are not in line with Islamic beliefs.
• In 1860, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote the Loyal Mohammadens of India.
• In this work, he defends the Muslims from British accusation that they were disloyal.
• He gave a detailed account of the loyal services which the Muslims had given and called
on the British to end their hostility towards the Muslim community.
• He wrote a pamphlet called “Essay on the causes of the Indian Revolt” to convince the
British that they were wrong put in ting false blame for the events of 1857 on the
Muslims.
• He pointed out the main reasons for the uprising were:
1. Lack of representation for Indians in the government.
2. Forcible conversion of Muslims to Christianity
3. Poor management of the Indian army

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• He also listed dissatisfaction which led to resentment among the Muslim community.
• Some of the British officials were angered by this while some saw truth in his words.
• Muslims knew every little about Christianity.
• He tried to overcome this by writing Tabyyan-ul-Kalam, in which he pointed out
similarities between Islam and Christianity.
• Due to lack of resources the works was not finished.
• He established British Indian Association to increase cooperation between the British
and the Muslims.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898)
• He was born in 1817 in Delhi
• He belonged to respected and well known family.
• He joined the legal system in 1838 from very low rank and by hard-work he became a
judge in 1846.
• He was Chief Justice in Bijnaur in 1857 and saved many lives of European families and
refused to take any reward for that service.
• In the beginning, he was unpopular among the Muslims due to loyalty to the British.
• He remained Chief Justice in Muradabad and Ghazipur.
• He became Chief Justice in Aligarh in 1864 and way retired from his service in 1876.
• He dedicated his life to Aligarh Movement.
Aims of Aligarh Movement
• To make good relationships with the British and be loyal to the British.
• To get western education to improve social and economic condition of the Muslims.
• To keep the Muslims away from political activities but they should seek political
awareness.
His Beliefs – Work / Service
• He was worried about the poor condition of the Muslims especially after the WOI.
• The British had put the entire responsibilities of WOI on Muslims
• The Muslims were considered disloyal and uncooperative.
• Muslims also distanced themselves from the British and considered them invaders.
• He wrote Loyal Mohammandens of India and gave detailed account of loyal services
of Muslim community.
• He called on the British to end their hostility towards the Muslims.
• He wrote the pamphlet “Causes of the Indian Revolt” (Asbabe-Begavat-e-Hind).
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• The defended the Muslim from British accusation.

• He convinced the British by writing pamphlet and articles and essays.
• He wrote” loyal Mohammaden of India” and convinced the Muslims by proving him
as sincere Muslim by correcting errors in the book written by Willian Moor on the life
of Prophet (P.B.U.H)
• He told the Muslim that there were similarities between Islam and Christianity and
Muslim needed not to be afraid of the Christian religion.
• He convinced the Muslims that there was no harm in dining with the Christians.
Educational Services
• Muslim were not interested in modern education and thought it would harm their
religion
• Hindus, as they were considered loyal and cooperative, got modern education. As a
result, they got jobs and they improved their economic position.
• Sir Syed issued a magazine “Tehzib-ul-Ikhlaq”.
• He published Aligarh Institute Gazette.
• He wrote commentary on Quran (Khutbat-e-Ahmadya)
• He set up M.A.O (Muhammaden Anglo Oriental School in 1875 and in 1877 (College).
• He called Muhammaden Educational Conference
• He set up Gulshin School and Victoria School Ghazipur.
• In 1869, he visited England and keenly observed the educational system in British
Institutions.
• Agricultural Science, mathematics and modern science was taught at MAO College.
• He insisted the Muslim students to learn English so that they could communicate with
the British Officials.
• His admirers called him the “Prophet of Education” and his enemies called him infidel
(Kafir)
Political Services
• Indian National Congress (INC) was established in 1885 aimed o convey the views of
the Indians to the British.
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advised the Muslims to keep away from politics of Indian
National Congress because he thought that it would engage them in politics which harm
their relations with the British.

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• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan completely rejected the idea of parliamentary democracy in the
subcontinent.
• He founded the Mohammadan Association to create political awareness among the
Muslim.
• He founded Mohammadan Civil services fund to support the Muslim graduates ICS.
• He demanded separate electorates and reserved seats in all government seats for
Muslim.
• To counter the Indian National Congress Politics, he founded the United Patriotic
Alliances in 1893, it became the Mohammadan Defence Alliance.
Policy of Reconciliation
• He removed the misunderstanding and the British between Muslims, especially after
WOI.
• He founded British Indian Association to bring the Muslims and British closer.
• He also highlighted similarities between Islam and Christianity and declare that both
religions were divine religions.
Religious Policies
• His religious views provided basis to the religious reforms.
• He believed in the similarities between Islam and Christianity as both were divine
religions and there was no harm in diving with Christians and no restriction in learning
modern sciences and English in Islam.
• He also gave revertal to William Moor’s book about Holy Prophet P.B.U.H
• He wrote Tabbayan-al-Kalam a commentary on Bible.
• He also wrote Khutbat-e-Ahmedya a commentary on Quran.
Two Nation Theory
• He keenly observed that many Hindus did not want friendly relations with the Muslims.
• He observed that democratic movements were taken place in America and Britain.
• In India, some local councils were elected.
• Sir Syed knew that extension of democracy to India would seriously disadvantage the
Muslims.
• The British Indian should know that the Hindu domination would to India lead to
violence between two communities so he asked the British to treat both separately.
• Muslims and Hindus were two groups. They were different and lived different lives.
• This idea became known as Two Nation Theory.

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• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first person to express this point of view which
anticipated the creation of Pakistan in future.
Importance of His Work
• Efforts of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan would bring fruit later. Simla deputation is success in
1906.
• Gradual improvement of social, educational and economic status of the Muslim.
• His Two Nation Theory set basis for the creation of homeland for Muslims.
• He predicted the separation of Hindus and Muslims in future.
Why did he found Aligarh Movement?
• To improve the condition of the Muslim economically, politically and socially.
• To get modern education and seek English language.
• To remove misunderstanding, hatred, distrust between Muslims and the British after
WOI.
• To persuade the British to provide jobs to the Muslims.
• To provoke the Muslims to strengthen their relationship with the British for the
betterment of Muslim status, dignity and importance.
• To encourage or buildup Muslims in front of Hindus.

Topic: 6 Languages
Q: How successful has Pakistan been in promoting regional languages?
Q: Comparison between regional and Urdu and Urdu language.
• Languages are extremely important in the development of any state or culture.
• The acceptance of one single language as the national language helps bring about
uniformity and cultural identify to bring the people together.

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• A common language increases understanding and helps building a shared

understanding of what the nation believes in.
• In the same way it separates the people who speak different language.
• Languages are also political and something controversial. In Pakistan, many languages
are spoken. All together there are 72 languages in Pakistan.
Urdu
• Urdu is tartar word from military camps. In Turkish it is “Ordo”.
• The language Urdu was a result of Turkish, Persian, Arabic and Hindu soldiers and
local people mixed together in their camps.
• Words from all these languages mostly Hindi together with some Arabic and local
Practic all went into Urdu.
• The grammar was mainly based on Hindu.
• Urdu is written a Nastaliq script, like Persian While Hindi is written in Devanagri script.
• During the later Mughal period, Urdu was an official language in court of Delhi.
• When the state of Pakistan was set up, its constitution stated that Urdu was the national
language.
• It was to be the symbol of unity among the different regions of the new country.
• Shah Wali Ullah translated Quran into Persian but his sons translated into Urdu.
• In later Mughal times Urdu became the official language and all the official documents
were in Urdu. It developed a rich literary background which helped to promote its use.
• The language received a boost when emperor M.Shah and Bahadur Shah Zafar took an
interest in promotion.

Regional Language
Punjabi
• It is spoken by more people than Urdu and it is the language of most populated province
of Pakistan.
• The name “Punjabi” language first used in 1080, by Hafiz Barkhurdar.
• It is easily understood language which has been given various names throughout
history.
• Many folk romances and leaders which grew up orally in the country side have been
retold many times by different writers.
• It is referred as Masoodi or Al Hindi or Hindko.

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• Punjabi is written in Gurmukhi script but the later Mughal time Arabic script who used.
Many other languages such as Persian, Arabic, Hindi, English, Turkish and influenced
by this language.
• Punjabi has been inherited by Sindhi and Pushto.
• The basis of Punjabi literature is: Heer Ranjha, Sassi Punnu, Sohni Mahiwal.
• Sufi poets such as Baba Farid Ganjshaker, Sultan Bahu, Baba Bulley Shah, Mian
Muhammad Bakhsh composed mystical lores and melodies which are commonly sung
today.
• The Holy Quran has been translated into Punjabi by Muhammad Ali Faiq.
• Famous Punjabi writers are Ustad Daman, Sharif Kunjaki, Ahmad Rahi and Munir
Niazi Punjabi literature in aught at most level at University of Punjab.
• Punjabi films, radio channels, newspaper and magazines folk and songs are popular
among people.
Sindhi
• It is spoken in Sindh and southern Punjab.
• Sindhi literary board, Surmast Academy and Bazm-e-Talib Muala.
• It is only court language in Sindh.
• Sindhi I.D.Cards are published.
• Newspaper and Magazines in Sindhi are widely circulated.
• Sindh ology department at Jamshuru University

Balochi
• Balochi is spoken in Balochistan
• It is least developed language
• Balochi literacy association was set up.
• Balochi newspaper and magazine are also circulated.
• Radio Pakistan Karachi started broadcast in Balochi.
• Quetta TV, Radio Stations also broadcast and playing role in promoting it.
• Ishaq Shamin, Azad Jamel Din
Pushto
• Pushto is spoken is KPK Khyber Pakhtoon Khuwa it is the oldest in Sub-Continent
with vast literature.

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• Pushto academy was developed for its promotion.

• Dictionary has been developed.
• No of Newspaper, magazines are printed and circulated in KPK.
• Pushto writers and poets also promoted this language.
• Amir Khan Peshawar, Hazrat Mian Umer, Saadat Ali Khan, Amier M.Ansari,
Akundeeza, Khushal Khan Khatak, Rehman Baba were famous movement poets of
Pushto
• Pushto presented valuable series for freedom.
• Peshawar University played a very important role in promoting it.
• It is included in all civil and ICS examination.
• Aba Seen Art Court has become the hub of theater activities.
• Pushto films are very famous among people.

Topic: 1 Partition of Bengal -1905

• Bengal was too big to be managed by one governor.
• It was the largest province of India with a population of 54 Million people in West
Bengal and within a population of 31 Million in East Bengal.
• Crime rate was getting higher and higher.
• There was a taxation problem due to huge population.
• Development work was slow.
• Muslim – Hindu controversies
• 1903, Lord Curzon proposed the partition of Bengal
• The partition was brought into effect in 1905.
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• Many Hindus believed that the partition had nothing to do with administration
efficiency.
• Hindus also saw it as a policy of “Divide and Rule” an attempt of the British to work
against “The Hindus”.
• The Muslims felt that it was a British attempt to recognize the Muslims after many
years of mistrust and domination by third rule.

Topic: 2
Simla Deputation 1906 and formation of Muslim League 1906
• British decided to win, the Muslim support for their rule,
• Muslims observed the Indian National congress reaction over the partition of Bengal.
• Growing protest of the Hindus disappointed the Muslims.
• The Muslims feared the Hindus domination and reaction of Hindus disappointed the
Muslim.
• Muslims being a minority could not organize similar protest. So, they decided to
approach the British for constitutional protection.
• On 8th Oct 1906, a deputation of 36 members led by Sir Aga Khan visited Lord Minto
the viceroy, at Simla.

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• The Muslims requested the British that the position of the Muslims should not be
estimated through separate. Their numerical strength, but in respect to their political
and historical importance.
• Muslims demanded separate electorates and one third seats. Muslims remained
successful in convincing the British and British also remained sympathetic towards the
Muslims.

Formation of Muslim League 1906

• Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 and it turned to be a Hindu
Organization, demanded Hindi as national language and INC advanced only the Hindu
views, Hindu extremism also began and Muslim conversion into Hinduism started.
• They observed the Indian National Congress reaction over the partition of Bengal and
it disappointed the Muslim.
• Rise of Hindu militancy which also provoked the Muslims to have their own political
party.
• They made unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the future viceroy Lord Minto .
• Hindus started language Protection Movement, cow protection movement and
Swadeshi Movement which provoked the Muslims to have their own political party.
Political difference between Hindus and Muslims paved the way for the formation of
Muslim League.
• Success in Simla Deputation in 1906.
• Liberal govt. in England decided that it wanted more participation of the Indians in
affairs of the government, but through elections and elections would be contested by
political parties. So, to protect the rights of the Muslims, to make good relationship with
the British and other communities of India Muslim League was established on 30th
December, 1906.

Topic:3 Morley – Minto Reforms – 1909

1. The reforms were drafted by Lord Minto the Viceroy of India and John Morley, the
secretary of state.
2. British were convinced that the Indian demands for increase share in the govt. were
justified.
3. Imperial Legislative council was increased to 60 members by adding some non- official
members nominated by Nawabs.

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4. The central legislative council was increased by adding 60 new members they could
discuss the matter of importance and advise the govt.
5. The provincial councils were increased to 50 members in larger provinces and 30
members.
6. For the first time, an Indian was included in Viceroy’s executive council.
Why did Indian National Congress oppose Marley – Minto reform?

• It failed to give more rights to the Indians again inadequate political rights System of
election was not fair.
• British govt. did not give any special importance to any of these council and the ultimate
powers remained with the British.
• Self-rule was not discussed. Only one Indian in the Viceroy’s Executive Council was
not sufficient to represent the whole Indian community.
• Indians could not legislate, they could only recommend.
• Most importantly, Muslims demands were accepted and the reversal of the partition of
Bengal was also not discussed.
• Voting rights were not satisfactory.
• The non-official members nominated by Nawabs remained in majority and they would
always vote for the British.

Luckhnow Pact 1916

1. The British failed to grant more rights to Indians.
2. After the reversal of the partition of Bengal 1911, Muslims changed their stance and
decided not to coordinate with the British but with the congress.
3. Kanpur Mosque tragedy 1913
4. New generation of Muslim League wanted to bridge the gap between INC and Muslim
League.
5. Liberal politicians such as Mr. Jinnah joined Muslim League in 1913.
6. He was considered the ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity.
7. Delay in elevating the Aligarh College to University also provoked the Muslims to co-
operate with the congress.
8. The passion for self-government among Indians.

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9. World War I started and realization was made that it was the right time for the Indians
to put more pressure and on the British for their demands.
10. Newspaper played a very important role in bringing Congress Muslim League closer.
11. INC accepted separated electorates for the first and last time.
12. Muslim should be given 1/3 seats in the council.
13. No act affecting a community supported unless ¾ of the community opposed or
supported it.
14. Minorities should be protected in the provinces.
15. Provincial autonomy.
16. System of weightage was accepted.
17. It was a milestone in the Indian history and a great example of Hindu Muslim unity.
18. It also reflected the political expertise of Mr. Jinnah.

Montague Chelmsford Reforms (Mont Ford Forms)

• The British failed to grant more rights to Indians.
• The Luckhnow pact between congress and Muslim League could not be ignored it was
ensuring the right of the Indian.
• In July 1919, Mont Ford Reforms were issued which were jointly drafted by Montague,
the Secretary of State and Chelmsford, the Viceroy of India.
• The legislative Council was now called Legislator Assembly which was consisted of
145 members, 32 seats were reserved for the Muslims.
• All the members were elected for 3 years.
• A bicameral set up was introduced and there were two houses: upper house and lower
house. The upper house was called council of state. Upper house consisted of 60 seats
in which 33 were to be elected.
• A council of princes was set up in which there were 108 members.
• They could discuss the matter of importance but real powers remained in the hands of
the British.
• Executive council was set up with 6 members in whom 3 were Indians.
• At provincial level a new system of diarchy was introduced. Under this system the
responsibilities were divided into two lists:
1. Reserved Powers 2. Transferred Powers

- Police - Forest

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- Justice - Health

- Revenue - Education

- Press - Public Welfare

• The Provincial Ministers got the transferred subjects. They were responsible to the
Financial Provincial Legislative Assembly and they were chosen by governors.
• Reserved powers were exercised by the governors.
• 5.5 Million out of 250 Million people were given to the right to vote.
• Real powers still remained with the British, both in the central and provincial level.
• The viceroy could pass any law and had the authority to dismiss any provincial power.
• Gandhi and Jinnah opposed Mont-ford Reforms and declared the act inadequate,
disappointing and unsatisfactory.
• However, Jinnah asked the people to avoid violence.

Khilafat Movement 1919

Aims:
1. To restore the Caliphate
2. To save the sacred places of Turkey
3. Self-rule for India

First Khilafat Conference - England

Second Khilafat Conference - Non Cooperation Movement
Hijrat Movement 920
Maulana Abdul Bari, Maulana Abdul Khan Azad gave Fatwa 18,000 Muslims
migrated to Afghanistan Dar-ul-Harb, Migrated to Afghanistan
• 1921, Arrest of leadership

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• Chaura-Chauri Incident 1922 – Gandhi Called off the movement because he believed
in Satyagraha, peaceful movement.
• Mopla Rebellion, 1922
• Abolishment of Caliphate, 1924
First Khalifat Conference
Abu-Al-Kalam Azad also attended the conference and went to London to try to
persuade the British to respect the caliph. But the Prime Minister, George Lloyd was
determined to punish Turkey for opposing Britain in the war. Gandhi also attended the
conference and for him it was the chance to start a movement in which movement in which
Hindu and Muslims would participate in which he started his non-violent campaign against the
British.
Second Khilafat Conference
It was held at Kashmir in December 1919, both Congress and Muslim League agreed
to work together with the Khilafat Movement. It was also agreed that Gandhi would take lead
in trying to persuade the British not to punish Turkey. As a result, Gandhi started non-
cooperation movement. There was to be boycott of everything from British. People refused to
pay their taxes. Workers went on strike and students refused to attend British colleges. Former
students returned their medals.

Hijrat Movement, 1920

Maulana Abdul Kaleem Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari told the Muslims that the true
Muslims they must leave India as it was Dar-ul-Herb (a land under foreign rule) and live in an
Islamic state. So, 18000 Muslims set off on a hijrat to Afghanistan. They sold their land and
property and began the long strike. The journey was long and difficult, but the emigrants were
told that the Afghanistan Government would welcome them unfortunately the Afghanis did not
welcome the idea of huge numbers suddenly descending upon their country. The emigrants
were refused to get entry and forcibly sent back to NWFP what is now in Pakistan. Some of
them died on the way. When they got back to their villages, they had nothing as property they
owned was in the hands of others. The hijrat movement was a tragedy which multiplied their
miseries.
Arrest of Leaders, 1921

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On 08th July 1921 the All India Khilafat Movement met for third (and final time). It
passed a series of resolutions as Muslims should not attend British schools, serve in the police
on army or offering from of cooperation to the British. It offended the British and Khilafat
leaders were arrested. As a result, both all Ali brother were imprisoned. This made the
organization less effective as it had no leader.
Chauri Chaura Incident 1922
In November 1921, riots broke out in Nilambur which led to a political battle between
the Indians and the British soldiers. A pitched battle between the lords and the British soldiers.
The tarur police station was set on fire and arms and ammunition were stolen which was a
precursor of Chaura Churi incident in February 1922-21 policeman were killed after they fired
on a political procession. Gandhi was concerned about increasing level of violence and called
off his civil disobedience campaign, which upset many leaders and Muslims aspect It weakened
Hindu-Muslim unity and also weekend the support for Khilafat Movement.
Mopla Rebellion, 1922
A violent uprising by the deeply religious Moplas (Muslim peasants in south India) led
to deaths of a few thousands Hindus the Moplas anger was directed against Hindus. As well
the British at tarur nearly 10,000 Moplas destroyed the possessions and seized arms and
ammunition. Hindu property was destroyed including temples. In the end, British Troops
suppressed the uprising. The violence divided Muslims and Hindus.
Abolishment of Caliphate, 1924
In 1922 the sultan was deprived of political power. Two year later, the new leader,
Kemal Attaturk abolished the Khilafat and exiled Khalifa, Muhammad VI. It made so different
what Indian Muslim or British politicians wanted. The Turks themselves had abolished the
Khilafat-consequently the Khilafat Movement in India also came to an end.
Rowlatt Act, 1919
• In December 1917 a committee was formed under justice Rowlett to investigate
revolutionary activity in India
• The committee suggested that there was a revolutionary activity in India which should
be dealt with a matter of emergency.
• The committee recommended some emergency measures:
(1) Arrest without warrant
(2) Detention without bail
(3) Right of the Provincial Government to ask people where to live

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• It caused uproar in India.

• It was against the trial by jury and safeguards the rights of the Indian.
• Jinnah resigned from Privy Council in protest and Gandhi launched strike against the
proposals.
• The protests were ignored and the proposal was passed in 1919.
Amritsar Massacre 1919
• The strike and demonstration caused the British to bar anti-government publication and
to forbid public meetings.
• On April 10, rioting started in the city of Amritsar and two banks were attached.
• 5 Europeans were killed.
• General Dyer, the commander of the British army was determined to restore the order.
• He ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed at Jallianwala Bagh where people gathered
to protest against Rowllat Act and against the arrest of the leaders.
• 379 people including 41 children were killed and 1200 were wounded.
• The British carried out numerous sentences of death, exile or imprisonment to maintain
the order.
Simon Commission, 1927

• The Government of India Act 1919 stated that the commission had to be set up after 10
years to review the reforms.
• The British conservative Government feared that it might lose to the Labour Party in
elections of 1929.
• The Labour Government might make too many concessions to the Indians.
• So the conservative Government decided to bring the date two years earlier.
• The commission consisted of 7 members under leadership / chairmanship of Sir John
Simon to consider the situation of India.
• There was no Indian in the commission.
• All parties considered it an insult of Indians and rejected it.
• Congress decided to boycott the commission and demonstrated massively.
• They faced regular protests and demands to go back to Britain.
• Quaid-e-Azam said that “Jallianwala Bagh was a physics butchery of Indians and
Simon commission of their soul ”
Delhi Proposals, 1927

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• Jinnah called a conference in Delhi of all Muslim leaders.

• Major aim was to discuss how Muslim interest could be protected in the future.
• Issue of separate electorate was also discussed.
• Muslims wanted to get 1/3 seats in Central Legislative Assembly.
• Muslim wanted Sindh to get full provincial status‫۔‬
• It was demanded that British reforms in India should be extended to Balochistan and
NWFP.
• The number of seats given to the Muslims in the Bengal should be according to the
proportional Muslim population living there.
• Jinnah said that if the proposals were accepted. Muslims would call off the demand of
separate electorate.
Nehru Report, 1928
• It is an important document in the constitutional history of the subcontinent.
• The Secretary of State, Sir Birkenhead, had challenged the Indians to frame a
unanimous constitution for India.
• All parties accepted this challenge.
• Jinnah said if Delhi report was accepted, the separate elected would be called off the
demand of separated electorate.
• In the first meeting, more than 100 delegates including all famous leaders were present.
• It demanded immediate domination status for India.
• Indian would be Federation with the Muslim was taken back.
• No recommendation of separation of Sindh from Bombay.
• Vote for all adult men and women were suggested.
• The Nehru Report ignored all the vital demands of the Muslims and ignored the demand
of reserved seats.
• Nehru report suggested reforms in NWFP and Balochistan.
• Nehru report proposed unitary from of Government making the central Government of
all power.
• Quaid-e-Azam proposed few amendments but the proposals were rejected and opposed
by the Hindus.
• On this occasion Jinnah left the meeting and said, “Parting of Ways“, no more future
cooperation between Muslims and Hindus.

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14 Points of Jinnah, 1929

• Although Nehru Report had been drawn up by the All Party Conference, many Muslims
felt that they were being asked to make the too many sacrifices.
• Congress went back on the concessions it had made in the Lucknow Pact, 1916.
• Mr. Jinnah suggested some amendments in the Nehru Report to guarantee 1/3 seats in
central Assembly for Muslims, but was un-successful.
• Jinnah described this “Paring of ways”.
• In 1929, All-Indian Muslim League met where Jinnah present his 14 points.
• It was apparent that any Hindu – Muslim corporation local now come to an end.
• Congress and Muslim League continued to campaign against the British Plans.
• 14 points were given and protect the rights of the Muslims.
• The demand of separate electrocute, establishment of Sindh province, giving proper
status to NWFP and Balochistan were important steps towards giving proper unity to
the Muslim Nation.
• Nehru Report had created great deal of confusion in the Muslims who started thinking
seriously for separate homeland.
• The 14 points were their eventual destination and objective.
• Jinnah 14 points clearly reflected the demand sentiments and aspiration of the Muslims.

The 3 Round Table Conferences 1930,1931, 1932

• The Simon Commission report was published in 1930.
• Indian community received Simon Commission report with great resentment.
• Congress started civil disobedience movement under Gandhi’s command, but Muslims
served their opinion.
• The Labour Government came back is power and it has always been sympathetic
towards Indian cause.
• To discuss the Simon Commission Report and constitutional problems in India, 3 RTC
were held from 1930-1932.

1st R.T.C, 1930

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• It was officially opened by King George V and British Prime Minister Remsay
MacDonald.
• All practices were present except Congress whose leaders were in jail and strong
condition for participating.
• 57 delegates including 18 Muslims and 16 from Princely states present there.
• Congress wanted Nehru Report to be the future constitution of India.
• Hindu Muslim differences over casted the conference.
• Hindu wanted central system of Government and abolishment of separate electorate.
• Muslim wanted federal system of Government and separate electorate.
• Federal system of Government should be adopted in India.
• Responsible and representative Government will be set up in the provinces. Diarchy
was abolished.
• Consensus was also reached on separation of Sindh from Bombay.
• Full provincial status of NWFP has agreed upon.
• By and large, the conference failed to achieve anything of importance. But the
conference was successful in the sense that the important decision were taken like
federal system of government, separation of Sindh from Bombay and formation of
NWFP.
2nd R.T.C, 1931

• The first R.T.C was not attended by Congress because their leadership were in jail and
strong condition were imposed.
• After the R.T.C, Lord Irwin realized that as long as the super president Mr. Gandhi was
in jail, it would be futile exercise to go for the 2nd R.T.C. so Gandhi – lrwin pact was
signed. All leaders were released from jail and all lawsuits and ordinance were
withdrawn except those involved in violence.
• 2nd R.T.C was held in 1931.
• The main task of the conference was done by 2 committees on federal structure and
minorities.
• Gandhi was a member of both committees.
• Gandhi claimed that the Congress represented the whole India and that there was no
minority problem.
• Muslims and other minority leaders did not agree.

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• Due to unfair and stubborn attitude of Gandhi, the conference could not achieve much.
• Orissa, Sindh, N.W.F.P would be given full provincial status, minority issue remained
unresolved.
• 2nd R.T.C failed due to 2 major reasons.
• Labour party lost power and new coalition government was less interested to reach a
compromise in India.
• Gandhi took hard line in the talks and refused to recognize the problems of the
minorities in the sub-continent.
3rd R.T.C, 1932
• It was short and unimportant.
• 46 delegates attended the conference
• Main political figures of India were not present.
• Reports of various committees were scrutinized.
• The recommendations of the R.T.C’s were embodied in a white paper.
• It was published in Mach 1932 and was debated in the British parliament directly.
• The Congress again started non-cooperation movement and Gandhi and Motilal Nehru
were arrested.
• In this conference, Ch. Rehmat Ali coined the name of Pakistan.
• The British PM announced the Communal Award. This was statement of the Britain
government’s position on representation for minorities.
• Congress rejected it while Muslim League supported it.
Importance of R.T.C
• R.T.C was held in London to consider the Simon Commission and to constitution at
problem in India.
• All-important leaders of National parties and princely states were invited to attend the
conferences.
• On the whole, the conferences were not very much successful; some important
decisions were taken which were very important.
• Federal system of government for India.
• Representative government in the provinces.
• Separation of Sindh from Bombay.
• Full provincial status for N.W.F.P was agreed upon.
• These points were included in Government of India Act 1935.

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Why did Jinnah produce his Fourteen Points?

• Jinnah produced his 14 points in 1929. It was in the answer to the Nehru report .First
of all in 1927, Simon Commission was formed. There were seven members under the
chairmanship of Sir John Simon. There was no Indian in the commission and it was
considered an insult by all the Indian parties. Gandhi started non-cooperation
movement. There was no Indian in the commission; secondly the Conservative
Government in British wanted less concession to be made with the Indian. So they
brought the date two years earlier.
• Furthermore, in 1927 Jinnah, in annual conference in Delhi, with Muslim leaders to
discuss how Muslim interests could be protected in future. The conference wanted 1/3
seats in Central Legislative Assembly. They wanted full provincial status for Sindh.
Moreover, they wanted British reforms in India to be extended to Balochistan and
N.W.F.P. They also demanded that the number of Muslim seats in Bengal to be
proportional to the Muslim population living there. Jinnah said that if these demand
were accepted Muslims would give up the demand for separate electorates. But, the
Hindus and British did not consider these proposals. Moreover, in 1928, Sir
Birkhenhead challenged the Indians to form on unanimous constitution for India. All
the parties accepted his challenge. In the Nehru Report, all the vital demands of the
Muslims were ignored such as separate electorate, separation of Sindh from Bombay
and reserved seats.

Why was Government of India Act, 1935 Opposed?

• Government of India Act, 1935 opposed from all sides. According to this act, federal
and parliamentary system was to be enforced in India. The number of members of
Central Legislative Assembly was greatly enlarged. However real power still remained
in the hands of the British. The British made it look as if they were giving political
power in the hands of the Indians but in reality, they had ultimate powers. The Viceroy
and Governor-General remained head of the government and could expert special
powers if they needed. The provincial governors could also dismiss any provincial
minister (who were Indians) or the whole administration.
• Furthermore, the British gave women the right to rate and numbers of votes were
increased from 6 Million to 35 Million. However in reality only 25 Million people could
due to properly qualification of voting. The princes resented the loss of power. Orissa,

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Sindh and N.W.F.P were given full provincial status. This was in favour of the Muslim
as these were Muslim dominated area. So, the Indian also resented this aspect of the
Act. The Muslims resented the act because there was no mention of separate electorate
of reserved seats. Nehru said that “It was like a machine with strong brakes but no
engine”. On the other hand, Jinnah said that it was thoroughly rotten fundamentally bad
and totally unacceptable, federal system of government. So Jinnah produced his 14
points in response to Nehru Report. His 14 points should be the Muslim their eventual
destination.

Pakistan Resolution, 1940

Lahore or Pakistan Resolution was formal political statement adopted by ML on
23rd Mar 1940. According to P.R the areas “Region” in which Muslims are numerically
in majority as in the North Western and Eastern parts of India, should be grouped to
constitute independent states in which the units shall be autonomous and sovereign. It
was a historical resolution upon which ML agreed. It was proposed by A.K Molvi
Fazal-ul-Haq the ML Premier of Bengal.

The Lahore Resolution (Qarardad-e-Lahore), commonly known as the Pakistan Resolution

( Qarardad-e-Pakistan), was a formal political statement adopted by the Muslim League at the
occasion of its three-day general session on 22–24 March 1940 that called for greater Muslim
autonomy in British India. This has been largely interpreted as a demand for a separate Muslim
state, Pakistan. The resolution was presented by A. K. Fazlul Huq.

Although the name "Pakistan" had been proposed by Ch. Rehmat Ali in his Pakistan
Declaration in 1933, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and other leaders had kept firm their belief in
Hindu-Muslim unity. However, the volatile political climate and religious hostilities gave the
idea stronger backing.

Proceedings

The session was held between 22 March and 24 March 1940, at Manto Park (now Iqbal Park),
Lahore. The welcome address was made by Nawab Sir Shah Nawaz Mamdot. In his speech,
Jinnah recounted the contemporary situation, stressing that the problem of India was no more
of an inter-communal nature, but completely an international. He criticized the Congress and
endorsed the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the demand for separate Muslim

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homelands. According to Stanley Wolpert, this was the moment when Jinnah, the former
ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity, totally transformed himself into Pakistan's great leader.

The statement

From March 22 to March 24, 1940, the All India Muslim League held its annual session at
Minto Park, Lahore. This session proved to be historical.

On the first day of the session, Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah narrated the events of the
last few months. In an extempore speech he presented his own solution of the Muslim problem.
To him the differences between Hindus and the Muslims were so great and so sharp that their
union under one central government was full of serious risks. They belonged to two separate
and distinct nations and therefore the only chance open was to allow them to have separate
states.

In the words of Quaid-i-Azam: "Hindus and the Muslims belong to two different religions,
philosophies, social customs and literature. They neither inter-marry nor inter-dine and, indeed,
they belong to two different civilizations that are based mainly on conflicting ideas and
conceptions. Their concepts on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and
Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics,
different heroes and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other, and
likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single
state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent
and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state".

On the basis of the above mentioned ideas of the Quaid, A. K. Fazl-ul-Haq, the then Chief
Minister of Bengal, moved the historical resolution which has since come to be known as
Lahore Resolution or Pakistan Resolution.

The Resolution declared: "No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the
Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions ……….and That
the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern
zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the units shall be
autonomous and sovereign".

The Resolution rejected the concept of United India and recommended the creation of an
independent Muslim state consisting of Punjab, N. W. F. P., Sindh and Baluchistan in the
northwest, and Bengal and Assam in the northeast. The Resolution was seconded by Maulana
Zafar Ali Khan from Punjab, Sardar Aurangzeb from the N. W. F. P., Sir Abdullah Haroon
from Sindh, and Qazi Esa from Baluchistan, along with many others.

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The Resolution was passed on March 24. It laid down only the principles, with the details left
to be worked out at a future date. It was made a part of the All India Muslim League's
constitution in 1941. It was on the basis of this resolution that in 1946 the Muslim League
decided to go for one state for the Muslims, instead of two.

Having passed the Pakistan Resolution, the Muslims of India changed their ultimate goal.
Instead of seeking alliance with the Hindu community, they set out on a path whose destination
was a separate homeland for the Muslims of India.

Iqbal’s Allahabad Address 1930:

Several Muslim leaders and thinkers having insight into the Muslim-Hindu situation proposed
the separation of Muslim India.

However, Allama Muhammad Iqbal gave the most lucid explanation of the inner feelings of
Muslim community in his presidential address to the All India Muslim League at Allahabad in
1930. Allama Muhammad Iqbal was a poet, philosopher and thinker who had gained
countrywide fame and recognition by 1930.

Political events had taken a complicated turn. There was a two-pronged attack on the Muslim
interests. On one hand, the Hindus offered a tough opposition by proposing the Nehru Report
as the ultimate constitution for India. On the other, the British government in India had totally
ignored the Muslim demands in the Simon Commission report.

At this critical juncture, Iqbal realized that the peculiar problems of the Muslims in North-West
India could only be understood by people belonging to this region and that in order to survive
they would have to chalk out their own line of action.

In his address, Allama Iqbal explained that Islam was the major formative factor in the life
history of Indian Muslims. He defined the Muslims of India as a nation and suggested that there
could be no possibility of peace in the country unless and until they were recognized as a nation.
He claimed that the only way for the Muslims and Hindus to prosper in accordance with their
respective cultural values was under a federal system where Muslim majority units were given
the same privileges that were to be given to the Hindu majority units.

As a permanent solution to the Muslim-Hindu problem, Iqbal proposed that Punjab, North West
Frontier Province, Baluchistan and Sindh should be converted into one province. He declared
that the northwestern part of the country was destined to unite as a self-governed unit, within
the British Empire or without it. This, he suggested, was the only way to do away with
communal riots and bring peace in the Sub-continent.

The greatest historical significance of Allama Iqbal's Allahabad address was that it cleared all
political confusion from the minds of the Muslims, thus enabling them to determine their new
destination.

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The national spirit that Iqbal fused amongst the Muslims of India later on developed into the
ideological basis of Pakistan.

Crips Mission, March 1942

Background

1. WWII 1939 -45

Axis - Germany
Allied - UK, USA

2. Proposal
Indian Union
Domini on status and constitution assembly

• The British faced military setbacks during WWII, particularly when Japan the war
in1941 and supported Germany.
• Sir Stafford Cripps, the member of British cabinet, came to appease the Congress and
ML because the WII was in full fury.
• The proposals were the formation of Indian Union with full Dominion Status. After the
war, the Constituted Assembly should frame.
• New constitution Elections would be held for constituent Assembly immediately after
the war.
• Any province was free to stay out of the Union and its prevailing constitutional position.
Defense and foreign affairs would be in the hands of the British. (During war).

Why did the Indians appose Cripps Mission?

• Congress demanded immediate full control over the defense affairs.
• The date of halting the WWII was not given. Congress rejected it because Muslim rights
were going to be protected. (Stay out the Union).
• Congress demanded that the defense should be immediately handed over to the Indian.
• ML rejected it as it did not conceive the creation of Pakistan. Cripps Mission failed
because British were negotiating from a weak position. It is a post dated cheque of a
failing bank, said by Gandhi.

Importance:

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It made clear that British would have to leave India sooner or later. It also endured the India
and possibility of partition by giving the provinces on option to get separated. It laid the
foundation of independence and partition of India.

Quit Indi Movement, 1942:

• Q.I.M was a non-violent and civil disobedience movement started by Gandhi.
• It was an anti-British movement that was started by Gandhi and INC, they brought in
India and Japan defeated British, it would also conquer India. Indians would again have
to fight the new master for about another 100 years.
• The consequences of this movement turned out to be violent. For several weeks, there
were wide spread rioting and the British lost control in some areas.
• The law and order was restored at the cost of 100’s of lives through the use of weaponry
and avoid bombing.
• ML did not approve Q.I.M as Jinnah criticized the movement as “blackmail” saying
Congress was trying to exploit the Britain’s problem to win advantages for itself.
• 60,000 Congress supporters were arrested.

Gandhi – Jinnah Talks, 1944

Background

• Gandhi was released from jail by Lord Wavell on medical ground in 1944.
• Gandhi, through his letter, expressed his desire to meet Mr. Jinnah to discuss the
ongoing Hindu Muslim disputes.
• Jinnah agreed and 1st meeting was held in Jinnah’s Bombay House on 9th September.
This series of meeting continued till 23 September, 1944.

• 25 hours were spent in discussion and 21 letters were exchanged. (They met 13
times).
• The failure of the talks announced on 27th Sept, 1944.

Important Points

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• Gandhi considered himself to speaking for all of the Indians but Jinnah reminded him
that he was just the spokesman of Congress.
• Gandhi also said that Muslims were converted from Hinduism and they had no right to
call themselves as an independent ration. Jinnah stated that by any standard of
international law Muslims were a nation.
• Gandhi also stated that though he accepted Balochistan N.W.F.P and Sindh Muslim
provinces but Punjab, Bengal and Assam were also partially Muslim provinces. So they
should be divided on communed lives. Jinnah firmly declared and stated all 6 provinces
should come to Pakistan.
• Gandhi insisted on joint struggle to force British for independence after that the
partition of India might have settled. Jinnah knew that he had to secure the partition
before the British left why should the Congress agree to it once the British left?
• Gandhi wanted Central Government to have defense and foreign affairs but Jinnah
wanted these to be with the provinces.
• Gandhi gave the impression that he did not support two nation theory but it was the
official policy of the Muslim League.

Importance
• Importance of ML was realized and recognized as the sole representative party of the
Muslims.
• Jinnah also realized that he also got a chance to remove doubts about two nation theory
and of Pakistan.
• It is said that Jinnah had won half of the battle of Pakistan after Gandhi – Jinnah talks.

Wavell Plan and Simla Conference, 1945

• WWII ended with Japanese's surrender in 1945.
• The Britain was victorious but became financially bank script. The new British
Government was desperate to concentrate on domestic problem. British rule was now
going to end and negotiations had to be started on how power was to be transferred.
• In June 1945 local Wavell announced that he wanted to reorganize the government
executive council. The executive council of the governor general will be reconstituted.
• All the members of council except G.G and Commander-in-Chief would be India.

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• The Governor General would convene on all meetings of all the party leaders so that
they propose the names of the nominees.
• He proposed that there should be equal number of Hindus and Muslim in the new
council. Hindus gave an immediate approval to the proposals. Jinnah was also invited
and initials talks were held in Simla on June 24, 1945.

Simla Conference
• The conference started on 25th June 1945.
• The Viceroy expressed the government’s point of view.
• The controversy arose on the equal number of Hindus and Muslims.
• Jinnah was not satisfied because the Sikhs and scheduled casts would always vote for
the Congress.
• This would drive the ML to a permanent minority.
• Jinnah apposed INC to nominate any Muslim because it was the right of the Muslim
League.
• Wavell said that he could not accept this demand of Mr. Jinnah. On this crucial point
Wavell officially admitted the failure of the plan on July 14, 1945.

Election 1945
• Winston Churchill's conservative Government was replaced by the labour party.
• The new Prime Minister of Britain Clement Atlee the former deputy Prime Minister of
Churchill was determined to give self-rule to India.
• The elections were to set up an executive council of major parties.
• INC campaigned for an Independent and United India.
• Muslim League demanded separate state and independence
• INC got # of non-Muslim voters including N.W.F.P.
• Muslim League got 87% of total Muslim votes 30/30 in central assembly voters
• 100% seats in the (Centre and Largest Party in Punjab)

Cabinet Mission, Plan, 1946

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Question: What was Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946?

Question: Why was Cabinet Mission Plan Introduced?
Question: Why did Cabinet Mission Plan Fail?
• Cabinet mission of British Cabinet, consisting of Sir Stafford Cripps. A.V. Alexander
Sir Lord Pethick Lawerence (Secretary of State) reached Indian in March 1946.
• The delegation was sent with instructions to try to solve the issues between princely
states, province and other communities.
• After many discussions with major parties, cabinet mission found that there was little
common ground between the league and Congress.
• Jinnah wanted independence with undivided Punjab and Bengal and with 6 provinces.
Congress opposed any partition and would not accept Jinnah’s ideas.
• The Cabinet Mission decided on a different approach.
• It proposed an interim government that should be set up while the British were living.
• The interim government should from a commission of the elected central and Provincial
Legislature.
• The commission would decide whether there would be one or two states after the British
had left. Both Muslim League and Congress rejected this plan.
• Cabinet Mission felt that a full independent Pakistan was not viable solution it
suggested that the subcontinent should be divided into three areas.
A. Hindu Majority Area.
B. Muslim Majority Area.
C. Bengal and Assam

• These groups would have a local autonomy and would frame their own constitution.
• However, the commission suggested that the Indian Union should deal with foreign
affairs, defense and communication.
• The interim government would also be supported by all major parties. ML accepted and
approved it but Nehru declared it just a proposal, so, not binding on future Indian
Government after the British left.

Direct Action Day, 16th Aug 1946

• The Cabinet Mission had failed and now it was clear by late summer that the British
withdrawal was inevitable.

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• There was a threat to the future of the Muslims and the British were thought to leave
without settling the question of Pakistan and Muslims would be left at the mercy of
Hindus.
• Mr.Jinnah wanted to show the Muslim solitarily and convey a message of its strength
to the British and Hindus. Jinnah stated that ML should now negotiate with the Hindu
and British as both held Pistols at the Muslim.
• Now, it was time for Muslim to do so. In July 1946, ML passed a resolution asking
Muslims to get ready for a final struggle for Pakistan.
• It was a peaceful demonstration but turned out to be violent and 4000 people were
killed. (in Kolkata)

Question: How successful were negotiation aimed at independence during World War II?
Explain your answer?

Answer
Failure Success

Breakdown of relation between ML and Day of Deliverance

Congress Lahore Resolution

Rejection of Cripps Mission Proposals Unity in rejection Cripps Mission

Impairment following the Quit-India Demand for separate homeland

Movement

Failure to reach agreement from Gandhi Muslim political gains Gandhi – Jinnah
Jinnah talks and Wavell Plan and Simla talks
Conference

Wavell plan and Simla Conference Muslim started conference

Jinnah was not satisfied with the rights of the New elections necessary for India
Muslims in united India

3rd June Plan and Lord Mountbattan

• In February 1947, the British PM announced, in The British Parliament that British
would have to leave before June 1948.
• In March 1947, Killings and Riots started in India and there was a chance of civil war

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• Mountbatten came to India in March, 1947 and his meetings with different political
leaders convinced him that the partition was inevitable.
• Nehru also stated that all those provinces which wish to join Pak will be allowed to do
so.
• By May 1947, Mountbattan had formulated a scheme which was eventually made
public on 3rd June 1947.
• The Muslim majority areas to be given independence and the British would transfer
power to two states of India and Pakistan.
• Both states would have Dominion status and the interim constitution of both would by
Government of India Act 1935 with certain amendments.
• Both states would have an executive which would be answerable to their constitute
assemblies.
• It provides an option for all princely states to decide which country to join.
• As for as the boundaries of India and Pakistan were concerned, a boundary commission
to be set up to determine the exact demarcation.
• The legislative assemblies of Sindh, N.W.F.P and Balochistan were given an option to
vote for Pakistan.
• The day offer his plan was concerned, Mountbattan had decided that the date of
withdrawal would by 15th Aug 1947 not June 1948.
• All the decision had to be implemented in 72 days.
• Some problems were un-resolved such as division of assets, problems of princely-
states.
• India had accepted Mountbattan to be the First GG of India while Jinnah of Pakistan.
• It was to have serious consequence later on as Mountbattan would have revenge on the
state of Pakistan.
• There was still a need to draw boundaries between Muslim and Non – Muslim,
particularly in Bengal and Punjab.

Radcliff Award
• One major issue that was unresolved by 15th August was the Muslim areas. Muslim and
Hindu areas.
• Mountbattan had appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe to head a boundary commission to
establish new borders so particularly in Punjab and Bengal.

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• Radcliffe had also been assisted by two members from ML and 2 members from
Congress.
• This award was announced on 17th August 1947.
• The League was disappointed to hear that Muslim related areas of Ferozpur, Calcutta
were given Gurdaspur to India.
• By awarding Gurdaspur to India, the Hindus now had a border with Kashmir and future
dispute between India and became Pakistan because inevitable.
• Jinnah declared these awards, “Wrong, Unjust and Perverse”

What was the reservation of Mr. Jinnah at the announced

of 3rd June 1947?
• There were only 7 weeks left and there were still boundaries to be marked between
Muslims and Hindus M. League worried what should be happen if the prince went
against the decision of the public.
• Division of assets was to be decided: Although it was decided that Mountbattan would
be India GG and Mr. Jinnah of Pak.

Initial Problems of Pakistan

Geographical Problems, Political Problems, Economic Problems, Social Problems,
Princely Problems, Canal Water Dispute, Refugee Problems, Military Problems,
Financial Problems
Geographical Problems
Pakistan was divided into West and East Pakistan with a distance of 1000 miles.
The only thing common between East and Wes Pakistan was religion.
There was no natural border- India took advantage and started comprising East against
Dhaka fall happened and E. Pakistan was separated from W. Pakistan started East Pak which
resulted against which resulted against West Pakistan on 16th Dec. 1971.
Political Problems

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• India inherited all major buildings and official building from the British Pakistan and
taken Pakistan had taken on none of these.
• India’s leaders had much more political experience than the few leaders in Pakistan.
• The distance between the West and East Pakistan made it difficult to govern as one
country.
• Jinnah was the main great leader and he was suffering from their T.B.
• Pakistan lacked both administrative and governmental machinery to run the affairs of
the new country.
Economic Problems

• Pakistan is states were mostly underdeveloped. Around 90% of the people were living
in countryside.
• Pakistan was not a wealthy country. Agriculture and industrialization was very less.
• All the jute mills, which were the main source of foreign exchange earnings were now
in India.
• Pakistan did not have the money for industrialization so.

Social Problems

• People of Pakistan had different languages, culture, tradition and life styles.
• There were 5 nations in one nation and they had nothing common except religion.
• Some of them, particularly Balochis and Bengalis did not want Urdu as national
language.
• There were many differences.
Princely States

• At partition Mountbattan had told the leaders of 462 princely that states they would not
be granted independence as he feared if they since granted independent their future
would be uncertain and would lead to war.
• Hyderabad was the largest princely state (of India) with a large population of 160
Million of non-Muslims majority and Muslim minority (Rules, Nizam, was Muslim)
• It was located in South and Ruled by Muslim. (Ruler called Nizam. Nizam was
Muslim). Nizam wanted dominion status Mountbattan told him, join Pak and India but
India did not want this to happen.

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• So pressure was exerted by India and Indian troops invaded Hyderabad and it became
the part of India. (Invasion 17th September, 1948)
Junagarh
Junagadh was the coastal area of India 300 miles near the coast of Karachi with a majority of
non Muslims but the ruler was Muslim.

• The ruler wanted to join Pak but India opposed this decision and sent the troops
surround the state.
• Due to the blockade and shortage of food, the miseries of the people increased.
• The Indian troops took over the area in Nov 1947, Pakistan protested to the UNO about
illegal occupation but the matter urs remained unresolved.
Kashmir
The most serious disagreement between India and Pakistan was concerned with the state of
Kashmir.

• The 90% inhabitants were Muslims but the Maharaja Hari Singh was non-Muslim
wanted to get independence.
• He treated harshly with the Muslims and started pushing them out of Kashmir.
• More than 200,000 Muslims fled to Pakistan and rebellion broke out 1947.
• Maharaja turned towards India and finally Indian Government helped after the
Maharaja agreed to India.
• Pakistan also sent troops to help the Muslims.
• Neither side was strong enough for a war, so the matter was referred to UNO in 1948.
• A ceasefire was arranged and Kashmir was divided into Pak, Indian and Kasmir divided
into planned India 05 January.
• It was decided to have referendum in Kashmir to determine the wishes of the people
once the situation had normalized.
Canal Water Dispute

• The canal water dispute erupted in the province of Punjab.

• West Pakistan completed depended on water which used to flow from India to Pakistan.
• There were series of canal which drew water from Indus, Jhelum, Ravi, Sutlej Canal
and Beas.
• Partition used across many rivers and canal Flow and water under controlled by
Headwork's works which lay in East Punjab.

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• India and Pakistan were soon in dispute over the canal water especially the water Bara
Doab Canal.
• International court of justice failed to resolve the problem because India refused to
accept it.
• But, India and Pakistan temporarily settled the dispute in May 1948.
Refugee Problem

• Wide spread violence erupted between Muslim and non-Muslim committees 1947.
• When boundary award was announced on 17th Aug 1947, millions of people found
themselves to be living in the wrong country.
• History witnessed the largest migration and also the worst of command violence.
• 10 Million People migrated, 1 Million were killed, and 20 Million became homeless.
• Hindus and Sikhs had organized plan for the massacre of the Muslims.
• In Sept, 1947, the authorities of Delhi had declared Martial Law as non-Muslims began
a slaughter of Muslims.
• Karachi received 2 Million refugees.
Division of assets.
The assets were divided to India and Pakistan according to the assets of Reserve Bank.

• Rs.200 Million were paid, Rs.500 Million paid later on but Rs50 Million were not paid
to Pakistan.
• The military assets and armed forces were divided 36% to Pakistan and 64% to India.
• 16 Ordinances factories were all given to India.
• Pakistan needed 4000 officers for army.
• Mr. Jinnah had to hire 500 trained British officers for Pakistan Army.

Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din 1948-1951

• Objective Reduction 1949
• PRODA
• Liaquat Nehru Pact
• Rawalpindi Conspiracy
• Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din was the 2nd G.G and he became the GG after 3 days of Jinnah’s
death.
• He was an important leader of the ML and belonged to East Pakistan.

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• He, being the GG, transferred his powers to PM Liaquat Ali Khan, who from the
Legislative Assembly appointed a basic principle committee to create an Objective
Resolution. Basic Principles Committee and Government of India Act 1935 was
approved with certain amendments.
Objective Resolution, 1949

• The Sovereignty of the state should belong to Allah b. The basic Fundamental rights
should be provided including minorities.
• Islam shall be declared as the state religion of Pakistan.
• The principle of democracy, equality, freedom social justice and tolerance should be
followed as done by Islamic official.
• Urdu shall be declared as the National language of Pakistan.
• The bicameral cameral system with equal no. of seats from East and West shall be
established.
• Legal system should be independent of government.
Reasons for Objection and Rejection
OR was rejected by East Pakistan because of Urdu being official language.

• The strong Islamic community rejects OR as it was un-Islamic in nature.

• East Pakistan also rejected OR as they demand more seats in Legislative Assembly.

What was PRODA?

Answer:
It was an Act for the debarring a person from public office for suitable period of persons
judicially found guilty of misconduct in any public office or any representative capacity in any
matter therein.
Complainants were made to the Governor General or Provincial Governors who could
order an enquiry by judges. Anyone found guilty under PRODA was debarred from office. The
law was designed to eliminate corruption but in reality it allowed the elite to remove those it
did not approve of.

Question What was Liaquat Nehru Pact?

Answer:

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Liaquat Ali Khan met with the Indian Prime Minster Jawahar Lal Nehru and signed the
Liaquat – Nehru pact. It was agreed that each government was responsible for the safety of
minority groups within its borders. Free passage of refugees the border was restricted and VISA
system for refugees was introduced.
In August 1947, Quaid had called the refugee problem in Pakistan, a grave emergency
and had set the Central Refugee Council to deal with it.

Question What was Rawalpindi Conspiracy?

Answer:
Some army officers were unhappy with the government even by 1951 disclosed. They
began to plan a coup to take over the government. In March 1951, this Rawalpindi Conspiracy
was disclosed by Ayub Khan and the conspirators were arrested, tried and imprisoned.
Amongst them was major General Akbar Khan, Chief of General Staff and 14 other officers
and some civilians.

Question What was Korean War of 1950-1953?

Answer:
On June 25, 1950, North Korean launched an unproved full scale intervention on south,
triggering a three year war which drew in US, Chinese and other forces the entire peninsula
was engulfed by conflict. A cease fire was signed in July 1953.
Question What was 1 Unit Policy?
Answer:
On 05 October 1955, Iskandar Mirza Passed an order verifying all of West Pakistan in
what become known as the one unit scheme, Mirza claimed that the unification would bring
about greater efficiency and enable more rapid development. The scheme prevented East
Pakistan in gaining a majority in Assembly by officially dividing Pakistan into 2 wings and
ensuring equal representation in the Assembly. The scheme was unpopular in East Pakistan
and was opposed in individual of West Pakistan.

Malik Ghulam Muhammad 1951-1955

• Economic problems religious problem and constitutional problems in 1950 a

planning commission was set up to service economic development of Pakistan.

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• In 1951, launched, six year plan for agriculture, fuel, mining, power, industry
transfer and other said uplift schemes.
• 1953, a planning board was also set up to keep an eye on these projects and after
1956, next 5 year plan was remade for the economic development.

(1) Jute processing plant in East Pakistan

(2) Exploration at oil and gas at Sui in Balochistan
Religious Crises

• During 1952-1953, religious groups in Punjab started demonstrations against

Ahmedis (a community questions the Muslim doctrine of finality of Prophethood)
• The religious groups demanded that the Ahmedis to be declared a religious
minority.
• Foreign Minister Zafarullah Khan and other civil and military officers belonging to
Ahmedi sect to be dismissed.
• The central Government was faced with the outbreak of law and order.
• Punjab imposed martial law in the province in March 1955.
• This is also led to the resignation of Chief Minister Daultana.
Muhammad Ali Bogra 1953-1955
Initial Steps
- Started getting foreign aids from USA, Australia and Canada.
- He also imported wheat signed pact RCD ( Iran, Turkey, Pakistan) CENTO was also
signed.
- He also had to face many problems such as economic progress was not further
developed; constitutional crises also began when both the leaders wished to maintain
their power.

Molvi Tamizuddin Case 1955

• Molvi Tamizuddin, the speaker of the dissolved assembly, challenged the

dissolution in the Sindh High Court, saying that the dissolution had been illegal.
• In Feb 1955 the court ruled in favour of Molvi Tamizuddin, Ghulam Ahmed
Muhammad appealed to the Federal Court against this judgment. This higher court
in the favour of Ghulam Muhammad.

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Iskandar Mirza 1955-1958

• As Ghulam M. got paralyzed Iskandar Mirza made as the acting G.G in 1955.
• Before this, he was member of cabinet nominated by Malik Ghulam Muhammad
• He served the Royal British Army.
• He remained the governor of the province of East Pakistan.
Constitution of 1956

• It was a written constitution and it had Islamic character as it contained Islamic

provisions.
• It was partly rigid and party flexible and would be amended with 2/3 majority of
national Assembly.
• Federal system of government was introduced. The powers were divided by the
constitution between the center and provinces.
• Parliamentary system of the government.
• The PM and his cabinet were to be the member of the national assembly and were
also responsible and accountable to the assembly.
• President was the head of state.
• Unicameral legislature.
• There were a total of 300 members; 150 member from each wing.
• Official language Urdu and Bengali, independence of judiciary.

Islamic Provisions of 1956 Constitution

• Name of the country will be Islamic republic of Pakistan.

• Sovereignty belongs to Allah
• The head of state will be a Muslim
• Islamic advisory council will be set up to guide people to order to shape their lives
in accordance with principles of Islam.
• No law country to the principles of Islam shall be made.
• Efforts will be made to bring present laws in conformity with the principle of
Islamic.
• All basic fundamental rights shall be provided

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• Rights for minority will be provided.

• Ayub Khan 1958-1969

Question Why was martial law declared in 1958?
• On 27th Oct 1958, Iskandar Mirza was forced to resign and was sent on exile to
London.
• Constitution of 1956 was abrogated.
• Assemblies were dissolved.
• Political parties were banned and Pakistan was under the rule of Marshall Law.

Reasons were the Ayyub’s Martial Law

• Instable political condition in Pakistan and turmoil in the democratic system of
Pakistan.
• There were 5 PM changed from 1956-1958 – Ch. M. Ali, M. Ali Bogra, Shaheed
Soharwardi,I.I Chundrigarh, Feroz Khan Noor and Ayub Khan .
• ML also lost its importance and the constitution remained ineffective and delayed.
• Economic progress remained very slow and the failure of planning commission, no
development in agriculture high food prices paved the way for Army to come to
power.
• Resistance of East Pakistan over “One Unit” and the language problem created
disparity between the East and West Pakistan. The weak foreign policy by the
democratic government, Kashmir and canal water dispute remained unresolved.
The threat of the Indian invasion also proved military to come to power. The will
and wish of Ayub Khan to control democracy and a weak democratic institution led
towards the martial law in Pakistan.
• Ayub Khan 1958-69 the keeping politician and was alarmed by the plan its political
• Was the first chief Marshall Law administrator.
• He was born of 14th Aug 1947 and died on 20th Apr 1974.
• He was son of Mir Daad Khan.
• Studied at Aligarh University and joined Royal British army in 1926.

Initial Steps taken by Ayub Khan

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1. Constitution making
a. Basic Democracies
b. 1962 Constitution
2. Agriculture Reforms
3. Industrial Reforms

Basic Democracies
1. Basic Democracies were introduced by Ayub Khan in 1959
2. The ISI of Ayub’s constitutional reforms came with introduction of Basic Democratic
order.
3. This was a four tier system in which ordinary people selected Union Councilors, Tehsil
Councilors, district councilors and divisional councilors.
4. The 80,000 Basic Democratic also formed electoral college for nomination of president.
5. 95% BD’s gave a vote of confidence to Ayub and finally he became the president of
Pakistan on 17th Feb, 1960.

Constitution of 1962
• The 2nd constitution of Pakistan enforced by Ayub Khan on 1st Mar 1962.
• The presidential system of government was established this time.
• The president should not be removed unless impeached.
• The president shall nominate the cabinet from National Assembly.
• The president shall nominate the head of judiciary and provincial governors.
• The National Legislative cannot pass any law without the approval of president.
• There would be only one (NA) for 5 years.
• The ban on political parties would be removed.
• Urdu and Bengali will be declared both as National languages.
• The National Assembly shall be held in Dhaka and Islamabad.
• If president from West Pakistan, then speaker of national assembly would be from
East Pakistan.

Agricultural Reforms
• Advisors of Ayub Khan believed that small subsistence holding should never be
efficient. So, a law was opposed that no farm would be smaller than 12.5 and larger

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than 500 irrigated land and 1000 acres un-irrigated land this was resulted in a steady
rise in food production.
• The major dams, Tarbela, Mangla Dams were also constructed
• Loans were provided to farmers for better production and to install tube wells.
• Hyv’s were also introduced like Maxi Pak in Pakistan.
• New machines were introduced like tractor, threshers and harvester
• 100’s of the wells were installed in Pakistan and Perennial Canal were also dug.
• Chemical fertilizers were also introduced.
• Most importantly, Indus water Treaty was also signed in 1960.
• All reforms were very successful and brought Green Revolution in Pakistan.
Industrial Reforms
• Industrial development was also focused.
• Loans were taken from USA, UK, and Germany and were given to industrialists.
• An oil refinery was also established in Karachi, in 1962.
• Pakistan Mineral Development Cooperation was set up for PMDC the exploration of
mineral deposits.
• An economic union was also formed with Iran, Turkey with the name of RCD in 1964
to develop ties in trade, commerce and industry.
• Export bonus scheme was also set up offering in incentives to industrialists who
increased exports.
• Technical and Vocational skilled labor was developed.
• Tax holidays were also given to industrialists. New curriculum and text books were
published.
• New schools, colleges, universities were constructed like UET, Agricultural University
and Punjab University.
• General Azam Khan Rehabilitation programme was introduced in Karachi to houses
for refugees.
• A law was passed that factory owners shall provide homes, medical facilities and
schools to workers and their families.
• Family planning was also launched in Pakistan for the 1st time with the funds from
USA.
• Medical and nursing schools were also set up for increasing doctors and nurses.
• Family Law Ordinance was also passed in 1961 to register marriages divorces.

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• Civil and criminal laws were also passed.

• A new capital was also constructed. . Its construction began in 1962 and completed in
1966.
• However wealth was concentrated into 22 families which were from West Pakistan.

Islamic Provisions of Constitutions 1962

• Sovereignty belongs to Allah and it was mentioned that the powers delegated to the
members of parliament were a sacred trust of God.
• The name of the Country would be Islam Republic of Pakistan.
• No law against the teaching of Islam shall be made.
• The teaching of Quran and Islamiat was made compulsory to Muslims of Pakistan.
• Proper organization of Zakat, Okaf and mosques.
• Rights and interest of the non-Muslims shall be protected
• Muslim of Pakistan would be protected.
• Muslims of Pakistan would be enabled to live their lives according to the principles
of Islam.
Question What led to Ayub’s fall in 1969?
• Reforms were not implemented in proper manner in all sectors (political, agriculture
and educational)
• He faced much opposition from many circles: Religious people against the Family
Laws; students against 3-years degree programme.
• Tashkent agreement was much criticized by Bhutto who used it as the disadvantages
of Ayub Khan.
• Decade of development celebrations were not popular with the people.
• The chief economist of planning commission revealed that only 22 families, mostly
from West Pakistan, monopolized wealth of the country.
• Democratic Action Committee (Opposition Alliance) ultimately brought him down.

East Pakistan
• Separation of East Pakistan was an unbearable tragedy and tremendous loss.
• It was the outcome of the failures of the ruling generals and greedy politicians to
arrive to a political settlement.

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• The crevices in the federation of Pakistan started to appear right after the death of
Mr. Jinnah.
• By 1970, the sentiments for National Unity had weakened (in East Pakistan) to such
an extent that constant conflicts between the 2 wings and created max civil disorder.
• This tragically resulted in the separation of Pakistan’s Eastern Wing.
• There are multi mentionable causes for the breakup of Pakistan.
• The important are as follows:
Economic Reasons

• The situation was much aggravated by the sense of economic deprivation on the
part of Bengalis.
• One of the main grievances of the Bengalis was that money and resources had been
systemically transferred from East to West Pakistan.
• The development of West Pakistan had been on the expense of East Pakistan.
• Industrial development took place at a faster rate in West wing than in East wing.
• The economic disparity increased during Ayyub’s Decade of Development.
• Most of the banks, insurance companies or big commercial firms in East Pakistan
had their head offices in Karachi.
• Briefly West Pakistan was 15% wealthier than East Pakistan and this gap grew to
40% by 1970.

Geographical Reasons

• The geographical position of East and West Pakistan was also an important reason
for the creation of Bangladesh.
• East Pakistan was at a distance of 1600 km from West Pakistan with a large Indian
hostile territory in between.
• It created political and administrative problems for the government.
• It is said that if East Pakistan had been contiguous to West Pakistan, the separation
would have never taken place.
Political Reasons

• Pakistan started as a parliamentary democracy but with the passage of time, due to
dictatorial work, proved, it as failure.

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• The political grievances of people of East Pakistan were also increased as they had
a bigger population of 54% but the political power was in the hands of the
politicians of West Pakistan from the beginning.
• The long presidential long rule of Ayub increased their sense of deprivation.
• East Pakistan Prime Ministers such as K. Nazim-ud-Din, Muhammad Ali Bogra
and Hussian Shaheed Soharwardi were forcibly dismissed; even though they
enjoyed the confidence of national assembly.
• A very important reason was that after 1970 election, when ‫ ﻋﻮاﻣﯽ‬League won a
majority of seats from his government, which was his constitutional right.

Immediate and Social Reasons

• The behavior of West Pakistan’s officers which were posted in East Pakistan was
hateful humiliating with this Bengalis.
• This hatred went on increasing and India’s hostility propagated and added fuel to
the fire by poising the minds of Bengalis.
• East Pakistan’s share in Central government services were nearly 15% and in the
Armed Forces it was only 10%.
• Language problem was an important factor in the creation of Bangladesh. Including,
only Urdu was the only national league till 1956.
• Although, Bengali declared the national language, after not attempt was made to
popularize Bengali in West Pakistan.
• It remained a big hurdle in creating a sense of Solidary between two units of
Pakistan.
• Indian Military Intervention because become most important factor and an
immediate season.
• Indian army invaded and attacked East Pakistan from many sides in Nov, 1971.
• This resulted in the surrender of the Pakistan Army on 16th Dec, 1971 when
Bangladesh was created.

Yahya Khan 1969-1971

Question Reasons of the separation of East Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh?

Q. Why was Pakistan unsuccessful in 1965 and 1971 war against India?

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Answer

• Pakistan remained unsuccessful in both years because Kashmir issue emailed un-
resolved.
• 1965, a full scale war broke out between India and Pakistan.
• India launched an attack at Lahore which was repulsed.
• This war continued for 17 days.
• On 23rd September, cease fire was accepted by 10th countries.
• Followed by Tashkent agreement in Jan 1966,
• It was a total defeat for Pakistan because Kashmir issue remained unresolved.
• Yaha Khan ordered military action in East Pakistan in Mar 1971.
• Indian troops crossed into East Pakistan and along with Mukhti Bahni Private Force
launched attack on Pakistan Army.
• They started guerilla warfare and inflicted heavy causality on Pakistan Army.
• In West Pakistan not face Indian aggression and had to surrender on 16th Dec, 1971.
• There were many causes of Pakistan being unsuccessful like Indian superiority in
men and after 1962 war Indo-China collected lots of arms and supply from Western
Powers.
• So the other hand, Pakistan did not get any help from USA or West.
• Indian very supportive to win the war.
• The most important reason was that the East Pakistan supported to Indian forced
and both united against Pakistani government.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto 1972-1977

• On 20th December 1971, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto became President and Chief Martial
Law administrator.
• In 1970 elections had given the PPP majority in National Assembly.
• Bhutto decided to bring about change in Pakistan but he had to establish himself
first.
Reforms of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
Political Reforms

1. Shimla Agreement

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• Most important initial step taken by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was to sign Simla Agreement
with the Indian PM Indira Gandhi.
• Bhutto wanted diplomatic relations with India and also to reduce his dependency on
military.
• Shimla Agreement was signed on 2nd, July, 1972, according to which India agreed to
release 90,000 Pakistani soldiers and Pakistan would not discuss Kashmir issue on any
international forum like UNO.
• this increased the popularity of Bhutto by bringing home the prisoners of war

Constitution of 1973

• Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto wanted to restore democracy and in April, 1972, martial law was
lifted and new assembly was called.
• On 14th August, 1973, a new constitution based on 1956 constitution.
• There would be 2 houses in Pakistan: Senate and National Assembly
• The government would remain in power for 5 years.
• The senators would be elected from Provincial Assembly and members of N.A would be elected
by people of Pakistan.
• The president shall be the figure head of Pakistan and PM shall be the head of the
government.
• The President and PM shall be Muslims and of 40+ of age.
• Name of the country shall be Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
• 75% majority is required for amendment in the constitution.
• All fundamental and basic rights shall be provided.
• The constitution shall be written with 280 articles.
• There shall be 4 provincial assemblies
• The council of Islamic Ideology was also formed
• Chaudhary Fazal Elahi shall be President and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto shall be PM.

Health and Social Reforms

• The health and social reforms were also focused because there was high infant mortality
rate and less life expectancy.

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• To overcome this problem, rural health center (60,000) and basic health units were also
formed for providing health facilities.
• The merit for the doctors and nurses was fixed. The doctors were suggested to spend
their first year in rural areas of Pakistan.
• The banded medicines were banned to reduce the cost of medicines.
• The medicines were also provided without the prescription but all these reforms also
failed.
Educational Reforms
• The Educational Reforms were also focused as ½ of the children were attending
schools.
• The literacy rate was only 25%.
• 8 ambitious goals were introduced by the government like free education, new
educational institutions were to be built new curriculum and books were published and
uniformity in education were established.
• Pakistani cultural identity was also promoted.
• These reforms also failed.
Question: Why was Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto executed?

• Bhutto ruled from 1972-1977 as PM.

• In his last years he lost public support because of his weak policies, military
operation in Balochistan and ban on press.
• He also greatly antagonized the army by his remarks and steps.
• He also antagonized West because of his leaning towards Russia and also tried to
form Islamic block and suggested the oil producing countries to use the oil as a
weapon against West.
• His nuclear programme further irritated the West and USA and Henry Kissinger
threatened him that US would make him a horrible example if he did not give up
the nuclear programme.
• Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto held elections in 1977.
• Different parties combined to contest elections against PPP.
• When the results were announced, PPP won and PNA was dissatisfied and
demanded fresh elections and recounting of votes which Bhutto refused.
• Protest started by PNA and the situation became so critical that army had to be
called.
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• Bhutto was arrested by Zia-ul-Haq and a trial began against Bhutto in a murder of
Nawab Ahmed Khan Kasuri and finally Supreme Court gave death sentence to
Bhutto.

Zia-ul-Haq 1977-1988
Question : Why did Zia introduce Islamic law?
• Zia-ul-Haq introduced Islamic laws in an attempts to produce a strong and stable
government permitted to Islamic laws.
• He also wanted to implement laws which punished people for showing disrespect to the
Holy Prophet (PBUH).
• He also wanted Islamic education to create Islamic awareness among students.
• He wanted to distribute wealth among the poor and needy by introducing Islamic taxes
e.g Zakat and Usher.
• Interest free banking was another objective of Zia-ul-Haq which is according to
• Federal Shariat court, council of Islamic ideology and Majlis-i-Shura were also set up
to Islamize the society.
• The most importance reason was to suppress PPP by countering Bhutto’s social
policies, which were considered anti-Muslim.
• He was fighting against the Russian pagans so, he wanted the support of Muslim
countries to counter anti-religions communists.

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• He also wanted to win the referendum held by playing with religious sentiments of
Pakistan Nation in December 1984 to make his rule illegitimate.
Success of Zia-ul-Haq Reforms

• Islamic reforms of Zia-ul-Haq remained very important but were not complete success.
• He introduced Hudood Ordinance for first time in which imprisonment was decided for
preparation, sale of use of wine.
• The amputation of hands for theft or stealing and strong Qazf or adultery.
• Zakat and Usher ordinance were also imposed in Pakistan. Interest free banking was
also introduced for 1” time in Pakistan.
• Federal Shariat Court and council of Islamic ideology were also formed. Majlis-e-Shura
replaced parliament.
• Ordinance for sanctity of Ramzan was also imposed
• Arabic language was also made important extra marks were awarded for memorizing
the Quran by heart. Islamiat and Pakistan Studies were also made compulsory.
• The reforms were not completely successful as punishment of cutting hand for theft or
stealing and imprisonment for using wine and doing the death for adultery was never
practiced.
• Shias were exempted from Zakat.
• Islamic banking was also unsuccessful because the word “interest” was replaced by
profit and loss.
• Shariat courts proved in effective because it would not bring in a legal system based on
principle and Majlis-e-Shoora at no legislative powers.
Political Reforms of Zia-ul-Haq

• He disbanded FSF and ordered for restoration of peace in Balochistan by giving

amnesty for all.
• Powers of courts wall also curtailed and the Supreme Court judges were replaced by
PCO (Provincial Constitution Order) judges, the military officers were inducted into
civil services, elections were postponed till the completion of accountability.
• Zia also conducted work reference and 8th amendment was also passed which further
enhanced his powers.
Economic Reforms remained the most Successful

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• He determined industries. Interest free loss as also was given to formers and industries
for better agriculture.
• Karachi steel mill was also completed with the help of Russia.
• Karakoram Highway was also completed during the reign of Zia.
• Pakistan supplied civil and military manpower to Gulf States and Middle East and
billion dollars per year were remitted to Pakistan.
• Pakistan’s GNP reached 6.2% incentive were also given in the form of physical and
monetary concession to Industrialists and machinery was also imported for Pakistan.
• These reforms, indeed, remained successful from all domestic reforms.
• Pakistan created relations with USA and western countries as well because of the
Russian invasion in Afghanistan.
• Pakistan also developed its relationship with China after the completion of Karakoram
Highway Steel Complex at Texila.
• Pakistan with other Muslim countries also improved.
• Pakistan also became member of non-designed movement.
• Zia also attended OIC (Organization of Islamic Countries) meeting and also supported
Arab cause in Palestine.
• By this, Pakistan created good relationship with Islamic countries during the rule of
Zia.
Afghan Miracle

• On 25th Dec 1979, Soviet tanks rolled in Afghanistan.

• As Pakistan was on the frontline against the communist forces oppression.
• The West and particular the US, was ready to provide unconditional economic and
military support to establish Pakistan as the house for anti-Soviet activities.
• Zia was able to increase the defense budget and build up such an effective military force
that he was able to send military assistant to other Muslim countries.
Q. What were the problems of Zia?

• In the 2nd half of the 1980s, Zia faced much more difficulty to govern Pakistan.
• During the Afghan Miracle, the guns which were supplied to the help of Afghanis
were now in the streets of Pakistan which give threat to law and order in Pakistan
and violence became common in the street of Karachi.

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• The provincial conflicts became very crucial and there was a great flux of Afghan
refugees in N.W.F.P.
• There was still a strong central anti-government consistence in Balochistan which
erupted since Bhutto’s time and Sindh became the most un-governable prince for
Zia.
• Russia retreated from Afghanistan and American support to Pakistan ended.
• PM Junejo also started extremely his power to strengthen civil government and
differences created between Zia and Junejo after Ojhri Camp 1988.
• Finally, Zia had to dismiss the PM and called for new elections.
• Meanwhile, in Aug 1988, Zia was killed in an air crash.

Afghan Miracle Continued.

• In 1985, about 50,000 Pakistanis served abroad.

• Karachi itself became the best naval in the region.
• The influx of funds in the 1980s also allowed Zia to undertake agrees of economic
reforms.
• 2 Million Pakistanis in Middle East alone and their remittances were about 4 billion
a year.
• After the war, America and other western countries, demanded to know how much
weapons, that they were supplied, have actually been used in Afghanistan war.
• To eliminate the records, Zia, on 10th April 1988, below the Ojhiri Camp, an army
weapon dump, located between Islamabad and Rawalpindi.
• As a result 100’s of civilians were killed and 1000’s more injured.
• PM Junejo announced an immediate inquiry into the explosion and promised that
whatever was to be blamed would be brought to justice.
• As Junejo was gaining too much influence, Zia used his powers to dismiss Junejo
and dissolve the National Assembly, on 29th May 1988.

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Benazir Bhutto: Prime Minister 1988-1990(1st Term)

Problems:
Political
PPP gained a majority in Sindh in the elections but not in the other 3 provinces. It was the
largest party in the National Assembly but did not have a majority. President Ishaq Khan asked
Bhutto to become PM but to do so she had to form a coalition. She made an alliance with the
Muhajir Quami Movement (MQM). But, she faced fierce opposition to her rule by the IJI
(Islami Jamhuri Ithad) led by Nawaz Sharif, who controlled the provincial government of
Punjab.

• The military and the intelligence agencies still held great power.
• Zulfiqar Bhutto’s enemies become her enemies.
• In October 1989 just 11 months after taking office, the opposition parties organized
non-confidence. Motion in the National Assembly. The opposition mustered 67 votes
in the 237 seat National Assembly just 12 short of the 119 it need to force Benazir
Bhutto to step down.
• She did not work well with the President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and the sometimes closed
with him. A major area of disagreement was over appointments to positions in the

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military and the judiciary. Ishaq Khan considered that such appointments were he rights
of the President, not the PM. He refused to agree to several appointments and dismissals
she want to make in the military and this caused further tension between them.
Policies

• Ended the ban on trade unions and released political prisoners.

• Restated student’s union.
• Took the first steps towards spreading electricity across rural Pakistan.
• No new laws were introduced to improve welfare services.
• Difficult to pass legislation because the senate was dominated by the opposition.
• Lost support as it failed to deliver on its promised employment and economic
development programmes.
• Inflation and unemployment were high.
• High population could not cope.
• Ding abuse problem continued.
• Problems in Sindh
• Bhutto made the study of Sindhi compulsory in schools and also reserved a number of
posts in the administration for Sindhis.
• Large number of Muhajirs apposed special rights for Sindhis and supported MQM.
• Could not stamp out violence and protect the interest of all the people so Sindh. So,
tension between Sindhis and Muhajirs continued.
• On 30th September, 1988 gun men motor bikes, believed to be Sindhis militants, and
fired into a crowd in Hyderabad, causing 250 causalities, mostly Muhajirs.
• Led to widespread in Karachi. In August 1989, MQM its alliance with PPP.
• Violence continued with hundreds more deaths in 1989-90.
• 27th May 1990, Sindh government launched a crackdown in Hyderabad. A shoot-on-
sight curfew was imposed and police house-to-house search operation. The Muhajir
protest at this treatment and fighting broke out. 31 women and children were killed,
leading to relations in Karachi and elsewhere and over 300 more deaths. The come to
known as the “Pucca Qila massacre” .

Foreign Policies

• Took Pakistan to Common Wealth

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• Hosted the 4th SAARC Summit Conference in December 1988 Pak India signed 3
separate peace agreements
• June 1989 visit to USA, restored good relations between the two countries
• President Ghulam Ishaq Khan took his chance and used the Eighth Amendment to
dismiss the Bhutto govt.
• Ghulam Jatoi formed an interim government until elections were held in Oct, 1990.

Benazir Bhutto 1993-1996 (2nd term)

• The 1993 elections brought the return of Benazir Bhutto as PM.

• In Nov 1993, Farooq Ahmed Khan Leghari was elected as President.

Policies

• Benazir Bhutto did not introduce any legislation to bring measures about favouring
women.
• Nawaz Sharif played a major past in organizing strikes throughout Pakistan in Sept and
Oct 1994. Benazir Bhutto responded by arresting several opposition leaders who had
taken part in these strikes.
• Benazir did not had smooth relations with her family members, she faced opposition
from her mother, Begum Nusrat Bhutto and her brother Mir Murtaza. In Sept 1996,
Murtaza was killed in police ambush at his residence in Karachi. A judicial review
suggested that there had been government involvement in the Killings and his further
undermined support for Benazir Bhutto.

Economic Problems

• 30% decrease in the value of the rupee compared to the U.S Dollar.
• Also, Mrs. Bhutto’s privatization policy was obstructed by government officials who
had a personal interest in the national industries.
• The country’s economy suffered greatly from the effects of the US families and military
embargo imposed as a result of Pakistan’s nuclear programme.
• On 5th November, 1996 he dismissed the government, claiming misgovernment and
corruption.
• Bhutto went into a voluntary exile.
• Malik Meraj Khalid became caretaker PM.

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• Elections were held in Feb, 1997.

1st Term of Benazir Bhutto 1988-1990

Zia dismissed M.Khan Junejo, PM of Pakistan, in 1988 and announced for new elections within
90 days.

• Meanwhile Zia died in an air crash in August 1988 and Ghulam Ishaq Khan became
the new president of Pakistan.
• Elections were held in October, 1988.
• PPP won and Benazir became the first women to serve as PM in an Islamic country.
• Benazir faced a lot of problems since the beginning.
• She could not gain a majority in all the provinces.
• PPP had to make a coalition government with MQM.
• PPP had to face severe opposition by Islamic Jimhori Ithaad (IJT) led by Nawaz Sharif,
who was Chief Minister of Punjab.
• She also had to face opposition of military and ISI.
• Benazir also had clash with President Ishaq Khan and major area of disagreement as
over the appointment in military, judiciary and bureaucracy.
• Benazir had to face corruption allegation and her husband was arrested on charges of
blackmail and was jailed for 2 years.
• The religious communities of Pak also condemned woman rule in Pakistan.
• Benazir also lost public support as she could not provide employment, education for all
and health facilities.
• Besides this, Sindhis and Muhajirs confrontations became common and widespread
riots in Karachi and ended MQM and PPP alliance, especially after Pucca Qila
Massacre
• Under all these circumstances, President Ishaq Khan dismissed Benazir on 06 August
1990.

1st Term of Nawaz Sharif 1990-1993

• Following the dismissed of Benazir, Ghulam Mutafa Jatoi formed a caretaker
government until elections were held in Oct 1990.
• In the elections, IJI had won a comfortable victory and Nawaz Sharif from ML Nawaz
Sharif became PM of Pakistan.

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Reforms

• Nawaz announced to carry out a national reconstitution programme to industrialize

Pakistan.
• He opted the policy of privatization of industry which have been nationalized under
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.
• He also opened important industries such as shipping, and communication and Barotha
Hydro Power Project and Gwader Mini Airport in Balochistan.
• He also imported 1000’s of yellow cabs to overcome un-employment.
• One of his major projects was to establish a fast transportation network in form of
motorway which completed in his 2nd term, 1997.
• He also continued the nuclear project that completed in 1998.
Reasons for downfall

• Nawaz Sharif’s polices were undermined by lack of capital for investment.

• US support reduced after Soviet Afghan War and Pakistan’s nuclear weapon policy was
badly criticized by US.
• Reduction in overseas did and government’s high expenditures exerted high pressure
Pakistan’s finance.
• One of the banks working in Pakistan, Beak of Credit and Commerce international
collapsed in 1991.
• It was soon discovered that billions of rupees of loans were provided to Sharif family
business and Ittefaq Group.
• Karachi’s condition became further deteriorated gunning carrying became part of
culture, kidnapping murder and bombing were very common.
• Afghan refugees were also burden on Pakistan’s economy. Direct conflict with
President Ghulam Ishaq as PM wanted to change the Amendment and dismissed Nawaz
Sharif’s on 19th April, 1993.

• 2nd Term of B.B

• Ghulam Ishaq Khan and NS both had to resign.
• Chairman of Senate Wasim Sajjad become acting president and Moeen Uddin Ahmed
Qureshi became caretaker PM and elections were held in Oct, 1993.

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• PPP won election and Benazir became PM and elected Farooq Ahmed Khan Leghari
as President.
• Problem for Benazir
• PML-N and Nawaz Sharif opposed Benazir’s govt. and a train march began by Nawaz
Sharif from Karachi to Peshawar to organize people against PPP.
• Benazir also faced a major problem by the family members and she had to confront
with her mother Nusrat Bhutto over the control of PPP.
• Nusrat Bhutto preferred Murtaza as the leader of PPP.
• Murtaza also opposed Zardari’s involvement in PPP.
• Reclashed between Murtaza and Zardai led to the murder of Murtaza on Sept, 1996.
• PPP rule was also condemned by military and religions community again and finally
clashed began between PM and President.
• President finally dismissed government of PPP on the charges of contraption and
Zardari was also accused to remain involved in Political murders and was jailed from
1997 – 2004.

Nawaz Sharif (1st Term)

Successes

• Opened a number of important industries, such as shipping, electricity supply,

airlines and telecommunications
• Introduced several large scale projects to stimulate the economy, such as the
Barotha Hydro Power Project and the Gwadar miniport in Balochistan.
• Tried to solve the unemployment problem by importing thousands of taxis and
providing cheap loans to buy them.
• Started building the motorway, M-2

Failures:

• Lost US Aid after the end of Soviet Afghan War and due to Pakistan’s nuclear weapon
policy.
• The Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) closed in 1991.
• Co-operative societies Scandal. Mismanagement of these societies led to major collapse
in which millions of Pakistani lost money.
• Kalashnikov Culture

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• Government passed 12th Amendment to the Constitution, which provided for “Speedy
Trial Courts” to dispense summary justice. The opposition, however, criticized the law
as suppressing fundamental rights.
• In May 1991 Shariat still passed making the Quran and the Sunnah the law of the Land.
However, the law not popular. Opponents dislike increased role up Islam and
government and the fundamental Muslims in the alliance were disappointed that if did
not go further.
• After the sudden death of Arm Chief of Staff, General Asif Nawaz Janjua in
Jan 1993, Nawaz Sharif wanted to place his own candidate in the vacant position,
against the wishes of both army and the President instead Ishaq Khan appointed General
Waheed Kakar.
• Dispute over the 8th Amendment
• On 19th April, 1990 Ishaq Khan used the 8th Amendment to dismiss Sharif and his
govt. He declared the Sharif’s government was guiling of corruption and
mismanagement of the economy. But, the Supreme Court declared Ishaq Khan’s
action as unconstitutional and Sharif was restored.
• Afterwards both men resigned. Wasim Sajjad chairman of the senate, functional as
the Acting President and Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi became care takes Prime
Minister.

Nawaz Sharif 1997-1999 (2nd term)

• Introduced 13th amendment given in the PM authority to revoke the authority of the
President to dismiss the PM and the National Assembly.
• The President also lost the power to appoint the 3 chiefs of staff the armed forces and
the Provincial Governors.
• Introduced 14th Amendment (anti defection bill) prevented politicians from society
from switching parties in order to help form conditions to oppose or seven from
government.
• Journalists who wrote critical about Sharif were arrest an expected tax inspections of
the affairs of newspaper editors were carried out.
• In May 1997, Sharif’s secret police attacked the home of a leading critic of the
government, Najam Sethi and kidnapped him. He was released only after international
protest.

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• In the same year, when Sharif was defending himself in the Supreme Court against
accusations of corruption, his supporters stormed the building and proceedings had to
suspend. Sharif also became involved in a dispute with Chief Justice of Pakistan, Syed
Sajjad Ali Shah.
• President Legahri resigned on 2nd December 1997. Thus, M. Rafiq Tarar, the PML
candidate, replaced him. On 23rd December 1997, Ajmal Mian replaced Sajjad Ali Shah
as Chief Justice.
• In 1998, Pakistan carried out a series of nuclear tests in Balochistan. These brought
wide spread international criticism and economic sometimes from countries such as
USA and Japan.
• The failure in Kashmir.
• He had lost the support of the army.
• Mass opposition rallies showed that he had been also lost the support of many of his
people.
• Sharif feared a coup led by Musharraf and decided to replace him.
• As Musharaf returned from a visit to Sir Lanka on 12th Oct 1999, Sharif ordered the
Civil Aviation Authority not to give permission for his plane to land. The Army took
over Karachi airport and allowed Musharaff’s plane to land Musharaff exiled Nawaz to
the kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
2nd Term of Nawaz Sharif
• Malik Miraj Khalid became caretaker PM and elections were held in February 1997.
• Nawaz Sharif won with great majority became PM of Pakistan.

Reforms of Nawaz Sharif

• Nawaz Sharif introduced 15th Amendment giving the PM the authority to abolish
the authority of President to dismiss the Prime Minister.
• President also lost the power to appoint the three chiefs of armed forces and
practical governors.
• Presidency become a ceremonial position
• All parties supported these measures in 8th Amendment
• Sharif introduced Anti-Defection Bill (the 14th Amendment) to prevent politicians
from military parties.

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• Journalist who approved or criticized NS were arrested and unexpected tax

inspection of the affairs of newspaper editors were carried out.
• Nawaz Sharif’s secret police attacked the home of a dealing critic of the
Government, Najam Sethi and kidnapped.
• He was released after international protest.
• When Nawaz Sharif was defending himself, against the charges of corruption, his
supporters stormed the building and proceedings had to suspend.
• He was also involved in despite with Chief Justice of Pakistan, Sajjad Ali Shah.
• President Leghari had given his support to Sharif.
• President Leghari resigned and Justice Retired Rafiq Tarar became new President
and Ajmal Mian was appointed as new Chief Justice of Pakistan.
• Pakistan carried out a series of nuclear testing in Balochistan in 1998.
• This brought widespread international criteria and economic sanctions were
improved by USA + Japan.
• Pakistan’s economic was close to collapse and Sharif had to raise the price of fuel.
• He also introduced a state of emergency curtailing civil rights.
• He also had conflicts Pervaiz Musharaff who succeeded General Jehangir Karamat.
• Nawaz Sharif introduced Islamic law but he did not take the consent from the
Senate.
• He also lost the support of the people.
• Sharif dismissed General Pervaiz when he was returning from Sri Lanka on
12 Oct 1999.
• Army refused to accept the decision.
• Army refused to accept the decision.
• Army took control and N.S and his better and 5 other government officers charged
and found guilty on charges of attempted murder, hijacking and kidnapping in the
plan conspiracy case.
• The request of Saudi Royal Family, he was exiled to Saudi Arabia

Question: Why were the problems of Division of Assets?

Question: Why was there a refugee crisis?
Question: Why was there a Canal Water dispute?
Question: Why was there Kashmir Issue?

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Question: Why was the objective Resolution Criticized?

Question: Why was Martial Law imposed in 1958?
Question: Why was the objective Resolution Criticized?
Question: Why did civil war break out in 1971 in East Pakistan?
Question: Why was the 1973 constitution introduced?
Question: Why was there a fall in August rule 1969?
Question: Why was Ayunb’s rule called the decade of progress?
Question: Why did Pakistan leave SEATO and CENTO?
Question: Why did Pakistan join UN?
Question: Why did Pakistan support the Pakistan Cause?
Question: Why was there a fall of B.B from Government in 1990?
Question: Why was there fall in Nawaz’s government in 1993?
Question: Reasons for fall of Benazir’s government in 2nd term?
Question: Fall in Nawaz Sharif government in 1999?
Question: Why did Pervaiz Musharraf come in power?

Foreign Relations
UNO
• Important Organs
• General Assembly
• Security Council
• Economic and Social Council
• Trusty ship Council
• Secretariat
• International Court of Justice

General Assembly
• Total members – 190 members
• Each Country has one vote but 5 members can represent country
• Once or twice a year – meetings
• In case of emergency, meeting can be held at anytime
• Function to approve budget of UNO and supervise the activity of all departments

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Security Council
• Most important organ because its main perform or objective nation peace in the
world.
• Total 15 members: Russia, UK, USA, China, France 10 members – temporary –
elected for 2 years.

PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN RELATIONS:

• UNITED NATIONS ORGANIATION:
• The United Nations Organization has the following important organs:
• 1. General Assembly
• 2. Security Council
• 3. Economic and Social Council
• 4. Trusteeship Council
• 5. Secretariat International Court of Justice
• General Assembly:
• It is the meeting place of 190 members of the UNO. Each country has one vote,
but 5 members can represent a country. The General Assembly meets once or
twice a year, but emergency meetings can be called any time. The main functions
of the General Assembly are approving of the budget, supervising the activities of
all departments and granting membership to new entrants.
• Security Council:
• The Security Council is the most important organ because its primary
responsibility is to maintain world peace. It has 15 members of which 5 members
are permanent (USA, USSR, UK, France and China), and 10 other members are

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elected for 2 year term. The permanent members have veto power. The Security
Council orders ceasefire between two fighting countries and tries to hold talks
between them. Security Council can impose economic boycott if a country refuses
to accept UN resolutions.
• Economic and Social Council:
• This council is concerned with economic, social cultural, educational and health
affairs of the member nations. The council has 54 members elected for 3 years and
it holds its meetings at least twice a year. It coordinates the functions of
UNCESCO, ILO and WHO.
• Trusteeship Council:
• It is not functioning now.
• Secretariat: It is the headquarters of the UNO and has a large number of offices of
the Organization. About 14000 workers work in these offices, Secretary General
is the chief administrative officer. The members of the secretariat are not allowed
to get instructions from any government nor supposed to be influenced by any
country.
• The Secretary General is elected by the General Assembly for a period of 5 years
and can seek re-election. He has often to mediate between two nations, investigate
disputes and try to respond to international crises.
• International Court of Justice:
• This court peacefully resolves legal disputes between two states. It has 15 judges
drawn from member states elected for 9 year term by the General Assembly. All
disputes brought before the court are decided by majority vote.
•
• ORGANIZTION OF ISLAMIC CONFERENCE (OIC):
• The Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) was founded in August 1969
when the Jews set fire to a part of Al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem. Muslims all over
the world were greatly irritated and felt that effective steps should be taken to
protect the Islamic countries from the aggressive forces and they realized that the
unity of the Muslim countries was essential. It was decided to hold a conference
of the heads of all the Muslim countries to discuss the threat faced by the Muslim
World.

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• The first Summit Conference of OIC was held at Rabat (Morocco) in September
1969. The Middle East situation was discussed in detail. The Second summit
conference was held at Lahore (Pakistan) in February 1974. Besides the
discussion on Palestine problem and condemnation of Jewish aggression, a
committee was formed for the elimination of poverty, illiteracy and disease from
the Islamic countries. It was decided to set up an Islamic Development Bank for
the help of needy countries.
• Nine Islamic Summit Conferences have been held so far. The last one was in
Qatar in 2000. In all these summit meetings the issues discussed are: The Middle
East and Palestine Problem, Kashmir problem, Afghan problem, Iraq-Iran war,
and Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. Israel's aggression was strongly condemned and it
was demanded that Israel should withdraw from the Arab territories and
Palestinians should be given a chance to form a state of their own
• The Conference also aimed at the advancement of cultural, scientific, educational
and trade interests of all Islamic countries and to create a spirit of cooperation
amongst them in all these spheres. Establishment of trade centers and shipping
organization was also taken up. In this way the OIC projects the feelings,
sentiments and demands of the Muslim world.
• But, sad to say, that real unity does not exist among the Muslim countries. At the
Summit Conferences speeches are made, resolutions are passed, plans and
schemes are approved but no practical step is taken. Every proposal seems to be
on paper. There has hardly been any positive or tangible achievement of OIC.
•
• INDIA PAKISTAN RELATIONS:
•
• India is the closest neighbor of Pakistan sharing a common border of over
2000 Kms from Arabian Sea to the mountains of Kashmir. But their relations have
been tense and strained right from the time of partition because of three main
reasons.
• Firstly, the Congress leaders never wanted the partition of the subcontinent.
Therefore they created every hindrance for the state of Pakistan. Unfair and unjust
methods were adopted in the division of assets in order to destabilize Pakistan.
Large scale planned massacre of Muslims in East Punjab and Delhi created

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massive refugee problem for Pakistan. Canal water dispute was created. Relations
have been of unfriendliness and mistrust from the very beginning.
• Secondly, the problem of Kashmir has poisoned the relations. War broke out in
1948 and in 1965 over this issue. After the 1965 war both countries signed the
Tashkent Agreement, but they again clashed in 1971 when India gave a severe
blow to Pakistan through military intervention in former East Pakistan and
Bangladesh was created. This was followed by Simla Agreement. But the basic
problem of Kashmir remained unsolved. Thirdly, India is a large country which is
much ahead of Pakistan in industry, technology and military strength. Therefore
India wants to dominate over all neighboring countries including Pakistan and
wants to impose her will on them. India adopts a stubborn attitude in all matters
and disregards treaties and agreements at her free will.
• The Indus Water Treaty 1960 was an important agreement. It helped Pakistan to
solve her canal water problem. But India started building Wular Dam and Salal
Dam on Jhelum and Chenab rivers which was against the Indus Water Treaty.
• During 1980s, when Russian forces invaded Afghanistan, relations became more
strained because India sided with Russia while Pakistan supported Afghan
Mujahidin who were fighting against Russian forces.
• In September 1981, a no war pact was suggested by Pakistan but India did not
agree. Dangers of military attack on Pakistan and on her nuclear installations were
averted by diplomatic steps. In 1988 an agreement was signed for not attacking
each other’s nuclear installations. Another agreement was signed in 1991 to
supply advance information about military exercises, troop’s movement and on
prevention of air space violations.
• On the other hand, the public of both countries has a keen desire of good relations.
There have been strong cultural relations between the two countries. Cricket and
hockey matches are played. Singers and artists exchange visits. Pilgrims of one
country visit sacred places in the other country. Divided families are eager to visit
their relatives.
• Pakistan has always expressed her intentions to have friendly relations with India
and wants to solve all problems through peaceful negotiations. It is clear that
without solving the Kashmir problem all efforts of lasting peace and friendly
relations would be fruitless.

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•
• PAKISTAN AND MUSLIM COUNTRIES:
• A good and brotherly relation with Muslim countries has been the corner stone of
Pakistan's foreign policy from the very beginning. Muslim countries were given
top priority in our foreign relations. Pakistan has enjoyed good relations with
almost all the countries of the Islamic World because Islam is the common bond
of brotherhood. There are great similarities in way of life, food, dress, customs,
and religious festivals in almost all Muslim countries.
• Very cordial and close cultural and religious relations have existed between
Pakistan and Iran. Persian language had a deep impact on Urdu language and
literature. Classes for teaching of Persian language were started at many places in
Pakistan. Many Pakistani pilgrims visit the sacred tombs and shrines in Iran on
regular basis.
• Deep cultural and religious bonds have developed between Pakistan and Saudi
Arabia. Hundreds of thousands of pilgrims from Pakistan go for Hajj and Umra
every year. Their impact is so deep that Urdu language is widely understood in
Saudi Arabia. Pakistani scholars go for higher studies in Islamic religion to Saudi
universities. Similarly Saudi students study in Pakistani medical and engineering
colleges. Saudi Cadets receive military training in armed forces academies of
Pakistan on regular basis. Teaching of Arabic through TV and radio was
introduced in Pakistan.
• Pakistan, Iran and Turkey got bound together by RCD pact in 1964. RCD was
later transformed into ECO which includes many Central Asian Republics as well.
• Unbreakable cultural, linguistic and trade relations exist between Pakistan and its
immediate neighbor Afghanistan. Pushto is spoken on both sides of the border and
there is great cultural and ethnic similarity. Pakistan has always helped
Afghanistan. Over 3 million Afghan refugees have been given shelter in refugee
camps in Pakistan. All kind of help is being offered to them from 1980 till now.
The Afghan public wishes to keep good relations but the Afghan government has
kept hostile attitude towards Pakistan from the very beginning. It may be hoped
that good relations will prevail when peace returns to Afghanistan with a stable
government.

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• Very close cultural relations exist between Pakistan and Gulf States. Pakistani
artists and singers regularly hold their cultural shows which the public thoroughly
enjoys. Sharjah Cricket matches have been very popular and Pakistani sportsmen
regularly take part in it. A large number of Pakistani are working in Gulf States
and Saudi Arabia and are helping in economic development in these countries.
• PAKISTAN AND BANGLADESH:
• Bangladesh was created after a lot of hostilities when the former East
Pakistan got separated in December 1971. In the beginning relations remained
strained and Pakistan did not recognize Bangladesh for 2 years. It was on the
occasion of the OIC Summit Conference at Lahore in Feb. 1974 that Pakistan
recognized Bangladesh. Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman was called to attend the OIC
Conference.
• Proper diplomatic relations started in 1975 after the visit of Z. A. Bhutto to
Bangladesh. Bangladesh demanded division of assets from Pakistan but did not
agree to share any liabilities.
• Communication link and air services were started in 1976. Close relations
developed during the period of president Zia-ur-Rehman. Pakistan offered food
and material assistance in 1985 and 1988 floods. In 1979 trade agreements were
signed. Trade between the two countries has been steadily increasing. Bangladesh
exports tea, jute and jute goods to Pakistan. Pakistan exports machinery, spare
parts, and cloth and sports goods to Bangladesh.
• Bangladesh and Pakistan support each other on international forums. Bangladesh
supports Pakistan on the Kashmir issue. Both are members of the SAARC
organization under- which a number of agreements have been finalized for the
promotion of trade, tourism and exchange of cultural programmes. Trade
delegations of both countries exchange visits regularly and the trade between them
has been gradually increasing,
• PAKISTAN AND IRAN:
• Iran is our neighboring country on the western side sharing a long boundary
with Baluchistan. Rail, road and air links existed between the two countries from
the very beginning. Iran was the first country to recognize Pakistan when it came
into existence. Liaquat Ali Khan and King Raza Shah exchanged visits in 1950.

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• Very strong cultural ties existed between the two countries since medieval times.
Persian was the court and official language for many centuries in India before the
British brought the English language in 1835. Urdu language is deeply influenced
by the Persian language.
• Both Iran and Pakistan had leaning towards USA and the West and both joined the
CENTO pact in 1954. Several trade agreements for trade and exchange of media
information have taken place. In 1965, RCD was established and cultural and
economic relations were strengthened. Now ECO has replaced RCD. Iran helped
Pakistan during 1965 and 1971 crises. Iran always supported Pakistan on Kashmir
issue.
• During the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979, relations became cool because Iran
became very hostile towards USA. An Iranian diplomat was killed in Lahore
which poisoned the relations between the two countries for some time. But
relations improved greatly after a democratic government was set up in Iran. Both
Iran and Pakistan decided to withdraw from the CENTO pact in 1979. Iran
supported Pakistan during the Russian invasion of Afghanistan during 1979 -
1988 periods.
• However, Iran remains our trusted ally and very cordial relations exist between
the two countries.
• PAKISTAN AND AFGHANISTAN:
• Afghanistan is the immediate neighbor and shares a long border with
Pakistan in the north-west. There have been strong historic bonds of religion,
culture and language between the two countries. Kabul and Kandahar have been
parts of Indian Kingdom during the Muslim and Mughal rule. Pushto speaking
people live on both sides of the border which is called the Durand Line.
Afghanistan is a land locked country and her foreign trade passes through Pakistan
using the port of Karachi.
• But the Afghan government has been hostile and unfriendly from the very
beginning under the influence of Russia and India. Afghanistan opposed
Pakistan's membership to United Nations in September 1947. She strongly
supported the 'Pakhtoonistan' separatist movement which was a clear attempt to
weaken and destabilize Pakistan. The Afghan government refused to accept the
Durand Line as the international boundary line between the two countries. In spite

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of this Pakistan has been trying to establish good relations with the brotherly
Muslim country. Gen. Iskandar Mirza in 1956 and later Ayub Khan visited Kabul
for this purpose.
• Twice diplomatic relations were broken in 1955 and in 1961 when Pakistan
Embassy in Kabul was attacked and damaged. However, relations were restored
and normalized during Ayub Khan's period and further improved during Z.A
Bhutto's period. Afghanistan remained neutral during the 1965 and 1971 India-
Pakistan wars. Z. A. Bhutto and King Zahir Shah exchanged visits, but soon King
Zahir Shah was deposed and exiled in 1973. Sardar Daud also visited Pakistan.
During the period of successive prime ministers of Afghanistan relations remained
strained.
• In December 1979, Russian forces invaded Afghanistan. The Afghanistan
government was pro-Russian, but the people rose up and took up arms against the
Russian forces. The Afghan-freedom fighters (Mujahideen) were given full and
whole-hearted support by Pakistan with arms, supplies and training. Pakistan also
gave shelter to over 3 million Afghan refugees on humanitarian grounds and they
were housed in refugee camps near Peshawar and Quetta. Pakistan however had to
pay heavy price for this. Soviet and Afghan planes bombed Pakistani territories
several times and drug trafficking and proliferation of arms became common in
Pakistan. Afghanistan was caught in civil war after the withdrawal of Russian
troops. While Pakistan has been willing to develop good relations with any stable
government in Afghanistan in future.
• PALESTINIAN ISSUE:
• The Palestine problem has been the cause of unrest for the entire Muslim
world. The people and government of Pakistan continue with their support and
have always acknowledged the right of the Palestinian people. Pakistan has
always spoken strongly in favour of the Arab cause in the United Nations, the
Security Council and at all other international forums such as NAM etc.
• At all OIC meetings Pakistan has stressed for the protection of the rights and
interests of the Palestinian people and has always pressed for a just and honorable
solution of the problem. Pakistan has always demanded that Israel should vacate
the occupied Arab territories and should stop its expansionist designs. Also Israel
should stop the killing of innocent Palestinian people.

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• During the Second OIC summit Conference at Lahore in 1974, the Israeli attitude
was strongly condemned. It was demanded that Israel should withdraw from
occupied Arab territories and the former status of Jerusalem should be restored.
Pakistan recognizes the PLO as the true representative of the Palestinian people.
Pakistan does not recognize the state of Israel and has never shown any intention
to develop diplomatic relations with that-state.
• PAKISTAN AND EGYPT:
• Both Egypt and Pakistan had been under the influence of British rule.
Therefore good relations existed between the two countries in the beginning.
Egypt became a democratic state in 1953 when King Farooq was deposed and
General Najib came in power.
• In 1956, war between Egypt and Britain took place on Suez Canal issue.
Pakistan's support for Egypt was lukewarm because Pakistan had become a
member of CENTO and SEATO organizations. Relations between the two
countries deteriorated. There were other reasons of cold relations as well. Egypt
claimed to be the leader of Muslim world. With the emergence of Pakistan as the
largest Islamic State, Egypt's claim of leadership was threatened.
• Secondly, Jamal Naser, who came in power after Najib, was a believer of Arab
nationalism. Naser was more inclined towards India and supported Indian point of
view on Kashmir. Egvpt abstained from voting in the UNO on Kashmir. Relations
between the two countries improved during the period of Ayub Khan who paid a
visit to Cairo and Jamal Naser paid a visit to Pakistan in 1960. At the time of
Arab-Israel war, Pakistan fully supported the Arab cause and supported Egypt.
• Relations further improved when Anwar Sadaat attended the Second Islamic
Summit Conference which was held at Lahore in 1974.
• In fact Egypt's close relations with USSR and India had affected the relations
between the two countries.
• However, relations improved during Zia-ul-Haq's period. Egypt's membership of
OIC was suspended when Egypt signed the Camp David Accord with Israel to get
back her territories. Egypt was isolated from the Muslim World. In 1984, through
the efforts of Zia-ul-Haq, Egypt's membership of OIC was restored during the 4th
Summit conference of OIC at Casablanca. Relations between the two countries

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have been friendly since then and delegations have exchanged visits. Egypt
offered help to Pakistan for Afghan refugees.
• PAKISTAN AND USSR:
• Relations between Pakistan and USSR have remained strained from the very
beginning. In 1950 Liaquat Ali Khan received an invitation to visit the U.S.S.R.
But this visit did not take place and Liaquat Ali Khan visited USA instead. At this
Russia got inclined towards India which caused great difficulties for Pakistan in
later years. Relations further worsened when Pakistan entered into CENTO and
SEATO pacts which were designed to check any possibility of Russian expansion.
Russia openly supported India on Kashmir issue and also supported the
Pakhtoonistan movement.
• One of the most serious incidents in Soviet-Pakistan relations occurred in May
1960 when an American spy plane, known as U2, flew from an American airbase
near Peshawar and was shot down while flying over U.S.S.R. Russia gave a very
stern warning to Pakistan.
• In 1962 the India-China war helped to improve Pakistan's relations with Russia
who was greatly annoyed by India's acceptance of arms from USA. U.S.S.R
agreed to give a loan of 150 million dollars to Pakistan for oil exploration. Trade
agreements also took place.
• Relations improved when President Ayub Khan visited Russia in April 1965.
After the India-Pakistan War of 1965, the Tashkent agreement was signed
between the two countries through the efforts of Russian president. But during
1971 crisis Russia fully supported India with military assistance and Pakistan lost
its Eastern Wing.
• Z. A. Bhutto visited Russia in 1972 and relations improved. Russia helped
Pakistan in setting up a steel mill at Karachi, which has been a great asset to
Pakistan.
• In December 1979 Russian troops invaded Afghanistan and relations between the
two countries deteriorated badly after this because Pakistan was helping the
Mujahideen who were fighting against the Russian troops. Russian planes bombed
Pakistan territory in NWFP. Thus till 1988 Pakistan was not successful in having
good relations with the U.S.S.R. However, after the withdrawal of Russian troops
from Afghanistan in 1989 the relations have improved.

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•
• PAKISTAN, UNO AND UNITED STATES:
•
• Pakistan was a newly born independent state, which emerged on the world
map on 14 August 1947 as the largest Muslim country in the world.
• Pakistan was eager to be recognized as a sovereign state by all nations of the
world. Therefore Pakistan wished to join the UNO as soon as possible.
• From the very beginning Pakistan got involved in arguments for the rights of
Kashmiris. It also raised the question of Hyderabad and Junagarh in the Security
Council. Therefore Pakistan's membership of UNO was essential. Pakistan also
wanted to play its role in peace keeping in the world under the charter of the
UNO, and was against any act of territorial aggression, colonialism, nuclear arms
race and racial discrimination all over the world. With these purposes and ideals,
Pakistan joined the United Nations in September 1947.
• Close and good relations existed between Pakistan and USA from the very
beginning; especially after Liaqat Ali Khan's visit to USA in 1950 the relations
became cordial. Pakistan needed food grains and military equipment which USA
could supply. On the other hand, USA wanted a supporter in the region against
communism.
• Therefore, in 1954 and 1955, Pakistan signed the SEATO and CENTO pacts
which were meant to check Russian expansion. With the help of these pacts
Pakistan received financial and military assistance from U.S.A.
• Relations worsened in 1962 because USA gave huge military aid to Bharat against
China. Pakistan's protests were of no avail. Relations also worsened because
Pakistan turned to China in 1962 for friendship and Ayub Khan made a visit to
China. During the 1965 War, USA did not help Pakistan and instead stopped the
usual aid. Relations gradually improved when Pakistan played an important role in
bringing USA and China closer in 1969 during the period of Yahya Khan.
• In 1971 crises again Pakistan received no help from USA, and in 1972 Mr. Bhutto
left the SEATO pact.
• In 1979, the American Embassy in Islamabad was attacked by a mob and relations
worsened. This was the lowest point of Pakistan - USA relations. All American
aid programmes were suspended or cancelled. Pakistan had to pay Rs.20 million

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by way of compensation. But soon after the relations improved when Russia
attacked Afghanistan in December 1979. Pakistan supported and helped the
Afghan freedom fighters (Mujahideen) who fought against Russian aggression.
Massive military and financial aid came to Pakistan from USA for this purpose.
But after the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, Pakistan's importance
gradually decreased and American aid was also reduced. However, on the whole,
Pakistan has been successful in having good relations with USA between 1947
and 1999.
• PAKISTAN AND BRITAIN:
• Pakistan maintained good and friendly relations with Britain because of the
colonial attachment of more than 100 years. Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO
of which UK was a very important member. In 1965 Britain played an important
role in finalizing an agreement to solve RANN OF KUTCH dispute with India.
Britain remained neutral in 1965 war although it suspended sale of arms to
Pakistan. Britain again remained neutral during 1971 crises and advised Pakistan
to have a political solution. During the Afghan crisis the British government was
firm in support of Pakistan and offered formidable financial assistance for Afghan
refugees.
• Britain gave much assistance in educational sector through the agency of British
Council. Britain remains an important trading partner of Pakistan on account of
old colonial links. For historic, economic and political reasons, Britain has
remained a valuable ally of Pakistan between 1947 and 1988.
• The Commonwealth is an organization of all the former British colonies including
UK itself. It was a useful platform for states to exchange views. However,
Pakistan withdrew from the commonwealth during Z. A. Bhutto's time on the
point of recognition of Bangladesh. During the period of 1972-1988 Pakistan
remained cut off from the Commonwealth. But later Pakistan rejoined the
Commonwealth during the time of Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in 1989.
• The richer Commonwealth countries have always supplied Pakistan with
economic and technical aid. Government of Canada, New Zealand and Australia
have been providing valuable financial and technical assistance to Pakistan.
Substantial aid has been given to Pakistan for Warsak Project, Mangia Dam and
for development of railway and irrigation systems.

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• On the whole, Pakistan has been successful in having good relations with Britain
and Commonwealth countries.
•
• PAKISTAN AND CHINA RELATIONSHIP:
• Pakistan recognized the communist government of China in 1950 and supported it
in regaining the UNO membership. During 1956-60, leaders of both countries
visited each other's country to strengthen economic and cultural relations. In 1963,
the boundary line between the two countries was demarcated to avoid any conflict
in future. A series of trade agreements were signed in 1960s. China granted $60
million interest free loan and became the world's largest importer of Pakistan's
cotton. Pakistan imported industrial machinery and developed the Heavy
Mechanical Complex at Taxila. Pakistan International Airline started regular
flights to China which resulted in increased business. KaraKoram Highway is the
road link that flourishes trade and tourism between the two countries.
• China has supported Pakistan's stand on Kashmir issue. During the 1965 war with
India, China supplied military aid to Pakistan along with diplomatic assistance. In
1986, the two countries signed a nuclear cooperation treaty which is an indication
of very good relations. China gave the Chashma Nuclear Power Plant to Pakistan,
constructed near Mianwali and which started operation in 1999.
• Now coming to the weaker side, Pakistan did not have good relations with China
in its early few years after independence due to pro-American policies (USA and
China were rivals). In 1959 Pakistan condemned military action in Tibet which
was displeasure for China. In the 1971 war with India, China did not support
Pakistan due to former USSR pressure that supported India. During 1990s China
wanted Pakistan to resolve its issue of Kashmir with India. Perhaps she wanted a
compromise which was a cause of resentment for Pakistan.
•
• Conclusively, it can be said that as a whole Pakistan has maintained cordial
relations with China. The two countries have been living in harmony. Delegations
from almost all walks of life exchanged visits. Up to 1999, there were strong
economic, trade and cultural ties between the two countries. And Pakistan
received significant military and industrial equipment from China.
•

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• SAARC:
• The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic
and geopolitical organisation of eight countries that are primarily located in South
Asia. The SAARC Secretariat is based in Kathmandu, Nepal. The combined
economy of SAARC is the 3rd largest in the world in the terms of GDP .SAARC
nations comprise 3% of the world's area and contain 21% (around 1.7 billion) of
the world's total population. India makes up over 70% of the area and population
among these eight nations. All non-Indian member states except Afghanistan
share borders with India but only two other members, Pakistan and Afghanistan,
have a border with each other.
• The idea of regional political and economic cooperation in South Asia was first
raised in 2 May 1980 by Bangladesh President Ziaur Rahman and the first summit
was held in Dhaka on 8 December 1985, when the organisation was established by
the governments of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri
Lanka. Since then the organisation has expanded by accepting one new full
member, Afghanistan, and several observer members.
• The SAARC policies aim to promote welfare economics, collective self-reliance
among the countries of South Asia, and to accelerate socio-cultural development
in the region. The SAARC has developed external relations by establishing
permanent diplomatic relations with the EU, the UN (as an observer), and other
multilateral entities. The official meetings of the leaders of each nation are held
annually whilst the foreign ministers meet twice annually. The 18th SAARC
Summit was held in Kathmandu from 26-27 November 2014.
•

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