INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 5

OVER VIEW OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Systems development can generally be thought of as having two major components: Systems analysis
and Systems design. System design is the process of planning a new business system or one to replace or
complement an existing system. But before this planning can be done, we must thoroughly understand the
old system and determine how computers can best be used to make its operation more effective. System
analysis, then, is the process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems, and using the
information to recommend improvements to the system. This is the job of the systems analyst.

The term system is derived from the Greek word systema, which means an organized relationship among
functioning units or components. A system exists because it is designed to achieve one or more
objectives. We come into daily contact with the transportation system, the telephone system, the
accounting system, the production system, and, for over two decades, the computer system. Similarly, we
talk of the business system and of the organization as a system consisting of interrelated departments
(subsystems) such as production, sales, personnel, and an information system. None of these subsystems
is of much use as a single, independent unit. When they are properly coordinated, however, the firm can
function effectively and profitably.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYSTEM

Our definition of a system suggests some characteristics that are present in all systems: organization
(order), interaction, interdependence, integration and a central objective.
1. Organization
Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to achieve
objectives. In the design of a business system, for example, the hierarchical relationships starting with
the president on top and leading downward to the blue – collar workers represents the organization
structure. Such an arrangement portrays a system – subsystem relationship, defines the authority
structure, specifies the formal flow of communication and formalizes the chain of command. Like –
wise, a computer system is designed around an input device, a central processing unit, an output
device and one or more storage units. When linked together they work as a whole system for
producing information.
2. Interaction
Interaction refers to the manner in which each component functions with other components of the
system. In an organization, for example, purchasing must interact with production, advertising with
sales and payroll with personnel. In a computer system, the central processing unit must interact with
the input device to solve a problem. In turn, the main memory holds programs and data that the
arithmetic unit uses for computation. The interrelationship between these components enables the
computer to perform.
3. Interdependence
Interdependence means that parts of the organization or computer system depend on one another.
They are coordinated and linked together according to a plan. One subsystem depends on the input of
 another subsystem for proper functioning: that is, the output of one subsystem is the required input
for another subsystem. This interdependence is crucial in systems work. An integrated information
system is designed to serve the needs of authorized users (department heads, managers, etc.) for quick
access and retrieval via remote terminals. The interdependence between the personnel subsystem and
the organization’s users is obvious.
4. Integration
Integration refers to the holism of systems. Synthesis follows analysis to achieve the central objective
of the organization. Integration is concerned with how a system is tied together. It is more than
sharing a physical part or location. It means that parts of the system work together within the system
even though each part performs a unique function. Successful integration will typically produce a
synergistic effect and greater total impact than if each component works separately.
5. Central objective
The last characteristic of a system is its central objective. Objectives may be real or stated. Although
a stated objective may be the real objective, it is not uncommon for an organization to state one
objective and operates to achieve another. The important point is that users must know the central
objective of a computer application early in the Formal Organizational positions President Vice-
President Sales Vice- President Production Vice- President Accounting Department Head Assembly
Departing Head Painting Lines of Authority Workers Workers analysis for a successful design and
conversion. Political as well as organizational considerations often cloud the real objective. This
means that the analyst must work around such obstacles to identify the real objective of the proposed
change.
ELEMENTS OF A SYSTEM
In most cases, systems analysts operate in a dynamic environment where change is a way of life. The
environment may be a business firm, a business application, or a computer system. To reconstruct a
system, the following key elements must be considered:
1. Outputs and inputs.
2. Processor(s).
3. Control.
4. Feedback.
5. Environment.
6. Boundaries and interface.
1. Outputs and Inputs
A major objective of a system is to produce an output that has value to its user. Whatever the nature of the
output (goods, services, or information), it must be in line with the expectations of the intended user.
Inputs are the elements (material, human resources, and information) that enter the system for processing.
Output is the outcome of processing. A system feeds on input to produce output in much the same way
that a business brings in human, financial, and material resources to produce goods and services. It is
important to point out here that determining the output is a first step in specifying the nature, amount, and
regularity of the input needed to operate a system. For example, in systems analysis, the first concern is to
determine the user’s requirements of a proposed computer system – that is, specification of the output that
the computer is expected to provide for meeting user requirements.
2. Processor(s)
The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into output. It is
the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input totally or partially, depending on
the specifications of the output. This means that as the output specifications change so does the
processing. In some cases, input is also modified to enable the processor to handle the transformation.
3. Control
The control element guides the system. It is the decision – making subsystem that controls the pattern of
activities governing input, processing, and output. In an organizational context, management as a decision
– making body controls the inflow, handling and outflow of activities that affect the welfare of the
business. In a computer system, the operating system and accompanying software influence the behavior
of the system. Output specifications determine what and how much input is needed to keep the system in
balance. In systems analysis, knowing the attitudes of the individual who controls the area for which a
computer is being considered can make a difference between the success and failure of the installation.
Management support is required for securing control and supporting the objective of the proposed change.
4. Feedback
Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. Feedback measures output against a standard in
some form of cybernetic procedure that includes communication and control. Output information is fed
back to the input and / or to management (Controller) for deliberation. After the output is compared
against performance standards, changes can result in the input or processing and consequently, the output.
Feedback may be positive or negative, routing or informational. Positive feedback reinforces the
performance of the system. It is routine in nature. Negative feedback generally provides the controller
with information for action. In systems analysis, feedback is important in different ways. During analysis,
the user may be told that the problems in a given application verify the initial concerns and justify the
need for change. Another form of feedback comes after the system is implemented. The user informs the
analyst about the performance of the new installation. This feedback often results in enhancements to
meet the user’s requirements.
5. Environment
The environment is the “supra system” within which an organization operates. It is the source of external
elements that impinge on the system. In fact, it often determines how a system must function. For
example, the organization’s environment, consisting of vendors, competitors, and others, may provide
constraints and, consequently, influence the actual performance of the business.
6. Boundaries and interface
A system should be defined by its boundaries – the limits that identify its components, processes and
interrelationship when it interfaces with another system. For example, a teller system in a commercial
bank is restricted to the deposits, withdrawals and related activities of customers checking and savings
accounts. It may exclude mortgage foreclosures, trust activities, and the like. Each system has boundaries
that determine its sphere of influence and control. For example, in an integrated banking – wide computer
system design, a customer who has a mortgage and a checking account with the same bank may write a
check through the “teller system” to pay the premium that is later processed by the “mortgage loan
system.” Recently, system design has been successful in allowing the automatic transfer of funds form a
bank account to pay bills and other obligations to creditors, regardless of distance or location. This means
that in systems analysis, knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the
nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.

TYPES OF SYSTEM:
1. Physical System
2. Abstract System
 3. Open System
4. Close System
5. Deterministic System
6. Probabilistic System
7. Introduction System

1. Physical System: A physical system can be tangible or visible which can be touch and also be counted.
Physical system can be operated statically or dynamically.

2. Abstract System: It can be conceptual or intangible.

For ex: A model of organization represents the concept.

3. Open System: An open system is that interacts freely with outside environment and also it can be affected
from outside environment. When the environment changes the open system must also change in order to
adopt itself to the environment otherwise it will be fail.

4. Deterministic System: Deterministic system operates in a manner that stat of the system at a time is
already determined and we can also predict the next state of the system without error.
For ex: The output of computer system is deterministic.

5. Probabilistic System: The probabilistic system works in a predictable manner. If we can predict the stat
of the system then it is probabilistic.
For ex: Economic forecasting.

SYSTEM DESIGN

1.  System Model: A logical or mathematical representation of a system is known as system model.

Model can be built for the existing system to better understand the proposed system.
2.  Process Modeling: Process modeling is technique which involves graphical representation of
functions or processes that capture, manipulates, stores or distribute data between a system & its
environment or among components within a system. DFD (Data Flow Diagram) is one of the
common forms of process model.
3.  Logical & Physical design: System design involves two categories-
a. Logical design:
It is concerned with the specification of major features of the system that would meet the
objectives. The delivered product of logical design may be called as a blueprint of a new system.
Logical design of a system includes content requirements and some of following components-
a) Output(Reports & Displays)
b) Input forms
c) Procedures(Structured of procedures to collect, transforms & output data)
d) Storage(Requirements for data to be stored in the database)
e) Control(Requirements for data integrity, security & procedure for recovery)
b. Physical design: It requires logical design or blueprint and produces the program specification,
physical files or database definitions. It also includes user interface design and selects hardware &
software packages.

4.  Input Output Design:

 a. Input Design: Part of the system which deals with the design of the interface through which user
communicates with the system and feeds the input data to the system.
b. Output Design: The part of the system which deals with determining how the output is to be
presented, in what format or shape is known as output design of the system. Computer produces
displays and print reports that are to be read and used by users therefore the output must be clear
and easy to understand.

c.   I/O Forms: It is primary carrier for data or information. They are the user requests for some
action. A properly designed form is necessary for efficient functioning of a system.
Form is used to –
i. To obtain information efficiently
ii. Distributes information easily
iii. Store information effectively and economically
 Types of Forms:
1.  Action Form: This type of form requests the user to perform certain actions and they are generally
moves from one person to organization or another person.
2.  Memory Form: It record historical data such as stock ledger, purchase record, bond form.
3.  Report Form:
It provides summarized information. These are generally used by managers and such people who
are required to make decision making. They guide supervisors and administrators for decision
making.

Form designing: Steps for form designing-

 Define the purpose of form

 Specify its data contents
 Using a guide sheet enter title, form number and indicates position of any specially
located material
 Review with the user & revised if necessary
 Create few test forms.

COMPUTER BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM:

Computer Based Information System (CBIS) is an information system in which the computer plays a
major role. Such a system consists of the following elements:

 Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes the computer itself,
which is often referred to as the central processing unit (CPU), and all of its support  equipments.
Among the support equipments are input and output devices, storage devices and communications
devices.

 Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that support
them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the
hardware parts of the Computer Based Information System (CBIS) to function in ways that produce
useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some input / output medium-often a
disk or tape.
 Data: Data are facts that are used by program to produce useful information. Like programs, data
are generally stored in machine-readable from on disk or tape until the computer needs them.

 Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer system.

“Procedures are to people what software is to hardware” is a common analogy that is used to illustrate
the role of procedures in a CBIS.

 People: Every Computer Based Information System (CBIS) needs people if it is to be useful.

Often the most over-looked element of the CBIS is the people: probably the components that most
influence the success or failure of information system.

TYPES OF COMPUTER BASED INFORMATION SYSTEMS:

1. TRANSACTION PROCESSING SYSTEMS

The most fundamental computer based system in an organization pertains to the processing of business
transactions. A transaction processing system can be defined as a computer based system that captures,
classifies, stores, maintains, updates and retrieves transaction data for record keeping and for input to
other types of CBIS. Transaction Processing Systems are aimed at improving the routine business
activities on which all organizations depend. A transaction is any event or activity that affects the whole
organization. Placing orders, billing customers, hiring of employees and depositing cheques are some of
the common transactions. The types of transactions that occur vary from organization to organization.

But this is true that all organizations process transactions as a major part of their daily business activities.
The most successful organizations perform this work of transaction processing in a very systematic way.
Transaction processing systems provide speed and accuracy and can be programmed to follow routines
without any variance.

2. MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

Data processing by computers has been extremely effective because of several reasons. The main reason
being that huge amount of data relating to accounts and other transactions can be processed very quickly.
Earlier most of the computer applications were concerned with record keeping and the automation of
routine clerical processes. However, in recent years, increasing attention has been focused on computer
applications providing information for policy making, management planning and control purposes. MIS
are more concerned with management function. MIS can be described as information system that can
provide all levels of management with information essential to the running of smooth business. This
information must be as relevant, timely, accurate, complete and concise and economically feasible

3. DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS

It is an information system that offers the kind of information that may not be predictable, the kind that
business professionals may need only once. These systems do not produce regularly scheduled
management reports. Instead, they are designed to respond to a wide range of requests. It is true that all
the decisions in an organization are not of a recurring nature. Decision support systems assist managers
who must make decisions that are not highly structured, often called unstructured or semi-structured
decisions. A decision is considered unstructured if there are no clear procedures for making the decision
and if not all the factors to be considered in the decision can be readily identified in advance. Judgment of
the manager plays a vital role in decision making where the problem is not structured. The decision
support system supports, but does not replace, judgment of manager.

4. OFFICE AUTOMATION SYSTEMS

Office automation systems are among the newest and most rapidly expanding computer based
information systems. They are being developed with the hopes and expectations that they will increase
the efficiency and productivity of office workers-typists, secretaries, administrative assistants, staff
professionals, managers and the like. Many organizations have taken the First step toward automating
their offices. Often this step involves the use of word processing equipment to facilitate the typing,
storing, revising and printing of textual materials. Another development is a computer based
communications system such as electronic mail which allows people to communicate in an electronic
mode through computer terminals. An office automation system can be described as a multi-function,
integrated computer based system that allows many office activities to be performed in an electronic
mode.

Categories of different information systems with their characteristics have been described briefly in table
below.

Category of Characteristics
Information System

Transaction Substitutes computer-based processing for manual processes. Includes record-

Processing System keeping applications.

Management Provides input to be used in the managerial decision process. Deals with
Information System supporting well structured decision situations. Typical information requirements
can be anticipated

Decision Support Provides information to managers who make judgments about particular
System situations. Supports decision makes in situations that are not well structured.

Office Automation It is a multi-function, integrated computer based system that allows many office
System activities to be performed in an electronic mode.
Expert System

An expert system is a computer program that uses artificial intelligence (AI) technologies to simulate the

judgment and behavior of a human or an organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a
particular field.

Typically, an expert system incorporates a knowledge base containing accumulated experience and an

inference or rules engine -- a set of rules for applying the knowledge base to each particular situation that
is described to the program. The system's capabilities can be enhanced with additions to the knowledge
base or to the set of rules. Current systems may include machine learning capabilities that allow them to
improve their performance based on experience, just as humans do.

Expert systems have played a large role in many industries including in financial services,
telecommunications, healthcare, customer service, transportation, video games, manufacturing, aviation
and written communication. 

CURRENT TRENDS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Information technology is one of the fastest moving careers sectors out there. Trends in IT requirements
and jobs vary rapidly from year to year and with promotion and career change possibilities in a wide
range of areas from computer hardware to e-commerce, it pays to keep ahead of trends in IT and an eye
on the availability of information technology courses.
CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing is a method for delivering information technology (IT) services in which resources are
retrieved from the Internet through web-based tools and applications, as opposed to a direct connection to
a server. Rather than keeping files on a proprietary hard drive or local storage device, cloud-based
storage makes it possible to save them to a remote database. As long as an electronic device has access to
the web, it has access to the data and the software programs to run it.
It's called cloud computing because the information being accessed is found in "the cloud" and does not
require a user to be in a specific place to gain access to it. This type of system allows employees to work
remotely. Companies providing cloud services enable users to store files and applications on remote
servers, and then access all the data via the internet.

Different Types of Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is not a single piece of technology, like a microchip or a cell phone. Rather, it's a
system, primarily comprised of three services: infrastructure as a service (IaaS), software as a service
(SaaS)+ and platform as a service (PaaS). SaaS is expected to experience the fastest growth, followed by
IaaS.
Software as a Service (SaaS): SaaS involves the licensure of a software application to customers.
Licenses are typically provided through a pay-as-you-go model or on-demand. This rapidly growing
market could provide an excellent investment opportunity, with a Goldman Sachs report projecting that
by 2018, 59% of the total cloud workloads will be SaaS.
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Infrastructure as a service involves a method for delivering
everything from operating systems to servers and storage through IP-based connectivity as part of an on-
demand service. Clients can avoid the need to purchase software or servers, and instead procure these
resources in an outsourced, on-demand service.
Platform as a Service (PaaS): Of the three layers of cloud-based computing, PaaS is considered the most
complex. PaaS shares some similarities with SaaS, the primary difference being that instead of delivering
software online; it is actually a platform for creating software that is delivered via the internet. A report
by Forrester indicates that PaaS solutions are expected to generate $44 billion in revenues by the year
2020. 

MOBILE COMPUTING
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer or
any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link. The main
concept involves −

 Mobile communication

 Mobile hardware

 Mobile software

Mobile communication
The mobile communication in this case, refers to the infrastructure put in place to ensure that seamless
and reliable communication goes on. These would include devices such as protocols, services,
bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated services. The data format is also
defined at this stage. This ensures that there is no collision with other existing systems which offer the
same service.
Since the media is unguided/unbounded, the overlaying infrastructure is basically radio wave-oriented.
That is, the signals are carried over the air to intended devices that are capable of receiving and sending
similar kinds of signals.

Mobile Hardware
Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that receive or access the service of
mobility. They would range from portable laptops, smartphones; tablet Pc's, Personal Digital Assistants.

These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of sensing and receiving signals. These
devices are configured to operate in full- duplex, whereby they are capable of sending and receiving
signals at the same time. They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating for the
other device to initiate communications.
Above mentioned devices use an existing and established network to operate on. In most cases, it would
be a wireless network.

Mobile software
Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware. It deals with the characteristics
and requirements of mobile applications. This is the engine of the mobile device. In other terms, it is the
operating system of the appliance. It's the essential component that operates the mobile device.

Since portability is the main factor, this type of computing ensures that users are not tied or pinned to a
single physical location, but are able to operate from anywhere. It incorporates all aspects of wireless
communications.
ANDROID
Android is a smartphone operating system (OS) developed by Google. It is used by a variety of mobile
phone manufacturers including Motorola, HTC and Sony Ericsson.
The first phone to run on the Android OS was the HTC Dream which was launched on 22 October 2008.
Google's own-brand Android phone, the HTC-made Nexus One, was launched in the US on 5 January
2010.
At present there are four main varieties of the Android OS available:
 Android 1.5 (aka 'Cupcake')
 Android 1.6 (aka 'Donut')
 Android 2.0/2.1 (aka 'Eclair')
 Android 2.2 (aka FroYo)
Each version features slightly different functionality and user interface, and recently-launched software
may or may not work on older versions of the OS.
Android is an open-source operating system which means that any manufacturer can use it in their phones
free of charge.

GRID COMPUTING
Grid computing is a processor architecture that combines computer resources from various domains to
reach a main objective. In grid computing, the computers on the network can work on a task together,
thus functioning as a supercomputer.
Typically, a grid works on various tasks within a network, but it is also capable of working on specialized
applications. It is designed to solve problems that are too big for a supercomputer while maintaining the
flexibility to process numerous smaller problems. Computing grids deliver a multiuser infrastructure that
accommodates the discontinuous demands of large information processing.

A scientist studying proteins logs into a computer and uses an entire network of computers to analyze
data. A businessman accesses his company's network through a PDA in order to forecast the future of a
particular stock. An Army official accesses and coordinates computer resources on three different military
networks to formulate a battle strategy. All of these scenarios have one thing in common: They rely on a
concept called grid computing.

At its most basic level, grid computing is a computer network in which each computer's resources are
shared with every other computer in the system. Processing power, memory and data storage are all
community resources that authorized users can tap into and leverage for specific tasks. A grid computing
system can be as simple as a collection of similar computers running on the same  system or as complex as
inter-networked systems comprised of every computer platform you can think of.

NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to

100 nanometers.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely small things and can be used
across all the other science fields, such as chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering.
Nanotechnology Applications in:
Medicine
Researchers are developing customized nano particles the size of molecules that can deliver drugs directly
to diseased cells in your body. When it's perfected, this method should greatly reduce the damage
treatment such as chemotherapy does to a patient's healthy cells. Check out our Nanotechnology
Applications in Medicine page to see how nanotechnology is being used in medicine.

Electronics
Nanotechnology holds some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of electronics devices
while we reduce their weight and power consumption. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in
Electronics page to see how nanotechnology is being used in electronics.

Food
Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is grown to how it
is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a difference not only in the taste of
food, but also in food safety, and the health benefits that food delivers. Check out our Nanotechnology
Applications in Food page for the details.

Fuel Cells
Nanotechnology is being used to reduce the cost of catalysts used in fuel cells to produce hydrogen ions
from fuel such as methanol and to improve the efficiency of membranes used in fuel cells to separate
hydrogen ions from other gases such as oxygen. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Fuel
Cells page for the details.

Solar Cells
Companies have developed nanotech solar cells that can be manufactured at significantly lower cost than
conventional solar cells. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Solar Cells page for the details.

Batteries
Companies are currently developing batteries using nanomaterials. One such battery will be a good as
new after sitting on the shelf for decades. Another battery can be recharged significantly faster than
conventional batteries. Check our our Nanotechnology Applications in Batteries page for details.

Space
Nanotechnology may hold the key to making space-flight more practical. Advancements in nanomaterials
make lightweight spacecraft and a cable for the space elevator possible. By significantly reducing the
amount of rocket fuel required, these advances could lower the cost of reaching orbit and traveling in
space. Check our Nanotechnology Applications in Space page for details.

Fuels
Nanotechnology can address the shortage of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline by making the
production of fuels from low grade raw materials economical, increasing the mileage of engines, and
making the production of fuels from normal raw materials more efficient. Check our Nanotechnology
Applications in Fuels page for details.

Better Air Quality

Nanotechnology can improve the performance of catalysts used to transform vapors escaping from cars or
industrial plants into harmless gasses. That's because catalysts made from nanoparticles have a greater
surface area to interact with the reacting chemicals than catalysts made from larger particles. The larger
surface area allows more chemicals to interact with the catalyst simultaneously, which makes the catalyst
more effective. Check our Nanotechnology and Air Quality page for details.

Cleaner Water
Nanotechnology is being used to develop solutions to three very different problems in water quality. One
challenge is the removal of industrial wastes, such as a cleaning solvent called TCE, from groundwater.
Nanoparticles can be used to convert the contaminating chemical through a chemical reaction to make it
harmless. Studies have shown that this method can be used successfully to reach contaminates dispersed
in underground ponds and at much lower cost than methods which require pumping the water out of the
ground for treatment. Check out our Nanotechnology and Water Quality page for details.

Chemical Sensors
Nanotechnology can enable sensors to detect very small amounts of chemical vapors. Various types of
detecting elements, such as carbon nanotubes, zinc oxide nanowires or palladium nanoparticles can be
used in nanotechnology-based sensors. Because of the small size of nanotubes, nanowires, or
nanoparticles, a few gas molecules are sufficient to change the electrical properties of the sensing
elements. This allows the detection of a very low concentration of chemical vapors. Check out our
Nanotechnology Applications in Chemical Sensors page for details.

Sporting Goods
If you're a tennis or golf fan, you'll be glad to hear that even sporting goods has wandered into the nano
realm. Current nanotechnology applications in the sports arena include increasing the strength of tennis
racquets, filling any imperfections in club shaft materials and reducing the rate at which air leaks from
tennis balls. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Sporting Goods page for details.

Fabric
Making composite fabric with nano-sized particles or fibers allows improvement of fabric properties
without a significant increase in weight, thickness, or stiffness as might have been the case with
previously-used techniques. For details see our Nanotechnology in Fabrics page.