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LECTURE CONTENTS

Topic Pages

I. INTRODUCTION 3

II. CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATION 14

III. CONSTRUCTION PROJECT ORGANIZATION 22

IV. PLANNING AND SCHEDULING 31

V. CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATE AND VALUE ENGINEERING 52

VI. CONSTRUCTION METHOD AND OPERATION 58

1. Clearing the site 58

2. Locating the structure 60
3. Earthmoving 61
4. Stabilizing earth and structure 64
5. Setting Foundation 65
6. Building Superstructure 72
7. Installing Utilities 79
8. Enclosing Frame superstructures 86
9. Finishing the project 93

VII. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 103

VIII. CONSTRUCTON MANPOWER SAFETY 117

IX. COMPUTER APPLICATION IN CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 122

X. CONSTRUCTION RECORDS 125

XI. CONSTRUCTION FIELDWORKS 129

XII. CONSTRUCTION DISPUTES 132

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 LECTURE I
INTRODUCTION

CONSTRUCTION METHOD - The procedures and techniques utilized during construction. Construction
operations are generally classified according to specialized fields. These include preparation of the
project site, earth-moving, foundation treatment, steel erection, concrete placement, asphalt paving, and
electrical and mechanical installations. Procedures for each of these fields are generally the same, even
when applied to different projects, such as buildings, dams, or airports.  
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION METHOD
1. Traditional/Conventional Construction Method
2. Advanced/Modern Construction Method

TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Definition

Traditional construction refers to the methods and techniques employed for centuries to build houses and
other structures. In the United States, builders sometimes refer to traditional construction methods as
"brick-and-mortar." Some developers call traditional methods "stick by stick." This terminology refers to
the fact that traditional construction methods, from the early design to the building process, are hands on.

Materials

A variety of materials can be used in the traditional construction process, from concrete floor slabs to
brick walls. Concrete blocks are often used in building foundations or for load bearing walls due to their
high level of strength and durability. Similar to concrete blocks, lightweight aerated block, also known as
aircrete block, is available. Aerated block can also be used for building foundations and walls, but has a
higher level of insulation.

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Advantage

The advantage of traditional construction techniques, particularly in housing construction, but also in
industrial building, is the level of uniqueness achieved. When working with an architect, a consumer has
choice and freedom to modify; the architect has the option of creativity. When more modern construction
techniques are utilised, most homes are built in a similar style. In the case of modular homes, the
components are fabricated at a factory to be constructed on site quickly. The use of traditional
construction techniques often results in a sturdier home of higher quality.

Disadvantages

The disadvantage of using traditional methods of construction for housing and other building is that the
process takes longer. The construction process is more involved and can require hiring higher-skilled
designers and builders. This can add significant construction costs; materials and labour are more
expensive.

MODERN CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Modern construction method is defined as those which provide an efficient product management process
to provide more products of better quality in less time. It has been defined in various ways: pre-
fabrication, off-site production and off-site manufacturing (OSM).

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Modern methods of construction fall into the following categories:

1. Off-site Manufacture (OSM): The part of the production process that is carried out away from the
building site in factory conditions. Examples include:
a) Panel Building Systems: These comprise of walls, floors and roofs in the form of a pre-engineered
panels that are erected on site to form the box like elements of the structure that then require
various levels of finishing. The most common approach is to use open panels or frames which
consist of skeletal structure only with services, insulation, external cladding and internal finishing
occurring on-site.

b) Volumetric (also known as Modular Construction): Units are used to form the structure of the
building, thereby enclosing the usable space. Typically, modular construction means that between
80 to 95 per cent of the building-come-manufacturing process is completed at the factory and then
delivered to the site for final assembly. This process involves connecting the completed modules to
each other on site. Prefabricated modules are often referred as pods and are factory finished
internally, complete with mechanical and electrical services

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 c) Hybrid (also known as Semi-Volumetric): This method combines panellised and volumetric methods
of construction and frequently includes the use of pods. The hybrid approach can be used to bring
flexibility to the development and can also reduce uniformity of design.

d) Sub-Assemblies and Components: These methods, although predominantly traditional, utilise factory
fabricated sub assemblies or components. This includes floor or roof cassettes and pre-cast
concrete foundation assemblies.

2. Non Off-site Manufacture: This approach encompasses building techniques and structural systems that
cannot be placed in the category of off-site manufacture. The main characteristic of these methods is that
of innovation. This could be through an innovative non OSM building technique or through the use of a
method of construction that has been used in other industries, but not house building. By way of
illustration, examples of non OSM include:
a) Tunnel Form: Tunnel form is evolving into one of the most frequently used methods of cellular
construction as its cost effectiveness, productivity and quality benefits are being realized on a
variety of developments. Tunnel form is particularly suitable for repetitive cellular projects such as
hotels, apartment blocks and student accommodation. Structures of up to 40 or more storeys in
height can be built using his technique. Tunnel form simplifies the construction process by making
possible a smooth and quick operation that can result in costs being reduced by 15 per cent and
time savings of up to 25 per cent.

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 b) Thin-Joint Masonry: Thin-joint masonry is a quick, clean and accurate method that aircrete blocks,
which are manufactured to extremely precise standards in terms of size and shape, and a thin layer
of mortar. Thin joint combines reduced build times with greater flexibility of aircrete construction,
such as ease of handling, working and finishing. It can also result in cost savings, facilitate
improved build quality and reduce wastage.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT - is the application of knowledge, skills and techniques to execute projects
effectively and efficiently. It’s a strategic competency for organizations, enabling them to tie project results
to business goals — and thus, better compete in their markets.

Project management processes fall into five groups:

 Initiating
 Planning
 Executing
 Monitoring and Controlling
 Closing

Importance of Project Management

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  Provides structure that promotes success.
 Saves: money, time, & resources
 Promotes good communication.
 Keeps the focus on goals and outcomes.

PROJECT is a collection of linked activities, carried out in an organized manner with a clearly defined
start point and finish point, to achieve some specific results that satisfy the needs of an organization as
derived from current business plan.

A project is defined, whether it is in construction or not, by the following characteristics:

- A defined goal or objective.
- Specific tasks to be performed.
- A defined beginning and end.
- Resources being consumed.

Major Types of Construction Projects

In planning for various types of construction, the methods of procuring professional services, awarding
construction contracts, and financing the constructed facility can be quite different. The broad spectrum of
constructed facilities may be classified into four major categories, each with its own characteristics.

1. Residential housing construction includes houses and high-rise apartments. During the
development and construction of such projects, the developers usually serve as surrogate owners
and take charge, making necessary contractual agreements for design and construction, and
arranging the financing and sale of the completed structures. Residential housing designs are
usually performed by architects and engineers, and the construction executed by builders who
hire subcontractors for the structural, mechanical, electrical and other specialty work.

2. Institutional and commercial building encompasses a great variety of project types and sizes,
such as schools and universities, medical centers and hospitals, sports facilities, shopping
centers, warehouses and light manufacturing plants, and skyscrapers for offices and hotels. The
owners of such buildings may or may not be familiar with construction industry practices, but they
usually are able to select competent professional consultants and arrange the financing of the
constructed facilities themselves. Specialty architects and engineers are often engaged for
designing a specific type of building, while the builders or general contractors undertaking such
projects may also be specialized in only that type of building.

3. Specialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects with a high degree of
technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical processing plants and coal-
fired or nuclear power plants. The owners usually are deeply involved in the development of a
project, and prefer to work with designers-builders such that the total time for the completion of
the project can be shortened. They also want to pick a team of designers and builders with whom
the owner has developed good working relations over the years.

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 4. Infrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, tunnels, bridges,
pipelines, drainage systems and sewage treatment plants. Most of these projects are publicly
owned and therefore financed either through bonds or taxes. This category of construction is
characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some labor
intensive operations.

Construction Projects Participants

A. The Owner

The owner is the individual or organization for whom a project is to be built under a contract. The owner
owns and finances the project. Depending on the owners’ capabilities, they may handle all or portions of
planning, project management, design, engineering, procurement, and construction. The owner engages
architects, engineering firms, and contractors as necessary to accomplish the desired work.

Two types of owner

1. Public owners are public bodies of some kind ranging from agencies from the country level to the
municipal level. Most public projects or facilities are built for public use and not sold to others.
2. Private owners may be individuals, partnerships, corporations. Most private owners have facilities
or projects built for their own use or to be sold, operated, leased, or rented to others.

B. The Design Professionals

1. Architect: An architect is an individual who plans and design buildings and their associated
landscaping. Architects mostly rely on consulting engineers for structural, electrical, and
mechanical work.
2. Engineer: The term engineer usually refers to an individual or a firm engaged in the design or
other work associated with the design or construction. Design engineers are usually classified as
civil, electrical, mechanical depending upon their specialty. There are also scheduling, estimating,
cost, and construction engineers.
a. The structural engineer acts as an advisor to the architect on all structural problems such as
stability of the structure, suitability of materials proposed, structural feasibility of the proposed

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 design and sizes of structural members for a construction project . In addition, the structural
engineer performs structural design and supervises his or her specialist area of the
construction project during production on site. 
b. The services engineers (plumbing, electrical, heating and ventilating, air conditioning,
sanitation, lifts and escalators and so on) contribute to the building design process to ensure
that thermal and visual comfort are achieved effectively. For this reason, they analyze the
client's requirement and priorities and advise the architect on the most appropriate design
solution. They prepare diagrams of their proposals or services layout of the proposed
construction project on the separate drawings
c. The quantity surveyor is responsible for the study of the economies and financial implications
of a construction project and, hence, he or she would be the appropriate construction
professional to advise client/architect on matters relating to the economies and cost of a
proposed construction project. 

C. Engineering-Construction Firm: An engineering-construction firm is a type of organization the

combines both architect/engineering and construction contracting. This type of company has the
ability of executing a complete design-build sequence.

D. The Construction Professionals

The Constructions Professional are the parties that responsible for constructing the project. In traditional
management where the owner, design professional, and contractors are separate companies, the
contractor would be termed a Prime Contractor. The Prime Contractor is responsible for delivering a
complete project in accordance with the contract documents. In most cases, the prime contractor divides
the work among many specialty contractors called subcontractors.

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 E. The Project Manager

The Project Manager is the individual charged with the overall coordination of the entire construction
program for the owner. These include planning, design, procurement, and construction. Among his/her
duties:
 Clear definitions of the goals of the project.
 Investigate alternative solutions for the problems.
 Develop a detailed plan to make the selected program reality.
 Implement the plan and control the project.

Owner/Client

Project
Manager

Design Construction Facility

Professionals Professionals Management

Conceptual Advanced Detailed

Construction Termination Operational
Design Development Design

F. Construction Manager

The construction manager is a specialized firm or organization which administrates the on-site erection
activities and the consulting services required by the owner from planning through design and
construction to commissioning. The construction manager is responsible for design coordination, proper

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selection of materials and methods of construction, contracts preparation for award, cost and scheduling
information and control.

Differences between Project Manager and Construction Manager

The main difference between these two roles is the level of authority. The construction manager directly
oversees the day-to-day construction activities, while the project manager might supervise the
construction manager. The project manager has more authority and responsibility than a construction
manager typically does because he leads and motivates a team of managers or workers. The project
manager oversees a project from inception to completion, while the construction manager is involved with
just the construction phase.

CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

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Construction management refer to the contractual arrangement under which a firm supplies construction
management services to an owner. However, in its more common use, it refers to the act of managing
construction process. The construction manager , who may be a contractor, project manager,
superintendent, or one of their representatives, manages the basic resources of construction. These
resources include workers and subcontractors, equipment and construction plant, material, money
(income, expenditure, and cash flow) and time.

Poor construction management practices often result in one or more of the ff;
 Project delays that increase labor and equipment cost
 High material cost caused by poor purchasing procedures
 Increased subcontractor cost and poor subcontractor relations
 High insurances costs resulting from a poor safety record
 Low profit margin or loss on construction volume.

Organization for construction

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 LECTURE II
CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATION

SELECTING A BUILDER

The owner has three choices on who will do the construction works
1. He might do the work himself
2. He might select a construction consultant who is also a builder
3. He might choose a construction contractor

Architect-Engineer-Constructor – a both designs and builds a project. The job itself is

sometimes referred as a “turnkey” job.

Turnkey – one company prepares the plans and constructs the project and turns the key over to
the owner.
Advantage: There is only one organization responsible for seeing that everything is done
Disadvantage: An expensive way to get a project built, for very often there is a little competition.

Competitive Bidding – A construction project is built by a contractor who has competed with
others for the job. The owner choses the contractor by comparing what several contractors say
it would cost them to do the job. The owner makes the contract with the one who has said he
can do the job correctly for the least amount of money.

CONTRACT
 An agreement between the owner and the contractor as to how much the owner will pay
to have that contractor build the project
 Agreement of at least two parties with purpose of creating legal obligation between the
parties and capable of being enforced by the court of law.
CONTRACT = OFFER + ACCEPTANCE + Consideration

Why Use contract in construction:

 Describe scope of work
 Establish time frame
 Establish cost and payment provision
 Set fourth obligations and relationship
 Minimize disputes
 Improve economic return of investment
Content of the contract
 Identify the parties
 Promises and responsibilities
 Scope of work
 Price and payment terms
 Commercial terms and conditions
 Project execution plan.

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Kinds of Contracts
1. Fixed Price
2. Cost plus a fixed fee
3. Cost plus a percentage of cost
4. Incentive
1. Fixed price contract – the contractor agrees to do all the building according to the
owner’s plans and specification for a set sum of money which is to be paid by the owner.
Sometimes, especially for buildings, this amount is stated as a single lump sum.

Ex. Pintura Ink, a painting contractor, agree to paint MSC Classroom for P100,000.00
The P100,000 is called a single lump sum (fixed price – includes everything)

2. Cost-plus-a-fixed fee (CPFF) – the owner agrees to pay the contractor whatever it costs
to do the job (materials, labor, and use of equipment) plus a fixed sum

Ex. ABC Const. Co. agree to build a bungalow house for what it costs them to build it ,
plus a fee of P100,000.00. This fee of P100,000.00 is to cover ABC’s overhead (such as
the cost of its home office) and profit.

3. Cost plus a percentage of cost (CPPC) – is one in which the contractor is paid a flat
percentage of his cost.

Ex. A contractor is given a contract of to build a bungalow house for the amount of
whatever it will cost him (P1,500,000) plus an 8% fee (P1,500,000 x 8% or P120,000)

4. Incentive Contract – A target estimate is made. If the contractor should do job for less
than the estimated cost, he gets to keep part of the saving. If it should cost more than
the estimated amount, his fee is reduced. Thus, the contractor has a good reason
(Incentive) to keep the cost down.

Ex. Suppose the owner and contractor agree that the bungalow house should cost
P1,500,000 and the contractor will get a fee of 120,000 for building it. They might also
agree that if the bungalow actually costs P1,300,000, the contractor would get half of
whatever he saved plus his regular fee of P120,000, a total of P220,000. The contract
might further state that if it cost P1,700,000, the contractor fee would reduced to
P50,000

Advertised and Negotiated Contract

The owner places notices in newspaper, magazines and Philgeps asking contractor to
send in their bids (the amount for which each could do the job).

Public Contracts – are usually advertised because it is thought fair to give every qualified
contractor the chance to bid, since they are also taxpayer.

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Private Contracts – are sometimes advertised because the competition created by advertising
usually results in the lowest cost for the project.
Negotiated Contracts – are any contracts in which the owner and the contractor talks together to
reach an agreement on the terms of the contract.

Benefits of a Negotiated Contract

1. It limits the bidder to those who are only qualified for the project.
2. It save time and to begin the work before plan and specification were completed
CONTRACTING

Let us now assume that the plans and specification are completed. The procedure
outlined below is typical of a fair and honest way to select a construction contractor.

Advertising

Receiving Bids

Opening Bids

Awarding
Contract

Bonding

Agreement

Notice to Proceed

Advertising

The first step in selecting a construction contractor is notify all bidders and this is done
by an invitation to bid, a short notice which states:

1. The type of work

2. The location
3. The time and place of bid opening
4. Where and how plans and specifications are to be made available
The invitation to bid is mailed by the owner to contractors who might be interested.
Sometimes the invitation to bid is actually advertised in newpapers, magazines or in Philgeps
Website

Qualification of Contractors

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Contractor Ability usually checked by the owner or his architect-engineer
 Experience
 Financial resources
 Integrity
 Personnel
 Equipment

Prequalification – Contractor ability is determined before bidding and only those contractors who
are considered capable of doing the job are invited or permitted to bid
Post qualification – The qualifications of the low bidder are determined after the bids are opened
but before the contract is awarded to the contractor.

Bidding Documents

Construction Documents are defined as the written and graphic documents prepared or
assembled by the A/E for communicating the design of the project and administering the
contract for its construction.
2 major groups
1. Bidding Requirements
 Used to attract bidders & explains bidding process
2. Contract Documents
 Legally enforceable requirements that become part of the contract
 Include all construction documents except bidding forms

BIDDING REQUIREMENTS

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  Bidding Requirements are used to attract bidders and explain the procedures to
be followed in preparing and submitting bids .
 Bidding requirements help bidders follow established procedures and submit
bids that will not be disqualified because of technicalities. They do not become part of
the contract documents

Bidding documents
 All of the construction documents issued to bidders before the signing of an
owner-contractor agreement.

Bid Package
 Documents available to the contractor and on which he must make a decision to bid or
not
 A set of plans and technical specifications, Proposal form, general conditions, special
conditions,
 Description of the project to be constructed

Instruction to bidders
- It describe the scope of the bid, source of fund (if it is financed from other agency),
fraudulent and fraud practices, eligible bidders, Eligible Materials, Equipment and
Services, Clarification of Bidding Document, Site Visit, Pre-Bid Meeting, Amendment of
Bidding Document

The Bid Opening

- The bids are usually opened about 30 days after the invitation to bid is issued or
advertised. This period, during which the contractors prepare their bids, may vary from
10 to 90 days.

Proposal form –is a form usually supplied by the owner or architect-engineer, on which the
contractor writes in the amount for which he will build the project.
- Lump sum job, contractor submit just one amount.
- Unit price job, contractor submit the amount of work, unit price and total price for each
item.

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Bid bond –is a guarantee on the part of a bonding company (usually a large insurance
company) that the contractor will enter into the contract. Bid bond are often 20% of the face
value of the bid, If the bidder accepts the contract, the bid bond no longer serves a purpose. If
the low bidder refuses to take the contract, the owner collects the difference between the low
bid and the next lowest bid, up to the amount of the bid bond.

Other requirements to be submitted by the Contractor

1. A list of the qualifications of the contractor
2. A list of subcontractors
3. A list of construction equipment to be used by the contractors
4. A list of makes and models of equipment the contractor will install in the structure

Strict rules on Bid Opening

1. No bid may be submitted or changed after the time set for the bid opening
2. Bid must be submitted in sealed envelopes
3. Each contractor’s proposal is read aloud at public opening.

The Award

After the bids are opened, each bid is carefully examined by the owner or the architect-
engineer. The purpose of this examination is to determine the lowest responsive bid.

Responsive Bid – A bid that matches in every detail the conditions set forth in the bidding
documents

Notice of Award – a notice being sent to the qualified contractor who has the lowest responsive
bid. The owner also send along with the notice of award, agreement forms and blank
performance and payment bond.

Bonds

Performance Bond – is one in which the bonding company (an insurance company) guarantees
that the contractor will build the project according to the owner’s plan and specifications. If the
contractor does not fulfil his duties under the contract, then the insurance company itself will
fulfil
them. If this should happen, the insurance company would probably hire another contractor to
complete the work.

Payment Bond – is one in which the bonding company guarantees that the contractor will pay
his subcontractors and suppliers for any amount due them. If the contractor does not pay a
subcontractor for work satisfactorily performed, the bonding company must make payment.

The Agreement

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Agreement – is a brief statement of the work to be done under the contract and the price. It
refers to the other parts of the contract, the plans, specifications, instruction to bidders, general
and special conditions, and the bond. It is signed by the owner and contractor.

The agreement should contain:

 The names of contracting parties
 A brief description of the work
 A list of contract documents, including agreement, general conditions, drawings, and
specifications.
 The contract sum, or amount (lump-sum contract)
 The procedures for payment
 The contract time, or dates for start and completion
 The signatures of contracting parties and witnesses

Notice to Proceed

Notice to proceed – a notice which gives the contractor permission to begin the work.

WRITING SPECIFICATIONS

Specification – are written instructions conditions and descriptions which tell the builder about a
project to be constructed. Specifications also protect the interests of everyone involved: the
architect, the builder, and the owner.
Three general categories of specification
1. Legal documents section – consist of advertisement for bids, invitation and instruction to
bidders, owner-contractor agreements and bond forms.
2. Condition Section – states the rights and responsibilities of the designer, the owner, the
contractor and any subcontractors.
3. Technical description section – lists the materials and methods to be used for building
the structure.

Division of Technical Description Section

1. Architectural Section
2. Civil Section
3. Structural Section
4. Plumbing Section
5. Electrical Section
6. Mechanical Section

Each section is organized to include:

1. The scope of work to be done
2. The complete description of materials to be used
3. General requirements or the usual work standards and practices
4. Special requirements of unusual work standards or practices
9 Major factors to consider in the selection of Materials and Equipment

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 1. Economy – the cost and appropriateness of the item
2. Quality – what grade of excellence of the material, fixture, or appliance is wanted?
3. Functionality–will it serve the purpose for which it is intended?
4. Ease of Installation – Is the item easy or hard to install. Will it require special tools for
installation?
5. Appearance – Is it pleasing to the eye?
6. Codes – Is it with complying with the building codes?
7. Service Requirement – Can the equipment be repaired easily and quickly?
8. Warranty – Does the equipment carry a guarantee?
9. Size – It must fit a pre-planned space in a structure

Kinds of Specifications
1. Outline specification – are made up when the design phase of a project begins and
preliminary drawings are made. This specification gives only an outline (main facts)
about materials to be used and how they are to be used for the job.
2. Standard Specification – are those which are made up by different companies about the
use of their own materials. These are usually standard or the same for each material
used.
3. Guide specification – are kind of check list which can be used for writing specifications.
They tell about things which may be needed for a job.
4. Project Specification – are usually made up of outline specifications, standard
specifications, and guide specifications. They are the finished specifications which have
been made for one special construction project.

Four ways to make specification

1. Getting an old set of specifications and working it over for the new job
2. Using several sets of specifications and cutting and clipping them to get one new set
3. Writing them by the paragraph procedure which requires the use of a specification file
4. Using guide specification

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 LECTURE III
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT ORGANIZATION

Project management is the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources
throughout the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve
predetermined objectives of scope, cost, time, quality and participation satisfaction.

Trends in Modern Management

Major developments in management reflect the acceptance to various degrees of the following
elements:
1. The management process approach
2. The management science and decision support approach
3. The behavioral science approach for human resource development
4. Sustainable competitive advantage.
These four approaches complement each other in current practice, and provide a useful
groundwork for project management.

The management process approach

The management process approach emphasizes the systematic study of management by

identifying management functions in an organization and then examining each in detail. Thus,
the manager's job is regarded as coordinating a process of interrelated functions, which are
neither totally random nor rigidly predetermined, but are dynamic as the process evolves.
Hence, management functions can be organized into a hierarchical structure designed to
improve operational efficiency, such as the example of the organization for a manufacturing
company shown in Figure 1

Figure 1:  Illustrative Hierarchical Structure of Management Functions

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The management science and decision support approach

The management science and decision support approach contributes to the development of a
body of quantitative methods designed to aid managers in making complex decisions related to
operations and production. In decision support systems, emphasis is placed on providing
managers with relevant information. In management science, a great deal of attention is given
to defining objectives and constraints, and to constructing mathematical analysis models in
solving complex problems of inventory, materials and production control, among others.

The behavioral science approach

The behavioral science approach for human resource development is important because
management entails getting things done through the actions of people. An effective manager
must understand the importance of human factors such as needs, drives, motivation,
leadership, personality, behavior, and work groups.

Sustainable competitive advantage

Sustainable competitive advantage stems primarily from good management strategy. Strategy is
creating fit among a company's activities. The success of a strategy depends on doing many
things well - not just a few - and integrating among them. If there is no fit among activites, there
is no distinctive strategy and little sustainability.

In this view, successful firms must improve and align the many processes underway to their
strategic vision. Strategic positioning in this fashion requires:

 Creating a unique and valuable position.

 Making trade-offs compared to competitors
 Creating a "fit" among a company's activities.

Project managers should be aware of the strategic position of their own organization and the
other organizations involved in the project. The project manager faces the difficult task of trying
to align the goals and strategies of these various organizations to accomplish the project goals.

Effects of Project Risks on Organization

The uncertainty in undertaking a construction project comes from many sources and often
involves many participants in the project. Since each participant tries to minimize its own risk,
the conflicts among various participants can be detrimental to the project. Only the owner has
the power to moderate such conflicts as it alone holds the key to risk assignment through proper
contractual relations with other participants.

Risks in construction projects may be classified in a number of ways.  One form of classification

is as follows:
1. Socioeconomic factors
o Environmental protection
o Public safety regulation
o Economic instability
o Exchange rate fluctuation

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 2. Organizational relationships
o Contractual relations
o Attitudes of participants
o Communication
3. Technological problems
o Design assumptions
o Site conditions
o Construction procedures
o Construction occupational safety

Organization of Project Participants

The top management of the owner sets the overall policy and selects the appropriate
organization to take charge of a proposed project. Its policy will dictate how the project life cycle
is divided among organizations and which professionals should be engaged. Decisions by the
top management of the owner will also influence the organization to be adopted for project
management. In general, there are many ways to decompose a project into stages. The most
typical ways are:

 Sequential processing whereby the project is divided into separate stages and each
stage is carried out successively in sequence.
 Parallel processing whereby the project is divided into independent parts such that all
stages are carried out simultaneously.
 Staggered processing whereby the stages may be overlapping, such as the use of
phased design-construct procedures for fast track operation.

There are two basic approaches to organize for project implementation, even though many
variations may exist as a result of different contractual relationships adopted by the owner and
builder. These basic approaches are divided along the following lines:

1. Separation of organizations. Numerous organizations serve as consultants or

contractors to the owner, with different organizations handling design and construction
functions. Typical examples which involve different degrees of separation are:
o Traditional sequence of design and construction
o Professional construction management
2. Integration of organizations. A single or joint venture consisting of a number of
organizations with a single command undertakes both design and construction functions.
Two extremes may be cited as examples:
o Owner-builder operation in which all work will be handled in house by force
account.
o Turnkey operation in which all work is contracted to a vendor which is
responsible for delivering the completed project

Matrix Organization – An arrangement on which each project manager must negotiate all
resources for the project from the existing organizational framework.

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 Figure 2  A Matrix Organization

Project Oriented Organization - It consist of a small central functional staff for the exclusive
purpose of supporting various projects, each of which has its functional divisions as shown in
Figure 3. Project oriented organization has a set-up where each project manager has autonomy
in managing the project.

Figure 3: A Project-Oriented Organization

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To illustrate various types of organizations for project management, we shall consider two
examples, the first one representing an owner organization while the second one representing
the organization of a construction management consultant under the direct supervision of the
owner.

Example of Matrix Organization of an Engineering Division

The Engineering Division of an Electric Power and Light Company has functional departments
as shown in Fig. 4. When small scale projects such as the addition of a transmission tower or a
sub-station are authorized, a matrix organization is used to carry out such projects. For
example, in the design of a transmission tower, the professional skill of a structural engineer is
most important. Consequently, the leader of the project team will be selected from the Structural
Engineering Department while the remaining team members are selected from all departments
as dictated by the manpower requirements. On the other hand, in the design of a new sub-
station, the professional skill of an electrical engineer is most important. Hence, the leader of the
project team will be selected from the Electrical Engineering Department.

Figure 4  The Matrix Organization in an Engineering Division

Example of Construction Management Consultant Organization

When the same Electric Power and Light Company in the previous example decided to build a
new nuclear power plant, it engaged a construction management consultant to take charge of
the design and construction completely. However, the company also assigned a project team to
coordinate with the construction management consultant as shown in Figure 5.

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 Figure 5:  Coordination between Owner and Consultant

Since the company eventually will operate the power plant upon its completion, it is highly
important for its staff to monitor the design and construction of the plant. Such coordination
allows the owner not only to assure the quality of construction but also to be familiar with the
design to facilitate future operation and maintenance. Note the close direct relationships of
various departments of the owner and the consultant. Since the project will last for many years
before its completion, the staff members assigned to the project team are not expected to rejoin
the Engineering Department but will probably be involved in the future operation of the new
plant. Thus, the project team can act independently toward its designated mission.

SEPARATION OF ORGANIZATION

Traditional Designer-Constructor Sequence - the owner often employs a designer (an

architectural/engineering firm) which prepares the detailed plans and specifications for the
constructor (a general contractor). The designer also acts on behalf of the owner to oversee the
project implementation during construction. The general contractor is responsible for the
construction itself even though the work may actually be undertaken by a number of specialty
subcontractors.

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The owner usually negotiates the fee for service with the architectural/engineering (A/E) firm. In
addition to the responsibilities of designing the facility, the A/E firm also exercises to some
degree supervision of the construction as stipulated by the owner. Traditionally, the A/E firm
regards itself as design professionals representing the owner who should not communicate with
potential contractors to avoid collusion or conflict of interest. Field inspectors working for an A/E
firm usually follow through the implementation of a project after the design is completed and
seldom have extensive input in the design itself..

The owner may select a general constructor either through competitive bidding or through
negotiation. Public agencies are required to use the competitive bidding mode, while private
organizations may choose either mode of operation. In using competitive bidding, the owner is
forced to use the designer-constructor sequence since detailed plans and specifications must
be ready before inviting bidders to submit their bids. If the owner chooses to use a negotiated
contract, it is free to use phased construction if it so desires.

The general contractor may choose to perform all or part of the construction work, or act only as
a manager by subcontracting all the construction to subcontractors. The general contractor may
also select the subcontractors through competitive bidding or negotiated contracts. The general
contractor may ask a number of subcontractors to quote prices for the subcontracts before
submitting its bid to the owner. However, the subcontractors often cannot force the winning
general contractor to use them on the project.

Bid shopping refers to the situation when the general contractor approaches subcontractors
other than those whose quoted prices were used in the winning contract in order to seek lower
priced subcontracts.

Bid peddling refers to the actions of subcontractors who offer lower priced subcontracts to the
winning general subcontractors in order to dislodge the subcontractors who originally quoted
prices to the general contractor prior to its bid submittal.

Professional construction management refers to a project management team consisting of a

professional construction manager and other participants who will carry out the tasks of project
planning, design and construction in an integrated manner. Contractual relationships among
members of the team are intended to minimize adversarial relationships and contribute to
greater response within the management group. A professional construction manager is a firm
specialized in the practice of professional construction management which includes:

 Work with owner and the A/E firms from the beginning and make recommendations on
design improvements, construction technology, schedules and construction economy.
 Propose design and construction alternatives if appropriate, and analyze the effects of
the alternatives on the project cost and schedule.
 Monitor subsequent development of the project in order that these targets are not
exceeded without the knowledge of the owner.
 Coordinate procurement of material and equipment and the work of all construction
contractors, and monthly payments to contractors, changes, claims and inspection for
conforming design requirements.
 Perform other project related services as required by owners.

Professional construction management is usually used when a project is very large or complex.

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INTEGRATION OF ORGANIZATION

Owner-Builder Operation - In this approach an owner must have a steady flow of on-going
projects in order to maintain a large work force for in-house operation. However, the owner may
choose to subcontract a substantial portion of the project to outside consultants and contractors
for both design and construction, even though it retains centralized decision making to integrate
all efforts in project implementation.

Example: DPWH Organization

The District Engineer's Office of the Department of Public Works and Highway may be viewed
as a typical example of an owner-builder approach as shown in Figure 6

Figure 6:  DPWH Organization

Turnkey Operation- An arrangement where the owners delegate all responsibilities of design
and construction to outside consultants/builders. A contractor agrees to provide the completed
facility on the basis of performance specifications set forth by the owner. The contractor may
even assume the responsibility of operating the project if the owner so desires. This approach is
the direct opposite of the owner-builder approach in which the owner wishes to retain the
maximum amount of control for the design-construction process.

Leadership and Motivation for the Project Team

The project manager, in the broadest sense of the term, is the most important person for the
success or failure of a project. The project manager is responsible for planning, organizing and

30
controlling the project. In turn, the project manager receives authority from the management of
the organization to mobilize the necessary resources to complete a project.

The project manager must be able to exert interpersonal influence in order to lead the project
team. The project manager often gains the support of his/her team through a combination of the
following:

 Formal authority resulting from an official capacity which is empowered to issue orders.
 Reward and/or penalty power resulting from his/her capacity to dispense directly or
indirectly valued organization rewards or penalties.
 Expert power when the project manager is perceived as possessing special knowledge
or expertise for the job.
 Attractive power because the project manager has a personality or other characteristics
to convince others.

In a matrix organization, the members of the functional departments may be accustomed to a

single reporting line in a hierarchical structure, but the project manager coordinates the activities
of the team members drawn from functional departments. The functional structure within the
matrix organization is responsible for priorities, coordination, administration and final decisions
pertaining to project implementation. Thus, there are potential conflicts between functional
divisions and project teams. The project manager must be given the responsibility and authority
to resolve various conflicts such that the established project policy and quality standards will not
be jeopardized. When contending issues of a more fundamental nature are developed, they
must be brought to the attention of a high level in the management and be resolved
expeditiously.

In general, the project manager's authority must be clearly documented as well as defined,
particularly in a matrix organization where the functional division managers often retain certain
authority over the personnel temporarily assigned to a project.

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 LECTURE IV
PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

Construction planning is a fundamental and challenging activity in the management and

execution of construction projects. It involves the choice of technology, the definition of work
tasks, the estimation of the required resources and durations for individual tasks, and the
identification of any interactions among the different work tasks. A good construction plan is the
basis for developing the budget and the schedule for work

Work breakdown structure (WBS)

 A method of breaking down a project into individual elements (components,
subcomponents, activities and tasks) in a hierarchical structure which can be scheduled
and cost
 It defines tasks that can be completed independently of other tasks, facilitating resource
allocation, assignment of responsibilities and measurement and control of the project
 It is foundation of project planning
 It is developed before identification of dependencies and estimation of activity durations
 It can be used to identity the tasks in the CPM and PERT

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Project Planning

 Resource Availability and/or Limits

o Due date, late penalties, early completion incentives

o Budget

 Activity Information

o Identify all required activities

o Estimate the resources required (time) to complete each activity

o Immediate predecessor(s) to each activity needed to create interrelationships

Project Scheduling and Control Techniques

 Gantt Chart

 Critical Path Method (CPM)

 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

Gantt Chart Graph or bar chart with a bar for each project activity that shows passage of time.
It provides visual display of project schedule.

PERT / CPM
 It is a control tool for defining the parts of construction job and then putting them together
in a network form.

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  Its serves as an aid to the project manager but it does not make decision for him nor
does it guarantee good management. It only serves the project manager to see the
whole picture of the entire job.

3 Phases of PERT/CPM

1. Planning
2. Scheduling
3. Control - Monitor
History of PERT/CPM
 Critical Path Method (CPM)
o E I Du Pont de Nemours & Co. (1957) for construction of new chemical plant and
maintenance shut-down
o Deterministic task times
o Activity-on-node network construction
o Repetitive nature of jobs
 Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
o U S Navy (1958) for the POLARIS missile program
o Multiple task time estimates (probabilistic nature)
o Activity-on-arrow network construction
o Non-repetitive jobs (R & D work)

Project Network

Network analysis is the general name given to certain specific techniques which can be used for
the planning, management and control of projects

 Use of nodes and arrows

Arrows An arrow leads from tail to head directionally
 Indicate ACTIVITY, a time consuming effort that is required to perform a part of
the work.
Nodes A node is represented by a circle
 Indicate EVENT, a point in time where one or more activities start and/or finish.
 Activity
– A task or a certain amount of work required in the project
– Requires time to complete
– Represented by an arrow
 Dummy Activity
– Indicates only precedence relationships
– Does not require any time of effort

 Event

– Signals the beginning or ending of an activity

– Designates a point in time

– Represented by a circle (node)

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  Network

– Shows the sequential relationships among activities using nodes and arrows

 Activity-on-node (AON) - nodes represent activities, and arrows show precedence

relationships

 Activity-on-arrow (AOA) - arrows represent activities and nodes are events for points in
time

Situations in network diagram

A must finish before either B or C can start

both A and B must finish before C can start

both A and B must finish before either of C or D can start

A must finish before B can start both A and C must finish before D can
start

Concurrent Activities

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Defining Precedence Relationships among Activities

Once work activities have been defined, the relationships among the activities can be specified.
Precedence relations between activities signify that the activities must take place in a particular
sequence. Diagramatically, precedence relationships can be illustrated by a network or graph in
which the activities are represented by arrows as in Figure below. The arrows are called
branches or links in the activity network, while the circles marking the beginning or end of each
arrow are called nodes or events. In this figure, links represent particular activities, while the
nodes represent milestone events.

Illustrative Set of Four Activities with Precedences

Three mistakes should be avoided in specifying predecessor relationships for construction

plans.

 First, a circle of activity precedences will result in an impossible plan. For example, if
activity A precedes activity B, activity B precedes activity C, and activity C precedes
activity A, then the project can never be started or completed

 Forgetting a necessary precedence relationship can be more insidious. For example,

suppose that installation of dry wall should be done prior to floor finishing. Ignoring this
precedence relationship may result in both activities being scheduled at the same time.

 It is important to realize that different types of precedence relationships can be defined

and that each has different implications for the schedule of activities.

Example: Precedence Definition for Site Preparation and Foundation Work

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Suppose that a site preparation and concrete slab foundation construction project consists of
nine different activities:

A. Site clearing (of brush and minor debris),

B. Removal of trees,
C. General excavation,
D. Grading general area,
E. Excavation for utility trenches,
F. Placing formwork and reinforcement for concrete,
G. Installing sewer lines,
H. Installing other utilities,
I. Pouring concrete.

TABLE 6-1  Precedence Relations for a Nine-Activity Project Example

Activity Description Predecessors

A Site clearing ---

B Removal of trees ---
C General excavation A
D Grading general area A
E Excavation for utility trenches B,C
F Placing formwork and reinforcement for concrete B,C
G Installing sewer lines D,E
H Installing other utilities D,E
I Pouring concrete F,G

With this information, the next problem is to represent the activities in a network diagram and to
determine all the precedence relationships among the activities. One network representation of
these nine activities is shown in Figure, in which the activities appear as branches or links
between nodes. The nodes represent milestones of possible beginning and starting times. This
representation is called an activity-on-branch diagram. Note that an initial event beginning
activity is defined, while node 5 represents the completion of all activities.

Activity-on-Branch Representation of a Nine Activity Project

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Alternatively, the nine activities could be represented by nodes and predecessor relationships
by branches or links,. The result is an activity-on-node diagram.

Activity-on-Node Representation of a Nine Activity Project

Network example

From the following table of information, (a) Draw the precedence diagram, (b) Find the critical
path, (c) Determine the expected duration of the project.

Activity Precedes Expected time (Days)

A C,B 4
C D 12
D I 2
B I 5
E F 3
F J 8
I J 12
J End 9
G H 1
H K 3
K End 15

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CPM calculation
• Path
• A connected sequence of activities leading from the starting event to the ending
event
• Critical Path
• The longest path (time); determines the project duration
• Critical Activities
• All of the activities that make up the critical path

Forward Pass
• Earliest Start Time (ES)
• earliest time an activity can start
• ES = maximum EF of immediate predecessors
• Earliest finish time (EF)
• earliest time an activity can finish
• earliest start time plus activity time
EF= ES + t

Backward Pass
 Latest Start Time (LS)
Latest time an activity can start without delaying critical path time
LS= LF - t
 Latest finish time (LF)
latest time an activity can be completed without delaying critical path time

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 LF = minimum LS of immediate predecessors

Float or Slack time

• The term Slack is used by PERT which is equivalent to Float of CPM network system.
• It is the word used for those activities which do not fall on the critical path. These
activities have scheduling TIME LEEWAY that can be used without adversed effect on
the project time completion.
The Slack or Float Time is computed using either of the following equations:
Float = LS – ES or
Float = LF – EF
The activities with Zero Slack Time indicate the critical path

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PERT/CPM Example 2
From the following data of information, prepare a data sheet development showing (a) Earliest
and Latest Start, (b) Earliest and Latest Finish, (c) Total and Free Float or Slack and (d) Critical
Activities
Activities Time Duration in Days
1-2 Demolition and clearing 8
2-3 Excavation 14
2-5 Underground installation 6
3-4 Foundation and columns 5
4-5 Dummy 0
4-6 Construction of 2nd floor 6
4-7 Roof framing and flooring 6
5-7 Ground floor slab 4
5-8 Mechanical and Electrical Services 12
6-7 Construction of exterior walls 12
7-8 Dummy 0
7-9 Construction of interior partitions 10
8-9 Mech. & Elect. Equipment & fixtures 12 41

9-10 Painting and finishing work 8

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Benefits of CPM/PERT
 Useful at many stages of project management
 Mathematically simple
 Give critical path and slack time
 Provide project documentation
 Useful in monitoring costs

Computer Software for Project Management

 Microsoft Project (Microsoft Corp.)

 MacProject (Claris Corp.)
 PowerProject (ASTA Development Inc.)
 Primavera Project Planner (Primavera)
 Project Scheduler (Scitor Corp.)
 Project Workbench (ABT Corp.)

TIME-SCALED EVENT

The Gannt Chart

 It is a popular tool for planning and scheduling simple projects.

 It serves as an aid of the manager to schedule project activities and then, to

monitor progress over time by comparing the planned progress to the actual work
progress.

 It indicate which activities were to occur, their planned duration and when they
will occur.

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MANPOWER LEVELING

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 LECTURE V
CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATES AND VALUE ENGINEERING

Cost Estimation - is the scientific way of working out the approximate cost of an engineering
project before execution of the work. Estimation requires a thorough knowledge of the
construction procedures and cost of materials & labour in addition to the skill, experience,
foresight and good judgment.

 An estimate of the cost of a construction job is the probable cost of that job as computed
from plans and specifications. For a good estimate the, actual cost of the proposed work
after completion should not differ by more then 5 to 10 % from its approximate cost
estimate, provided there are no unusual, unforeseen circumstances.
Costs Associated with Constructed Facilities
The costs of a constructed facility to the owner include both the initial capital cost and the
subsequent operation and maintenance costs.
The capital cost for a construction project includes the expenses related to the initial
establishment of the facility:
 Land acquisition, including assembly, holding and improvement
 Planning and feasibility studies
 Architectural and engineering design
 Construction, including materials, equipment and labor
 Field supervision of construction
 Construction financing
 Insurance and taxes during construction
 Owner's general office overhead
 Equipment and furnishings not included in construction
 Inspection and testing
The operation and maintenance cost in subsequent years over the project life cycle includes the
following expenses:
 Land rent, if applicable
 Operating staff
 Labor and material for maintenance and repairs
 Periodic renovations
 Insurance and taxes
 Financing costs
 Utilities
 Owner's other expenses

Contingencies

In most construction budgets, there is an allowance for contingencies or unexpected costs

occurring during construction. This contingency amount may be included within each cost item
or be included in a single category of construction contingency. The amount of contingency is
based on historical experience and the expected difficulty of a particular construction project.
For example, one construction firm makes estimates of the expected cost in five different areas:
 Design development changes,
 Schedule adjustments,
 General administration changes (such as wage rates),
 Differing site conditions for those expected, and
 Third party requirements imposed during construction, such as new permits.

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Overhead

Overhead costs of the contractor are those which pertain to job as a whole and not related to
any particular construction procedure like excavation or masonry.
Two types of overhead
1. Home office cost
 Salaries of executives and employees
 Office rent
 Telephone
 Advertising
 Travel
2. Job overhead cost
 Salaries of superintendent and employees at the site
 Surveys
 Testing
 Insurance
 Storage
 Building permits

Profit

The profit is the difference between the amount of money the contractor receives from the
owner and the amount of money the contractor spends to do the job.
Factors considered in selecting a percentage of profit are:
1. The size of job
2. The risk involved
3. The eagerness of the contractor to get the job

Two main kinds of Estimates

1. Rough Estimate - Estimation of cost before construction from plans or architectural
drawings of the project scheme, when even detailed or structural design has not been
Administrative Approval from the concerning Authorities.
2. Detailed Estimate - Detailed estimates are prepared by carefully and separately
calculating in detail the costs of various items of the work that constitute the whole
project from the detailed working drawings after the design has been finalized. The
mistakes, if any, in the rough cost estimate are eliminated in the detailed estimate.
Detailed estimates are submitted to the competent authorities for obtaining technical
sanction.

Rough Estimate
 The rough cost estimate may be prepared on the following basis for different types of
projects:
1. Cost per square foot or square meter of covered area (plinth area) is the most
commonly adopted criterion for preparing rough cost estimate for most of the
residential buildings.
2. For public buildings, cost per person (cost per capita) is used.
Students hostel———————-— Cost per student
Hospitals——————————— Cost per bed
Hotel—————————————Cost per Guest
3. Cost per cubic foot is particularly suitable for commercial offices, shopping centers,
and factory buildings, etc.
4. For water tank/reservoir, cost may be worked out on the basis of capacity in gallons
of water stored.
5. For roads and railways, cost may be foundout per mile/kilometer of length.

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 6. For streets, cost may be per hundred feet/meters of length.
7. In case of bridges, cost per foot/meter of clear span may be calculated.

Detailed Estimate
 The whole project is sub-divided into different items of work or activities. The quantity
for each item is then calculated separately from the drawings as accurately as
possible. The procedure is known as "taking out of quantities".
 The quantities for each item may be estimated and shown in the pattern which is
called "Bill of quantities."
 The unit, in which each item of the wok is to be calculated, should be according to
the prevailing practice as followed in various departments of the country.
 Each item of the work is then multiplied by its estimated current rate calculated by a
fixed procedure to find out cost of the item.
 At the end, a total of all items of the work are made to get the total estimated cost.
 A certain allowance usually 5 to 10% of the total cost, is made in the estimation
which will take care of all these items that are unforeseen or are overlooked and are
known as "Contingencies".

Types of Construction Cost Estimates

1. Design Estimates. For the owner or its designated design professionals, the types of
cost estimates encountered run parallel with the planning and design as follows:
o Screening estimates (or order of magnitude estimates)
o Preliminary estimates (or conceptual estimates)
o Detailed estimates (or definitive estimates)
o Engineer's estimates based on plans and specifications
For each of these different estimates, the amount of design information available
typically increases.
2. Bid Estimates. For the contractor, a bid estimate submitted to the owner either for
competitive bidding or negotiation consists of direct construction cost including field
supervision, plus a markup to cover general overhead and profits. The direct cost of
construction for bid estimates is usually derived from a combination of the following
approaches.
o Subcontractor quotations
o Quantity takeoffs
o Construction procedures.
3. Control Estimates. For monitoring the project during construction, a control estimate is
derived from available information to establish:
o Budget estimate for financing
o Budgeted cost after contracting but prior to construction
o Progress Estimate.

Design Estimates

In the planning and design stages of a project, various design estimates reflect the progress of
the design.
 Screening estimate or order of magnitude estimate is usually made before the facility is
designed and must therefore rely on the cost data of similar facilities built in the past.
Screening Estimates are employed in the early planning phases of a proposed project to
match client needs, assessed programmatic requirements, and budget constraints in
order to establish project scope and quality expectations. Estimate comparisons at this

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 stage are utilized in evaluating the feasibility of strategic alternatives being considered to
satisfy current and projected space requirements.
 Preliminary estimate or conceptual estimate is based on the conceptual design of the
facility at the state when the basic technologies for the design are known.
In Preliminary Estimates, the project is decomposed into major structural systems or
production equipment items, e.g. the entire floor of a building or a cooling system for a
processing plant.
 Detailed estimate or definitive estimate is made when the scope of work is clearly
defined and the detailed design is in progress so that the essential features of the facility
are identifiable.
In Detailed Estimates, the project is decomposed into components of various major
systems, i.e., a single floor panel for a building or a heat exchanger for a cooling system.
 Engineer's estimate is based on the completed plans and specifications when they are
ready for the owner to solicit bids from construction contractors. In preparing these
estimates, the design professional will include expected amounts for contractors'
overhead and profits.
In Engineer's Estimates, the project is decomposed into detailed items of various
components as warranted by the available cost data. Examples of detailed items are
slabs and beams in a floor panel, or the piping and connections for a heat exchanger.

Bid Estimates

The contractor's bid estimates often reflect the desire of the contractor to secure the job as well
as the estimating tools at its disposal. Some contractors have well established cost estimating
procedures while others do not. Since only the lowest bidder will be the winner of the contract in
most bidding contests, any effort devoted to cost estimating is a loss to the contractor who is not
a successful bidder. Consequently, the contractor may put in the least amount of possible effort
for making a cost estimate if it believes that its chance of success is not high.

If a general contractor intends to use subcontractors in the construction of a facility, it may solicit
price quotations for various tasks to be subcontracted to specialty subcontractors. Thus, the
general subcontractor will shift the burden of cost estimating to subcontractors. If all or part of
the construction is to be undertaken by the general contractor, a bid estimate may be prepared
on the basis of the quantity takeoffs from the plans provided by the owner or on the basis of the
construction procedures devised by the contractor for implementing the project.

For bid estimates, the unit cost method can also be applied even though the contractor may
choose to decompose the project into different levels in a hierarchy as follows:

1. Subcontractor Quotations. The decomposition of a project into subcontractor items for

quotation involves a minimum amount of work for the general contractor. However, the
accuracy of the resulting estimate depends on the reliability of the subcontractors since
the general contractor selects one among several contractor quotations submitted for
each item of subcontracted work.
2. Quantity Takeoffs. The decomposition of a project into items of quantities that are
measured (or taken off) from the engineer's plan will result in a procedure similar to that
adopted for a detailed estimate or an engineer's estimate by the design professional.
The levels of detail may vary according to the desire of the general contractor and the
availability of cost data.

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 3. Construction Procedures. If the construction procedure of a proposed project is used
as the basis of a cost estimate, the project may be decomposed into items such as
labor, material and equipment needed to perform various tasks in the projects.

Control Estimates

Both the owner and the contractor must adopt some base line for cost control during the
construction. For the owner, a budget estimate must be adopted early enough for planning long
term financing of the facility. Consequently, the detailed estimate is often used as the budget
estimate since it is sufficient definitive to reflect the project scope and is available long before
the engineer's estimate. As the work progresses, the budgeted cost must be revised periodically
to reflect the estimated cost to completion. A revised estimated cost is necessary either
because of change orders initiated by the owner or due to unexpected cost overruns or savings.

For the contractor, the bid estimate is usually regarded as the budget estimate, which will be
used for control purposes as well as for planning construction financing. The budgeted cost
should also be updated periodically to reflect the estimated cost to completion as well as to
insure adequate cash flows for the completion of the project.

Progress Estimate - These are made by the Engineer at regular intervals for the completed
parts of the project during the progress of the work for determining the amounts of partial
payments to be made to the contractor.

VALUE ENGINEERING

Value engineering may be broadly defined as an organized approach in identifying

unnecessary costs in design and construction and in soliciting or proposing alternative design or
construction technology to reduce costs without sacrificing quality or performance requirements.

Steps in Value Engineering

 Gathering pertinent information

 Searching for creative ideas
 Evaluating the promising alternatives
 Proposing a more cost effective alternative.

This approach is usually applied at the beginning of the construction phase of the project life
cycle.

The use of value engineering in the public sector of construction has been fostered by
legislation and government regulation, but the approach has not been widely adopted in the
private sector of construction. One explanation may lie in the difference in practice of
engineering design services in the public and private sectors. In the public sector, the fee for
design services is tightly monitored against the "market price," or may even be based on the
lowest bid for service. Such a practice in setting professional fees encourages the design
professionals to adopt known and tried designs and construction technologies without giving
much thought to alternatives that are innovative but risky. Contractors are willing to examine
such alternatives when offered incentives for sharing the savings by owners. In the private
sector, the owner has the freedom to offer such incentives to design professionals as well as the

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contractors without being concerned about the appearance of favoritism in engaging
professional services.

Another source of cost savings from value engineering is the ability of contractors to take
advantage of proprietary or unusual techniques and knowledge specific to the contractor's firm.
For example, a contractor may have much more experience with a particular method of
tunneling that is not specified in the original design and, because of this experience, the
alternative method may be less expensive. In advance of a bidding competition, a design
professional does not know which contractor will undertake the construction of a facility. Once a
particular contractor is chosen, then modifications to the construction technology or design may
take advantage of peculiar advantages of the contractor's organization.

As a final source of savings in value engineering, the contractor may offer genuine new design
or construction insights which have escaped the attention of the design professional even if the
latter is not restrained by the fee structure to explore more alternatives. If the expertise of the
contractor can be utilized, of course, the best time to employ it is during the planning and design
phase of the project life cycle. That is why professional construction management or integrated
design/construction are often preferred by private owners.

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 LECTURE VI
CONSTRUCTION METHOD and OPERATION

Project Construction Method and Operation from start to completion includes the ff:
1. Clearing the site
2. Locating the structure
3. Earthmoving
4. Stabilizing earth and structure
5. Setting Foundation
6. Building Superstructure
7. Installing Utilities
8. Enclosing Frame superstructures
9. Finishing the project

1. CLEARING THE SITE

Site factors (things about the site) are important to those who prepare and clear the site.
The size of the site, the amount of the natural growth, man-made and natural obstacles, the
location of the site, and what is around the site are examples of important site factors.

What site clearing practices are used depend upon the problem found on a particular
site. The contractor must know all about the site and about site clearing practices.

The most common site clearing practices are (1) Demolishing, (2) Salvaging, (3) Cutting,
(4) Burning, (5) Earthmoving and (6) Disposing. We will look examples of these operation.

Demolishing
Demolishing means destroying. If we demolish by using high explosive, we call this
operation blasting. When bulldozers or wrecking balls are used, it is called wrecking. Using
explosive has become popular for small project in recent years. Blasting can be used both to
create and to destroy.

Wrecking can be done with many mechanical devices. A crowbar is a hand tool which
often used by men in the wrecking field. A crawler tractor with a bulldozer blade is often used.
For tall structures, a crane with a wrecking ball is used. This heavy steel metal ball hung on the
end of cable is swung as a battering ram against the structure to be wrecked.

Salvaging
There are many times that the things on a site have some value and should be saved for
used another project. Saving things from being demolish (destroyed) is called salvaging. This
can be done by tearing down, taking apart, or removing the wanted material from the site. When
a building is to be demolished, most electrical switchboards, plumbing fixtures, doors, and
windows are salvage.

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Cutting
Cutting has many uses. In wooded areas, cutting means bringing down timber by using
axes, explosives, or saws. Cutting also can be done with torch to cut through pieces of metal.
For example, old steel towers or bridges are cut this way.

Special equipment can be used, when areas are cleared where were is not much timber
or brush. Crawler tractors with bulldozers blades can push over trees up to 18” to 20” in
diameter. When trees are not too large, two crawler tractors with a heavy steel cable connecting
the two can be used. Usually a heavy steel ball is placed on the cable halfway between two
tractors. The tractors, along parallel lines, pull the cable and the ball. The ball keeps the cable
down close to the ground and tramples the small trees. The cable slices through the brush and
pushes over small trees.

Burning
When wood cannot be used or vegetation has to be cleared, one of the best ways of
destroying is by burning. This can be done by setting a fire under controlled conditions. By using
special fuels, vegetation-even when green-can be set on fire. After the fire has burned
everything that it can, bulldozers are used to clean up the site.

Earthmoving
Earthmoving is used in clearing many sites. In addition, earthmoving may be can a major
part of the construction work on heavy construction projects such as highways, tunnels, and
earthen dams. Earthmoving will be studied in a future assignment which is all about
earthmoving practices.

Disposing
Disposing means removing from the site materials that are not wanted. Disposing may
be done by burying, burning, or hauling away.

Examples of preparing and clearing

An important point to remember is that often more that one of the major operations is
used to prepare and clear any one site. Sometimes there are also special problems. The
following examples will give you a better understanding of many things involved in preparing
and clearing.

Examples:
- To build dam, the flow of the river must be changed.
- A structure being moved from its old site to a new site.
- A helicopter is used to transport sections of a metal tower to a site that is hardtop reach.
- A cofferdam is used to keep water from the construction site.

The most popular methods are to provide caissons of cofferdams. Caissons are large tubes
which are placed through water to solid ground. When the caisson is emptied of water, this
gives a dry place for working. Cofferdams are a series of cells, or units, which sit on the bottom
and are filled with soil and rock. These units are placed next to each other to make a wall
around the site. The area within the cofferdam is then emptied of water to make a dry area.

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2. LOCATING THE STRUCTURE

Surveyor is the man with the training and equipment needed to do this job. Through his
training and experience, and with the help of measuring equipment, he can take dimensions
from a set of plans and mark on the site.
A surveyor uses a measuring tape and transit to measure horizontal distances and
angles. To measure vertical distance, he uses an engineer’s level and a level rod. With
surveying equipment, the surveyor shows construction workers the exact location and size of
the structure they are build. The workers then are able to put materials in the right place to
construct a building.

Surveying for highways

The first and most important part of laying out a highway is to find the correct direction.
The surveyor does this by finding existing highways, trees, survey stakes already set, o other
landmarks on the plans. The plans show the exact location of the highway to be built in relation
to these landmarks or features. Once the surveyor has found these features, he uses them
along with a transit and measuring tape, he uses them along with a transit and measuring tape
to find the center line of the proposed highway. Stakes are then set along the whole center line
about 50’ to 100’ apart. The most important along the center line are called control points.
These usually show where two lines cross or where the center line turns. These control points
are well marked with flags and stakes to keep construction equipment from running over or
bumping them. All measurements are put in a notebook for future use. After the center line has
been found, the surveyor measures horizontally from it to both sides and finds the edges of the
pavement. The horizontal measurements needed for earthwork are then complete.

The vertical measurements must then be made. There are also control points for vertical
measurements as there are for horizontal measurements. These are called bench marks.
Bench marks are points of known elevation or height above sea level. The location of several
bench marks is shown on the plan. The surveyor uses his level and rod to find the height of the
ground at each of the center line stakes.

Then, by comparing the real elevations with those shown on the drawings, he can find
how much cut or fill is needed to build according to the plans. The word cut means the amount
of earth which must be cut away and removed to get the right elevation or height. The word fill
means the earth which must be filled in to get the right height. The surveyor marks the amount
of the cut or fill needed on each center line stake. The construction workers will later follow the
surveyor’s marks when they grade the ground.

The surveyor then marks the amount of cut or fill on the stakes at each edge of the
proposed pavement. The cut or fill should slope from these stakes to some point on the ground.
Thus, stakes are also set at the place to where the cut or fill is to slope. These stakes are called
slope stakes because they show the slope of the ground to be constructed. All vertical
measurements are then put in a notebook for future use.

When the cut, fill, and other earthwork is done, the surveyor must put up new stakes for
the workers to follow while they are constructing the roadbed. This is done by beginning with the
control points and setting sakes on each side of where the pavement should be. These stakes
usually are set about 25’ to 50’ apart and 2’ outside the edge of the proposed pavement. The
tops of the stakes are set at the height that the finished pavement will be. The level of pavement

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will be at the top of the stakes. Other workers will then lay the pavement by following the
surveyor’s stakes.

All earthwork and highway projects are surveyed in much the same way. Slope stakes
are used for the earthwork, and then more stakes are put in to outline the pavement or structure
to be built.

Surveying for buildings

Building plans generally show where the building will be in relation to the property line or
some other feature. After the surveyor has marked where the structure is to be on site, he uses
these markings to set control points. These are points from which to measure both horizontal
and vertical distances. Control points are put any place where they will be safe from
construction equipment.
The actual layout of the building is done by using batter boards. These are made 2”x4”
stakes driven part way into the ground. A board is fastened to the tops of these stakes. Then a
nail is driven into the edge of this board, or a saw cut is made on the line that is being laid out.
To stake a wall of a building, the surveyor locates it on drawings and then constructs
batter boards beyond each end of the wall. The batter boards are placed far enough past the
ends of the walls to let construction equipment work without bumping the walls.
Nails are driven into each batter board or saw cuts are made where the exact line of the
wall should be. Then construction workers sketch a wire or cord between the nails or saw cuts
to find the wall line. The surveyor does this for each wall until the building is located. Corners
are located by intersecting wires. Other marks may be put on the batter boards to mark the wall
line, the foundations, or columns. Sometimes separate batter boards are constructed to mark
each line. Batter boards and the marks on them must always be clearly titled to avoid confusing
one batter board mark for another.
Horizontal measurements and location have been described. Vertical measurements are
also needed. Batter boards are usually set with the top board at a known elevation above the
ground. A plumb bob then is hung from the wire which is stretched between the batter boards.
Vertical measurements can be made along the plumb line.
During the construction of large buildings, a surveyor looks through his transit to make
sure that correct locations are maintained. The surveyor uses a level and rod to take vertical
dimensions. He takes measurements from the plans and the bench mark to the actual building.
The surveyor does this many times during construction, especially on multi-storeyed buildings
where it is important that each floor be the right height. He may also do this to check how much
the structure has settled during or after construction.
Concrete dams, bridges, and many other structures are laid out in much the same way
as that described for buildings. Often surveying records are kept so they can be used to check
how much a project has settled or tilted.

3. EARTHMOVING

Moving earth, both soil and rock, has always been important to man. Early man was limited in
what earthmoving he could do because he relied highly on is muscle. Now man has huge
pieces of machinery for earthmoving. It is now possible to do more work than was ever dreamed
of by our ancestor.
There many kinds of earthmoving equipment. The types range from small farm tractors
with earthmoving attachments to large shovels which, in only one bite, can carry enough
material to fill one railroad car. All this equipment is very much expensive to operate and
maintain. Much of it is very specialized. The contractor, in many cases, will have only some
pieces of basic equipment. When a job calls for special machines, the contractor goes to a sub-

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contractor or a leasing or rental agency who has them. Charges for rented machines are based
upon the time the equipment is worked and how much it costs to bring unit to the site and to
return it.

Transporting Equipment
Some earthmoving equipment is self-propelled and can be driven to the site. Other units
must be hauled to the site on special flatbed trailer trucks. Still other equipment is towed to the
site.
The transporting of earthmoving equipment may be complicated by many conditions: (1)
the distance to the site, (2) the access routes to the site, (3) the height and width of the
equipment, (4) the speed of kind of wheels on the equipment, and (5) the total weight of the
equipment. The limits of overhead utility lines, bridges, number of lanes of traffic, and other
things to do with the road all have to be considered when moving.

Setting up Equipment
Before the equipment gets to the site, the contractor decides how he will use the
machinery. All needed ramps, mats (which give support on soft soil), assembly areas, and
parking aprons (used for servicing and storage) are made ready ahead of time. Once the
equipment arrives, work is done very quickly.

Excavating
Earthmoving is usually done by excavating (digging) material in one area and
transferring (moving) it to another place where it is either piled up, spread out, or used as fill
material (disposing).
Excavating is done (1) to reach a good base for a foundation, (2) to build basements, (3)
to make cuts through hilly land for travel routes, and (4) to level uneven ground. Shovels,
scrapers, draglines, clamshells, and hoes are some of the big machines used for this work.
Tractors with special attachments, pumps, trenching machines and loaders, are some of the
smaller units used.

Excavating is classified seven basic ways:

1. Bulk pit excavating. This is the digging up of a wide and deep area. The loose material
must be hauled away from the site. Access to this excavation is very limited. An example
would be a basement being dug for a downtown building which is between two existing
buildings.
2. Bulk wide-area excavating. These areas are wide but fairly shallow, and there is easy
access to them. The process is mainly of levelling. An example is the grading for a
highway or an airfield.
3. Loose-bulk excavating. The material is not hauled away, as in the above two, but it is
piled into a new position. Wet clay is the type of matter that is moved. An example of this
excavating practice is the way in which soil is moved in making dikes in order to form a
pond.
4. Limited-area vertical excavating. This kind of excavation is done mainly by digging
vertically. It may be used to dig a basement. The sides of the excavation may be braced
or shored. The material is lifted up and over the sides of the excavation.
5. Trenching. In trenching, the excavation is long and narrow. The trench must be wide
enough so that conduits, pipes, and other underground materials can be placed into it.
The spoil (removed earth) is piled on the surface at the sides of the trench. It is used
later to refill the trench.

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 6. Dredging. This kind of excavation deals with the removal of soil or other materials from
under water. It is much the same as loose-bulk excavating. For example, this practice
might be used in making harbors or river channels deeper.
7. Tunnel excavating. Tunnelling is not usually considered under the heading of general
excavation, because it is done completely underground.

Sometimes tough or dense material must be loosed before it can be excavated. The most
common techniques for loosening these materials are: (1) blasting, (2) breaking, (3) scarifying,
and (4) ripping.

Blasting is done mostly to rock. An explosion cause, by high explosive placed as charges in
special places in the material causes the rock to break into pieces.
Breaking is the applying of strong blows to tear up hard materials. Air hammers are examples of
breaking tools.

In both the scarifying and ripping process, much tough or dense materials is loosened by
running blades or teeth through it. This is like plowing. Scarifying is usually done in the upper
18” of soil. Ripping is done by pulling one or two large teeth with a tractor to loosen material
down to depths of 2’ to 3’. Ripping is used instead of blasting wherever ripping equipment can
get the area and where materials are not too hard. New advances in heavy equipment and
ripper design are making the ripper very popular in the field.

Earth that is readily workable or which has been loosed is excavated. Then it is moved out of
the way.

Transferring and Disposing

Excavating materials, called spoil, are transferred or moved from one place to another.
Then, they are disposed of. The spoil may be stored for reuse on the site for possible sale and
later use on other sites. Spoil may be disposed of by using it for fill or top dressing. Filling is the
levelling of low spots, while top dressing is the spreading of a thin coat over an area.
Transferring and disposing are often some of the same equipment is used for both operations.
Transferring liquid waste such as water from construction site takes different kinds of equipment
and operation. Rain may cause problem such as collapsing of walls and filling of holes.
Equipment may even get stuck in the mud. Pumping is a normal way to transfer water from the
site. This allows work to continue. Portable sump pumps, which are operated by electrical or
gasoline power, are easily lowered into the excavation. The water is pumped through lengths of
piping to another location away from the working area or directly into storms sewers. On some
construction sites, spoil may only be pushed or moved out of the way of the workers. This is
done when the materials are to be used again on the site or when it is to be sold, dumped, or
spread. A contractor will sometimes have the spoil arranged in mounds, slopes, or hills around
the construction site. Topsoil might be put on it and grass and shrubs might be planted in it to
make it attractive.

Spoil also may be used to raise the general level of the construction site. Again, in this
case, the topsoil is saved separately and used as the top layer to make landscaping easier.
Spoil may also be used to fill old gravel pits, washed out trenches in the land, and other holes.

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4. STABILIZING EARTH AND STRUCTURE

Trimming is done to make the excavation ready for the foundation

Stabilizing is done to make the walls hold their form and to keep them from falling in. stabilizing
protects men, equipment, and structures in or near the excavated area.

Four major practices used for trimming and shaping the excavation bed and walls
(1) Cleaning and washing,
 remove mud from base rock.
 This is done by high pressure water hosing
(2) Grading -makes the bed and walls of the excavation level and firm.
Cutting away high parts of the excavation and filling in uneven, low spots.
It may be done through:
 compacting (packing),
 grouting (filling with mortar),
 scaling (scraping), or
 filling (moving in loose earth).
(3) Sloping - is another way of trimming and shaping. Earth sides of excavations are
sloped to lower the chances of slides. It might be used where a large building is to be
built or where a dam is to be built.
(4) Treating.
Freezing of the soil may be used when the earth is full of water and hard to drain. This
freezing serves to purposes:
 It helps to stabilize the soil and keeps the earth from falling in.
 It helps control water in the ground.

Five main ways of stabilizing earthworks

(1) Compacting - is the compressing or packing down of the earth to make it firm.
(2) Sheathing - forms walls to keep earth out of the excavated area.
Common sheathing materials are metal panels and wood planks or panels. These are
supported by bracing and shoring.
(3) Bracing and Shoring - are processes usually used with sheathing.
Brace is put in horizontally between the sheathing panels. Used in narrow excavations.
shore is placed diagonally against the excavation walls or sheathing panels. Used in
wider excavations. It is held by stakes at the bottom.
(4) Piling - large concrete, steel or wooden stakes are driven into the ground to give
more stability to a structure.
Piling has two main purposes:
 to improve the load-bearing capacity of the earth and
 to help against uneven settlement of the structure.
Two kinds of piles:
1. Friction piles - support a load by the friction developed between the surfaces of the
pile and the soil through which it is driven
2. End or point support piles - supports the load by having the other end rest on a firm
layer of rock or earth below ground

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 (5) Cofferdamming - is a popular method used in construction when a structure must
be built in water-filled soil. It is used to make a dry working area and to keep water out
of an area where concrete must be placed and cured.
5. SETTING FOUNDATION

FOUNDATION
A foundation is the element of an architectural structure which connects it to the ground,
and transfers loads from the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered
either shallow or deep. Foundation engineering is the application of soil mechanics and rocks
mechanics (Geotechnical Engineering) in the design of foundation elements of structures.
The foundation of the structure is the part which supports the weight of the whole
structure. It must cover enough area to spread the whole weight of the structure onto the earth
on which it is built so that the structure will not sink into the soil.

Parts of Foundation

A foundation (substructure) can be divided into three parts;

1. The bearing surface (part of the earth on which the foundation rest,
2. The footing (flat part of the foundation which spreads the load of the structure above it,
and
3. The upright supports, such as walls or piers. The upright supports rise above the
footing to form the rest or the sub structure.

Footing
A footing is a foundation unit constructed in brick work, masonry or concrete under the
base of a wall or a column for the purpose of distributing the load over a large area.
A footing or a shallow foundation is placed immediately below the lowest part of the
Superstructure supported by it.

Three kinds of footings are used most often.

1. Spread Footing
2. Raft or Slab Footing
3. Pile Cap Footing

Spread Footings
Spread Footings are the simplest kind. They are used on bearing surfaces of rock or of
soil that is packed solidly like hard clay. It is a pad which may be long and rather narrow to go
under a wall, or it may be square or rectangular where it is to go under a pier or post.

Raft or Slab Footing

Where the soil of the bearing surface is soft or where there might be vibration due to an
earthquake, a spread footing cannot be used. In such cases a raft or slab footing may be used.
A raft footing spreads the weight of the structure over a very large area. It is used only with
small, lightweight structures where the bearing surface is too soft for a spread footing. The raft
footing usually covers a larger area than that of the structure it supports.

Pile Cap Footing

When the bearing surface is in marshy land, in sand, or under water as in river, lake, or
along the ocean, we must find a good bearing surface. Piles are driven down through the soft
or wet soil until a strong supporting layer of hard clay or rock is reached. A footing, like a spread
footing, is then built on top of the piles, this footing is called a pile cap.

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Foundation Materials
Different structures need different kinds of bearing surfaces, depending upon how heavy
the structures are. The designer must decide what kind of bearing surface will support the
weight of each structure. Today, concrete is the most common material used for footings.
Sometimes only concrete is used, but It can be made stronger by burying steel rods in it for
reinforcements. Most footings are horizontal. Sometimes, footings are vertical. Driven pilings are
an example of vertical footings. May times vertical piers or walls are added to horizontal footings
to build them up to grade level. Piers piles or foundation walls may be made of natural materials
such as stone or wood. They also may be made of reinforced concrete or steel.

How to Set Foundation

The bearing surface is first prepared to support the footing. When the bearing surface
has been prepared, the footing can be placed. Since most footings are made of concrete, let us
see how they are made. Concrete footings are made in six steps.
1. Forms or molds are set in place
2. Rodsetters place steel reinforcement in the forms where it is needed.
3. A mixer operator puts materials into a drum and mixes them to make concrete.
4. Concrete laborers and cement finishers place the concrete in the form,
5. The cement finishers compact the concrete in the form and finish the surface of the
concrete.
6. After the concrete has set, the labourers remove the formworks.

Building Forms

Giving Shape to Concrete

Concrete is made of stone, sand and water bound together with cement. When concrete
has been freshly mixed and is still wet, we can handle it just as we would handle wet mud.
Shortly, after it has been mixed, it begins to set. It finally becomes a hard as stone. In order to
get the shape of the slabs, footings, walls and piers that we need, we must shape he concrete.
Concrete is shaped by placing it into the forms while it is still wet.

The forms of the concrete are something like the molds into which gelatin is poured.
When the gelatin is set. It can be dumped out of the mold. It then has the shape of the inside of
the mold.

When we are shaping concrete, we do not simply pour it into the form (mold). We do not
dump it out after it has become hard. Concrete must be carefully placed in the form. Also, we
remove the form, piece by piece, leaving the concrete in the shape of the form.

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 Therefore, the form must be strong enough to keep the concrete from bulging from the
weight of the wet concrete.

Materials for Forms

Concrete foundation forms usually are made of wood. They also can be made of steel,
or a combination of wood and steel. Wood is lighter in weight, easier to handle and less
expensive than other materials. Also, It is easier to change the size and shape of wood by using
hand tools unlike steel.

Two kinds of wood or lumber used in building forms

1. Dimension Lumber
This is called dimension lumber because we speak the size of the piece by its
dimension.
2. Plywood
This comes in large sheet 4’ wide and 8’ to 10’ long. These sheets most commonly are
¼”, ½”, ¾” or 1” in thickness. They are used to cover the frame built of dimension lumber.
Instead of plywood we may use a kind of dimension lumber called planking, sheating, or
boards. These usually are 1”, or 2” thick and may be of different widths from 4” to 12”.

Preparing the Materials

The first step in building a forms is to prepare the materials. The lengths of the pieces of
dimension lumber and the sizes of sheets of plywood that will be needed must be measured
and cut.

Form Parts
Seven (7) main parts of a wood foundation
1. Plates
2. Studs
3. Walers
4. Ties
5. Braces or shores
6. Stakes
7. Facing

Forms for a Slab Foundation

Forms for large slabs or for smaller spread footings are assembled in the same way. If
the slab or footing is less than a foot in thickness, we may need only boards or facing materials,
some stakes, and some bracing lumber. If the slab is thick, we will need all, or almost all, of
seven parts of forms.

Forms for a Wall Foundation

A wall almost has the two sides. Therefore, two facings are needed inside a wall form.
Sometimes, the earth forms one facing.
The line for one side of the wall is marked on the concrete footing. The panels are
placed in position along that line. Walers, in pairs, are nailed to the back of all the panels to
keep them in line. Bracing and stakes then are put in to hold the wall in an upright position. After
this one face of the form is in position, reinforcing steel is set.

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Forms for a Pier Foundation
Piers may be square, rectangular, or round. Piers that are to be square or rectangular
are formed with two short sets of wall forms. He forms may be built in place, or they may be
prefabricated panels.
When round pier is to be built, sections of metal or fiber tubes are used. These sections
are assembled into what looks like a large piece of pipe. They are set in place on the footing
and are plumbed so they stand straight. Then braces are used to hold them in position.

Setting Reinforcement

Kinds of Reinforcing Steel

1. Design Rods -Used in wall, piers and slab foundation.
2. Reinforcing Mesh -Mainly used in slab foundations and road slabs

Preparing Reinforcing Steel

Placing Reinforcing Steel
In addition to concrete block supports, bent pieces of metal called chair may be used.
 High Chairs are used where there are two levels of reinforcing steel in the same slab.
They are used on the level near the top surface.
 Low Chairs are used to support the bottom level.
Because chairs are made of wire and wood to be pushed into the ground under the
weight of the concrete, they cannot be used for slabs built on the ground.

Mixing Concrete

Concrete
Concrete is made of crushed rock or gravel that is mixed with sand, Portland cement,
and water. Each of these must be specially prepared before it can be used in the concrete. In
addition to the basic ingredients, most modern concrete contains at least one admixture (special
additive). These admixtures are used to change the basic nature of concrete.
• Preparing Coarse Aggregates
• Preparing Fine Aggregates
• Preparing Cement
• Using Admixtures
• Measuring and Mixing Concrete

Preparing Coarse Aggregates

Gravel or crushed rock is used for coarse aggregate. Gravel (small stones) is found in
natural deposits on the earth’s surface. Crushed rock is manufactured by breaking rock into
pieces into pieces into a rock crusher. Pieces of crush rock have sharp edges and may shaped
much like cubes. This is the best shape for aggregate. If the rock is too soft, it will crush into
powder which cannot be used. Some kinds of break up into thin, flat pieces which also should
not be used for concrete.

Preparing Fine Aggregates

The sand that is used in concrete is called fine aggregate. Just as with coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate has different sizes. It is graded (screened) to get the different sizes
used in concrete. Generally, both the coarse aggregate and the fine aggregate are washed
before being graded (sized). Washing removes particles that are too small. Rock dust or clay
often found in stone or sand would be examples of such particles. The prepared aggregate is
stockpiled until it is needed.

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Preparing Cement
The cement used in concrete is Portland cement. Portland cement is made from a
certain kind of limestone that is found in deposits under earth’s surface. The limestone is
quarried out of its solid deposit in pieces. Then it is crushed into a fine powder in a crusher.
Some shale and clay is also crushed and mixed with the limestone in the right amounts. The
mixture of limestone and clay is fed into a rotary kiln and heated at the temperature of 2700˚F.
During the process, it forms a porous mass called clinker.
The clinker is taken from the kiln and ground to a powder. Then a small amount of
gypsum much like the lime used in masonry is added to make the Portland cement.
When the Portland cement is mixed with water, it forms a paste that become firm or sets
in for about two hours. After the paste sets up, it slowly becomes much harder. The setting up
and the hardening of cement paste is caused by the chemical reaction between the cement and
the water. This is called hydration.

Using Admixtures
Modern concrete technology has been expanded by the use of admixture or special
additives which are to be found in most of the concrete placed today. Common admixtures are:
 Entraining Agents- holds air bubbles in the concrete
 Water reducing agents- thickens the mix
 Retarders- slows the hardening of the mix
 Accelerators- speeding the mix

Measuring and Mixing Concrete

When concrete is ordered to fill the forms for foundations, it is ordered by cubic yard. To
find how much is needed, the dimensions or sizes of the space inside the forms are multiplied to
get the volume of space in the forms. When concrete is mixed, each of the ingredients is
measured or weighted in pounds. Even the water is included. The ingredients for concrete are
mixed at a concrete mixing plant. The workers are able to figure the weight of the materials for
any amount or kind of mix.

Placing and Finishing Concrete

• Unloading and Moving the Concrete
• Placing and Consolidating the Concrete
• Leveling Concrete
• Floating Concrete
• Finishing

Concrete may be mixed on the site, at a batching plant or may even be mixed on the
way to the construction site in a transit mix truck which has a large drum on it. The drum turns
slowly during its trip from batching plant to the construction site to keep the concrete mixed. In
unloading the concrete and placing it, every step must be carefully done to keep the heavy
particles from separating from the rest of the mixture.

Unloading and Moving the Concrete

When the truck driver is ready to unload the concrete, he reverses the drum. This move
the concrete out of the gate that has been opened to let the concrete flow from the truck. The
truck also carries a small chute. One end of this chute fits under the gate, and concrete flows
into it. The chute slopes down from the gate to the ground. At the lower end of the chute there
must be a container to hold the flowing concrete.

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Placing and Consolidating Concrete
In locations where the concrete is to be thick, it is placed in the layer for about 12” deep.
After each layer is placed into the form, it is worked with rod or shaken by vibrator to consolidate
the concrete. A vibrator is a tube that is closed at the end, about 12” in length and 2” or 3” in
width. A long hose containing a flexible shaft is fastened to the open end and put over into the
wet concrete. A shaft in the hose is turned by a gasoline engine or an electric motor which
causes the tube or vibrator head to shake. The vibration forces the concrete tightly against the
form and get rid of air bubbles.

Leveling Concrete
When all of the concrete has been placed, the concrete surface should be at the same
level as the top of the form. To level the concrete, we use a straight edge rested on screeds
(guides of leveling the surface). The straight edge is a long piece of wood or metal. One end of
the straight edge rests on the opposite side of the form. Concrete finishers push the board back
and forth over the concrete until the surface is level with screeds or top of the form.
When a slab is very large, one straightedge will be too short to reach one side of the
form to the other. The additional screeds must be set in between the form faces. These screeds
are pieces of lumber or steel that are set parallel with one face of the form inside the area where
the concrete is to be placed. The top of all the screeds are at the same level.
After the concrete in the slab has been placed and has been smoothed by this process,
the concrete soon sets up. When the surface is stiff but not hard, the screeds inside the form
are then removed from the concrete, and the grooves they make are patched.

Floating Concrete
After the concrete has stiffened, floating is done by the cement finisher. A tool called a
wood float moves back and forth over the surface until it is level and no coarse aggregates can
be seen. Floating the surface is done to be sure that there is only a smooth mixture of cement,
sand, and water on the surface. No coarse particle should show. After the concrete has been
floated, a final finish can be put on. Sometimes, however, a float finish is used as the final finish.

Finishing
Usually a smooth finish like that found on a sidewalk is needed. A smooth finish is called
a steel trowel finish. The smooth finisher makes it by moving a steel trowel back and forth over
the surface. A troweled surface can also be made with a finishing machine. The finishing
machine has an engine or motor that slowly turns a wheel which three or four steel trowels have
been fastened. It can finish a large area in a short amount of time.
The top of a foundation wall may be finished in the same way as a concrete slab. If we
plan to put more concrete on top of a foundation wall, it should be left very rough on that the
concrete will be able to bend or to stick to it. A float finish should be left on top of a wall if
masonry, such as stone or brick is to be laid on it.
For other kind of walls, we may wish to leave anchor bolts sticking up out of the top of
the wall. Steel or wood for the superstructure can then be fastened to the bolts. Bolts must be
put in before the concrete is placed for the foundation walls. When bolts are put into the top of a
wall in a slab or in the top of the pier, they must put in very carefully. To do this, a wooden frame
is nailed to the top of the form where the bolts are to be placed. Holes are drilled in the frame
exactly where the bolts are needed.
Since the bolts are to be anchored in the concrete, the buried part of the bolt has a hook
on it. Before the concrete is placed, 2” or 3” of the bolt is pushed up through the hole which has
been drilled in the frame. This part of the bolt is threaded so a nut may be put on it to hold the
bolt to the frame. After the concrete has been placed and has hardened, the bolt cannot move.
The nut is then taken off, and the frame is removed just before the wall forms are stripped.

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Nothing can be done to the other surfaces on the wall or pier until the forms have been
removed.

Completing Foundations
After the concrete has been placed in the forms and the visible surfaces finished, there
are still several important steps for completing of the foundation:
• allowing the concrete to set
• removing the forms
• making sure that the concrete is properly cured and
• treating the surfaces which were covered by the forms.

Allowing the Concrete to Set

Concrete is set when it will retain or hold the shape given to it by its particular form.
Concrete which is set is firm, but it is not hard or strong. The amount of time needed for
concrete to set depends upon the kind and amount of concrete used and the temperature and
humidity during that time is in its form. However, concrete will set in 12 to 24 hours. It usually
takes a much longer period of time for concrete to become hard and strong. The time needed
for the concrete to become hard and strong is called the curing time.

Removing the Forms

The process of removing the forms from around the concrete is called stripping the
forms. The workmen must not strip the forms until the concrete has properly set. In some cases,
the concrete is allowed to cure before the forms are removed. Concrete which has set but has
not cured is called green concrete. It is firm but not hard and strong.
To strip the forms, the workers must knock the braces loose and pull out the stakes.
Next, they break off the ends of the ties. Then they can separate the forms from the concrete.
Using hammers, wrecking bars, nail pullers, pliers, and wrenches, the workmen then remove
the walers, studs, plates and facing material. Form materials can be reused, and this reduces or
lowers the cost of the foundations. The men must be very careful when they strip the forms from
green concrete, because green concrete breaks and chips easily.
Curing is the process through which the concrete becomes hard and strong. Curing is
not the result of the concrete’s dying out. Rather, it results from the chemical reaction of the
elements within the concrete. In fact, curing will not be completed if the concrete dries out too
quickly. Therefore, the concrete workers take steps to keep the concrete from drying out rapidly.
They may use one of the several techniques to keep the moisture in the concrete: (1)
curing with water and (2) curing with sealing membranes. Moist curing is done by spraying the
concrete regularly with water or by covering the concrete with earth, sand, straw, or burlap and
then keeping the covering damp.
Curing with sealing membrane means that a thin, protective covering is sprayed on the
surface of the concrete as soon as the forms are removed. This coating hold moisture in the
concrete. Concrete must be kept moist for the first part of the 14-28 days it usually takes to
properly cure it.
The curing process may be speeded up with accelerators, special grades of improved
cements, careful design of the mix, and by steam curing. Modern concrete technology makes it
possible to produce in 24 hours or less concrete which will support 3000 psi. Because this can
be done only with added expense, these techniques are saved for projects where shortening the
curing time is worth the extra cost.

Treating the Formed Surface

Formed surfaces are those which touch the forms and can be seen only after the forms
have been stripped. The first step that the concrete worker take in treating formed surfaces is

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patching holes caused by the form ties and any other defects which show in the concrete. The
workers put a mixture of sand, Portland cement and water into holes and other chips which
show after the forms have been removed.
The final treatment depends on the location of the surface. If the surface will touch earth,
it may be needed to be protected from moisture. Concrete is waterproof if a perfect job of
placing and finishing is done. Usually, however, there are small defects which allow moisture to
gradually seep through the concrete. Therefore, workmen waterproof the concrete by putting a
layer of asphalt on the surface.
Then men either brush or spray the asphalt onto the concrete. If a very durable or strong
waterproofing is needed, the workers put on alternative layers of asphalt is needed. The
workers put on alternate layers of asphalt and asphalt saturated paper to build up a thick
coating on the concrete surface.
If the surface of the concrete will not be in contact with the moisture and will be exposed
to view, like the surface of the piers which support an elevated highway, it is treated in a
different way. The workmen may treat the surface with a stoned finish, a sack-rubbed finish, or a
special coating.
To apply a stoned-finish, the workers wet the concrete surface thoroughly with water and
then rub a mixture of sand, Portland cement and water over the surface. Then the surface is
ground with a flat stone until it is smooth and all blemishes are removed.
The concrete finishers apply a sack-rubbed finish by wetting the concrete surface,
rubbing a thin mixture of sand, Portland cement and water over the surface with a piece of
burlap or sponge float, and the rubbing a dry mixture of sand and cement over the same
surface. Then the finishers have completed the sack-rubbed treatment, the surface has its
appearance of sandpaper, but all holes have been removed.

6. BUILDING SUPERSTRUCTURES

Superstructures
The superstructure is built on top of the foundation or substructure. Towers such as
those used for television broadcasting or for transmitting electricity, are mostly superstructure.
The design of a superstructure depends upon the purpose for which the structure will be
used. The substructure supports both the weight of the superstructure and the traffic.

KINDS OF SUPERSTRUCTURES
1. Mass superstructures-are made of large bodies of materials which generally cover large
areas. Example of mass superstructures are earth or concrete dams and cast-in-place concrete
retaining walls. Large monuments built of piled up stone, such as the pyramids of Egypt or the
Washington Monument. Mass superstructures may have very little or no open space inside the
mass of materials.
2. Bearing Wall Superstructures-are made of masonry or other materials and usually built as
walls, or walls and roofs. Bearing wall superstructures enclose a space.
3. Framed superstructures -are those such as houses are built with a frame. The frame is like
a skeleton. The parts serve the same purpose as do the bones in your body. Frames
superstructures may be made of steel, reinforced concrete, or wood. The members of a frame
are columns or posts with beams connecting one to another.

BUILDING MASS AND MASONRY SUPERSTRUCTURES

Mass Construction Materials
Soil is very common and widely used construction material. It is available in large
quantities and is not too expensive. Soil is used to build earth dams and other types of earth
embankments. It is used to shape our highways and waterways. Even before putting down the

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substructure of a roadway, soil is moved, placed, and graded to give the correct slope to the
road.
Using soil in mass construction usually involves three steps:
(1) selecting good soil for the job,
(2) excavating,
(3) hauling,
(4) spreading and mixing, and
(5) compacting.

Soil have the proper water content in order to be packed as hard as possible.
Rock can be excavated in large blocks or pieces by quarrying. Quarrying means getting
rock out of the earth. These pieces can be used for massive or very large superstructures.
Sometimes large pieces of quarried rock are needed where the shape of the block is no
important. Breakwaters and jetties which slow up the erosion caused by ocean waves are
superstructures made of irregular or odd-shaped blocks of stone piled loosely in a long heap.
These blocks of stone can be quarried by drilling and blasting.
Mass superstructures also may be built of cemented aggregates. Many kinds of
aggregates and ways of cementing them are used for mass superstructures. Concrete is the
most common kind of cemented aggregates. In primitive or early construction, mud and clay
were held together by mixing them with straw, reeds, and brush.

Highway Superstructures
The surfaces of airports and highways are a kind of mass superstructures. To build a
concrete road, the earth along it is shaped to make a foundation. The soil is compacted or
pressed down until it is fairly hard. A substructure or crushed rock or gravel is then placed as a
foundation. On this foundation forms are set along both sides of the strip where concrete is to
be placed. These forms are made of heavy steel sheets which are bent so that the top edges
are rounded like the rails of a railroad track. They are secured or fastened to the foundation
surface with long steel pins driven into the earth.
Another kind of roadway surface (superstructure) is made with bituminous concrete. This
is a kind of cemented aggregate using crushed stone as a coarse aggregate and sand as a fine
aggregate. Asphalt is used as a cementing agent instead of portland cement.
Asphalt is a black tarry substance which can be found in pools or lakes on certain parts
of the earth’s surface. It also can be manufactured from petroleum or from coal.
Bituminous concrete is prepared in mixing plants much like those used for making
concrete. The aggregates are weighed and moved into a mixer on a conveyor belt. The asphalt
is melted and brought to the right temperature and thickness before it is poured over the
aggregates in the mixing tank. When the bituminous concrete has been mixed, it is poured into
dumped trucks which take the mixture to the paving site.
Bituminous concrete is usually placed in layers. The bottom layer has larger sizes of
aggregates, and the top layer is made up of either small aggregates or of fine aggregates. For
this reason, steel forms may not be needed along the edges of the paving. The truckload of
bituminous concrete is hauled to the site and dumped into a paver. The paver spreads the
bituminous concrete over the prepared road foundation surface in an even layer. Steel-wheeled
rollers follow the paver and compact (pack down) the bituminous concrete while it is still warm.
Rolling is continued until the bituminous concrete becomes a hardened mass with a smooth
surface.

Bearing Wall or Masonry Construction

Bricks are used for building many bearing wall superstructures. However, they are not
used in a large mass as brick were used in building the Tower Babel. In bearing walls small

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bricks are now used and each brick is carefully placed in position by masons or bricklayers.
Many kind of stones of stone, solid concrete, and concrete blocks also are used to construct
bearing walls.
Most of the brick used to build bearing walls are 8’’ long, 3 ¾ ‘’ wide , and 2 ¼’’ thick.
There are six positions in which the bricklayer can place this brick in a wall, and each of these
positions has a name. The positions of a brick are those the bricklayer would see looking at the
front face of the wall.
Brick is laid in courses in a bearing wall. If a brick is laid in a course in the flat position so
that the 8’’ dimension is along the course is 2 ¼ high, the brick is called a stretcher. The course
is called a stretcher course.
If we turn the brick on end so that the 8’’ dimension is pointing up and down, the brick is
called a soldier. If the brick is turned so that the end shows, with the 3 ¾’’ along the course ,
the brick is called a header. If the brick is then turned 90° so that the 2 1/4’’ side lies along the
course, it is called a row-lock. Two other positions in which a brick may be placed in a wall as a
shiner or a sailor are not often used.
Brick walls are generally built or laid up with stretcher courses. When they are only one
brick wide, the walls are 3 ¾’’ thick. This much of a wall is called a wythe. Usually, two or three
wythes are laid up together to form a bearing wall. However, often only one wythe is used to
cover or put a face on a concrete or wood frame wall.
Reinforced concrete walls may be used as bearing walls. They are formed and built as
upward extensions, above ground, of the reinforced concrete foundations or substructures.
Some of these forms arch over the entire enclosure, forming combined walls and roofs.
Bearing walls can be thought of as a kind of brick aggregate cemented together by the
mortar between each brick. The mortar, from ¼’’ to ½’’ thick, provides a bond between bricks
and makes them stick together. When two wythes are built side by side to form as 8’’ wall, ½’’ of
mortar is used between them. The mortar bonds (cements) one wythe to the other.

ERECTING STEEL FRAMES

Steel frames are generally erected at the construction site one piece at a time. Each
piece of steel must be of proper size, and this preparing of each piece is usually done in a shop
according to the engineer’s design drawings.
The steel used in a structural steel framework is made in long pieces called shapes. In
cross section, common shapes look like the letter ‘‘I,’’ the letter ‘‘H,’’ the letter ‘‘T,’’ the block
letter ‘‘U,’’ and the letter ‘‘L.’’ These long pieces of steel are cut into the lengths by power saws
or by heavy shearing machines.
Structural steel is often assembled by a subcontractor called a structural steel erector.
He employs ironworkers to rig, handle, fasten, and plumb and brace the parts of the structural
steel frame.

Rigging and Handling Steel Shapes

The columns for the lower levels of a steel frame usually are set in one piece. The
beams connecting them are set by using a crane moving on wheels or crawlers. When we have
a very tall building or tower to put up, a derrick is used for the higher part of the frame. The
derrick is set on a level framework above the ground level. When all of the framework that can
be reached by the boom at that level is finished, The derrick is taken apart and moved up to rest
on the steel that has just been set.
The derrick has two main parts, a mast and a boom. The mast is a tall pole that is held
vertically upright by legs or by guy wires. The boom is another long pole that works like the
boom on a crane. It is fastened to the bottom of the mast on a pivot joint so that it can move up
or down or sideways.

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 A piece of steel shape or an assembled section is hung from the hook and lifted into
place. The steel shapes are hung on the hoisting cable by riggers who know how to safely
attach the pieces. The rigging must be done so the piece will be in the correct position so it can
be fastened in place. This requires special knowledge about hoisting frames, cables, and ropes,
and about hand signals. The hand signals are used to tell the crane operator what to do. Often
the crane operator is out of hearing range so hand signals are necessary.

Setting the Supporting Steel

Some parts of a steel frame support other parts of the frame. In a building, the columns
support the beams. In a tower, the legs support the bracing that ties them together. In abridge
frame, two or three beams may support all of the other beams or connecting pieces. To set up a
steel skeleton, we must first set the bottom pieces of supporting steel.
Anchor bolts are used to fasten the structural steel frame to the foundations. Columns
for buildings or the legs of towers have a steel plate welded to the bottom of them. This is called
a base plate. The base plate has holes drilled in it to match the position of the anchor bolts. To
set the supporting pieces of steel, each piece is lifted off the truck with a crane. The base plate
on the bottom is then set on the foundation so that the anchor bolts stick up through the holes in
it.
Base plates must be set at the correct height which may be 1’’ or 2’’ above the
foundation concrete. The plates also must be set so they are level. To set a base plate, shims
are placed between the bottom of the base plate and the concrete. Shims are small square
pieces of steel plate or sheet steel. Each piece may be of a different thickness. A stack of shims
is set under each of the four corners of the base plate using the thickness needed to set the
base plate level and at the correct height. Then steel must are drawn down tightly against the
base plate to hold it in place on the shims.

Setting the Connecting Steel

After the supporting members of a structural steel frame are set, the connecting pieces
of the frame are placed. All members of the frame, whether partly assembled or not, are
delivered to the site by truck or, on bridge construction, by barge. To help identify it, each piece
has had a number mark on it at the steel shop. Using the numbers shown on the sop drawing,
the foreman of the iron workers selects the right piece of section. A crane with a double sling of
wire rope with a hook on each end is used to lift the piece. The two legs of the sling meet in a
steel ring at the center. The hook on the lifting line of the crane is hooked into this ring, and the
piece is lifted. To guide the piece or section of steel, a length of fiber rope is tied to one end.
This is called a tag line.

Fastening Steel Shapes

Each ironworker carries a spud wrench which is stuck into a holder on a leather belt.
The spud wrench has jaws on one end that fit around a nut or the head of a bolt. The other end
is a handle 12’’ to 18’’ long that tapers down to a rounded point. When one hole in the beam is
lined up with the correct hole in the connecting piece, he pushes the point of the wrench handle
through the two holes. This also lines up the other holes in the connection. The ironworker then
takes bolts from a small pouch hanging from his belt and puts them through all the holes of the
connection. He puts nuts on the threaded ends of the bolts and pulls the two pieces of steel
together by turning the nut with the jaws of the spud wrench. An ironworker at the other end of
the beam does the same thing at the same time.
All connections between parts of a structure steel frame are made in the same way. The
bracing pieces between the legs of a tower are connected between the columns of a building.
Each piece in the frame for a bridge also is placed in this way. When sections have been
assembled in a yard and hauled to the site, one section is connected to another in this way.

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 After the pieces or sections are fastened together with bolts, they must be riveted,
bolted, or welded together permanently, a torque wrench operates something like a very slow
electric drill. It turns the nut down hard on the bolt until the two pieces of steel are pressed
tightly together. If the frame is to be welded together, welding is done around the edges of the
connecting pieces.

Plumbing and Bracing

Before the final riveting, bolting, or welding can be done, the first part of the frame to be
braced must be leveled, plumbed, and then held in position with guy wires. Guy wires are made
of steel wire rope. In a building frame, they may be fastened from the bottom of one column to
the top of another column. Guy wires also may be fastened from the upper part of a column to a
long iron stake driven into the ground some distance away from the column. The columns are
plumbed by hanging a plumb bob from a string beside the column. When the face of the column
lines up with the string, the column is plumb. The number or thicknesses of the shims under the
base plate have to be changed to tilt the column until it is plumb.
When the first part of the framework has been plumbed, leveled, and temporarily braced
with guy wires, grout is forced in around the shims between the base plate and the concrete
foundation. Grout is a mixture of sand and cement with very little water added to it. The grout
will set up, like concrete, and hold the base plate in place.
When the steel for the top of the structure has been set in place, the structure said to be
‘’topped out’’.

ERECTING CONCRETE FRAMES

Materials for a Concrete Frame
Concrete for the frames of superstructures is made in the same way as the concrete
used in foundations. The only difference is that stronger concrete is needed. The strength is
measured by how heavy a load it can support after it has hardened for 28 days. Concrete used
in foundations is strong enough if it can support a weight of 2,000 pounds on each square inch
of its surface. The concrete used in frames made by putting more cement into the same quantity
of sand and gravel.

Concrete Columns and Walls

Concrete columns are also anchored to the foundation but in a different way. Pieces of
reinforcing steel called dowels are placed in the foundation concrete so that they will stick up
where the column is to be built. Around these dowels, the surface of the foundation concrete is
left rough so that the concrete in the column will bond the concrete in the foundation. The long
reinforcing bars that are used in the column are tied to the dowels with wire. The long bars are
then held in place with hoops of smaller steel bars the same way that they were in the building
of foundation piers.
The panels are fastened together with short pieces of waler that are overlapped at the
corners and nailed to each other. Panels also may be fastened together with metal bars called
column clamps. Sometimes form ties may be used. The forms are plumbed and braced just as
the pier forms were. Round columns use curved metal forms like those used for piers.

Concrete Beams
The connecting pieces for a concrete frame may be of any size or shape but they are
called beams. They may connect columns, two pieces of wall, or a column and a piece of wall.
Column or wall forms are built up to the level of the beams, and then the beam forms are built
before any concrete is placed. The concrete is placed into the columns and the beams at the
same time so they will be formed together.

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 All of the concrete that was placed for the foundations was supported on a bearing
surface or on a footing. Concrete beams are suspended in the air. The forms for the beams and
the concrete has hardened and can support itself.
Across the top of each shore is nailed or fastened a piece of lumber at right angles to the
line of the beam. This piece is 24’’ to 30’’ longer than the width of the bottom of the beam. It is
braced to the shore underneath with diagonal braces.

Fabricating the Beam Form

The form for a concrete beam is aide with a beam bottom and two beam side pieces.
These are made from 2’’ thick dimension lumber and are cut to the necessary width or height.
The line of the beam has been marked on top of each 4’’ x 4’’ that rests on the shores. The
beam bottom is nailed to the top of each 4’’ x 4’’ along that line. Then the beam sides are nailed
to the beam bottom on each side. Each 4’’ x 4’’ will stick out beyond the beam sides about 12’’
or 15’’. The beam side is then braced to the outside of the 4’’ x 4’’.
After the beam is formed, the reinforcing steel is set. The reinforcing steel bars in beams
are called trussed bars. The same bar is bent so thath the central part of it is close to the bottom
of the beam. Toward the ends the bar bends up on 45⁰ angle so that the ends are near the top
of the beam. On the end of each bar, there is a large hook into the steel in the column. These
bars may be fastened together with smaller bars like the hoops in a column.

Fabricating Suspended Slab Forms.

To build a slab form, we will start by placing shores every 4’ in rows, and place a 4’’ x 4’’
on top of each row of shores. The 4’’ x 4’’ is called a stringer. At right angles to the 4’’ x 4’’, we
will place a 2’’ x 4’’ or 2’’ x 6’’ every 16’’ from one end of the slab to the other. These will be
stood on edge and nailed to the stringers. These pieces are called joists. Over the joists, we will
nail sheets of plywood to form the facing for the underside of the concrete slab. Where the slabs
meets the beam, the beam side is cut down so that the plywood can be nailed to the top of it.
The reinforcing steel for the slab is set on the plywood. These are straight bars set at
intervals of 4’’, 6’’, or 8’’ in both directions. The bars are fastened together where they cross. To
keep them above the bottom of the concrete slab, they are set on small wire supports, called
chairs, that rest on the plywood surface.

Placing the Concrete

Concrete is placed in forms for the frame of a structure in much the same way it was
placed in the foundation. The concrete is placed in the column forms a short time before the
concrete is placed in the forms for the beams and slabs. Concrete shrinks a little as it sets up.
We let this shrinkage take place before the other concrete is placed.
If the structure is not very high, we may place the concrete by using a crane with a long
boom. A concrete bucket is hung from the hook on the lifting cable. For taller structures, we may
have to use a hoists. A hoists is like an elevator in a tall building.

Finishing Concrete Frames

Some of the concrete surfaces in a structural concrete frame may be left exposed when
the structure is finished. These surfaces will be finished in the same ways that were described
for foundation concrete. The top surfaces of concrete slabs will usually be given a smooth, steel
trowelled finish so that the tile or other flooring can be put over them. Generally, The columns,
the underside of concrete slabs, and many of the beams will be covered by other surfacing
materials and will not need to be finished by rubbing or trowelling.

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Placing Concrete Shapes
Some parts of a concrete frame can be made in a manufacturing plant and hauled to the
site for erection. These pieces are called precast concrete shapes. They are made of the same
kind of concrete, but instead of using wood for the forms, metal is used. Concrete placed in
foundations or in concrete frames is cured by wetting or coating it with curing compounds.
Precast concrete is cured at the manufacturing plant with steam.
Some precast concrete shapes are called prestressed concrete. Prestressed concrete is
not reinforced with reinforcing rods such as those used in other kinds of concrete. It uses wires
for reinforcing the concrete. Like the wires on a violin, these wires are stretched very tightly and
then the concrete is poured in the forms around them.
Instead of making a concrete slab when the concrete is placed, precast or prestressed
concrete slabs or planks in 2’ or 3’ width can be used. The ends of these planks are supported
on the concrete beams.
Precast concrete shapes may be beams for highway bridges, slabs for steel or concrete
frames, or T-beams for roofs or structures.

Building Wood Frames

Generally wood frames are used for small buildings such as houses. The
frames(skeleton) for these buildings may be subdivided into three major parts:
1. Floor framing
Most floor framing is made up of horizontal members which are called joists.
2. Wall framing
Most wall framing is made up of vertical members which are called studs.
3. Roof framing
Most roof framing is made up of sloped members which are called rafters.

The major steps in erecting wood frames at the site are:

1. Laying out and marking the locations and position of the framing members according to
the blue print
2. Marking off the lengths of lumber,
3. Sawing the lumber,
4. Assembling the parts, and
5. Leveling and plumbing the frames

Setting Sills
To secure and hold wood framing to the foundation an anchor bolt is first set every 5’ or
6’ along the center of the footing or wall.
To begin construction of the frame, a sill is laid on top of the foundation. The sill is a
horizontal piece of lumber and is the bottom piece of the frame. Holes are marked and drilled in
the sill so that the sill can drop down over the anchor boards. A thin layer of grout, which is a
mixture of sand, cement, and water, maybe placed under the sill to help level it. After the sill is
leveled, it is held in place by tightening knots down on the threads of the anchor bolts.

Assembling Joists
Joists are planks set on edge. They are placed to give a base on which the flooring
materials can rest. Joist rest on sills and extend from one foundation wall to the foundation wall
on the other side.

Assembling Girders
When the distance between two foundation walls is great, a girder maybe used to
support the joist. A girder is stronger than the joist used in a frame.

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Laying Subflooring
A subfloor is nailed to the top of the joists. Because a second is always placed on top of
it, this floor is called the rough flooring or subflooring. Boards or pieces of ply woods are used
for the sub flooring. The boards have tongues and groove of the next boards. This keeps the
boards from twisting and makes a tighter floor.

7. INSTALLING UTILITIES

Utilities are services such as water, waste disposal, electricity, gas, and
communications. Utilities need to be installed in many structures in order for them to serve the
purpose for which they were constructed. The utility systems which provide the services also
require much construction.
Utilities are a part of and service almost all constructed works. For example:
1. Tunnels must be lighted and ventilated.
2. Highways need traffic controls and drainage for raising or opening them.
3. Bridges may need lighting and controls
Most utility installation work is in connections with buildings. In many modern buildings,
the cost of installing the utilities is more than the cost of the rest of the building.
Utilities are installed both inside and outside buildings. For instance, all the electric
power equipment which is outside a building is considered an ‘‘outside utility.’’ The wiring
system within the building is an ‘‘inside utility.’’ Usually the electric power company provides the
outside electrical system. The building owner, through the general contractor and the electrical
subcontractor, provide the inside wiring system.

In describing utilities, we shall assume that we have a building provided with ff basic utilities:
1. Water
2. Waste disposal system,
3. Electricity for lighting and air conditioning,
4. Gas to heat the building and to heat water, and
5. Communication like Telephone service, Internet and TV cable services
The equipment, supplies, and labour for these utilities may be from one-third to two-
thirds of the entire cost of a building. Thus, the architect or engineer designing the utilities
systems has a job almost as bid as the task of designing the rest of the structure

Water
A city usually draws its water from a river, a reservoir, or a system of wells. The water is
pumped through an underground pipeline (a pipe of large diameter).After being purified, it is
piped through out the city in pipes of various sizes. These pipes, called water mains, usually
are laid beneath the streets.

Sewerage

A system of pipes which carries off excess or waste water. One branch of the system is
called a sewer. There are two types. (1) sanitary sewers and (2) storm sewers.
Sanitary Sewers

Sanitary sewers carry waste water (sewage) away from plumbing fixtures and into sewer
pipe leading from our imaginary building. This pipe is ‘‘tapped’’ into a city sewer man which
usually lies under or close to a street. The sewer mains lead to a city sewage treatment plant.
There the waste water is purified and discharged, usually into a stream.

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Storm Sewers
Water falling as rain or snow on the roof of our building runs into gutters and
downspouts. It is carried into a system of storm sewers which also drain water from the streets.

Electricity
Electricity is a form of energy. It involves the movement of electrons. Ordinary electric
current is a controlled flow of electrons through a wire or other conductor. Power plants
generate electric current by converting the energy of falling water, atomic fission or fossil fuels
to electrical energy, or electricity. The fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

Voltage is a measure of the electrical force needed to push electric current through wires.
Electric current is transmitted from a power plant at high voltage, in wires held up by high steel
towers. When the electricity reaches the city, a transformer reduces the voltage. A transformer
reduces the electrical force in the line. The electric power is then distributed throughout the city
in wires strung on poles or buried underground. Underground wires usually are placed in a duct
or conduit. Just before the power reaches our imaginary building, it goes to another transformer
to lower the voltage to 240 volts. The utility company install a drop (made up of 3 wires) leading
from the transformer to the building. Upon reaching the building, the wires are pulled through a
metal conduit (pipe) to a meter. From the meter, the wires are connected t a fuse (circuit
breaker) box.
Workmen employed by the electrical subcontractors install the “inside utility”. From the
fuse box, they put wires in conduit or use flexible cable to distribute the power to all lighting
fixtures, to air conditioning and heating equipment, and to all floor and wall outlets.

Gas
Some fuel gas is manufactured, but a great deal exists in a natural form underground.
Most gas used today is natural gas produced by wells in certain parts of the country. From the
gas fields, high-pressure pumps force the gas through large diameter pipelines to distant cities.
There the pressure is reduced and the gas is distributed throughout the city in pipes under the
streets, similar to water mains. To serve our building, the gas company “taps” the main and lays
an underground line about 2” in diameter. As the gas line enters the building, the pressure is
again reduced, and a meter is installed in the line. Through pipes installed by a subcontractor’s
men, the gas is piped to the gas burning appliances.

Heating and Air Conditioning

The furnace and the air conditioner may be separate units. Usually they are parts of the
same unit. The burning of gas supplies heat, and compressors operated by electricity supply the
cooled or “chilled” air. Both the furnace and the compressors may be controlled by setting a
thermostat. The thermostat is a control device by which the temperature in the building may be
kept constant.
The heated or chilled air is carried about the building in sheet metal ducts. These ducts
are rectangular or square and may vary in size from 4” x 10” to much larger. The air, at low
pressure, moves slowly through these ducts from the furnace or air conditioner to the various
rooms. The air enters through a grill device called a register.
There are also other registers, either in room or in the halls, through which the air
returns to the furnaces and the air conditioning unit. There is filtered (to remove dirt and dust)
and again heated or cooled and circulated throughout the building. These ducts are called
return air ducts.

Communications

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 From each telephone in our building, wires lead to one central point where they enter an
equipment cabinet. The wires are connected to relays (used for switching) in the cabinet. The
wires from the cabinet leave the building bound into a cable containing many individual wires.
Central telephone offices may communicate with each other either through cables or
by means of special radio broadcasting and receiving equipment.
Relay stations receive and retransmit radio messages.

Other Utilities
A building may include many other utility systems such as:
1. Steam
2. Chilled water
3. Compressed air
4. Oxygen
5. Teletype and telegraph communications
6. Built-in television and radio cables.

Networks of Utilities
It should be easy to see why the utility lines within a building are a large part of the cost
of the structure, sometimes the largest part. Utility lines must:
1. Operate satisfactorily and safely
2. Not interfere with each other
3. Generally be hidden or blended into the floors, walls and ceiling.

INSTALLING PLUMBING SYSTEMS

Plumbing systems carry gases and liquids which move rapidly at pressures varying from
the weight of the gas or liquid (gravity) to extremely high pressures. Sometimes the pressure is
5, 000 pounds upon each square inch of pipe. All plumbing and piping systems must be tight
enough to prevent any leakage.

Major Kinds of Plumbing Systems

Plumbing systems are used to move the following:
1. Fresh water,
2. Hot water or steam,
3. Water for fire protection,
4. Gases
5. Other fluids, and
6. Sewage
The piping material used depends upon (1) the type of plumbing system, (2) the
designer system, and (3) local building codes and standard practices.

Who Does the Plumbing

The number, type, and location of plumbing fixtures, appliances, and equipment are
determined by the architect. The piping needed to serve them is designed by an engineer who
makes sure that building codes and good practice are followed. The general contractor usually
subcontracts the plumbing to a plumbing subcontractor or a mechanical subcontractor, who also
may do the sheet metal work. The subcontractors prepares detailed shop drawings of the
plumbing. After the engineer approves his drawings, the plumbing subcontractor begins the
installation.
Piping

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 Piping is used to make a plumbing system. Piping consists of (1) rigid straight lengths,
(2) curved lengths of flexible tubing, and (3) fittings such as couplings, tees, ells (elbows) at
various angles, Y’s, crosses, reducers, and unions.
A union is placed into a system of piping so that it can be taken apart, at that point, for
repairs. Where a piping system is under pressure, valves are placed in the lines to shut off or
turn on a part of the system.
Pipe size is specified by a number which is called the nominal size. It is related to the
pipe diameter, but for many kinds of pipe and tubing, it is neither the inside nor the outside
diameter.
Installing Piping
At the building site, copper tubing is cut to the lengths needed. Lengths of copper tubing
are joined with couplings, tees, or cells at bends in the lines. All these fittings are made to slide
over the end of the piping very tightly. Then they are sealed by a thin film of solder. This is
called a sweated joint. The soldering metal is called lead solder, but it is actually an alloy of
lead and tin.
All pipe fittings are threaded by the manufacturer. A compound, often called pipe dope,
is smeared on the pipe thread before the fitting is screwed onto it. When this pipe dope hardens,
it seals the threads and prevents leaks.

As the piping must be adjusted or tailored to each particular building, most pipe of less
than 4’’ diameter is cut, fitted, and threaded at the site.
Pipe systems using pipe larger than 4’’ diameter can be assembled by welding two
lengths together at their ends or by welding flanges to the ends of two pieces of pipes. The
flanged pieces of pipe are bolted together and can be taken apart.
Cast-iron soil pipe systems are assembled using lead joints. Each length of cast iron soil
pipe has a flared end called the bell end. The other end of the pipe is called the spigot end. The
spigot end of one pipe or fitting is placed in the bell of the adjoining pipe or fitting. The space
around the spigot end is packed with oakum (a greasy packing) for an inch or so. The rest of the
bell is poured full of hot led.
Clay pipe used for storm drainage is also of the bell and spigot type, but the joints are
filled with a cement grout (a mixture of cement, sand, and water).
Plastic pipe is now used in many applications. It has the advantages of flexibility and of
not being affected by corrosive liquids or gases. Special techniques are required to assemble
and install plastic pipe. Mastics or cements often are used to join plastic pipe. Also the pieces
may be clamped together.
If a structure is to built on a slab, some piping is installed before the concrete for the slab
is placed. The parts of the piping which extend above the slab are called risers.
The horizontal part of piping system is hung from the underside of floor slabs or from
ceilings, using a pipe hanger. Where pipe runs vertically up a building, special hangers are used
to fasten it to the wall. Piping systems must be fastened to the structures to prevent strains in
the piping which can cause it to leak. All plumbing must be carefully installed. People and
property maybe harmed by plumbing failures.

INSTALLING PIPING SYSTEMS

Trenching
Two types of construction equipment are used to dig trenches for pipeline: The backhoe
and the trencher. The backhoe has a long, jointed arm with a bucket on the end. The edge of
the bucket is lined with teeth. In digging, the arm of the backhoe is first stretched out, and the
bucket is dropped into the ground to rest on its teeth. The arm then is pulled in toward the
machine to dig the trench.

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 The trencher has a large wheel to which small buckets are attached. As the wheel
revolves, the buckets dig into the ground and pick up earth which is then thrown into piles along
the sides of the trench. As the trench is dug, bracing sometimes has to be placed between the
sides of the trench to keep them from caving in.

Laying Pipe
Pipe usually is laid with a crane. It must be placed in the trench at exactly the correct
height and slope. This is most important, particularly in sewer lines. Sewer pipes are laid at a
slight slope so that the waste water will flow down toward the sewage treatment plant.
Sometimes sewage has to be pumped, but this is avoided whenever possible.

Who Installs Pipelines

Pipelines are carefully designed by civil engineers. When designing piping systems, civil
engineers will:
1. Lay out the route,
2. Specify pipe sizes,
3. Choose locations for pumping, processing, or treatment plants,
4. Select equipment for these plants.
Pipelines are usually installed by mechanical contractors, some of whom specialize in
pipeline construction. The craftsmen involved are the operating engineers who operate the
construction machinery and the pipe layers, who may also be plumbers, pipe fitters, steam
fitters, or boilermakers.
Water systems usually use cast iron or concrete pipe, although steel, asbestos, cement,
copper, or plastic pipe is sometimes used.
Joints in cast iron pipe may be of three types: lead, mechanical, and compression. Lead
joints are similar to those on cast iron soil pipe inside a building. Lead is poured into a space
between pipes to seal them together. On mechanical joint pipe, bolts hold the two pieces of pipe
together. A gasket, or piece of pliable material, seals the joint against leakage.
A compression joint (connection) is made by forcing the plain end of one pipe into the
bell of the adjoining pipe in which a rubber gasket has been placed. The gasket clamps tightly
around the plain end and fits tightly into the bell to seal the joint.

Sewerage
A piping system which collects sanitary sewage or storm drainage is called a sewerage.
The piping material is usually vitrified clay. The clay, which must be of a certain type, is mixed
with salt. After shaping, it is fired (heated in a kiln to a high temperature). This process gives the
pipe a hard, vitreous (glass-like) surface which cannot be corroded by most waste materials.
Usually sewers are laid in a straight line from manhole. Manhole are placed at street
corners and intermediate points, usually between 200’ and 300’ apart. They are made of brick,
vitrified clay, or concrete pipe and are about 4’ in diameter. Each manhole has a channel in the
middle through which the sewage flows.
Standing on the bottom of the manholes, men can push rods through the sewer to clear
out any obstruction. A flexible steel wire (called a snake) , turned by a slow speed electric
motor, also can be used to clear a clogged line.

Steam Lines
Steam lines must be insulated to prevent the heat in the water from being lost, or to
prevent the steam from cooling and turning to water. The pipe may be wrapped with insulation
which is then covered to protect it underground. Or the pipe may be set in various insulating
materials which look like concrete and are made of lightweight aggregates.

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Petroleum and Natural Gas
Pipelines many hundreds of miles long are built to transport petroleum from its place of
origin to a refinery. Similar pipelines carries natural gas to cities where it will be used. These
pipelines are made of black steel pipe in 30’ lengths that are welded together.
The same pipeline often carries several kinds of oil. When the pipeline operators have
finished one kind of oil through the lines, a go-devil (like bottle brush) is forced through the
pipeline with a volume of water behind it.

Records
A great many pipelines (as well as electrical and telephone cables) lie underneath the
ground in cities and in some rural areas. Accurate records must be kept showing not only the
pipelines themselves, but all valves, manholes, pumping stations, and other features. These
records are usually in the form of drawings kept at one of the company’s offices. Often the
locations of pipelines are monumented. Monumented means that permanent marks are placed
on the ground itself.

INSTALLING ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

Who Designed Electric Power Systems
Everyone concerned with the design and installation of electric power must be fully
qualified by both education and experience. Usually they must have a license which is granted
only after passing a test.
Electrical work is designed by an electrical engineer. The electrical engineer works with
mechanical engineers in designing steam-generating plants and with nuclear engineers in
designing atomic power plants.

Ownership
Usually an electric utility company owns the power plant and all the outdoor distribution
system, up to the place where the electricity enters a structure. The electric utility company
usually owns the meter which shows how much electricity each customer uses. The owner of a
building owns the electrical system within the structure, except for the meter.

Construction Personnel
The electric utility company usually hires a general contractor to build a power plant.
This general contractor usually subcontracts the electrical construction inside the power plant to
an electrical subcontractor.
The craftsmen who do electrical work are called electricians. There are two groups of
electricians. Linemen do outside construction, and wiremen work inside.

Outside Construction
Electric current, measured in amperes, flows great distances to reach its consumers.
Voltage is a measure of the force which causes the current to flow. Electricity is usually
generated at moderate voltages. But the cheapest way to send electric power is at high voltage.
Thus, beside a generating plant, there is usually a switchyard equipped with transformer to
increase or decrease voltage.
Power lines, called transmission lines, run from the switchyard transformer to cities or
industrial areas where the power will be used. This lines are built across great distances,
sometimes across several states.
Transmission lines are built by teams of skilled workers according to plans and
specifications set up by engineers. First the right-of-way is purchased from the various
landowners.

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 Electricity at very high voltage is extremely dangerous to handle. Thus, at various points
along the transmission system where the power is to be used, substation is built. There are also
(1) switches or disconnects so that the current may be cut off as desired and (2) circuit breakers
which automatically cut off the flow of electric current when it becomes too heavy in the
substation.
Distribution lines from substations generally are strung on poles, but sometimes they are
placed underground. They carry the electrical energy throughout cities, industrial areas,
suburbs, and rural areas.
There are two (sometimes more) voltages in a distribution system:
1. The primary voltage of 13, 000 volts.
2. The secondary voltage of 120 or 240 volts.
Inside Construction
The meter measures the amount of electric current the customer uses. This part of the
project is called the service entrance.
From the panel, branch circuits are installed according to any one of several wiring
methods. In a home the two common kinds of wiring are (1) nonmetallic-sheathed cable and (2)
armored cable, both of which encloses armored cable is flexible steel. The two wires in the
cable are separately insulated and then bound together with additional insulation. This kind of
cable is sometimes called BX.
Flexible cables can be bent or shaped easily by hand to fit inside the walls, ceilings, and
floors of the average home. In commercial buildings and industrial plants, electrical wires are
usually protected from damage by being enclosed in conduit.

INSTALLING ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Who Installs Electrical Communications
Electrical communications systems are designed by electrical engineers who specialize
in communications and electronics, rather than in power. These engineers may work for the
operator of the communications system. Sometimes they work for the manufacturer of the
equipment and sometimes for an electrical engineering firm which specializes in the design of
communications systems.
Craftsmen employed are of many types. There are operating engineers who operate the
construction equipment needed to dig trenches for communication lines. There are telephone
linemen who work on outside lines. Installers hook up equipment. Electricians handle the power
supply. There are also many technicians who build, install, operate, and maintain complicated
equipment.

Installing Telephone Systems

When a person talks into a telephone transmitter, the sound of his voice modulates
(shapes) an electric current. The current changes from moment to moment in a way that exactly
matches the sounds of speech. A telephone communications system can be constructed so that
modulated electric currents carry their messages great distances. A telephone receiver
‘‘undoes’’ the work of a telephone transmitter. The receiver changes the modulated current back
into sound waves.
When a telephone service is requested, a telephone installer runs a wire from the
telephone pole to the building. This wire is called a drop wire. In it are a number of pairs of wires
all bound together in a single cable. At the building, the drop wire is firmly attached to a solid
part of the structure to provide a service entrance. From the service entrance, the wires are run
through the building to connector boxes of jacks for each telephone. Each telephone is served
by two pairs of wires which are connected to a jack.
Radio broadcasting and receiving equipment has been installed in many regions to
connect central offices. The modulated current in telephone wires is changed into radio waves

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of very short wavelength, called microwaves. Microwave towers are erected about 30 to 50
miles apart, because the radio waves cannot bend to follow the earth’s curving surface. Each
tower receives the radio signal and sends it to the next tower or telephone exchange. Finally the
microwave message is changed back into a modulated electric current and then into sound
waves.

Installing Radio and Television Systems

Mobile units (trucks fitted with communications equipment) are sometimes used when a
broadcast takes place outside of studios. The communication workers lay temporary lines and
set up cameras and microphones at a location before the broadcast. Their work may begin
several days before a large, important event. Several hundred radio or television station may
pick up a program carried by a network such as NBC, CBS, or ABC, and each station will have
its own transmitter.

Installing Navigational Systems

There are two types of constructed communications systems for aircraft and ships which
permit them to navigate safely in almost all kinds of weather. One type sends a radio signal from
a land-based station to instruments which tell each pilot or captain his exact location. A second
type is a radar system which also sends an electronic signal from a transmitter. This signal is
reflected back to a TV picture tube-like scope which shows where the aircraft or ship is located.

Private Communication Systems

This private systems are used to monitor traffic flow of men and materials. They also
are used to enable people to communicate with other people or groups. The design of a
structure must make provision for these private communications systems, along with other
utilities. Installation follows the same pattern as for other communications systems.

8. ENCLOSING FRAMED SUPERSTRUCTURE

Some kinds of structures are usually left uncovered. Bridges, roads, dams, and the
towers used for utility are examples. Most buildings, and some towers are wholly or partly
enclosed. This reading concern only enclosed structures. It refers chiefly to buildings which
have a framed or skeleton type of superstructure. However, many of the practices described
here will apply also to superstructures of the load bearing type.

WHY THE FRAMEWORK IS ENCLOSED

Our starting point is a building framework of wood, steel, or concrete. The framework by
itself is of very little value. It needs to be enclosed with an exterior skin that will keep out sun,
rain, snow, wind, heat, cold and air pollutants such as dust and smoke. This skin consists of a
roof on top of the building and exterior walls on the sides. Another need is for one or more floors
for the use of people, equipment, and materials. For certain buildings, such as warehouses and
some factories, only the outside of the superstructure needs to be enclosed. So only a roof,
exterior walls and, and a bottom floor are needed for enclosure.
The features which enclose the inside of the building are floors, ceilings, partitions, and the
inside of the exterior walls. These features permit control of temperature, humidity, light, and
noise inside the building. They also improve the appearance by hiding the utility lines and by
providing attractive textures, colors and decorative details.

WHO ENCLOSES THEFRAMEWORK

ARCHITECT

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• Usually selects the methods and materials for enclosing the framework of the building.
• Make selections based upon appearance, economy, and the purposes which the room
will be used and upon the recommendation of the structural engineer who may design the frame
in a large building.

GENERAL CONTRACTOR
• Is responsible for enclosing the building although he may subcontract parts of the job
such as roofing, tile work and painting to specialty subcontractors.

CRAFTSMEN
• Carpenters, masons, roofers, sheet metal workers, glaziers (who install glass), laborers,
painters, tile setters, cement finishers, paperhangers, iron workers, etc.

ROOFING
A roof is a watertight skin which covers the top of a building. The roof is usually put on before
the exterior walls are started and before floors are laid. The purpose of the roof is to protect the
interior of a building from the weather. The roof also can be a major factor in the appearance of
a building.

TYPES OF ROOFS
A flat roof is seldom really level. Usually it has a very slight slope or slant. It is use
mostly in commercial or industrial construction.
A pitched roof has a much greater slant or slope than a flat roof. It is most often used for
houses, but it may be applied to other structures to achieve a pleasing architectural effect.

ADVANTAGES OF FLAT ROOFS

The biggest advantage of a flat roof is that the space directly underneath is completely
usable. The slated ceiling of an attic under a pitched roof can be used only in limited ways. A
room with a slanted ceiling is also difficult to heat and air condition. Getting the most space for
the least money is important in most industrial and commercial structures. Therefore, these
buildings generally have a flat roof.
A flat roof offers several cost advantages. It has the least area of roofing for the amount
of floor space covered. It uses the cheapest materials. The roofing operation can be done by the
most modern mechanized equipment.
Sometimes a flat roof requires a heavier framework than does a pitched roof. However,
the cost advantages of a flat roof nearly always outweigh this disadvantage. Accordingly, flat
roofs are most common for large buildings unless a specific architectural effect is desired for the
sake of appearance or utility.

SUPPORTING FRAMEWORK
A roof is supported by the framework of the building. The part of the framework that lies
directly under the roof is a system of concrete, steel, or wooden rafters, beams, trusses, or
reinforced concrete slabs.

DECK
On top of the supporting framework, the roof deck is laid. The deck supports many
things:
1. Weight of the roof
2. The snow or rain
3. Roof-top equipment such as air conditioning units
4. Equipment use by the roofer

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 The deck may be made of steel, pre-stressed concrete slabs, ordinary reinforced concrete,
plywood, gypsum, vermiculite, shredded wood fibers, or fiberboard. Roofs usually cover large
areas and are subject to wide variations in temperature (from below zero to above 150
degrees). Therefore, roof decks are constructed with expansion joints. The decking is laid by a
roof deck contractor or by a general contractor.

INSULATION
Insulation consists of sheets of wood or plant fiber, fiberglass, cork, or foamed plastics.
All of these are excellent insulators when dry, but not when wet. If the building will have high
humidity in it, a vapor barrier is placed on top of the deck. The vapor barrier will keep the
insulation from becoming soaked with water. The vapor barrier is a very thin layer through which
moisture cannot pass. It may consist of a plastic sheet, cemented to the deck with an adhesive,
or of roofing felt and a layer of bitumen. The vapor barrier and the insulation are laid by the
roofers.

BUILT-UP ROOFING MATERIALS

Although other materials such as metal and plastics are used, over 90% of all flat roofs
are of the built-up type. Three kinds of material are combined in a built-up roof: roofing felt,
bitumen (asphalt or tar), and gravel (slag).
Roofing felt - is a mat of fiber which has been soaked (at the factory) in bitumen. It comes in
rolls 36” wide and a number of weights.
Bitumen - is a thin liquid when heated, and it is easy to apply. However, when it cools, it
becomes a soft and flexible solid. It seals against the passage of water.
Gravel or slag – consists of pieces about the size of a pea. It has many uses:
1. To protect the roof against foot traffic
2. To help the roof resist uplift ( blowing off by wind )
3. To protect the bitumen from the direct rays of the sun
4. To reflect and absorb the heat of the sun, thus keeping the roof cooler
All of these roofing materials are relatively low in cost. The fibers are by products of the
food industry. The bitumen is a byproduct of producing gasoline. Slag is a byproduct of steel
making. Gravel is produced by crushing natural rock.

LAYING A BUILT-UP ROOF

In laying a built-up roof, the bitumen is heated and spread or mopped, on top of the
insulation. A roll of felt is laid in the hot bitumen, and more bitumen is mopped over three-fourths
of its width. On top of the bitumen, another strip of felt of is laid so that it laps over three-fourths
of the width of the previous strip of felt. Another coat of bitumen is then applied on top of this roll
of felt.
The process of building up alternate layers of roofing felt and bitumen is repeated until
the desired number of layers (called plies) is in place. The number of plies may vary from three
to seven, depending upon the climate and the number of years of life expected from the roof.
Good workmanship and quality materials are also important in producing a durable roof.
On top of the last layer of felt is spread a heavier layer of bitumen called a flood coat.
The gravel or slag is spread evenly and embedded in the flood coat while it is still hot. A smooth
surface on a roof is simply finished with a flood coat.

FLASHINGS
Flashings are strips of material which seal the joints between roofing and anything else
that projects or rises above it. Flashings are needed at the edges of built up roofing; around
pipes, vents, and chimneys; and at expansion joints. Flashings can be formed from sheet metal
(copper, galvanized steel, aluminum, stainless steel, or lead). Also, asphalt felt, rubber, and

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plastics are used. There are many types of flashings to take care of many different types of
joints. All must be carefully installed because a roof is more likely to leak at joints than anywhere
else.

New Type of Flat Roofing Materials

Conventional built-up roofs of felt and bitumen have been used for many years and still
comprise for 90% of the flat roofing put on each year. Recently some new product and
techniques have been introduced. These falls into two basic groups: liquid-applied systems and
one- ply systems.
The liquid-applied systems may be sprayed or applied with a paint roller. Typical liquid
systems may be made of silicon rubber plastics.
One-ply system is applied in a manner very much like conventional built-up roofing.
There are two differences:
1. These system are only one layer thick
2. They are not made of conventional roofing
The material used is synthetic rubber or various types of plastics. The membrane is
attached to the deck with special adhesive.
These new material are attractive in appearance and are durable. The main drawback to
them is their cost. They are not made from waste products, as most of the traditional materials
are. Thus, they cost more. In most cases the savings and labor cost in a single layer is put on
helps to offset the high cost of the materials.

Roofing Bonds
Many times the architect-engineer specifies a bonded roof. The bond is a limited
guarantee by the company which installs the roofing materials. The contractor guarantees to
pay any necessary repairs to a roof for a certain period of time, usually ten or twenty years.
When the bonded roof is specified, details as to the number of plies and the flashing are usually
left to the roofing material manufacturer and the roofing contractor.

Enclosing Exterior walls

The outside walls of the building are two types: load bearing and non-load bearing. Many
one-story building have no framework. The entire load is carried on the wall. Building
constructed hundreds of years ago used load bearing walls. For building more than two stories
high, walls had to be quite thick at the bottom to support the heavy loads. Men finally found that
it was far more economical to erect framed buildings with non-load bearing or curtain walls. Very
recently, new techniques of using reinforced concrete have made possible a return to load
bearing walls even on high rise buildings. This lesson relates to non -load bearing or curtain
walls which form an exterior skin around the sides of buildings.

WHO INSTALLS EXTERIOR WALLS

The architect chooses the materials and the type of exterior walls for planned building. If
the structure will be large, he consults first with a structural (civil) engineer. The architect must
give many kinds of important information. For example, in the case of a brick wall, plans and
specifications must show
1. Where the wall is to be placed
2. Its thickness
3. The location and sizes of window and door openings
4. The pattern for laying bricks (sometimes called bond)
5. The types of joints
6. The kind of mortar and brick
7. How the wall is to be tied into the frame

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 Usually the exterior walls are enclosed by the general contractor with his own employees.
Sometimes, however, this task is subcontracted to a specialty subcontractor: for example one
who does only masonry works.
A great many different craftsmen work on installing curtain walls. These include
carpenters, bricklayers, stone masons, sheet metal workers, welders, glaziers (who install
glass), ironworkers.

Materials for Enclosing Exterior Walls

Exterior walls may be covered with many different types of material:
1. Masonry
2. Wood siding
3. Panels of wood, plastic, glass, aluminum, enameled steel, or concrete, or
4. Other materials such as poured-in-place, reinforced concrete and stucco. Door and
window frames (often called bucks) are generally of steel, aluminum, or wood. Above
each is a lintel (a beam) which supports the exterior wall above the opening. Below each
frame is a threshold or sill to support the frame.

Masonry
Masonry materials have been used for exterior walls for thousands of years. The
material will not burn, are attractive, and are found nearly everywhere. Materials used in
masonry walls are brick, concrete block, clay tile, stone (granite, limestone, marble, sandstone),
and glass block. Mortar (a mixture of sand, water and mortar cement) is placed between the
masonry units to hold them securely in place.
A brick is a rectangular piece of clay, hardened in a very hot oven called a kiln. Most
brick is solid. For some uses it is formed with cores or hollow channels. While brick comes in
many sizes, the standard brick is 2 ¼ inch high by 3¾ inch wide by 8 inch long. Bricks are of
many colors and textures.
The many types of brick used for curtain walls may be divided into two general groups:
common and face brick. While common brick sometimes is used as facing, face brick is used
where a special texture or color is desired.
The appearance of a brick wall is depends partly on the type of mortar joints used and
the color of the mortar. The way the bricks are arranged also affects the appearance of a wall.
Concrete blocks are made from cement, sand, and some kind of aggregate, all mixed
with water. Crushed stones and gravel are commonly used heavy aggregate. Lightweight
aggregate materials include cinders and sawdust.
Concrete blocks generally are cored. A cored concrete block usually has two hollow
spaces in it similar to the holes in the bricks. Concrete blocks come in various sizes. The largest
weighs about 50lbs, and measures 7 5/8 inch by 7 5/8 inch by 15 5/8 inch.
Concrete blocks are used in single or multiple thicknesses for commercial, industrial or
residential buildings. For use as the exterior layer of a wall, they may be given various colors
and textures. They are also used as “backup” for brick or stone facing.
Clay tile used for masonry walls consists of cored blocks, hardened kiln. Various colors
and textures are available, but most clay tile is light red in color and is fairly smooth on the
outside. It comes in many sizes and shapes, the largest being about 12” by 12” by 12”. Many
older buildings used clay tile as an exterior facing. Today its principal used is as a backup for a
brick or stone facing.
Many older buildings were made of solid stone. Because of great weight and cost, stone
is now used only as a facing or veneer, with a backup of common brick, concrete block, or clay
tile. Various kinds of stone are suitable: granite, limestone, sandstone, marble, and slate. Stone
facing is usually 3” to 6” thick. Heights vary from 2” to 24”, and lengths run up to 48” or more.
Stone facing is so heavy that a derrick crane is required to handle all but the smallest pieces.

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 Other masonry materials include glass block, cobblestone, and various types of ribbon
stone. Ribbon stone consists of thin layers of stone placed to achieve a decorative effect.

How Masonry is laid?

Mortar is prepared in a mortar mixer, which is like a small concrete mixer. Mason
tenders, or helpers operate the mixer and keep the mason supplied with mortar and pieces of
masonry.
After the job is first laid out, then the first two courses are laid on top of the foundation. In
layout, accurate measurement is very important to assure that walls are straight and that walls
intersect at the desired angles. From then on, the brick block, or stone laying begins. Care is
taken to provide openings for windows and doors. Plans must be followed carefully. Joints must
be kept at uniform thickness. Successful masonry work requires great skill and care on the part
of the bricklayer or stonemason.

Among the tools used by a mason are:

1. Trowels to place mortar in joints
2. A jointing tool to finish the various types of joints
3. Masonry hammers and chisels to break and finish pieces into the odd sizes required
4. A level used with a 6’ folding rule and a line to keep work straight and level
Usually there is a power driven masonry saw on the job to cut masonry pieces into the
needed sizes.
Wood
Buildings with wooden frames are usually enclosed either with a brick veneer or with
wood. Recently aluminum and vinyl siding have come into use also. When wood is used, there
are usually three layers: sheathing, a vapor barrier, and siding.
Some sheathing is constructed of 1” thick wood board placed diagonally across the
studs. Plywood and sheets of wood chip or fibrous material also are used for sheathing.
The vapor barrier is usually roofing felt, but sometimes aluminum foil is part of the wood
chip or fiber insulation. This barrier is installed to prevent the passage of water vapor through
the wall.
Wood siding can be built of lapped boards or shingles. Neither siding boards nor
shingles are entirely waterproof, but because they overlap, the completed wall sheds water. The
corners and ends of lap siding must be covered with wood or metal trim to prevent leaking. Both
sheathing and siding are nailed to the wood studs of the frame.

Panels
Exterior walls may be built of panels, which are larger than individual pieces of masonry
or siding. Panels may be made of glass, plastic, aluminum, enameled steel, stainless steel,
galvanized steel, reinforced concrete or marble. Various types of fasteners, such as special
clips and bolts, hold the panels to the frame of the building. In some cases, panels can be nailed
to wood or concrete frames with special nails. Sometimes, steel panels are welded to steel
frames. Compared with masonry, labor costs for installing panels are fairly low. The panels
themselves, however, are quite expensive.

Stucco
Stucco, which is somewhat similar to concrete, is often applied on the outside of a
building. It is made from masonry cement, sand and water. The end product has all the
desirable properties of concrete. It is hard, strong, and fire-resistant. Stucco resists rot and
fungus, and keeps its color. Stucco can be finished in many textures, patterns, and colors.
Stucco should be applied in three coats:

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 1. Scratch coat – must be firmly embedded into the metal reinforcement to form a
mechanical bond.
2. Brown coat
3. Finish coat

INSULATING
Reasons for Insulting
Insulation is used in a building for many reasons:
1. To restrict or cut down the flow of heat either into or out of a building (this adds to
comfort of the people inside the lowers heating and cooling costs)
2. To retard (slow down) the spread of fire (some insulation will not burn in any conditions
while other burn slowly when exposed to intense heat),
3. To absorb noise, and
4. To serve as a vapor barrier by preventing the passage of humid air and reducing the
condensation of water which might discolor wall surfaces or cause structural damage?

Insulating to control Heat Transfer

In designing a building, the architect must provide for keeping unwanted heat out and for
keeping wanted heat in. His knowledge in heat transfer by conduction, by convection and
radiation helps him in selecting insulating materials.
Metal once it has absorbed heat, will conduct the heat energy rapidly. But a metal
surface which is light in color and very shiny will reflect heat that reaches it in the form of radiant
energy. The rays are “bounced” off before they can be absorbed. Therefore a thin sheet of
shiny, lightly colored metal will insulate against radiant heat energy.
Concrete, plaster and glass will conduct heat although not as fast as metal. A great deal
of heat would leak through the wall of concrete structures, by conduction.
Excessive loss of heat by convection is partly controlled by sealing cracks in exterior
walls and roof construction.

Who installs Insulation?

The architect decides upon the type of insulation to be used. Insulating characteristics of
most materials are well known to him. On major structures, or where new materials or
techniques are used the architect may use the services of a mechanical engineer.
Insulation is most often installed by the general contractor with his own employees, but
sometimes but it is subcontracted to roofers, masonry subcontractors, or even subcontractors
who specialize in insulation.
Craftsmen who install insulation may be carpenters, insulators, or roofers. Painters
often do caulking work to seal joints.

Insulating Materials
Insulating materials are group into
1. Mineral product
2. Vegetable products
3. And metallic products.
Mineral Insulation is made from sand, glass, mica, asbestos, and certain plastics. It may
be in the form of loose fill consisting of small particles. Loose fill is poured or it forced into place
with air pressure. Some mineral insulation is manufactured as batts. These batts are flexible, so
they can be moved around to fit the space in which they are placed. Sometimes, mineral
products are pressed into the form of stiff sections or panels. Some common trade names for
mineral insulation are Rockwell, Glass-wool and Zonalite.

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 The vegetable class of insulation includes materials such as cork, wood, and plant
stalks. These are generally sold in pressed board or panel form called fiber board or insulation
board. The panels may be fastened to stud or rafters. Masonite, Celotex and Roof deck are
common trade names for these products.
Metallic insulation, such as aluminum, is made to reflect heat by use of a bright shiny
surface. Metallic insulation may be applied between the building members or kind of application
is referred to as foil-backed drywall. Metallic insulation is installed with the shiny surface toward
the outside of the building. It reflects radiant heat energy back outdoors so that it will not pass
through the insulation to the inside of the building.

Installing Insulation
Loose-fill insulation can be poured into spaces. Sometimes air pressure is used to blow
loose insulation into place.
Batt or blanket Insulation is manufactured in standard width to fit between wall studs.
Batt may be glued to a single sheet of multi-layer kraft paper or it may be entirely wrapped. A
paper flange on the edges of this kind of insulation is used for nailing or stapling it to the sides of
the framing members.
Rigid insulation is often nailed in place. This material is sometimes use as sheathing.

Scaling a Building
In addition to being well insulated, a building must be sealed against the passage of
water and air through joints. Roof flashing serves this purpose on the top of the building. Joints
in the exterior walls, especially around window and door frames, must completely caulked with
plastic putty. Weather-stripping will help prevent the passage of air around windows and doors.
The dead air space between storm and regular windows, or inside windows with two layer of
glass, is effective in reducing the transfer of heat and in reducing the condensation of water.

9. FINISHING THE PROJECT

Finish work is necessary to prepare a structure for occupancy or use. It can be divided into four
parts:
1. Trimming
2. Painting and decorating
3. Installing accessories
4. Cleaning up
As finish work will be visible, it must be done skillfully and carefully.

When the Finish Work is done?

The order in which the finish work is done depends upon:
• the type of building
• the finishes chosen
• the availability of subcontractors and craftsmen at a particular time
• how the general contractor wishes to schedule his work

Who does the Finish Work?

 The architect indicates on the plans and specifications the type of finish work desired.
He may be helped by an interior designer. On matters of color and patterns, the owner usually
will be consulted.
 While the contractor may do the finish work himself, nearly all of it (except the cleanup)
is usually subcontracted.

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 For example, considering a washbasin. Before the wall materials are installed, the
plumbing subcontractor “roughs in” or installs the plumbing system right up to where the
washbasin goes. This means that he bring in the hot and cold water lines and the drain pipe. He
also installs the hangers which will support the fixture. Then the plumbing subcontractor leaves
the job. He will work elsewhere while the exterior and interior walls, floors, and ceilings are
being put in. the trim is also installed, and the painting is done. Then the plumber comes back to
the job to hang and connect the washbasin.
 Various tradesmen do the finish work. Some of them, like painters, may be coming for
the first time. Others such as carpenters, plumbers, electricians, and sheet metal workers, may
be returning to the site to do the finish work several days or weeks after “roughing in”. Other
craftsmen who may be involved are ironworkers, welders, paperhangers, and plasterers. Finish
work requires a high degree of care and skill. The craftsmanship of the finisher is what is seen
most in the structure.

TRIMMING
- is finish carpentry done to (1) enclose window and door frames, (2) cover joints between
walls and floors or ceilings, and (3) build stairs and install cabinet work (built-in-shelves,
cabinets, and counters).
(1.a.) Inside door frames
• the door jamb (the top and sides),
• the door stop which keeps the door from swinging through the opening, and
• the casing.
If the casing is offset so that the part of the jamb shows, the exposed part is called the
reveal. Door hinges are called butts, while the cuts in door which receive the butts are called
gains.
After the door frame is installed, the carpenter hangs and fits the door. He installs both
the hinges and the door “set” (the fixture; the latch and the lock). Then he installs the threshold
(door sill) and the weather stripping.
(1.b.) Windows
• It has bottom parts called the stool, apron, and a sill.
• Window sashes are of many types and materials. Double hung, awning, jalousie, and
casement windows.
• Glass is usually placed in sashes at the factory, though sometimes it is installed on the
job.
(2) Joints between ceiling and walls
- may be covered by some kind of molding. If both the wall and ceiling are plasterboard, the joint
is merely filled, taped, and sanded.
To prevent scuff marks around the bottom of interior walls, most room has a baseboard
(base) and quarter round (shoe).
(3) Stair treads
- are supported by a cutout support or stringer. Often stairs are prefabricated.

Various cuts used to fit an adjoining surface:

1. Square joints which are cut off at right angles to the long axis of the piece of trim,
2. Mitered joints which are cut at an angle (usually 45 degrees) with the long axis, and
3. Coped joints.
Cabinets may be prefabricated or built on the job. Wall cabinets are hung by fastening the
cabinets to the studs. Cabinet doors are then carefully fitted. Counters in kitchens and
bathrooms are covered with waterproof and stain-resistant materials such as ceramic tile or a
hard plastic like Formica.

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PAINTING
PURPOSES:
• To protect pat of structure,
• To make part of structure easy to clean and maintain,
• To present a pleasing appearance, and
• To provide safety or informational markings
Both the exterior and the interior of a structure may be painted. Exterior painting may
begin as soon as a structure is completely enclosed. Interior painting usually awaits completion
of walls and trim. Floor finishing is generally one of the very last operations.

Who does painting and decorating?

The architect or engineer designing the structure decides on the type of paint and
decoration. He is often helped by an interior designer or a representative of a paint
manufacturer. The owners usually are consulted as to colors and patterns desired.
Vinyl (plastic) paint- last for 50 years and will withstand:
 Temperature from minus 50 degrees plus 50 degrees
 Alternate wetting and drying
 The corrosive effect of chemicals in water
 Some abrasion (being rubbed against or scratched)
This paint is very expensive and not attractive. It would not be used on a building but is
excellent for coating the gate of a lock on a river or canal.
In selecting paint, some of the things which must be considered are:
1. Durability (how long it will last),
2. Cost of application,
3. Decorative effect,
4. Resistance to abrasion, particularly in the case of floor coatings,
5. Fire resistance,
6. Resistance to air pollutants,
7. Extent of prior preparation of surface, and
8. Waterproofing characteristics
General contractors may do painting and decorating work with their own employees or they
may subcontract the work to specialists. Craftsmen include painters, paperhangers, cement
finishers, floor finishers, waterproofing specialists, laborers, and sometimes artists.

Types of Paint
Choosing the right paint is important. On the average, when seven dollars is spent on
painting, five dollar goes to labor, one dollar goes for ladders, brushes, putty, caulking material,
and other supplies and only one dollar goes for the paint itself. Thus high quality paint is the
best buy.it adds little to the total cost. To find out which paint to use and how to use it, ask an
experienced painter or a paint dealer.
Paint is a mixture of a vehicle and a pigment. The vehicle is a liquid. It may be an oil such as
linseed oil, or water, or a rubber or petroleum derivative. The pigment is a solid (for ex.; zinc
white or titanium dioxide) which is ground into a very fine powder. Pigment gives body and color
to the paint. The pigment is suspended (spread evenly) throughout the vehicle. After it is
spread, the vehicle dries and forms a hard tough film which holds the pigment in place.

Paints are often classified by the type of vehicle:

1. Oil base paints,
2. Water base paints, including latex (sometimes called “rubber base”)
3. Polyvinyl acetates,

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 4. Alkyds, and
5. Asphaltic base paints.
Paints can be made mildew-resistant. They can also be made to chalk (part of the surface
turns gradually to a chalky substance which rubs off to help keep the surface clean). Some
enamel paints have a high gloss. Flat paints are just opposite. Their surface is dull or non-
reflective.
Some paints are more or less all-purpose and can be applied over wood, metal,
plasterboard, or masonry. There are special kinds of paints for floors, for masonry, for exposure
to saltwater spray, and for metals. Some paints, like those with an asphaltic base, are good for
waterproofing. Some paints are made especially for surfaces which have never been painted.
Others are for areas that have already been painted.
Some paint must be thinned to make it easy to apply and to make it dry quickly. Thinners
include turpentine, mineral spirits, and water, depending on the vehicle of the paint. There are
special thinners for some paints. Some thinners cause the paint to stick to a surface better than
the paint alone would adhere.
Besides thinners, many other substances may be added to paint to give it certain
characteristics. Some of these will make the paint penetrate the surface much deeper or provide
a better seal over the area. Other things, like fine sand, will give the paint a rougher, textured
surface.

Other Coatings
Varnish is a solution of linseed oil and resins (soluble wood or plastic products). It
provides a hard, clear surface, quite resistant to water. Spar Varnish provides a waterproof
surface. Shellac is a clear quick drying mixture with alcohol as a vehicle and a resin as a
pigment.
Stains are oil base or water base liquids which give a slightly tinted (colored)
appearance to wood without hiding the grain.
Putty is a mixture of chalk and linseed oil. It has the consistency of taffy or caramel and
hardens when exposed to air. Today, traditional putty is often replaced by a plastic material.
Both can be used to fill holes or cracks. Caulking, formerly done with putty, is now done with a
plastic caulking compound. A caulking gun, which is very similar to grease gun, dispenses the
compound.
How paint is applied?
The first step in applying paint is to prepare the surface. It is made clean and dry, and
treatments (such as shellac on knots in wood) are applied.
Paint itself may be applied by brush, by roller, or by spray. A brush is used for irregular
areas and where careful, fine work is needed. Paint is usually applied by brush to exterior trim.
Rollers are used on large, flat areas, as on interior walls and ceilings. Latex paints are
especially easy to apply by roller. Spray painting is economical because it can be done quickly,
but it requires special equipment. Spray painting is not good for fine, close work because the
paint may get on another area which is not to be painted.
Paint may be applied in one coat or several. Each coat or layer must dry completely
before the next is applied. A primary coat or undercoat often is applied first. Then one or two
finish coats are applied.
Painters used to mix their own paint, but today most paints are mixed at the factory. The
painter merely stirs the paint and thins it as needed. Even the stirring process is partly
performed by the paint dealer who places the paint can in a shaking machine. Painters often
“tint” a paint, which means mixing in coloring to get exactly the color they want.
Structural steel members are usually scrubbed with a wire brush to remove rust. Then
they are given a coat of paint at the shop. After the steel is erected, the shop coat, some of

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which has been damaged during erection, is covered with one or more field coats. The last filed
coat is often an oil base, aluminum-pigmented paint which gives the steel a silvery appearance.
Wooded floors are sanded, usually by machine. Then the nail holes and joints are filled
with filler. Frequently a stain is applied next, followed by varnish. As many as four coats of
varnish may be applied, after which the floors are waxed and polished by a power polisher.

DECORATING
The most common form of decorating is with strip or sheet materials. Wallpaper is widely
used. Some wallpaper consists of printed paper sheets which come in rolls. Others are rolls of
fabric with a paper or plastic surface.
Originally, wallpaper was applied to the wall with a flour and water paste. Today better
adhesives are used. Some adhesives are even placed on the wallpaper at the factory. On the
job, the sheets only need to be moistened.
Some buildings contain expensive and ornate decorations prepared by the artists.
Among these are murals (large pictures painted directly on a wall or ceiling with oil base paint)
and frescos (a painting created on a wet plaster wall with water-color paint).
Finishing Masonry and Concrete
Masonry such as stone, unglazed clay title, concrete block, or brick, is usually cleaned
with a mixture of water and muriatic acid (a chemical). Also, any excess mortar is removed.
Concrete walls are patched with grout whenever there are holes remaining from form
ties or where there is any honeycomb (the minor exposure of aggregate). Any excess concrete
which has oozed out of a joint in the forms is chipped off. Other treatment given concrete may
consists of:
1. Rubbing the surface with a stone,
2. Applying muriatic acid,
3. Applying a very thin layer of grout to hide holes or to give a smooth appearance.

INSTALLING ACCESSORIES
Accessories include:
1. Plumbing and piping fixtures such as washbasins and grilles over street drains;
2. Electrical fixtures such as lights and signs;
3. Heating, cooling, and ventilating fixtures such as furnaces;
4. Communications fixtures such as telephones;
5. Ironwork such as handrails and ladders; and
6. Hardware such as mailbox.

Accessories, more, commonly called fixtures, are things which are permanently attached
to structures. A furnishing is something that is merely moved in and set in place. Some
accessories may be considered as either fixtures or furnishings.
For instance, large, immovable road signs are definitely fixtures. A movable or temporary road
sign could be considered a furnishing.
In the case of a building, when one is sold, the buyer and seller usually decide what the
will consider fixtures (to be left in the structure) and what will be furnishings which the seller may
remove.

When Accessories are installed?

Generally no accessories are installed in a structure (or even bought to the site) until the
structure can be locked or guarded. This is to prevent theft or vandalism. Many fixtures are quite
expensive, and it may take a long time to replace.
Installing most fixtures consists two operations:
(1) Attaching them to the structure or setting them in their own bases, and

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(2) Hooking them up to utility lines.
As you recall, the main utility lines are roughed in and inspected early in the production
work. After most of the production time is worked, fixtures may be installed. The various
craftsmen who install fixtures return to the site for this work.
Sometimes must be hung or set before some of the main structural work can be
completed. For example, street drains and manholes are set in place so the roadway surface
will be level with and tight against them.

Who installs accessories?

Accessories are selected by the designer, builder, or owner of a structure. Nearly the
desires of the owner are determined. The design of the structure is often adjusted to support
accessories of heavy weight or to provide for heavy utility loads (for instance, electric power).
An interior designer is often consulted in selecting accessories for buildings.
Most general contractors subcontract the installation of accessories to a specialist, but
often the general contractor uses his own employees to place ornamental iron and hardware.
Craftsmen who install fixtures include carpenters, plumbers, steam fitters, electricians,
sheet metal workers, ironworkers, welders, and painters. As with all finish work, a great deal of
skill and care is required. Many special tools are used.
Installing Plumbing Accessories
In light (home) construction, plumbing accessories either are hung on some part of the
structural framework or are set on the floor, on counters, or on foundations of their own.
Plumbers and electricians make most of the connections. Many gas companies, however,
require that gas connections be made by their own employees, and all gas companies inspect
gas connection within a structure. Each accessory is tried and tested for proper operation and
the absence of leaks.
In highway and heavy construction, plumbers and pipe fitters also install accessories.
These may include grates and cover plates over drains on bridges and highways, accesses to
pipeline valves and controls, and similar accessories which are added after the main structural
work is completed.
Installing Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning System
Heating and air conditioning units are hooked up to ducts by sheet metal workers, to
electrical cable by electricians, and to water and drain pipes (when needed) by plumbers.
Registers are connected to the ducts in the wall, floor, or ceiling through roughly finished
holes. The metal facing of the register overlaps the wall surface so that the rough edges at the
hole cannot be seen. Registers are attached by screws and may be removed easily.
Vents are provided beneath the gables in attics, under soffits, in crawl spaces under
buildings, and in partitions. Filters are put in the duct system to remove dust from the air.
After the heating, ventilating and air-conditioning system is completed, it is completely
adjusted and checked. The dampers and thermostats are set. Sometimes this cannot be done
until a change of season. For example, heating systems cannot be tested in the summer.
Exhaust fans are connected to vent pipes, through walls, to draw out or “exhaust” steam,
smoke, and odors. Exhaust fans also may be installed to draw out heat and bring in fresh air.
Timing devices are often put in to turn fans on of off at certain times.

Installing Electrical Accessories

In buildings, lighting fixtures often are installed over outlet boxes which were put in place
during the roughing in of the electrical lines. Usually the outlet box includes machine screws for
attaching a fixture, but sometimes extra framework is built to support the fixture. At this time,
other outlet boxes which are not covered by light fixtures are covered by light fixtures are
covered after all connections have been installed.

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Installing Electrical Accessories
In buildings, lighting fixtures often are installed over outlet boxes which were put in place
during the roughing in of the electrical lines. Usually the outlet box includes machine screws for
attaching a fixture, but sometimes extra framework is built to support the fixture. At this time,
other outlets boxes which are not covered by light fixtures are covered by light fixtures are
covered after all connections have been installed.
Outdoor lighting often involves heavy fixtures which need a crane for handling. Installing
these accessories may mean earthmoving, concrete work, and ironwork as well as electrical
work. Outdoor accessories and their controls and connections also need to be weatherproof.
Other electrical accessories which are installed include built-in appliances, heating
elements, and electrical machinery. Some buildings, such as hospitals, even require the
installation of extra electric power plants which can operate in case the regular electric power
system fails.
Installing Communications Accessories
Although complete communications systems can be installed after a structure is
completed, it is far better to have the lines and equipment designed and roughed in along with
the rest of the work. The final installation of the accessories consists of hanging or placing the
communications devices and hooking them up. Again, cover plates are installed to protect all
connections and controls.

Installing Ironwork
Ironwork accessories consist of all interior and exterior ironwork which is not part of the
structural frame. Part of this work may be called ornamental ironwork (often called
miscellaneous iron) if it is fancy or ornamental. It includes stair and balcony railings, partitions
grillwork, signs, signals, and walkways. It is used not only on buildings but also on other
structures such as bridges (handrails and ladders), towers (stairways), and roads (guard rails).
Ornamental ironwork is usually installed by ironworkers and welders.

Installing Hardware
Door and window hardware is usually installed with trim. Also, there are other items of
hardware and miscellaneous equipment to be installed: mirrors, shower and toilet partitions,
push plates, kick plates, door stops, mailboxes or slots, built-in cabinetwork (bookcases and
medicine cabinets), and street numbers.

“COMPLETING THE SITE”

Finish work outside includes:
1. Providing access routes such as driveways, roads, and sidewalks;
2. Building exterior features such as patios and fences;
3. Sloping and finishing the earth;
4. Planting vegetation such as trees, shrubs, and lawns;
5. Final clean up.

These operations are often called LANDSCAPING.

The purposes of site completion are to increase the usefulness of the project and to
improve its appearance.
Site completion is especially important in the construction of highways and dams. In
these projects, it is often said that “grass is a major construction material”.

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Who completes the site?
The site work outside the structure is designed by the architect-engineer. Where this work is
extensive, or specialized, the designer may consult a landscape architect, an agricultural
engineer, or an agronomist (a specialist in the production of crops, to include grasses).
Contractors may do the site completion work with their own employees, or they may subcontract
the work to specialists. In the case of planting trees, shrubs, and grass, a separate subcontract
may be issued to a landscaping company.
However, if the contractors had awarded an excavation subcontract for original grading
of the site, the finish grading would also be included.
Craftsmen who may work on site completion include nearly all trades. Most commonly
employed are carpenters, cement finishers, operating engineers, electricians, masons, painters,
and plumbers.

(1) CONSTRUCTING ACCESS

If an access road or a railroad spur is to be built, it usually is constructed at the
beginning of the project so that materials and people can get to the site. For instance, an access
road will be granted, and temporary bridges and culverts will be installed. A minimum surface
(usually loose gravel, sometimes with thin coat asphalt) will be applied.
After the structure is almost completed, the final base courses, surfaces, pavements,
and drainage structures (such as culverts) will be put in place as a part of site completion.
Sidewalks, walkways, parking lots, and driveways are also installed. The processes used in
providing access are similar to those in other grading and paving operations.

(2) BUILDING AND INSTALLING FEATURES

Features include patios, fences, walls, benches, pools, statues, plant boxes, and exterior
lights. As with access roads, sometimes part of the work is done before the structure is
complete. For instance, the cable for an electric outdoor post lantern would be installed along
with roughing in the electrical work in the structure. This cable would be brought to the spot
where the lantern is to go and stubbed out (left sticking out of the ground with the end tape).
This early placement of cable eliminates the need to drill through exterior walls and tear
up sidewalks and lawns. During the site completion, the lantern post is set in concrete, the
lantern attached, and the wiring hookup completed, in other cases, a feature like a bench is
completely installed as one of the last outside operations.
(3) SHAPING THE SURFACE
In most projects, the rough grading is completed as part of preparing the site. Whenever
possible, the site should be graded so as to provide temporary drainage during the construction
of the structure. this reduces the damage which may be caused by rainfall during the progress
of the job. Good drainage also makes it easy for workers to get back to work quickly after work
has been stopped for bad weather.
The final or finish grading is accomplished during the site completion phase. The slopes
are carefully selected and surveyed. Too steep a slope will let rainwater rush down too fast so
that the soil will wash away (erode). If there is no slope, rainwater may stand in puddles until the
soil soaks it up, and some soil quickly becomes waterlogged. The slope selected for a site
depends on the kind of soil, the amount and frequency of rainfall, and the type of soil cover in
the form of plants or pavement.
Finish grading is done in about the same way as the other earthmoving you have
studied, but graders, rollers, and light duty or small hauling equipment (such as a front end
loader) are used in place of heavy, high production equipment. Stones and debris are removed,
and then the surface is graded and rolled to give the earth the exact shape and the firmness
desired.

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Drainage structures such as bridges, culverts, and manholes are sometimes installed during the
first preparation of the site. On other projects, drainage structures are put in during the
completion of the outside work.

(4) PROVIDING VEGETATION

Three operations in providing vegetation:

1. Soil preparation
2. Planting trees and shrubs
3. Seeding or sodding lawns or planting ground cover
After the fine grading is completed, the top surface of the earth may or may not be a type
of soil in which trees, scrubs, and grass will grow. If the soil is good enough to grow the
vegetation required, fertilizer is spread. Usually light plows, harrows, or similar soil “tillers” are
used to loosen the soil and mix it with fertilizer.
Often a graded surface will not support plant life. Then the topsoil is needed. Topsoil is
rich in organic matter and readily grows most kinds of plants. Sometimes topsoil is hauled to the
site, but it is quite expensive and sometimes hard to find for large projects.
If possible, the topsoil which covered the site in its original state is carefully removed at
the start of the excavation and rough grading. It is placed aside in “stockpiles” for later use in
completing the site. The topsoil is then spread and mixed with fertilizers.
Trees and shrubs are planted first. Usually, when they are delivered to the site, there is a
ball of earth covered with a heavy, coarse fabric called burlap around the roots of each tree or
shrubs the exact spots where the trees and shrubs are to go are marked with stakes. The hole
that is dug for each plant is a little larger than the plant’s ball of earth. It is deep enough so that
when the plant goes into the hole, the top of the ball of earth is level with the ground surface.
The soil removed from the hole may be fertile topsoil, or it may be silt or heavy clay. If it
is silt or clay, it should be taken away and replaced with topsoil. If it is good topsoil, it may be
mixed with peat moss and sometimes fertilizer. Then the top soil is put around the plant’s ball of
earth in the hole. Adding water helps the topsoil to settle around the ball. Water also is needed
by the living plant when it is moved.
Tree must be staked to prevent the wind from blowing them over. Stakes may be put at
three equally spaced points around the tree. Then the wires are run tightly from these strikes up
to the trunk of the tree. A short piece of rubber hose is used to protect the trunk from damage by
the wire. Tree trunks should be wrapped so that the hot sun and dry winds will not harm the
layer of cells just under the bark.
Earth which is not covered with living plants or other surfacing washes away (erodes).
Ground cover may be a formal lawn around buildings or coarse vegetation along dams and
highways. The type of ground cover is chosen to fit the needs for the control of surface water.
There are three (3) methods of obtaining a ground cover of grass: sodding, sprigging,
and seeding.

(1) Sod is grass especially raised for the purpose. It includes the whole root system and some
topsoil. Sod is cut in strips and laid on top of bare ground, giving a complete, ready-made
ground cover. Sodding is quite expensive. Its use is limited to lawns and areas where erosion
might be critical, such as around the abutments (ends) of a bridge.

(2) Sprigging is done with sod the sod is broken up into small plugs or sprigs of grass which
are planted one at a time. The sprigs are planted 6” to 12” apart and do not cover the entire
ground surface. As the grass grows, it spreads so that it eventually covers the entire surface.
Sprigging is usually somewhat less expensive than sodding.

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(3) Seeding means planting seed (by hand or machine). With proper care, the grass seeds
sprout, grow, and eventually form a ground cover. Seed and young grass must be protected
from the direct sun and from the wind. The seed may be worked into the ground by raking, and
mulch (a very thin layer of straw or peat moss) may be applied for protection.
In all these methods, the proper application of fertilizer and frequent watering are
necessary to give the grass a good start.
In shady locations, other plants, such as ivy, sometimes make a better ground cover
than grass. Lawns areas that are hard to reach with a mower may also be covered with ivy or
other low growing plants. This kind of ground cover is begun from a process like sprigging,
except individual plants are set out in a spaced pattern. These plants spread to cover the total
area.
In all these methods, the proper application of fertilizer and frequent watering are
necessary to give the grass a good start.
In shady locations, other plants, such as ivy, sometimes make a better ground cover
than grass. Lawns areas that are hard to reach with a mower may also be covered with ivy or
other low growing plants. This kind of ground cover is begun from a process like sprigging,
except individual plants are set out in a spaced pattern. These plantsspread to cover the total
area.

CLEANING UP
The last phase of completing the site is clean up. This includes (1) removal of temporary
structures and equipment, (2) collecting and disposing of trash and debris, and (3) removal of all
equipment and surplus materials from the site.

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 LECTURE VII
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT OPERATION and MAINTENANCE

The selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects the
required amount of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a project. It is therefore
important for site managers and construction planners to be familiar with the characteristics of
the major types of equipment most commonly used in construction.

Depending on the application, construction machines are classified into various categories:
1. Earthmoving equipment
2. Construction vehicles
3. Material handling equipment
4. Construction equipment

EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT

Earth moving equipment is used in the construction industry to:

1. Move large amounts of earth.
2. Dig foundations and landscape areas.
Types of earthmoving equipment include:
a. hydraulic excavators
b. bulldozers
c. Compressors
d. Loaders

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a. Excavator - The excavator is a form of back hoe and is hydraulically operated and is
excellent for hard digging conditions. It is a heavy construction equipment consisting of a
boom, stick, bucket and a cab on a rotating platform (known as the “house”).

b. Loader - Used extensively in construction work to handle and transport bulk material,
such as earth and rock; to load trucks; to excavate earth; and to charge aggregate bins
at asphalt and concrete plants.

Excavator Loader

Two types of mounting

6. Crawler Mounting which is particularly suitable for crawling over relatively rugged
surfaces at a job site.
7. Wheel Mounting which provide greater mobility between job sites, but require better
surfaces for their operation.

Wheel Mounting Crawler Mounting

Skid Loader - is a small rigid frame, engine powered machine with lift arms used to
attach a wide variety of labor-saving tools or attachments.
Though sometimes they are equipped with tracks, skid-steer loaders are typically four-
wheel vehicles with the wheels mechanically locked in synchronization on each side,
and the left-side drive wheels can be driven independently of the right-side drive wheels.

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c. Grader - also commonly referred to as a road grader, a blade, a maintainer, or a
motor grader, is a construction machine with a long blade used to create a flat surface.
This is used for light curing, spreading, and finish work on soils.
Typical models have three axles, with the engine and cab situated above the rear axles
at one end of the vehicle and a third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with the blade in
between.

d. Backhoe - also called a rear actor or back actor, is a piece of excavating equipment or
digger consisting of digging bucket on the end of a two part articulated arm. They are
typically mounted on the back of a tractor or front loader.

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e. Bulldozer - is a crawler (continuous tracked tractor) equipped with a substantial metal
plate (known as a blade) used to push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other
such material during construction or conversion work and typically equipped at the rear
with a claw-like device (known as a ripper) to loosen densely-compacted materials. This
is Suitable for moving soil for short distances only, up to about 50 meters.

Angle Dozer - The blade mounted on this tractor can be rotated about a vertical axis as
well as raised and lowered to permit side casting of materials

Push Dozer - It approaches the scraper from behind and engages a push block on the
rear of the scraper with a push blade.

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f. Trencher - or ditchers as they are sometimes called, are similar to excavators in the
sense that they penetrate the earth, breaking soil and rock, and remove it from the
ground. They differ from excavators in that the soil is removed in one continuous
movement. Trenchers are specifically used for digging trenches for pipes.

g. Scraper - A wheel-tractor scraper is a piece of heavy equipment used for earthmoving

(loading transport and spreading of soil).
The rear part has a vertically moveable hopper with a sharp horizontal front edge.

The production cycle of a scraper consists of six operations:

1. Loading
2. haul travel
3. dumping and spreading
4. turning
5. return travel
6. turning and positioning to pick up another load.
Scraper are best duited to haul distances greater than 500 ft. but less than 3, 000 ft.

h. Power Shovel - (also stripping shovel, or front shovel, or electric mining shovel) is a
bucket-equipped machine, usually electrically powered used for digging and loading
earth or fragmented rock and for mineral extraction.
Power shovel are used for excavation and removal of overburden in open cut mining
operation, though it may include loading of minerals such as coal.

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CONSTRUCTION VEHICLES

Engineering or Construction Vehicles are heavy-duty vehicles, specially designed for executing
construction (Civil Engineering) tasks, most frequently, one’s involving earth moving.

1. Dumpers - A dumper is a vehicle designed for carrying bulk material, often on building sites.
Dumpers are distinguished from dump trucks by configuration: a dumper is usually an open
4-wheeled vehicle with the load skip in front of the driver while a dump truck has its cab in
front of the load.

Dumper Dump Truck

2. Tippers - A truck or lorry the rear platform of which can be raised at the front end to enable
the load to be discharged by gravity also called tip truck.

3. Trailers - A trailer is generally an unpowered vehicle pulled by a powered vehicle.

Commonly, the term trailer refers to such vehicles used for transport of goods and
materials.

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4. Pick-up Truck - This vehicles generally assigned to supervisory personnel handling both
personnel transport and light hauling requirements associated with a project.

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

1. Crane – A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes, or chains
and sheaves (grooved pulley-wheel for changing direction of a wire rope’s pull) that can be
used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for
lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places.

Tower Crane Mobile Crane

2. Forklifts - Sometimes called a forklift truck, the forklift is a powerful industrial truck that is
used to lift and transport material by steel forks that are inserted under the load. Forklifts are
commonly used to move loads and equipment that is stored on pallets.

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3. Lifting equipment - also known as lifting gear, is a general term for any equipment that can
be used to lift loads. This includes jacks, block and tackle, hoists,rotating screws, gantries, A
frames, gin poles, shear legs, sheer leg, windlasses, lifting harnesses, fork lifts, hydraulic
lifting pads, air lift bags, and cranes

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

1. Concrete Mixer - (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously
combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical
concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works
portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the
construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens.

Truck Mixer Bagger Mixer

2. Concrete Pump - is a machine used for transferring liquid concrete by pumping. Boom

pumps are used on most of the larger construction projects as they are capable of pumping
at very high volumes and because of the labour saving nature of the placing boom

3. Compactors - These are used to consolidate soils in fills, road bases, etc.

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4. Air Compressors and pumps -  are widely used as the power sources for construction tools
and equipment. Common pneumatic construction tools include drills, hammers, grinders,
saws, wrenches, staple guns, sandblasting guns, and concrete vibrators. Pumps are used to
supply water or to dewater at construction sites and to provide water jets for some types of
construction.

EQUIPMENT PRODUCTION RATE

Choice of Equipment and Standard Production Rates

Two basic functions of Construction Equipment:

(1) operators such as cranes, graders, etc. which stay within the confines of the construction
site
(2) haulers such as dump trucks, ready mixed concrete truck, etc. which transport materials to
and from the site.

Dump trucks are usually used as haulers for excavated materials as they can move freely with
relatively high speeds on city streets as well as on highways.

The Cycle Capacity C of a piece of equipment is defined as the number of output units per
cycle of operation under standard work conditions. The capacity is a function of the output units
used in the measurement as well as the size of the equipment and the material to be processed.

The Cycle Time T refers to units of time per cycle of operation.

The Standard Production Rate R of a piece of construction equipment is defined as the

number of output units per unit time. Hence:

or

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The Daily Standard Production Rate Pe of an excavator can be obtained by multiplying its
standard production rate Re by the number of operating hours He per day. Thus:

whereCe and Te are cycle capacity (in units of volume) and cycle time (in hours) of the excavator
respectively.

In determining the daily standard production rate of a hauler, it is necessary to determine first
the cycle time from the distance D to a dump site and the average speed S of the hauler. Let Tt
be the travel time for the round trip to the dump site, To be the loading time and Td be the
dumping time. Then the travel time for the round trip is given by:

The loading time is related to the cycle time of the excavator Te and the relative capacities Ch
and Ce of the hauler and the excavator respectively. In the optimum or standard case:

For a given dumping time Td, the cycle time Th of the hauler is given by:

The Daily Standard Production Rate Ph of a hauler can be obtained by multiplying its standard
production rate Rh by the number of operating hours Hh per day. Hence:

This expression assumes that haulers begin loading as soon as they return from the dump site.

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The Number of Haulers required is also of interest. Let w denote the swell factor of the soil
such that wPe denotes the daily volume of loose excavated materials resulting from the
excavation volume Pe. Then the approximate number of haulers required to dispose of the
excavated materials is given by:

While the standard production rate of a piece of equipment is based on "standard" or ideal
conditions, equipment productivities at job sites are influenced by actual work conditions and a
variety of inefficiencies and work stoppages. As one example, various factor adjustments can be
used to account in a approximate fashion for actual site conditions. If the conditions that lower
the standard production rate are denoted by n factors F1, F2, ..., Fn, each of which is smaller
than 1, then the actual equipment productivity R' at the job site can be related to the standard
production rate R as follows:

On the other hand, the cycle time T' at the job site will be increased by these factors, reflecting
actual work conditions. If only these factors are involved, T' is related to the standard cycle time
T as:

Each of these various adjustment factors must be determined from experience or observation of
job sites. For example, a bulk composition factor is derived for bulk excavation in building
construction because the standard production rate for general bulk excavation is reduced when
an excavator is used to create a ramp to reach the bottom of the bulk and to open up a space in
the bulk to accommodate the hauler.

In addition to the problem of estimating the various factors, F1, F2, ...,Fn, it may also be important
to account for interactions among the factors and the exact influence of particular site
characteristics.

Example 1: Daily standard production rate of a power shovel

A power shovel with a dipper of one cubic yard capacity has a standard operating cycle time of
30 seconds. Find the daily standard production rate of the shovel.

For Ce = 1 cu. yd., Te = 30 sec. and He = 8 hours, the daily standard production rate is found
from Eq. (4.6) as follows:

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In practice, of course, this standard rate would be modified to reflect various production
inefficiencies, as described in Example 1.

Example 2: Daily standard production rate of a dump truck

A dump truck with a capacity of 6 cubic yards is used to dispose of excavated materials at a
dump site 4 miles away. The average speed of the dump truck is 30 mph and the dumping time
is 30 seconds. Find the daily standard production rate of the truck. If a fleet of dump trucks of
this capacity is used to dispose of the excavated materials in Example 4-9 for 8 hours per day,
determine the number of trucks needed daily, assuming a swell factor of 1.1 for the soil.

The daily standard production rate of a dump truck

Hence, the daily hauler productivity is:

The number of trucks required is:

implying that 8 trucks should be used.

Example 3: Job site productivity of a power shovel

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A power shovel with a dipper of one cubic yard capacity (in Example 1) has a standard
production rate of 960 cubic yards for an 8-hour day. Determine the job site productivity and the
actual cycle time of this shovel under the work conditions at the site that affects its productivity
as shown below:

Work Conditions at the Site   Factors

Bulk composition 0.954
Soil properties and water content 0.983
Equipment idle time for worker breaks 0.8
Management efficiency 0.7

The job site productivity of the power shovel per day is given by:

The actual cycle time can be determined as follows:

Noting Equation (4.6), the actual cycle time can also be obtained from the relation T'e =
(CeHe)/P'e. Thus:

Example 4: Job site productivity of a dump truck

A dump truck with a capacity of 6 cubic yards (in Example 2) is used to dispose of excavated
materials. The distance from the dump site is 4 miles and the average speed of the dump truck
is 30 mph. The job site productivity of the power shovel per day (in Example 4-11) is 504 cubic
yards, which will be modified by a swell factor of 1.1. The only factors affecting the job site
productivity of the dump truck in addition to those affecting the power shovel are 0.80 for
equipment idle time and 0.70 for management efficiency. Determine the job site productivity of
the dump truck. If a fleet of such trucks is used to haul the excavated material, find the number
of trucks needed daily.

The actual cycle time T'h of the dump truck can be obtained by summing the actual times for
traveling, loading and dumping:

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Hence, the actual cycle time is:

The jobsite productivity P'h of the dump truck per day is:

The number of trucks needed daily is:

so 8 trucks are required.

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 LECTURE VIII
CONSTRUCTION MANPOWER SAFETY

SAFETY TERMINOLOGY
1. Accident - It is an undesired event that results in harm to people, damage to property or
loss to process
2. Incident - It is undesired which, under slightly different circumstances, could have
resulted in harm to people, damage to property or loss to process
3. Safety - It the control of hazards to attain an acceptable level of risk.
4. Control - To regulate or restrain
5. Risk - It is a chance of physical and personal loss
6. Hazard - These are unsafe practices or conditions that if not controlled may result into
the occurrence of an accident or an incident
7. Unsafe Practices/Act - Are behaviors which could permit the occurrence of an accident
or incident. Deviation from standard procedures or practices
8. Unsafe Condition - Are circumstances which could permit the occurrence of an accident
or incident. Deviation from standard conditions (equipment, materials, or environment)
9. Safety Program - Are activities designed to assist management and employees in the
recognition, evaluation and control of workplace hazards
10. Safety Audit - It is a critical examination of the safety and health management programs
to determine their effectiveness and compliance to regulatory standards
11. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) - Devices used to protect an employees from
injury or illness resulting from contact with chemical , radiological, physical, electrical,
mechanical, or other workplace hazards. Equipment that creates a barrier against
workplace hazards. Equipment that creates a barrier against workplace hazards

FACTS AND FIGURES FROM OSH in the CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

• 17% of the surveyed companies have experienced death in their present workplace.
• 71% of the workplace do not have first aid station.
• 72% of the workplace do not have trained first aide personnel
• 6 out of 10 claimed that Personal Protected Equipment (PPE’s) were not issued to them.
• 17% of the surveyed companies accounted disability
• 21% of the surveyed companies reported major injuries.
• 42% have minor injuries occurring in the surveyed jobsites.
• 2 out of 10 used lifelines
• 10% use their safety belts

HIDDEN COST OF ACCIDENT (Represented by iceberg)

• Medical
• Compensation
• Time loss from work by the injured
• Loss time by fellow worker
• Damage to tools and equipment
• Time damaged equipment is out of service
• Spoiled work
• Loss time by supervisor Hidden cost
• Loss of production
• Litigation costs
• Damage to corporate image

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SAFETY PROBLEM IN THE PHILIPPINES
 Workers are temporary and constantly changing, as a result there is often tendency to
take shortcuts.
 Each sites includes many contractor performing different types of work in close proximity
to each other.
 Working surfaces, machinery, trenching and scaffolding are constantly moving, being
assembled and modified and new hazards are continually emerging.
 Environment hazards are often encountered by workers. These include toxic gases
generated as by-product of combustion, dust from cutting saws and noise from
equipment.

PREDOMINANT ITEM IN CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

 Ladders
 Scaffolds
 Excavation & Shoring
 Tunneling
 Hoist and Crane
 Heavy equipment
 Barricades
 Blasting
 Formworks
 Public protection

SAFETY AND HEALTH CONDITIONS IN CONSTRUCTION WORKSITES

1. Safety And Health Management
Poor Compliances on:
 Organization of Safety Health Committee
 Recording & Reporting of Accidents/Illnesses
 Employment of Safety and Health Personnel
 Provision of Adequate First-Aid Medicines

2. Housekeeping
 Obstructed passageways
 Accumulated waste
 Floor and wall opening

3. Scaffoldings
No Provision for:
 Guardrails/ Midrails
 Toe board
 Access ladder
 Cross bracing/Anchorage

4. Ladder/Stairs
 Made of defective materials
 Unsafe position
 No handhold

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5. Lifting Devices
 Safe working load is not indicated

6. Formworks
 No helmet and safety shoes
 Improper handling of tools

7. Excavation
 No barrier around excavation
 Equipment/vehicle park near the edge of excavation
 No shoring or timbering
 No access ladder

8. Steelworks
 No scaffolds
 No safety belt and life lines

9. Welding and Flame Cutting

 Smoking while working
 No fire extinguisher
 No goggles, gloves

10. Woodworking Machine

 Improvised machine
 No mechanical guards
 No push sticks

11. Temporary Electrical Facilities

 Undersized service entrance
 Improper spacing of wires
 Wires installed in the scaffolds
 Live wires on wet floor
 Untaped splices
 Open safety switches
 Burned out fuses replaced by copper wires
 Improper grounding

12. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Poor compliance from workers
 Feel uneasy
 Obstruction to job
 Cannot afford to buy
 Baldness
 Not aware of hazards
 No orientation on the use of PPE

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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
 Equipment that creates a barrier against workplace hazards
 A temporary measure
 The employer is responsible for requiring wear of appropriate personal protective
equipment in all operations where there is exposure to hazardous condition

Types of the PPE

 Head protection
 Eye and Face protection
 Hearing protection
 Respiratory protection
 Arm and Hand protection
 Foot and Leg protection
 Protective clothing

1. Head protection - Employees working in areas where there is a possible danger of head
injury from impact, or from falling or flying objects, or from electrical shock and burns,
shall be protected by helmets.

2. Eye and Face Protection - Employees shall be provided with eye and face protection
equipment when machines or operations present potential eye or face injury from
physical, chemical, or radiation agents.
 Safety glasses are used to protect the eyes from flying objects (no face protection)
 Chemical splash goggles protect against fluids by sealing tightly against the face
 Face shields provide highest level of protection

3. Hearing Protection - All hearing protection devices should have a Noise Reduction
Rating (NRR) equal to the number of decibels they will reduce noise levels
Types of Hearing Protection
 Ear Plugs - less expensive, disposable, good ones have fairly high NRRs -
sometimes difficult to tell if employees are wearing them
 Ear Muffs - more expensive, more durable, typically higher NRRs than plugs, more
obvious

4. Respiratory Protection - Protects users by removing harmful materials that may enter the
body via the lungs
Types of Respirators
 Air Purifying Respirators (APR)
 Half-face
 Full Face
 Powered Air Purifying Respirators (PAPR)
 Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)

5. Arm and Hand Protection – Gloves is the most common hand protection in a
construction works.
Typical uses of Gloves
 Chemical protection

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  Biohazard protection
 Abrasion protection
 Friction protection
 Protection from extremes of heat and cold

6. Foot and leg protection – Steel toed shoes and Rubber boots are the examples of
common protective footwear.
 Steel-toed footwear, preferably with metatarsal guards, is used to protect feet from
crushing injuries caused by heavy objects
 Rubber boots are often used to protect feet from exposure to liquids
 Chaps or leggings are used in certain applications (i.e., using a chainsaw)

7. Protective Clothing
 Used to protect street clothes from hazards in the workplace
 Often hazard specific
 To be considered effective, protective clothing must prevent the contaminant from
reaching the clothing or skin of the wearer.

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 LECTURE IX
COMPUTER APPLICATION IN CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The management of construction projects is highly demanding and involves a wide a

range of tasks. It involves all managerial functions, forms of organisation, techniques and tools
and the range of duties expands with the complexity of the project, as does the amount of data.
Tools are needed to store and process the very large amounts of information that can be
accumulated and as a result various types of software are available for managing construction
projects.

The development of computer software for project management began with the idea that
mathematical, network-based analysis of large-scale projects could reduce time and costs. In
the late 1950s, techniques such as PERT (Programme Evaluation and Review Technique) and
CPM (Critical Path Method) provided a basis for the computer-aided management of projects.
Since then software tools have been developed with greater and greater functionality.

Today, software can support project managers in all of their tasks such as
 Coordination
 Documentation
 Control

Project management software tools have to take account of joint data uses, exchanging
data between the tools as well as with other applications, such as design or tender software.
Clear interfaces reduce unnecessary data collection and prevent inconsistencies.

Coordination
It cannot be assumed that effective communication process will exist in ‘temporary’
construction project organisations. The division of labour and responsibilities, as well as the
exchange of information and the workflow within in the project, must be planned, implemented
and controlled.

Documentation
The construction process has to be documented thoroughly and in real time. On the one
hand, records may be required for regulatory reasons and, on the other, they are needed for
monitoring, controlling and accounting construction processes.

Control
The identification of discrepancies between target and actual performance is essential to
target-oriented control. All processes need to be monitored within a narrow timeframe to ensure
effective corrective actions can be taken, in particular, controlling quality, cost and programme.

There is no completely comprehensive software tool available to deal with all the tasks
involved in project management, a suite of systems is usually needed. Common types of
software for Project Management

1. Designing Softwares
2. Project Communication Softwares
3. Digital Construction Diary Softwares
4. Scheduling Softwares
5. Cost Control Softwares

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Designing Softwares

Designing softwares are the computer programs and applications used during the
designing phase. It is use in the illustration of building plans. It comes with ranges and aspects.

Top 5 most popular designing software for CE

1. Autocad - The most popular software in civil engineering world designed by autodesk.
2D and 3D design, drafting, modeling, architectural drawing etc. can be created by this
software.
2. SAP 2000 - It's a most popular structural analysis and design software in the civil
engineering world. Ideal for design and analysis any type of structure.
3. ETABS is the ultimate integrated software package for the structural analysis and design
of buildings.
4. AutoCAD Civil 3D design software is a civil design and documentation solution that
supports Building Information Modeling (BIM) workflows.
5. WaterCAD is a robust and easy-to-use water distribution modeling program.

Project Communication System

Project communication systems support the coordination of a construction project by

providing a joint platform to all project members for collaboration and information exchange.
Usually, the platforms are internet-based and data access can be governed by different user
authorisations and privileges. The range of functions varies greatly. Some platforms simply
provide a common data store whilst others provide comprehensive media and workflow support.

Top 5 Project Communication/Collaboration Software

1. Confluence is a powerful platform that focuses on team ownership and collaboration
versus individual work. From document creation to project collaboration, it's a game-
changing way to share ideas, build community, and get work done.
2. Zoho Docs is an online file storage and management software. Save all your images,
videos, files and documents & access them across all devices from anywhere and at
anytime. Sync your offline files to the cloud using Zoho Docs Sync.
3. Sharepoint - Applications and desktop sharing and viewing, annotation tools, instant
messaging, Web slides, and Whiteboards
4. Office 365 - An integrated suite of applications include email, calendar and address book
that are accessed via the Internet 24/7
5. Evernote Business - Provides single team workspace with in-app discussions,
knowledge discovery, presentation mode, and powerful searching tools.

Digital Construction Diary

Digital construction diaries range from simple templates for word processors, to internet-
based systems with complex data structures. By integrating media such as photo
documentation, the cogency of the construction diary can be increased. Pictures can prove
especially useful to remote project team members.

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Scheduling Software

Construction scheduling software is used to plan, monitor and control project progress.
Buffers and the corresponding critical path can be calculated based on process durations,
deadlines and relationships and appropriate resources can be assigned. The results are usually
displayed in the form of a Gantt chart, network plan or list. By entering current data, the user is
able to automatically generate appropriate target-performance comparisons.

Top mostly used scheduling softwares

1. Microsoft Project
2. Zoho Project
3. FastTrack Schedule 9
4. Primavera P6
5. Workfont

Cost Control Software

Cost control software is based on capacity planning methods. Resources are assessed
according to cost information, such as the charge-out rates for workers and equipment. By
linking to the project’s accounting software, budget figures can be compared with actual figures.
In addition, reports can be generated automatically presenting a visualisation of the processed
data.

Top mostly used Cost Control softwares

1. Structure - Automates job costing, payroll, work orders, purchase orders, receivables,
payables, general ledger and fixed assets for contractors.
2. Contractors’ Office - Estimating, Work Orders, Complete Order Processing, Job
Budgets, Accounting, Job Costing, Job Scheduling, Labor Tickets.
3. Pubworks - Activity based costing maintenance management system that manages
projects, work orders, roads, bridges, facilities, etc
4. ARES PRISM is project lifecycle management software that delivers a dependable
forecasts and accurate view of project performance.
5. Synergist - Job costing and project management system that helps agencies,
consultancies and in-house departments take control of their business

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 LECTURE X
CONSTRUCTION REPORTS

CONSTRUCTION REPORTS

 It is a document required to prove any construction activity has taken place at site during
billing or any other claims.

 Records/Reports to be maintained at construction sites play important role in

construction activities. These report/records have all the data of various construction
activities carried out at site. If any additional work has been carried out and it is claimed
during billing, these documents need to be produced as a proof.

 Maintenance of reports/records also helps during audits of construction projects at any

point of time. These documents helps to defend any claims such as liquidated damages
or false claims or violations of any guidelines by authorities or clients.

Types of Construction Report/Records

PUNCH LIST

 is generally a list of tasks or “to -do” items that must be done in a limited time. In U.S
construction industry, a punch list is the name of a contract document used in the
architecture and building trades to organize the completion of a construction project. In
other places, it is commonly as “snag list”

SITE INSPECTION REPORT

 used by contractors following the work health and safety (WHS) management plan
assessment the intent of the site inspection is to benchmark the safety practices
observed on site against the criteria in the checklist.

 It is acceptable to review a sample of items and, based on the evidence that is available
at the time, assess whether the undertaking conforms to the set criteria

CONSTRUCTION DAILY REPORT

 Summary of hourly- and daily-conditions and events at a worksite on every workday,

prepared for the offsite project administrators. An
essential document in construction projects, it records the number of workers/employees
and work equipment at the construction site, exact time the work began and
ended, job progress, whether, accidents (if any), etc. On no-work days it reports "No
Work Today," and serves as an evidence in case of disputes.

CONSTRUCTION PROGRESS REPORT

 Construction progress reports are prepared regularly (often monthly) by the contract

administrator during the construction phase and issued to the client. They will generally
be a summary of the reports received and discussions held at construction progress
meetings.

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  Construction progress reports may be a combination of minutes of construction progress
meetings and reports received during those meetings, with key issues highlighted in an
accompanying cover note. Alternatively they may be a re-written version of that
information prepared specifically to suit the client's requirements.

ACCIDENT REPORTING POLICY AND PROCEDURE

 Reports provide details about the accident, analysis of the factual data, conclusions and
the probable cause of the accident, and the related safety recommendations. Most
reports focus on a single accident
 There must be a process put in place to report accidents, incidents or near misses for
immediate action and to help track causes.
 The organization needs to identify what needs to be reported, to whom it is to be
reported, and how to report it, then put this process into a written procedure.

CONTRACT AGREEMENT

 Contract agreement documents including all sets of drawings, including amendments, a

copy of approval of municipality, corporation or urban development authorities need to
be maintained at construction sites till the completion of construction projects. These
documents provides permission and guidelines for all the activities carried out at the
construction site.

TIME AND PROGRESS CHARTS OR CPM CHARTS

 These charts help in tracking the construction activities from time to time and help in
effective planning, scheduling and controlling the construction projects activities. These
charts need to be approved from the concerned authorities.

WORK ORDERS BOOK

 All the orders given by clients to the contractors need be maintained with serial numbers,
signatures and dates. These orders should be specific for works. This order should also
have a compliance column.

WORKS DIARY

 Works diary of a construction project should indicate contract agreement number, name
of work, amount of contract, date of commencement of work, date of completion and
extension time granted.
 All the relevant details need be entered daily in the works diary. This diary serves as an
authentic record.

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 Following details need to be entered in this diary with due care:
• Weather at site
• Labors employed
• Important materials brought to site with their approximate quantity
• Types of transport working at site
• Types of tools and plants being used at site
• Important items of works completed and passed on the particular date
• Visits of VIPs and their remarks if any.

WORKS PASSING RECORDS

 This record maintains all the activities to be carried out at construction site. It consists of
an index page with details of all items of works to be done under the contract and other
pages with details of progress of each works. This helps in tracking the progress of each
activity of construction and helps in pre-planning for other remaining activities which
starts after completion of current activity. This also helps in acquiring approvals before
time for activities to be started.

TESTS RESULTS RECORD

 This is also an important record to be maintained at construction site as a proof for

construction quality. This record consists of tests of various materials such as cement,
sand, aggregates, water, steel reinforcement used at construction site, test records of
concrete cubes, concrete cylinders, slump tests etc.
 These records are arranged as an index page with details of each materials, page
numbers of records etc. Individual pages consists of each materials, with their test dates,
results etc.
 All the tests carried out at site or in laboratory are recorded in the this record book.

Some of the tests carried out at construction sites for civil works are:
• Cube tests for concrete works for each location or structural members.
• Sieve analysis of coarse aggregates, impact or abrasion tests.
• Sieve analysis of coarse sand for concrete works, masonry sands for masonry works,
plastering and pointing works etc.
• Tests for impurities of aggregates and sands.
• Bulking of sand test for concrete and masonry works.
• Slump tests and compacting factor tests for concrete works.
• Crushing strength test, tolerance, water absorption test, efflorescence tests of bricks,
stones or masonry work.
• Moisture contents of timber.
• Manufacturer tests reports provided by the vendors for admixtures, reinforcing steels etc.
• And any other tests are required by the contract documents.

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CEMENT REGISTER

 This record is maintained with details of receipts, daily consumptions and remaining
balance at site. This record also consists of manufacturing dates of cement, date of
receipt and test reports of cement at site or manufacturers test reports.

REGISTER FOR APPROVAL OF SAMPLES

 This record provides details of all the samples for construction materials that has been
approved or rejected by the clients. Approvals from the client is necessary for the
construction materials to be used before commencement of the project. All the samples
approved by the clients need to be kept separately along with their tests reports with
approvals of the clients and contractors till the completion of the work.

RECORDS OF CHANGES, DEVIATION ORDERS AND AMENDMENTS

 Many a times during the construction projects, there are deviations or changes or
amendments to the contract documents and work activities from time to time during
construction project as required by the clients. These changes can be in a drawing,
specifications or additional works.
 A record of all such deviation orders and amendments to contract agreement together
with their financial effect should be maintained along with approval or signatures from
the clients. If these changes involves in any extension of time of the contract, these
should also be recorded.

MEASUREMENT BOOKS

 The measurement book is a record for all the construction activities carried out and
approved by the client. These records are important for a contractor to maintain and help
during billing claims. Any extra work done is also recorded in this book with notes.

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 LECTURE XI
CONSTRUCTION FIELDWORKS

Any construction site work requires the proper deployment of qualified people in different
trades and engineers to oversee their work. Opportunities in construction depend on the state of
the economy, which largely governs construction activities.\

Training Required for Construction Work

Construction site work to be done by any engineer will depend on the size and
complexity of the project. Smaller projects may require a single engineer who would have to
handle all aspects. As project sizes grow, workloads in various branches of the project increase
and may require an engineer to supervise and oversee only the particular department to which
he is assigned. Engineers during their professional education and training are given the
necessary skills and knowledge in all aspects of engineering and the trades to provide
supervisory and supporting roles in the construction field. In addition they also have knowledge
of scheduling, planning, design, surveying, management, and the cost aspects of a project. One
thing that has to be constantly kept in mind by anyone seeking opportunities in construction is
that such works are of a temporary nature and only last until the completion of the project.

Field Work on Construction Projects

Engineers concerned with direct field work have to allocate the work to the various
agencies under their control, arrange for materials and equipment, and ensure that the works
are carried out by the workers as per the specifications laid down and as per drawings given to
them by the planners. They would have to also ensure that the work is carried out as per the
given schedule, and this would require constant monitoring of the productivity of the workers
under their control. The safety aspect of the workers has also to be ensured by the engineer. On
larger sites, separate engineers would be concerned with the laying out of the work and the
measuring it after it is completed. A separate QA/QC section would also oversee the necessary
quality.

Construction Project Engineer

A construction project engineer helps to plan the work and its execution on a daily basis
so that the overall objectives are met. He will use his engineering knowledge to interpret the
drawings, specifications, and contract documents to those concerned that works are completed
in time.
The terms construction engineer and project engineer normally relate to the same
person or job function. Construction engineering is the application of engineering, management,
and business sciences to the processes of construction, through which designers' plans and
specifications are converted into physical structures and facilities. The construction or project
engineer is a professional constructor who engages in the design of temporary structures, site
planning and layout, cost estimating, planning and scheduling, management, materials
procurement, equipment selection, cost control, and quality management.

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 These processes involve the organization, administration, and coordination of all the
elements involved in construction - labor, temporary and permanent materials, equipment,
supplies and utilities, money, technology and methods, and time - in order to complete
construction projects on schedule, within the budget, and according to specified standards of
quality and performance. Depending upon the size and complexity of a project, the construction
engineer may be responsible for one to several jobs. This means that travel to many different
work sites is part of this occupation. Many project engineers work on-site in temporary offices
and spend a good deal of time out of doors, planning and checking work.
Construction engineers typically begin their careers in a training capacity - as engineers-
in training. They may begin as assistants to project superintendents, project managers,
estimators, or field engineers. Advancement and responsibility are quickly earned for those who
excel. It is not unusual for construction engineers to be in total charge of small projects within
five years of employment. Construction/project engineers frequently become the chief operating
officer of construction companies.

Construction Projects Require Engineering and Managerial Inputs

The process of construction requires that skills in engineering have to be offset by those
in management and business for the successful completion of any project. During this process
the plans of the designer and the specifications required by technical considerations are
translated into actual physical structures and other facilities envisaged by the designer and
other stakeholders in the project. The job of the construction project engineer is to bring
a professional touch to the execution of the project by planning the site, its temporary structures,
laying out the new facility to be erected, planning and scheduling the work to be done, arranging
for contractors or workers, procuring of materials, selecting equipment needed to facilitate
construction and maintaining the necessary control on cost and quality throughout the period of
the project.

Initial Site Planning

The work of a construction project engineer starts even before he actually starts work on
the site. The engineer will first have to completely understand the requirements of the project in
terms of resources like manpower, materials, finances and time schedules. He will then have to
plan the marshaling of the necessary resources as per a time schedule which will fit in with the
overall completion dates. Once the overall picture is clear, the engineer then moves on to site to
plan and arrange for temporary facilities like offices, stores, roads, water and electricity which
would be required throughout the life of the project. A good engineer will try to make some of
these facilities in such a way that they are part of the project in perpetuity, as this can save
costs and time.

Starting the Construction Process

One of the first things that the construction project engineer has to do is to arrange for
the necessary men, materials, and equipment needed to execute the project. Manpower can be
in the form of direct engagement of skilled tradesmen and other workers or contracting out the
work to be done to qualified contractors. In both cases the proper qualification of the workers or
contractor has to be ensured.

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 The engineer has to set up a separate procurement cell that will arrange for all the
necessary materials required for the execution. He has also to arrange for necessary equipment
required during the process of construction. While doing this he must ensure that the equipment
will give the necessary productivity and quality.
Offsite, the engineer has to make detailed schedules for various items of work so that
their execution fits in with the overall completion dates. He has also to set up systems for
making the necessary payments to worker, contractors and suppliers of materials and
equipment. While doing this he has to coordinate with the owners to plan and ensure the
necessary cash flow for the project depending on the schedules worked out.
A good project engineer has to pay sufficient attention to quality and set up a separate
QA (quality assurance) and QC (quality control) section if the size of the project warrants it.
Proper testing procedures for testing materials being used and completed work have to be laid
down. He also must set up procedures for waste management and environmental
control. Safety standards need to be set up and enforced at all stages of the construction
process. Proper housekeeping on the project during its execution is also the responsibility of the
construction project engineer.
One of the jobs of a construction project engineer is to prepare detailed reports on the
physical progress and other financial and contractual matters which would have to be presented
to the stakeholders of the project.

Completing a Project

On completion of a project a construction project engineer has to arrange for all

necessary inspections by statutory and other authorities prior to handing over the project to the
ultimate users of the project. He also has to ensure that the project is handed over to the users
after they complete their own inspection for quality and quantity.

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 LECTURE XII
CONSTRUCTION DISPUTES

Alternative dispute resolution (ADR)

Alternative dispute resolution is a combination of techniques implemented for resolving

disputes in a construction project, without seeking any rectification from the courts.
This is more prominently found in countries like India and Germany where a set of
resolution processes called the alternative dispute resolution techniques act as the main means
and mode between the dispute creating parties (disagreeing parties) to end up with a solution
through a written contract or agreement.
Alternative dispute resolution is a collective means of sorting and settling disputes
happening with or within different parties in an organization.

Processes of Alternative Dispute Resolution Techniques

The ADR processes and techniques will come under any one of the two main
categories. They are:
 Adjudicative ADR
 Non-Adjudicative ADR

Adjudicative Alternative Dispute Resolution Techniques

The adjudicative ADR comprise an individual who is a third party, who deals with the
decision on dispute merits. The Non adjudicative will assist the parties involved in the dispute to
negotiate with each other to end up with a settlement.
The above mentioned initial technique of arbitration and dispute boards comes under the
category of adjudicative ADR. Another example is a combination of Mediation / arbitration
technique.

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Non Adjudicative Alternative Dispute Resolution Techniques

Unlike adjudicative ADR, the non adjudicative ADR have many numbers of alternatives
of which some are mentioned below. These processes help to bring some flexibility in the use of
an alternative. Some of them are:

Mediation in Alternative Dispute Resolution Techniques

In this kind of alternative, a negotiated agreement is facilitated by a neutral third party

between the disputing parties. Now, this third party has no power to make decisions.
The third party or the mediator notes down all the merits and demerits of the dispute but
does not bring up a decision or suggest one. He might bring an indication on who have the
strongest merit to win the negotiation, which is considered by the court or the arbitral tribunal.
The main role of the mediator is to determine the area where both the parties can
compromise with each other. When the discussion goes well and is ready to have a settlement,
this forms the negotiation of an agreement.

The “mediation from mere negotiation” is the criteria carried out by the mediator or the
process of dispute resolution.
The mediation alternative followers have the opinion that this method understands and
reduces the dispute reasons and future disputes, through open communication between the
parties.

Conciliation

This method involves the entry of conciliator who is supposed to lead the negotiations to
be carried out in a smoother way and to facilitate their negotiations. They don’t involve in
dealing or hearing the issues between the parties.

Early Neutral Evaluation

This is a non binding process. To provide an evaluation, based on the merits of the case,
any or both the disputing parties will own a credible neutral party. The method must be
implemented at an earlier stage to avoid the possibility of major cost, which reflects the name
“early” neutral evaluation.
The neutral party only has a role in guiding the parties through the issue and have no
role in binding. After which, they can have negotiations alone thereafter.
This method turns out to be “non-binding arbitration” when this approach has to face a
formal hearing. This may be closely related to arbitration.

Mini Trial
This is one alternative which has the greatest use as a dispute resolution. This involves
complex questing based on laws and facts. Each part will present the case in an abbreviated
form. For these, they seek lawyers or experts.
The case is placed on the senior management of the parties for hearing. After hearing a
negotiation is carried out by the respective management system.

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 This method will help the disputing parties to see the problem and after effects of the
problem from outside perspective, to make them understand the severity and potential impact
so that an easy settlement can be made.
If necessary, a neutral party may be employed so that action will be facilitated and
evaluated based on the needs of the parties. Good understanding of the issues by the two
parties is necessary for this method of mini trial to be effective and appropriate.
It’s not possible to conclude that a single form of litigation or alternative dispute
resolution method is a perfect choice of dispute resolution for all situations. The construction
industry has resulted in bringing up a wide variety of ADR processes that are worth.

Silent Features of Alternative Dispute Resolution Techniques (ADR) in Construction

Projects

The alternative dispute resolution techniques in construction involves certain

construction contracts that are granted for disputes that must be dealt with a set of agreed
dispute resolution procedures.

The most common and famous alternative dispute resolution processes used in
construction disputes other are mentioned below.
 Adjudication
 Expert Determination
 Litigation
 Meditation
 Arbitration

Individual techniques or a combination of the three can be implemented. The above four
techniques are major ones. These can have sub categories that can provide a variety of choices
of procedure for specific disputes.
Some of the examples are the joint contracts tribunal (JCT) 16 Standard form of Building
contract, the FIDIC Conditions of contract, the New Engineering Contract (NEC) Engineering
and the construction contract.

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Adjudication

As explained below adjudication involves the incorporation of a third party to give a

decision on the dispute. Now the method is known as “pay first, argue later “, a method of
dispute resolution.
For this, the party must apply to the technology and the construction court so that the
adjudicator’s decision can be enforced. The adjudicator’s decision will be binding until it is not
revised by litigation or arbitration. These have certain benefits and demerits.

Benefits of Adjudication in Alternative Dispute Resolution

 Adjudicator won’t be involved in day to day running of construction contract
 An adjudicator is a neutral person
 Adjudication is a quick process
 The cash flow is maintained throughout construction process
 It is less expensive than court methods

Demerits of Adjudication
 Before the commencement of adjudication, the dispute has to be aired between the
disputing parties
 The adjudicator has limited power
 If the part who loses does not pay, court proceedings are necessary to enforce the
decision of the adjudicator.

Expert Determination
Whenever there is a valuation dispute, we go for expert determination. These deals with
disputes of special nature like construction disputes. The expert determination forms one of the
informal system methods of resolution of disputes.
The parties must agree to accommodate the expert determination through an agreement
(contract) and agree that the expert determination will be binding.

Benefits of Expert Determination

 Less economic way
 Less expensive, quick method and less formal
 Demerits of Expert Determination
 Expert decision less tied to legal processes
 Enforcement of expert report cannot be carried out without court or arbitration

Litigation in Alternative Dispute Resolution Techniques

Among different methods of ADR processes, the court proceedings are the common
method used to solve the construction industry disputes.
The Technology and the construction court (TCC) is a court that is specialized in the
same. They govern and deal not only civil procedure rules but also TCC guide. The cases in
TCC will be dealt with judges specialized in TCC.
etaccise
Advantages of Litigation in Alternative Dispute Resolution
 The judge carries out the claiming process throughout
 Complex issues can be carried out and dealt
 Binding and enforcement of decision for the parties are obtained

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Disadvantages of Litigation
 The method is a slow process
 Most expensive
 The proceedings relating to the dispute will not be confidential.

Mediation in Alternative Dispute Resolution

The method of mediation as explained before is a common method used to resolve
disputes. The TCC court states that the parties with a disputed issue must be encouraged to go
for ADR methods for solution. In most of the cases, the solution will be mediation.

Benefits of Mediation
 The mediator will be an intermediate person, who have no judgment or decision making.
He just facilitates the discussion
 Mediators are experienced in dispute areas and with the judges of TCC
 The business relationship can be maintained
 Mediation can go long for one to two days, bringing the decisions quickly
 The happenings within the mediation are kept confidential
 The mediator will help the parties to bring up a decision which is favorable for both the
parties.

Disadvantages of Mediation
 Disclose of an important aspect related to their argument, may result in benefiting the
other part
 The dispute will remain unsolved if no sort of agreement has been made. The cost for
mediation will go futile.

Arbitration in Alternative Dispute Resolution

This method is another form of litigation. Here the disputing parties will refer the dispute
to a third party. He is called as the arbitrator. The material facts, documents and relevant
principles of law are the basis for which the disputes are solved. This method is used mainly for
international construction disputes.

Benefits of Arbitration in Alternative Dispute Resolution

 Arbitration is a confidential process
 Based on the experience of the arbitrator, the parties can choose them.
 Arbitration, unlike court proceedings, is a quick process
 The method of arbitration is a flexible process
 Disadvantages of Arbitration

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  The cost of arbitrator and arbitration venue must be taken by parties
 An arbitrator has limited power to take the decisions.
 Arbitration possess limited appeal rights
 Cost will be similar to court litigation

Acceptance – a Need for Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)

The increasing caseloads in the traditional courts have made the demand of ADR to
increase. Now some of the courts wanted the parties to resort their problems through ADR. The
acceptance of ADR is more among the public as well as the legal profession.
When compared to litigation through normal court means, ADR imposes a fewer cost.
Not only in terms of money but also in the choice of selection of best personality to talk for one’s
dispute and based on confidentiality.
The chances for conflicts are higher with the increase in the size of construction projects.
Most of the cases the impact of money or finance is material, that will truly focus on project
delay, defects in service and contractual penalties.
The choice of litigation under such situation would affect the tempo of the project
drastically. Bringing up alternative dispute model ought to be an efficient and quick way of
solving the rising disputes in the construction project organization.

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