AS5: Groups and Other Algebraic Structures: Colin Campbell Engineering Mathematics Department

Groups and other algebraic structures
Lagrange Theorem
AS5: Groups and Other Algebraic Structures
Colin Campbell
Engineering Mathematics Department
C.Campbell@bris.ac.uk
Colin Campbell Engineering Mathematics Department AS5: Groups and Other Algebraic Structures
Lagrange Theorem
Subgroups and Cosets
Example system
Last time we argued that N mod n with addition is a group.
Let’s return to use N mod 8 with addition as an example.
The N mod 8 group with addition lives on the set
G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} (1)
We commented that:
H = {0, 4} (2)
with addition mod 8 is a group.
Lagrange Theorem
Subgroups and Cosets: Reminder
Definition: Subgroup
Given a group consisting of a set G with an operation ·. We say
that H is a subgroup of G if
H⊆G (3)
and H with · is a group.

Definition: Proper Subgroup
We say that H is a proper subgroup if additionally
H⊂G (4)
This can be denoted by H < G .
Lagrange Theorem
Cosets
So H = {0, 4} is a subgroup of G .
What about K = {1, 5}? Obviously, K is not a group.
But it is related to H via
K = {1, 5} = {1 · 0, 1 · 4} = 1 · {0, 4} = 1 · H (5)
where we have defined a new notation in the penultimate step:

The operation ‘·’ applied to a set is understood to act on the
elements of the set.
Such sets, which can be obtained by ‘multiplying’ a constant to
the elements of a subgroup, are cosets of the subgroup.
Lagrange Theorem
Definition: Left Coset

For a given subgroup H ⊆ G and a ∈ G the set
K = aH = a · H = {a · h : h ∈ H } (6)
is a left coset of H.
Definition: Right Coset
For a given subgroup H ⊆ G and a ∈ G the set
K = Ha = H · a = {h · a : h ∈ H } (7)
is a right coset of H.
Note: For Abelian groups left and right cosets are identical
Lagrange Theorem
Example N mod 8
For the subgroup H = {0, 4} the left cosets are
0·H = {0, 4} (8)

1·H = {1, 5} (9)
2·H = {2, 6} (10)
3·H = {3, 7} (11)
Note that all the elements of the group G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

get divided up equally among the cosets of the subgroup.
Lagrange Theorem
Three Observations
Given a group G and a subgroup H ⊆ G the following is true:
For any a ∈ G there is a b ∈ G such that a ∈ bH.
(Every element of the bigger group G is also element of some
coset of the subgroup).
For two finite cosets aH and bH, |aH | = |bH |.
(All cosets of a subgroup have the same cardinality.)
Either aH ∩ bH = or aH = bH.
(If two cosets contain the same element they are actually the
same cosets)
Lagrange Theorem
Lagrange Theorem
So we know the cosets fill the parent group G without overlapping,
or in other words G is packed with cosets of identical size, or in yet
other words ...
Lagrange Theorem
Given a finite group G and a subgroup H ⊆ G , |H | divides |G |.
Lagrange Theorem
Lagrange Theorem
Cyclic subgroups
We also introduced cyclic subgroups.
Given a finite group G and an element a ∈ G we can define the
cyclic subgroup
hai = {1, a, a2 , . . .} (12)

where a2 = a · a.
In a finite group r ∈ N, r > 0 must exist such that ar = 1.
We call r the order or period of a.
Note, that hai is always a subgroup of G .
Lagrange Theorem
Lagrange Theorem
Because hai is a subgroup, and |hai| = r we get

Corollary to the Lagrange Theorem
Given a finite group G and a ∈ G , the order r of a divides |G |.
Lagrange Theorem
Normal Subgroups
Let (H, ◦) be a subgroup of (G , ◦). The (H, ◦) is a normal

subgroup if ∀x ∈ G , x ◦ H = H ◦ x.
Lagrange Theorem
Normal Subgroups
Example: Let ({a, b, c, d, e, f }, ◦) be a group where the operator

table for ◦ is as follows:
◦ a b c d e f
a a b c d e f
b b c a e f d
c c a b f d e
d d f e a c b
e e d f b a c
f f e d c b a
Lagrange Theorem
Normal Subgroups
Then (H, ◦) is a subgroup when H = {a, b, c }. It is, furthermore,

a normal subgroup since, for example,
d ◦ H = {d ◦ a, d ◦ b, d ◦ c } = {d, f , e }, and
H ◦ d = {a ◦ d, b ◦ d, c ◦ d } = {d, e, f }.
Lagrange Theorem
Isomorphisms (brief review)
Isomorphisms are described in greater detail in the course notes

Two groups (G , ·) and (H, ◦) are isomorphic if there exists a
one-to-one and onto map φ : G → H such that the group
operation is preserved, that is,
φ (a · b ) = φ (a ) ◦ φ (b )
for all a and b in G . If G is isomorphic to H, we write G ∼
= H. The
map φ is called an isomorphism.
Lagrange Theorem
Cayley’s Theorem
Cayley’s Theorem: Cayley proved that if G is a group, it is

isomorphic to a group of permutations on some set; hence, every
group is a permutation group. Cayley’s Theorem is what we call a
representation theorem. The aim of representation theory is to
find an isomorphism of some group G that we wish to study into a
group that we know a great deal about, such as a group of
permutations or matrices.
Lagrange Theorem
Rings, Integral Domains, Fields, Vector Spaces and

Boolean Algebras
Let’s now consider more complex axiomatic structures:

Rings.
Integral Domains.
Fields.
Vector Spaces (familiar to you).
Boolean algebras (familar to you, but not examinable this year
- but in the notes!).
Let’s look at their definitions:
Lagrange Theorem
Rings
Definition: Ring
A Ring is a set R is a set on which operations addition
R + R → R and multiplication R · R → R are defined such that
1 R with + is an Abelian group
2 There is an identity element (1) of multiplication:
1 · a = a · 1 = a for all a ∈ R.
3 Multiplication is associative: (a · b ) · c = a · (b · c ) for all
a, b, c ∈ R.
4 Multiplication is distributive over addition:
a · b + c = (a · b ) + (a · c ) and (b + c ) · a = (b · a) + (c · a)
Note that R is an Abelian group with +, but not necessarily with ·
.
Lagrange Theorem
Integral Domains
If R is a ring and r is a nonzero element in R, then r is said

to be a zero divisor if there is some nonzero element s ∈ R
such that rs = 0.
A commutative ring with identity is said to be an integral
domain if it has no zero divisors.
If an element a in a ring R with identity has a multiplicative
inverse, we say that a is a unit.
If every nonzero element in a ring R is a unit, then R is called
a division ring. A commutative division ring is called a field.
Lagrange Theorem
Fields
Definition: Field
A Field F is set on which operations addition F + F → F and
multiplication F · F → F are defined such that
1 F with + is an Abelian group
2 F \ {0} with · is an Abelian group
3 Distributivity: a · (b + c ) = (a · b ) + (a · c )
Remark: The definition of distributivity is now easier because
demanding that · is Abelian implies commutativity.
Lagrange Theorem
Comments
Rather than getting too bogged down in the minutiae of these

axiomatically defined algebraic structures, we point out:
In the course booklet there are many more examples of these
structures, e.g. 5 examples for Rings.
In the next lecture we focus on one such important instance:
Polynomial Rings, as an example.
After that we consider Vector Spaces.

AS5: Groups and Other Algebraic Structures: Colin Campbell Engineering Mathematics Department

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Groups and other algebraic structures

AS5: Groups and Other Algebraic Structures

Subgroups and Cosets

Subgroups and Cosets: Reminder

and H with · is a group.

This can be denoted by H < G .

Subgroups and Cosets

K = {1, 5} = {1 · 0, 1 · 4} = 1 · {0, 4} = 1 · H (5)

where we have defined a new notation in the penultimate step:

Subgroups and Cosets

Definition: Left Coset

Subgroups and Cosets

0·H = {0, 4} (8)

Note that all the elements of the group G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

Subgroups and Cosets

hai = {1, a, a2 , . . .} (12)

Because hai is a subgroup, and |hai| = r we get

Let (H, ◦) be a subgroup of (G , ◦). The (H, ◦) is a normal

Example: Let ({a, b, c, d, e, f }, ◦) be a group where the operator

Then (H, ◦) is a subgroup when H = {a, b, c }. It is, furthermore,

Isomorphisms (brief review)

Isomorphisms are described in greater detail in the course notes

Cayley’s Theorem: Cayley proved that if G is a group, it is

Rings, Integral Domains, Fields, Vector Spaces and

Let’s now consider more complex axiomatic structures:

If R is a ring and r is a nonzero element in R, then r is said

Rather than getting too bogged down in the minutiae of these

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