Nvis 6019

Understanding Solar Tracking System
Nvis 6019
Product Tutorial
Ver 1.1
Nvis 6019 Understanding Solar Tracking System
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Understanding Solar Tracking System

Nvis 6019
Table of contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Features 5
3. Technical Specifications 6
4. Safety Instructions 7
5. Theory 8
6. Operating Procedure 66
7. Experiments
 Experiment 1 68
Study of V-I characteristics of fixed Solar Panel i.e. without tracking the
Sun
 Experiment 2 70
Study of V-I characteristics of Solar Panel using Single-axis Solar Tracking
in Manual Mode
 Experiment 3 72
Study of V-I characteristics of Solar Panel according to incident
angle of light keeping Light source at fixed position and moving solar
panel in Manual Mode
 Experiment 4 76
Study and observation of Single-axis Solar Tracking in Time Mode
 Experiment 5 78
Study and observation of Single-axis Solar Tracking in Auto Mode
 Experiment 6 82
Study the operation of Dual-axis Solar Tracking System in Manual mode
8. Glossary 84
9. FAQs 89
10. Warranty 94
11. List of Accessories 94
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Introduction
Nvis 6019 Understanding Solar Tracking System is a versatile training system for the
study and demonstration of solar tracking. It introduces the basic concept of Sun
tracking. Solar tracker is a device which tracks the motion of the sun, thus
ensuring that the maximum amount of sunlight strikes the panels throughout the
day. This product uses a DC motor to control the position of solar panel, using
microcontroller. Phototransistor is used as a light sensor for generating an electric
signal proportional to intensity of light falling on it. Tilt sensor is used for sensing the
angle. With this system students can understand the working of sun tracking and
also the concept of revolution of earth around sun.
This system is provided with a Solar Panel mounting assembly and solar tracking
Trainer. Solar Tracking Setup shows all the parts required for the generation of
electricity and tracking of sun.
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Features
Complete training system to study the fundamentals of Solar Tracking
Microcontroller based Tracking System
Single-axis & Dual-axis Tracking
Manual, Time and Auto Modes of operation in Single-axis Solar Tracking
Manual Mode of operation in Dual-axis Solar Tracking
LCD (20 x 4) Display
Master Reset Switch for recovery of System
Emergency Motor Stop switches to Control the System
Light Sensor are use for sensing light intensity of sun
Tilt Sensor are use for sensing angle of panel with respect to horizontal plane
Facility for charging the battery using solar energy as well as DC Adaptor
Customized mechanical fixture for mounting solar panel
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Technical Specifications
Supply Voltage : 12V DC
Solar Panel
Maximum Output Power (Pm) : 18W
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) : 21V DC
Short Circuit Current (Isc) : 1.07A
Max. Output Voltage (Vmp) : 17V
Max. Current (Im) : 1.06A
DC Motor : 12 V
Rheostat : 100 ohm, 1.6A
Rechargeable Battery : 12V, 7Ah
Display : 20x4 LCD
Light Sensor : Phototransistor
Acceleration/Vibration/
Tilt Sensor – 3 Axis : +5V @1ma current
Fuse : 1Amp (3 Nos.)
DC Adaptor : 12V @ 1Amp
Dimension (mm) : W 350 x D 280 x H 55
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Safety Instructions
Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the Nvis 6019. To
avoid any personal injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to
the instrument.
Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.
The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only. For your safety:
Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this
instrument. Ensure that the mains cord is suitable
for your country.
Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the protective
earth conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric
shock, the grounding conductor must be connected
to the earth ground. Before making connections to
the input terminals, ensure that the instrument is
properly grounded.
Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in the
manual.
 Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.
 Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.
 Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.
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Theory
Energy is the amount of work that can be performed by a particular force. It can be
transferred into other areas and objects, but the energy quantity always remains the
same. Different forms of energy include thermal, kinetic, potential, sound, and light
energy. Although we are surrounded by multiple forms of energy at any given time,
learning about energy can be a very intimidating.
Energy helps in powering business, manufacturing and transportation of goods and
services. There are many different ways in which the abundance of energy around us
can be stored, converted, and amplified for our use. Energy comes in different forms
heat, light, thermal, mechanical, electrical, chemical and nuclear energy. We all use
energy for our daily work like when we walk, jump, eat food, drive car, play etc.
Energy is stored in different ways and can be transformed from one type to another
Energy comes in different forms:
 Heat (thermal)
 Light (radiant)
 Motion (kinetic)
 Electrical
 Chemical
 Nuclear energy
 Gravitational
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Types of Energy
Energy is in everything. We use energy for everything we do, from making a
jump shot to baking cookies to sending astronauts into space.
There are two types of energy:
 Potential Energy
 Kinetic Energy
Examples of Potential & Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy: Potential Energy is the energy of a body or a system due to the
position of the body or the arrangement of the particles of the system in a force
field.
Kinetic energy: Any movement that produces energy is known as kinetic so the
kinetic energy of an object is the energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is
defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its
stated velocity. Some examples of this type are swinging a baseball bat or dropping a
bowling ball.
Pictures given below, shows the concept of potential energy & Kinetic energy and
we can say that the stored energy is called potential energy and moving energy is
called kinetic energy.
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Basic Concept of Kinetic & Potential Energy

Other types of energy are commonly thought of as being able to power homes and
automobiles. This form of energy can be broken up into two main subgroups:
renewable and non-renewable energy. Renewable energy can be obtained for an
unlimited time period. Examples of renewable energy include solar and geothermal
sources. Nonrenewable energy will eventually run out and cannot be replaced. The
most widely recognized type of nonrenewable energy is fossil fuels such as oil and
natural gas.
Sources of Renewable and Non-renewable Energy
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Energy Scenario
 Total energy consumption in the form of coal, gas and oil, hydro and renewable
energy sources is known as primary energy.
 Primary energy consumption was at 488X1018 or 488 exa-joul. Major
Consumer of energy are Asia Pacific, consuming about 32%. Total energy
consumption = 76.49X1019 J/year
Energy Scenario
Nonrenewable energy: Nonrenewable energy is energy that comes from the ground
and is not replaced in a relatively short amount of time. Fossil fuels are the main
category of nonrenewable energy. Fossil fuels include; coal, oil and natural gas.
These resources come from animals and plants that have died millions of years ago
and then decomposed to create a useable source of energy for humans.
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Sources of Non-renewable Energy

A non-renewable resources (Limited fossil fuel) are natural resources which cannot
be reproduced, grown, generated, or used on a scale which can sustain its
consumption rate, once depleted there is no more available for future needs. Also
considered non-renewable are resources that are consumed much faster than
nature can create them. Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas),
nuclear power (uranium) and certain aquifers are examples. Metals are prime
examples of non-renewable resources. In contrast, resources such as timber (when
harvested sustainably) are considered renewable resources.
Fossil fuels: Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels. Because they took millions of
years to form, once they are used up they cannot be replaced.
Coal: Coal, the most plentiful fossil fuel in the United States, is a black or brownish-
black sedimentary rock composed mainly of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is the
product of dead plants and animals compressed over millions of years. Power plants
burn coal to produce steam, which turns turbines. When burned, coal releases air
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, as well as carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas involved in global warming. In the United States, coal is mined in
more than 25 states. Wyoming is the largest coal-producing state. According to the
U.S. Energy Information Administration,
94 percent of the coal in the U.S. is used to generate electricity.
Sources of Non-renewable Energy Coal & fossil oil

Oil: Oil, also known as petroleum, is used to make gasoline and diesel fuel to power
airplanes, automobiles and other vehicles. Formed over millions of years, crude oil
is the outcome of the heated and compressed remains of marine plants and
animals that predated the dinosaurs. The byproducts emitted when oil is burned
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide, among others can cause acid
rain and respiratory illnesses. The leading countries in petroleum production are
Russia, Saudi Arabia, the United States, Iran and China. Texas, Alaska, California,
North Dakota and Louisiana are the top oil-producing states.
Natural Gas: Natural gas provides heating for approximately half of the homes in
the United States. Formed by decayed organic matter trapped beneath layers of
rock, natural gas consists mostly of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. The U.S.
produces most of the natural gas it consumes. Though natural gas emits smaller
amounts of pollutants and greenhouse gases than other fossil fuels, drilling may
interfere with wildlife and the engines used in drilling equipment cause air and noise
pollution.
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Sources of Non-renewable Energy Natural gas & Uranium

Nuclear Power: In most electric power plants, water is heated and converted into
steam, which drives a turbine-generator to produce electricity. Fossil-fueled power
plants produce heat by burning coal, oil, or natural gas. In a nuclear power plant, the
fission of uranium atoms in the reactor provides the heat to produce steam for
generating electricity Uranium specifically the U-235 isotope --- is the element most
often used to produce nuclear energy, which is released by splitting the nuclei of
atoms. This process is known as nuclear fission. Though nuclear reactors do not emit
pollutants or greenhouse gases, radioactive nuclear waste must be handled and
stored with extreme care to avoid contamination. According to the U.S. Energy
Information Administration, 20 percent of the electricity in the country is generated
with nuclear energy. The U.S. produces some uranium, but imports most of it from
Australia, Canada, Russia and other countries.
In the past century, it has been seen that the consumption of non-renewable sources
of energy has caused more environmental damage than any other human activity.
Electricity generated from fossil fuels such as coal and crude oil has led to high
concentrations of harmful gases in the atmosphere. This has in turn led to many
problems being faced today such as ozone depletion and global warming. Vehicular
pollution has also been a major problem. Therefore, alternative sources of
energy have become very important and relevant to today’s world. These sources,
such as the sun and wind, can never be exhausted and therefore are called
renewable. They cause less emission and are available locally. Their use can, to a
large extent, reduce chemical, radioactive, and thermal pollution. They stand out as
a viable source of clean and limitless energy. These are also known as non-
conventional sources of energy. Most of the renewable sources of energy are fairly
non-polluting and considered clean though biomass, a renewable source, is a major
polluter indoors.
Renewable Energy: Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural
sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and can be generated again and again as and when
required. They are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy
available on this planet e.g. Energy that we receive from the sun can be used to
generate electricity. Similarly, energy from wind, geothermal, biomass from plants,
tides can be used this form of energy to another form. Renewable Sources include
solar, wind, geothermal, biomass and hydro power. Renewable resources are clean
or “green” energy sources that have a much lower environmental impact than
conventional energy sources. Renewable resources are attractive because they are
replenished naturally which means they will never run out.
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Sources of Renewable Energy

Biomass Energy: Biomass energy is a renewable energy resource that derives its
energy from plant materials. Wood is the most common and still the largest biomass
energy source currently, but breakthroughs in research have increased bio fuel to
encompass food crops, algae, and industrial waste to make biomass. Biomass
materials harness the power inside the plant matter to make this energy. Plants
store this energy through the process of photosynthesis which stores the energy of
the sun inside the plant; when the plant is combusted or burned it releases this
energy which can be used as a substitute for nonrenewable fossil fuels. Essentially
biomass utilizes the energy of the sun, stored inside plants, to create a renewable
energy source.
Benefits of Biomass
 Environmental protection: Biomass energy has potential to significantly
decrease greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels.
 Energy security: Decentralized biomass energy could help nation to
substantially reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
 Rural economic growth: Biomass energy could stimulate growth in farming,
forestry and rural industry leading to overall rural development. Biomass
energy could also provide a productive avenue for using agricultural and
forestry wastes, besides plantations.
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The examples of biomass that are commonly used as fuel includes:

 Wood and agricultural products: This consists of so-called „home-grown‟
products such as wood logs and chips etc. It is important to note that almost
any biological matter can produce biomass energy. Agricultural biomass come
from waste products such as fruit pits, corn cobs etc.
 Solid waste: This is everyday waste / „garbage‟ that can be used to produce
energy. It is easily burnt and many plants are already using this method of
generating energy.
 Landfill gas: This is methane gas that is produced during the decaying and
rotting process of biological matter. Landfills are artificial environments for
these processes to take place, but are just as effective in generating gas that
can compete successfully with the so-called „natural gasses.
 Alcohol fuels: Liquid fuels such as ethanol and methanol are produced using
biological matter such as wheat, corn and potatoes. Once again, this is done
during the decaying and fermentation processes.
Biomass & Electricity generation from Biomass

Above figure shows how the machine works to produce biomass energy. First, wood
waste goes into the boiler. Then when wood waste burns, steam come and the
steam is connected to turbine and the heat moves the turbine. The generator
creates electricity and the steam turns into water. Later on, the wood waste comes
out as ash because it is burned.
Hydro Energy: One of the types of renewable energy, hydroelectricity derives its
energy from flowing water. Normally, strong gushes of water. The force will
eventually turn the turbines, which will then case the generator to move and
create electricity. The latter is then distributed to different homes all over the
community. Like other types of renewable energy, this doesn’t create any smoke and
hence doesn't cause any form of pollution. Moreover today it’s highly possible for
homes to generate their own hydroelectric power without building huge dams.
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How it works
A dam is built to trap water, usually in a valley where there is an existing lake. Water
is allowed to flow through tunnels in the dam, to turn turbines and thus drive
generators. Notice that the dam is much thicker at the bottom than at the top,
because the pressure of the water increases with depth. Hydro- electric power
stations can produce a great deal of power very cheaply.
Advantages
Hydro Energy source & Power generation
 Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free. No waste or pollution
produced.
 Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand.
 Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike
other power stations.
 Electricity can be generated constantly.
Geothermal energy (Radioactivity and primordial heat in Earth’s Interior)
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal
energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The Geothermal
energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%)
and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the
difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a
continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the
surface. Geothermal power plants use heat released from the interior through
Earth’s crust. The heat can be used directly or converted to electricity. Renewable
energy technologies tap into natural cycles and systems, turning the ever- present
energy around us into usable forms. The movement of wind and water, the heat and
light of the sun, heat in the ground. The carbohydrates in plants all are natural
energy sources that can supply our needs in a sustainable way because they are
homegrown, renewable can also increase our energy security.
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Geothermal Energy source & Power generation

Advantages of Geothermal Energy:
 Significant Cost Saving: Geothermal energy generally involves low running
costs since it saves
 80% costs over fossil fuels and no fuel is used to generate the power. Since, no
fuel is require so costs for purchasing, transporting and cleaning up plants is
quite low.
 Reduce Reliance on Fossil Fuels: Dependence on fossil fuels decreases with
the increase in the use of geothermal energy. With the sky-rocketing prices of
oil, many countries are pushing companies to adopt these clean sources of
energy. Burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases which are responsible
for global warming.
 No Pollution: This is one of the main advantage of using geothermal energy
since it does not create any pollution and help in creating clean environment.
Being the renewable source of energy, geothermal energy has helped in
reducing global warming and pollution. Moreover, Geothermal systems does
not create any pollution as it releases some gases from deep within the earth
which are not very harmful to the environment.
 Direct Use: Since ancient times, people having been using this source of
energy for taking bath, heating homes, preparing food and today this is also
used for direct heating of homes and offices. This makes geothermal energy
cheaper and affordable. Although the initial investment is quite steep but in
the long run with huge cost saving it proves quite useful.
 Economic Benefits: Government of various countries are investing hugely in
creation of geothermal energy which on other hand has created more jobs for
the local people.
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Tidal energy (Gravitational attraction of Sun, Earth and Moon): Tidal power plants
use the energy provided by high and low tides. Water is stored during high tide and
released during low tide, powering turbines in the process. The technologies
associated with tidal power are very similar to those of hydro power, earthmoving,
dam building, flooding land, placing turbines in dams. The set up costs are
significant. Concerns about the impacts of tidal power technologies have caused
recent Endeavour’s to focus on tidal turbines and tidal fences. Tidal turbines can
operate with tides and currents some distance from land, like under water wind
farms.
Advantages and disadvantages of tidal power
Advantages: Tidal power does not produce greenhouse emissions. Tidal power is a
renewable energy resource.
Tidal power can provide secondary benefits such as bridges and roads, which are
built over the tidal generators.
Tidal Energy source & concept of Power generation

These work rather like a hydro-electric scheme, except that the dam is much bigger.
A huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a river estuary. When the tide
goes in and out, the water flows through tunnels in the dam. The ebb and flow of
the tides can be used to turn a turbine, or it can be used to push air through a pipe,
which then turns a turbine. Large lock gates, like the ones used on canals, allow
ships to pass. If one was built across the Severn Estuary, the tides at Weston-super-
Mare would not go out nearly as far - there'd be water to play in for most of the
time.
Wind Energy: Wind occurs owing to differences in temperature of air warmed by
the sun. Warmer air rises, where as colder air sinks. This circulation produces wind.
The energy of wind, i.e. "wind power," increases in proportion to the cube of wind
speed. Theoretically, if wind speed is 2x, wind power is 8x. Wind power is
proportional to the area affected by the wind. For wind at the same wind speed, the
larger the area affected, the larger the wind power. Accordingly, for effective
use of wind energy, wind turbines should be large and sited where strong winds
blow throughout the year. Since wind is produced by the Sun and air, it is an
inexhaustible resource.
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Sustainable Sun’s Energy

Wind Energy source & Power generation
 The search of the new energy source gained momentum only in the 1970s
following the oil crises.
 Sun energy, which is abundant and could provide security for the future
development and growth.
Solar energy (Hydrogen fusion in the Sun): The sun is the most powerful source of
energy. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used for heating, lighting and cooling
homes and other buildings, generating electricity, water heating, and a variety of
industrial processes. Most forms of renewable energy come either directly or
indirectly from the sun. For example, heat from the sun causes the wind to blow,
contributes to the growth of trees and other plants that are used for biomass
energy, and plays an essential role in the cycle of evaporation and precipitation
that makes hydropower possible. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as
either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and
distribute solar energy.
Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal
collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a
building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light
dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
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Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated
solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area
of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic convert light into electric current using
the photoelectric effect. The answer lies in tapping the unlimited, clean, eco-
friendly energy of the sun. The sun is the key to the existence of life on the earth. It
has been there for billions of years and continuously shooting its solar energy in our
direction. The sun continues to warm our planet and we need to find some more
efficient ways to harness it's energy to full potential.
This energy has to be harnessed by technology in order to be converted into
something that is usable by mankind. There are two types of solar technology that
can be used to do this, one referred to as passive, the other active. Active solar
energy trap light from the sun and then perform some action by producing the
current for e g: Solar Panels. Passive solar energy simply trap solar energy for e.g.
Green House.
Solar Energy Advantage
The biggest advantage of using solar energy is that it is a clean and green energy.
Solar energy doesn’t pollute nor produce any green house gas; in today‟s world
where global warming is an increasing menace, these factors matter significantly. In
fact, solar energy is an important alternative to fossil fuels, which use release
harmful green house gasses into the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.
Another big advantage of using solar energy is that solar power is a completely
renewable energy. As long as there is sunlight, there will be solar energy. This
situation is unlike the use of fossil fuels, which will eventually be depleted with use.
The use of solar energy also decreases our dependence on oil, which is becoming a
big political and economical issue, as oil is becoming more scarce and expensive. The
energy is free. Once the appropriate solar power equipment is installed, you are free
to tap on the sun’s energy, whoever you are, wherever you are. Moreover, solar
energy and solar panels are also completely silent and don’t require much
maintenance.
It is clean energy source, no potential damage to the environment.
It is very large source energy. The power from the sun intercepted by the earth is
about 1.8 X10 power 11 MW, which is many times larger than our current power
consumption from all sources.
The module character of technology allows gradual implementation and is easier to
finance.
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Basic Concept of Solar Energy

When we get the solar energy from the sun it gets trapped and stored and can be
used in various ways to generate power. Solar energy can be used as direct or
indirect, active or passive. Basically there are 2 ways in which we can harness sun's
energy:
(a) Solar Thermal Energy (b) Solar Photovoltaic Energy

Solar power is energy from the sun and without its presence all life on earth would
end. Solar energy has been looked upon as a serious source of energy for many
years because of the vast amounts of energy that are made freely available, if
harnessed by modern technology. A simple example of the power of the sun can
be seen by using a magnifying glass to focus the sun rays on a piece of paper.
Before long the paper ignites into flames.
 Solar Thermal: Solar thermal is also known as solar water heating. In this
process, solar energy is used directly to generate heat. Solar panels are used
to trap the heat from the sun and are used to heat water in the glass panels.
Glass panels are painted black so that they absorb maximum energy from the
sun, then water is pumped through these pipes. These panels are positioned in
such a way to maximize the absorption of heat throughout the day and can
help in reducing the electricity bills.
 Photovoltaic Cell / Solar Cell: A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an
electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its electrical
characteristics e.g. current, voltage, or resistance vary when light is incident
upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate and support an electric
current without being attached to any external voltage source. This method
converts the sun's energy into electricity. Photovoltaic cells are most popular
form of converting solar energy into electricity. The term "photovoltaic" comes
from the Greek “photo” means light and “voltaic” means electricity. The word
Photo-voltaic is a combination of the Greek word for Light and the name of the
physicist Allesandro Volta. He identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into
energy by means of solar cells. Photovoltaic refer to the creation of voltage
from light. Solar Photovoltaic System directly converts sunlight into useful
electricity. This process is called photoelectric effect, discovered by Alexander
Bequerel in 1839.
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The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons
 The separation of various types of charge carriers
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
Basic Concept of Solar Cell

Types of Solar Cells: There are three basic types of solar cells which are as follows:
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Types of Solar Cell

1. Crystalline solar cells are wired in series to produce solar panels. As each cell
produces a voltage of between 0.5 and 0.6 Volts, 36 cells are needed to
produce an open-circuit voltage of about 20 Volts. This is sufficient to charge a
12 Volt battery under most conditions.
The majority of PV cells produced today use crystalline silicon (c-Si) as it is a
light absorbing semiconductor. The c-Si technology was originally developed
for the semiconductor industry to produce PV cells for integrated circuits and
microchips. These PV cells have energy conversion efficiencies between 11
percent and 16 percent. The energy conversion efficiency of a solar cell is the
percentage of incident sunlight converted into electricity. While the efficiency
of c-Si is high, it absorbs light poorly and requires many layers to perform
efficiently in solar applications.
 Mono crystalline cells are cut from a single crystal of silicon. They are
effectively a slice from a crystal. In appearance, it will have a smooth
texture and you will be able to see the thickness of the slice. These are the
most efficient and the most expensive to produce. They are also rigid and
must be mounted in a rigid frame to protect them.
Mono-crystalline Solar Cell & Module

Features:
 Good power-to-size ratio: efficiency typically within the range of 135-170 Watts
per m2
 (13-17%, with notable exceptions).
 Outstanding performance in cooler conditions.
 Some leading units now have over 18% conversion efficiency.
 Previously the most commonly used technology in the world, with over 50
years of technological development.
 Excellent life span / longevity. Usually come with 25yr warranty.
 Polycrystalline (or Multi crystalline) cells are effectively a slice cut from a
block of silicon, consisting of a large number of crystals. They have a
speckled reflective appearance and again you can you see the thickness of
the slice. These cells are slightly less efficient and slightly less expensive
than mono crystalline cells and again need to be mounted in a rigid frame.
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Polycrystalline Solar Cell & Module

Features:
 Good efficiency: typically 120-150 Watts per m2 (12-15%, with notable
exceptions). Generally speaking, marginally less expensive to produce than
mono cry saline. Slightly better performance in hotter conditions.
 Excellent life span / longevity. Usually come with 25yr warranty.
2. Concentrating Photovoltaic Solar Panel Technology: Based on the principal
that a solar cell receiving more light energy will produce more electricity,
concentrating photovoltaic solar panels simply involve a method ( usually
using a lens or mirrors) to concentrate more sunlight onto a photovoltaic cell.
As fewer cells are then required for the same area of panel (or light capturing
area) it may then become economical to use a highly efficient multifunction
cell.
Concentrating Photovoltaic Solar Cell & Module

Concentrated photovoltaic systems are usually more effective than regular, flat ones,
because a lens focuses the sunlight on a smaller surface of some efficient and more
expensive solar cells 500 times stronger than the cells would receive in regular
operation.
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Potentially, this type of panel has the following advantages:

 Higher overall efficiency, capturing more solar energy per meter squared
resulting in a smaller area of panels required for a particular output. Resulting
efficiency levels can approach 50%.
 Potentially lower cost per watt of output due to lower number of solar cells
required, while the material cost and manufacturing process of the optics (light
concentration mechanism) is relatively inexpensive.
 Lower use of environmentally unfriendly chemicals involved in the panel
manufacturing process due to lower number of PV cells.
 Where the concentration is such that cooling of the photovoltaic module is
required, a panel may have the ability to output heat at the same time as
electricity.
There are however drawbacks:
 In all but the lower levels of concentration, heat needs to be dissipated from
the cells. Cooling is necessary as cell efficiency is significantly reduced at higher
temperatures, or in extreme situations, cells may be damaged.
 In all but the lower levels of concentration a tracker system will be required
to keep the concentrated light focused on the cell.
 As diffuse light cannot be effectively concentrated, concentrating PV panels
are best suited to areas with a high level of clear sunshine.
 Although research has continued on concentrating photovoltaics for many
years, they have not made their mark on the industry, and where they have
been used, it has been in large scale projects. CPV panels that have been
produced have come in "various shapes and sizes" with no obvious design
leading the field.
3. Thin film solar cell technology
In this approach thin layers of semiconductor material are deposited onto a
supporting substrate, such as a large sheet of glass. Typically, less than a micron
thickness of semiconductor material is required, 100-1000 times less than the
thickness of Silicon wafer. They are known as thin-film because they are deposited
in very thin layers on stainless steel, glass or a flexible substrate. The thickness of
the film is less than 1 micron. Like c-Si, thin-film PV cells are combined into modules
and laminated to protect them from the elements. They are less expensive than c-Si
cells, but their demonstrated energy conversion efficiency is only around 8%. The
advantage of thin-film technology is that it can be applied over large areas,
providing more opportunity to generate electricity in cloudy conditions.
25
Features:
 Lowest efficiency: typically 60-80 Watts/m2 (60-80%, with notable exceptions).
Expected lifespan is less than crystalline panels.
 Optimal efficiency in hot weather, less effective in cooler conditions.
 3-6 month „breaking in‟ period where long term output is exceeded.
 Requires 2-3 times more panels and surface area for same output as crystalline.
Thin film solar cell & Module

Some of the thin film solar cells in use are as follows: Amorphous silicon (a – Si)
 Cd Te
 CIS
 CIGS (copper indium gallium di-selenide)
Amorphous silicon thin film (a-Si) solar cell: Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) modules are
the first thin film solar module to be commercially produced and at present has the
maximum market share out of all thin film solar cell technologies. Amorphous
Silicon (a-Si) solar can be fabricated at a lower deposition temperature hence
permits the use of various low cost flexible substrates by easier processing
technique. The major concern of a-Si solar cells is their low stabilized efficiency. The
overall efficiency drops inevitably at module level and at present the efficiencies of
commercial modules are in the range of 4-8%.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film solar cell: Being a crystalline compound
Cadmium Telluride is a direct band gap semiconductor, which is a strong solar cell
material. It is usually sandwiched with cadmium sulfide to form a p-n junction PV
solar cell. CdTe with laboratory efficiency as high as 16% have been developed at
NREL. Multitudes of manufacturing techniques are main advantage of these solar
cells which are suitable for large scale production. Limited availability of cadmium
and pollution problem associated with Cadmium is main concerns with this
technology.
26
Copper Indium Selenium (CIS) solar cell: Copper Indium Selenium or CIS are the
very latest generation in PV modules. They are an advanced solar panel offering
the latest developments in thin film technology. Compared with traditional panels,
they perform better in shade, better under high temperatures, and have one of the
lowest energy payback times of any panel. CIS panels feature light- soaking
technology for higher nominal power output, and maintain optimum output levels
over their life comparable to crystalline panels. Like thin film & micro morph
modules, these panels appear aesthetically pleasing dark panels and frames.
Copper Indium Gallium Di-selenide (CIGS) solar cells: This is a new semiconductor
material comprising copper, indium, gallium and selenium in a specific order, which
is used for solar cell manufacturing. It is one of the most promising thin film
technologies due to their high-attained efficiency and low material costs. Amongst
thin film solar cells, the advantage of CIGS solar cell is its extended operational
lifetime without significant degradation. The inherent properties of CIGS also provide
an opportunity for maximizing the efficiency.
Solar Cell Structure
Solar cells are structured in layers with different functions. The working principle
is the same as in semiconductors. The main part of a silicon (Si) solar cell
generating solar power is formed by two differently doped (n- and p-) silicon layers.
A physical barrier is created between them along the p-/n- junction, with electrons
and holes diffusing into regions of lower concentration. This depleted region or
space charge region can only be overcome with the help of photons i.e. sunlight. To
be able to channel electrons and holes and generate electric power, metal contacts
need to be printed onto the front and rear side. Generally, a full aluminum or silver
layer is screen printed onto the rear. A thin grid forms the front contact keeping the
impact on light entering the silicon cells as low as possible. To reduce light
reflection, a thin film of silicon nitride or titanium dioxide is coated onto the surface.
Solar cell Structure
27
A typical solar cell is a multi-layered material, comprising:

 A cover layer of clear glass that provides outer protection from the elements.
 Transparent adhesive that holds the glass to the solar cell.
 An anti-reflective coating that is designed to maximize energy absorption by
preventing the light that strikes the cell from bouncing off.
 Front contact that transmits the electric current.
 A thin N-type semiconductor layer made of silicon, doped with phosphorous. A
second thin P-type semiconductor layer of silicon, doped with boron.
 A back contact that transmits the electric current
PV Manufacturing
Some of the manufacturing processes and resources for photo voltaics are shared
with other applications, especially electronic chips for computers, mobile phones
and any other electronic device. This competition has caused a shortage in supply of
crystalline cells.
Manufacturing Silicon
The raw material of most solar cells today is crystalline silicon. Luckily, silicon is
one of the most widely available elements in the form of sand. Before silicon can
be cut into thin wafers, however, it has to be purified, as otherwise the photo effect
will not be very efficient. Purity levels for solar cells do not have to be as high as in
chip applications. Solar-grade purity is 99.999% (5N) as opposed to electronic- grade
silicon purity of up to 99.9999999% (9N).
PV Manufacturing Process
There are three main categories of manufacturing processes, resulting in different
purity levels:
28
Electronic-grade Silicon: 9N
There are three main steps to produce high-purity polycrystalline silicon.
 Coke reduction: Metallurgical-grade silicon with 98.5% purity is produced
from quartz sand in an arc furnace at very high temperatures.
 Distillation: In a second step, the metallurgical grade silicon powder is
dissolved in hydrogen chloride and subsequently distilled to form a silane gas.
In most instances, this is the trichlorosilane, but could be others.
 Siemens Process: In the so-called Siemens Process the polycrystalline silicon
is grown at very high temperatures. It requires hydrogen and produces more
hydrogen-chloride as a by-product.
Medium-grade Silicon: 6-7N
The big drawback of the standard process as above is that a Siemens reactor is
very expensive and the
Siemens process itself requires a lot of energy. A number of new proprietary
processes reduce the energy consumption and the capital costs for silicon
production, though they are still similar to the traditional Siemens process.
Fluidized Bed Reactor: operates at much lower temperatures and does not produce
by-products.
Vapor to liquid deposition: similar to Siemens, but faster extraction.
Upgraded Metallurgical-grade Silicon: > 5N
In an altogether different process, metallurgical-grade silicon is chemically refined.
By blowing gasses through the silicon melt, the boron and phosphorous impurities
are removed, followed by directional solidification. Companies like Timminco, Arise
or RSI Silicon all have their own proprietary processes. However, they all have in
common that by avoiding high purification, manufacturing costs are reduced
significantly.
Manufacturing Wafers
Wafer manufacturing process
29
There are mainly three different silicon wafer types of different qualities:
 Mono crystalline wafer: Silicon with a single, continuous crystal structure is
grown from a small seed crystal that is slowly pulled out of a poly silicon melt
into a cylindrical shaped ingot (Czochralski process). The ingot is cut into
wafers using a diamond saw. Silicon waste from the sawing process can be re-
cycled into poly silicon.
 Polycrystalline wafer: Polycrystalline silicon consists of small grains of mono
crystalline silicon. Cube-shaped ingots can be made directly by casting molten
poly silicon, which are then cut into wafers similar to mono crystalline wafers.
 Silicon ribbons: This is a continuous process whereby thin ribbons or sheets of
multi crystalline silicon are drawn from a poly silicon melt. The subsequent
cutting into wafers does not produce waste, as the drawn sheets are already
wafer-thin. Silicon ribbons require around 5g of silicon per Watt rather than
8g/W using crystalline wafers.
Solar cells are added together into a unit called a module. Modules are linked
together in units called arrays. Arrays put onto roofs of house may produce up
to 6000 Watts which would be enough to provide for the needs of the occupants.
Solar cell, module & Array

How do Solar Cells Work?
To understand the operation of a PV cell, we need to consider both the nature of
the material and the nature of sunlight. Solar cells consist of two types of material,
often p-type silicon and n-type silicon. Light of certain wavelengths is able to ionize
the atoms in the silicon and the internal field produced by the junction separates
some of the positive charges ("holes") from the negative charges (electrons)
within the photovoltaic device. The holes are swept into the positive or p-layer and
the electrons are swept into the negative or n-layer. Although these opposite
charges are attracted to each other, most of them can only recombine by passing
through an external circuit outside the material because of the internal potential
energy barrier. Therefore if a circuit is made power can be produced from the cells
under illumination, since the free electrons have to pass through the load to
recombine with the positive hole. The basic steps in the operation of a solar cell are:
30
The generation of light-generated carriers,

The collection of the light-generated carries to generate a current, The generation of
a large voltage across the solar cell and
The dissipation of power in the load and in parasitic resistances.
The generation of current in a solar cell, known as the "light-generated current",
involves two key processes:
Working of Solar cell

The first process is the absorption of incident photons to create electron-hole pairs.
Electron-hole pairs will be generated in the solar cell provided that the incident
photon has energy greater than that of the band gap. However, electrons (in the p-
type material), and holes (in the n-type material) are meta-stable and will only exist,
on average, for a length of time equal to the minority carrier lifetime before they
recombine. If the carrier recombines, then the light-generated electron-hole pair is
lost and no current or power can be generated.
A second process, the collection of these carriers by the p-n junction, prevents this
recombination by using a p-n junction to spatially separate the electron and the
hole. The carriers are separated by the action of the electric field existing at the p-n
junction. If the light-generated minority carrier reaches the p-n junction, it is swept
across the junction by the electric field at the junction, where it is now a
majority carrier. If the emitter and base of the solar cell are connected together
(i.e., if the solar cell is short-circuited), the light-generated carriers flow through
the external circuit. The ideal flow at short circuit is shown in the figure below.
31
The absorption of a photon creates an electron-hole pair
Ideally the minority carrier (in this case a hole) makes it across the junction &
becomes a majority Carrier
After passing through the load the electron meets up with a hole and completes the
circuit
Solar cell Characteristics: The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the
semiconductor material. In silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V. Terminal
voltages is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the current intensity
increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm² silicon cell, for example, reaches a
maximum current intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m².
32
Without illumination, a solar cell has the same electrical characteristics as a large
diode
The greater the light intensity, the greater the amounts of shift
Since the cell is generating power the convention is to invert the current axis
33
Current-Voltage Characteristic of Silicon Solar Cell

The output (product of electricity & voltage) of a solar cell is temperature
dependent. Higher cell temperatures lead to lower output and hence to lower
efficiency. The level of efficiency indicates how much of the radiated quantity of
light is converted into useable electrical energy.
Parameters to characterize solar cells:
 Short circuit current Isc Open circuit voltage Voc Fill Factor FF
 Efficiency η
Short-circuit current:
The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage
across the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is short circuited).
I (at V=0) = ISC
ISC occurs at the beginning of the forward-bias sweep and is the maximum
current value in the power quadrant. For an ideal cell, this maximum current
value is the total current produced in the solar cell by photon excitation. Usually
written as ISC, the short-circuit current is shown on the I-V curve below.
IV curve of a solar cell showing the short-circuit current
34
The short-circuit current is due to the generation and collection of light-generated

carriers. For an ideal solar cell at most moderate resistive loss mechanisms, the
short-circuit current and the light generated current are identical. Therefore, the
short-circuit current is the largest current which may be drawn from the solar cell.
The short-circuit current depends on a number of factors which are described below:
 The area of the solar cell. To remove the dependence of the solar cell area, it is
more common to list the short-circuit current density (Jsc in mA/cm2) rather
than the short-circuit current
 The number of photons (i.e., the power of the incident light source). Isc
from a solar cell is directly dependant on the light intensity
 The spectrum of the incident light. For most solar cell measurement, the
spectrum is standardized to the AM1.5 spectrum;
 The optical properties (absorption and reflection) of the solar cell
 The collection probability of the solar cell, which depends chiefly on the
surface passivation and the minority carrier lifetime in the base.
Open-circuit voltage:
The open-circuit voltage, VOC, is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell,
and this occurs at zero current. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to the
amount of forward bias on the solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction
with the light-generated current.
V (at I=0) = VOC
The open-circuit voltage is shown on the I-V curve below.
IV curve of a solar cell showing the open-circuit voltage. Fill Factor (FF)
The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is
calculated by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that
would be output at both the open circuit voltage and short circuit current together.
FF can also be interpreted graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas depicted
in Figure.
35
Getting the Fill Factor from the I-V Sweep

A larger fill factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more square-
like. Typical fill factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as
a percentage.
Efficiency (η)
The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the
performance of one solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
electrical power output Pout, compared to the solar power input, Pin, into the PV
cell. Pout can be taken to be PMAX since the solar cell can be operated up to
its maximum power output to get the maximum efficiency. In addition to reflecting
the performance of the solar cell itself, the efficiency depends on the spectrum and
intensity of the incident sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell.
Pin is taken as the product of the irradiance of the incident light, measured in W/m2
or in suns (1000W/m2), with the surface area of the solar cell [m2]. The maximum
efficiency (ηmax) found from a light test is not only an indication of the performance
of the device under test, but, like all of the IV parameters, can also be affected by
ambient conditions such as temperature and the intensity and spectrum of the
incident light. The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident
power which is converted to electricity and is defined as:
Where,
Voc is the open-circuit voltage; Isc is the short-circuit current; FF is the fill factor η is
the efficiency.
36
Factors that affect Panel Performance: The panel's output is directly proportional
by the intensity of the sunlight falling on it. More intense sunlight the greater the
output. A cool crisp clear day is best for solar output. In fact, being at higher
altitudes with less atmosphere can cause the solar panel to exceed its nameplate ...
and space is heaven for a solar panel. Bring in cloudy weather with half as much
sunshine and the panel will put out half of its nameplate.
 Isolation is the term used to describe the amount of solar radiation. When solar
panels are rated they are "flash tested" in a chamber and the flash is set to be
1,000 watts per square meter (Watts/m2) of brightness. This is another way to
say a clear bright crisp sunshiny day. Output ratings for the panel‟s label, such
as watts, are then collected based on this flash of light. We have a light meter,
called the "The Daystar Meter" which has a solar cell built into the top of it and
a needle that point to a scale that goes from 0 to 1,200 Watts/m2. During a day
the sun will be at various intensities so we need get an average to help us
figure out how much energy a panel will put out.
While a panel might be putting out only 20% of its rated power it has so
many hours per day to do this. We call the energy received during TOTAL
daylight hours the PEAK SUN HOURS. Peak sun hour is also defined as the
number of hours per day when the solar isolation equals 1,000 Watts/m2.
 Shading: Even partial shading of crystalline solar panels will result in
dramatic reduction of solar panel output. One completely shaded cell can
reduce a solar panel's output by as much as 75%. Three cells shaded can
decrease 93% of the panel's output. Call for information on amorphous
panels.
 Orientation: A compass is off from true south, where your solar panels should
be aimed. This is because a compass aligns with the earth's magnetic field,
which is not aligned with the earth's rotational axis. We are basically tilted
from the sun. The deviation from magnetic south to TRUE south must be
compensated for when setting your solar panels or your house towards the
south.
 Tilt Angle: If all we have is a fixed solar panel rack, for example flat and bolted
to a roof, then to optimize year round solar performance, we tilt at the latitude
of the area. Latitude is the distance north or south of the earth's equator.
The earth is round so we want to get our solar panel perpendicular or
directly into the sun. In Bend, Oregon we are 44 degrees so we tilt our panels
to 44 degrees. We can do even better if we use seasonally adjustable racks.
With tilt racks, in the summer we use 44 degrees minus 15 degrees in Bend.
We subtract or make the panels flatter to the sky because the sun is higher in
the sky. Remember our goal is to get the solar panels facing the sun. In the
winter we must get the panels at a steeper angle, again to face the sun so we
use 44 degrees plus 15 degrees in Bend.
37
 Temperature: What we mean by this is cell temperature. This, of course, is

made up of air temperature, the color of the cell, air movement, etc. The
bottom line is that as the cell heats up the voltage or pressure becomes
sluggish or falls off. Unlike solar water heating where the hotter the
temperature the hotter the water with solar electricity higher temperatures
are detrimental to solar output. Heat for solar electricity may be thought of
an electrical resistance to the flow of the electrons or electricity.
 f) Load Resistance: The output of a solar panel is affected by the voltage or
the pressure it is working at. Run the panel at too high a voltage and its
output decreases. Efficiency also decreases at voltages less than the modules
ideal.
Effect of temperature:
Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature.
Increases in temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting
most of the semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a
semiconductor with increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy
of the electrons in the material. Lower energy is therefore needed to break the
bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor band gap, reduction in the bond
energy also reduces the band gap. Therefore increasing the temperature reduces the
band gap. In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature
is the open-circuit voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the
figure below.
The effect of temperature on the IV characteristics of a solar cell

The open-circuit voltage decreases with temperature because of the temperature
dependence of I0.The equation for I0 from one side of a p-n junction is given by;
38
Where:
Q is the electronic charge
D is the diffusivity of the minority carrier given for silicon as a function of doping
L is the diffusion length of the minority carrier;
ND is the doping; and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration given for silicon
In the above equation, many of the parameters have some temperature
dependence, but the most significant effect is due to the intrinsic carrier
concentration, ni. The intrinsic carrier concentration depends on the band gap
energy (with lower band gaps giving a higher intrinsic carrier concentration), and
on the energy which the carriers have (with higher temperatures giving higher
intrinsic carrier concentrations).
Real World Considerations: Every manufacturer tests their modules under
something called Standard Test Conditions (STC). These are a set of rules they all
follow. While these rules allow consumers and solar designers to compare panels
apples to apples they are not what the solar panel sees in the real world.
 Solar Cell Temperature = 250C
 Solar Irradiance = 1000 W/m2

 ASTM Standard Spectrum or the type of light that shines on a solar panel
To look at how a panel is actually affected in the real world we must look at the
following:
 Production Tolerance: Manufacturers often assign an allowable tolerance of
plus or minus 5% to the module's rating. Hence a 100 watt solar can be either
95 or 105 watts out of the box.
 Temperature: Higher cell temperature than the 250C will decrease

efficiency. Roof mounted array's will show temperatures in the 50 to 75 C
range, which is two to three times the STC rating.
 Dirt and Dust: The name of the game is sunlight to cells. Eventually panels
get dirty until the next rainfall or hose spray. This can account for about a 2%
on average loss.
 Wiring losses: DC wiring accounts for power losses due to the resistance of
the wiring system. We usually design for a 2% wire loss.
 Inverter losses: On average, over a day, this is about 90%.
39
The Sun and Earth

The Sun is very large body of gases. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot
plasma interwoven with magnetic fields. It has a diameter of about 1,392,684 km,
about 109 times that of Earth that has Diameter at the Equator: 7,926.28 miles
(12,756.1 km) at the Poles: 7,899.80 miles (12,713.5 km). The orbit of the Earth
around the Sun is called an Earth revolution. This celestial motion takes 365.26 days
to complete one cycle. The Earth's orbit around the Sun is not completely circular,
but oval or elliptical in nature.
The eccentricity of earth’s orbit is only about 0.02, thus revolution is very close to
being circular. An ellipse has two focal point. The sun is located at one focal point of
the earth’s elliptical orbit while the other focal point is a space and not occupied by
any astronomical body. Since the sun is located at the focal point of ellipse, its
distance from the earth varies as the earth revolves around it over year. This
variation in the distance from the Sun causes the amount of solar radiation received
by the Earth to annually vary by about 6%. Below figure illustrates the positions in
the Earth’s revolution where it is closest and farthest from the Sun. On January 3,
Perihelion, the Earth is closest to the Sun (147.3million km). The Earth is farthest
from the Sun on July 4, or Aphelion (152.1 million km). The average distance of the
Earth from the Sun over a one-year period is about 149.6 million km. The amount of
radiation intercepted by the earth varies inversely with the square of the distance
between the sun and the earth. Since the sun-earth distance is not constant, the
amount of radiation intercepted by the earth also varies, although due to small
eccentricity of elliptical orbit, the variation is not much and accounts for only 5.6%.
Extra-terrestrial Solar Radiation
The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium; they
account for 74.9% and 23.8% of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere,
respectively. All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than
2% of the mass. The most abundant metals are oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's
mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%).The hydrogen in sun continuously
going through the process of fusion, wherein four hydrogen atoms combine to give
one heavy molecule of helium. The fusion process gives out tremendous amount of
energy, equivalent to the loss of mass in the process. The energy released in the
process can be estimated by the Einstein‟s formula relating mass m with energy E. E
= mc2 is energy released by the fusion process and is responsible for the high
temperature of the sun. The sun’s average surface temperature is maintained at
about 5760K.
40
The earth receives energy from the sun which is necessary to sustain life on earth.
The sun transmits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The
electromagnetic radiation has very broad wavelength range from 10-6µm for cosmic
rays to over 1000 µm for radio waves. The radiation emitted by the sun falls in the
range of 0.15 µm to 120 µm, covering portions of infrared radiation. The spectrum
(radiated energies as function wavelength or frequency) of the sun can be estimated
by modeling the sun as a black body. Due to the virtue of temperature, any body of
mass radiates energy. Even human radiate energy. The spectrum of radiated energy
by a black body can be obtained by Planck’s black body radiation model, which is
given as:
Where h = Planck’s constant, c = the speed of light,

λ = the wavelength,
k = Boltzmann’s constant,
T = temperature of black body and
Pλ= Energy radiated per unit time per unit area.
Considering the sun’s temperature as 5760K, a spectrum of black body as per above
equation can be plotted. The spectrum is shown in below figure also shows the
extra-terrestrial radiation. Both the curves, modelled extra-terrestrial solar spectrum
and the real extra-terrestrial solar spectrum, match quite well.
41
Spectrum of the extra-terrestrial solar radiation measure outside the earth’s

atmosphere
Note that the y-axis is termed as solar irradiance. The term radiation is a
general term used in discussion related to solar, but there are two specific
terms or units which are used to distinguish between solar radiation power
(irradiance) and solar radiation energy (irradiation). Let us define these two terms.
solar Irradiance
Solar Irradiance (Power density) refers to the rate of energy received by a surface
per unit area; essentially irradiance is nothing but the flux of solar energy. Therefore
irradiance have unit of J/m2-s or W/m2. Solar irradiance is a measure of how much
solar power you are getting at your location. This irradiance varies throughout the
year depending on the seasons. It also varies throughout the day, depending on the
position of the sun in the sky, and the weather.
Solar Irradiation or Insulation
Insulation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area and
recorded during a given time. It is also called solar irradiation and expressed as
hourly irradiation if recorded during an hour, daily irradiation if recorded during a
day, for example. The unit recommended by the World Meteorological Organization
is MJ/m2 (mega joules per square meter) or J/mm2 (joules per square millimeter).
Practitioners in the business of solar energy may use the unit W-Hr/m2 (watt-hours
per square meter). If this energy is divided by the recording time in hours, it is then a
density of power called irradiance, expressed in W/m2 (watts per square meter).
Solar Constant S
The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar
electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane
perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the
mean distance from the Sun to the Earth). When solar irradiance is measured on
the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere, the measurements can be adjusted
using the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar irradiance at one AU
and deduce the solar constant. Solar output is nearly, but not quite, constant.
42
The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light.
It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1.361 kilowatts per square meter
(kW/m²) at solar minimum and approximately 0.1% greater (roughly 1.362 kW/m²)
at solar maximum. The actual direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere
fluctuates by about 6.9% during a year (from 1.412 kW/m² in early January
to1.321 kW/m² in early July). The solar constant 1367 W/m² used for calculation is
only the average values of extra-terrestrial solar radiation over a year. The variation
in solar constant with time over the year S t can be given by the following equation:
St = 1+0.033 cos (360n/365)
Where n is the nth day of the year with 1 January being n=1. The extra-terrestrial
solar radiation is also known as air mass zero (AM0) radiation or as it refers to the
radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere or air mass.
What is the Solar Spectrum?
Sunlight, in the broad sense, is the total frequency spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation given off by the Sun. On Earth, sunlight has been filtered through the
Earth's atmosphere, and solar radiation is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above
the horizon. Although we experience daylight as white light, it is impact made up of
a band of colors, some visible and some invisible
Solar Spectrum using Prism
43
Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface

The atmosphere absorbs some of this radiation. But it doesn't do it evenly. As can
be seen by the graph below, there are areas within the spectrum where water
vapor, CO2 and even O2 absorb/reflect a particular wavelength. This is known as
Rayleigh scattering. In addition other mechanisms absorb/reflect energy, namely;
 Reflection back into space by the atmosphere
 Absorption of energy by various molecules in the atmosphere (see the marked
dips in the graph below)
 Mie scattering by dust and pollutants in the air
 Rayleigh scattering by interaction with the air molecules
Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface

The spectrum outside the atmosphere is often termed AM0 air mass 0. At the
equator with the sun directly overhead the reduction in light intensity due to passing
this shortest distance through the atmosphere is termed AM1. Over the course of
our year the air mass in Ireland would vary from a value of about 1.2 in mid-June to
about 4 in mid-December. Thus the reduction or attenuation factor due to the Sun'
radiation travelling through the atmosphere and being absorbed and scattered,
would give have a value of between 20-40% in June and about 50-85% in December.
Solar Radiation Spectrum at the Earth’s Surface. Absorption peak of various

gaseous molecules are also shown.
44
Distribution of Spectral contents of Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface

Type of Radiation Range of wavelengths (nm) % of energy carried
Ultraviolet radiation 150 to 380 7.6
Visible radiation 380 to 270 48.4
Infrared radiation 720 to 4000 43
Other radiation >4000 1
Air mass
The Air Mass is the path length which light takes through the atmosphere normalized
to the shortest possible path length (that is, when the sun is directly overhead). The
Air Mass quantifies the reduction in the power of light as it passes through the
atmosphere and is absorbed by air and dust.
Air Mass is the measure of how far light travels through the Earth's atmosphere. One
air mass, or AM1, is the thickness of the Earth's atmosphere. Air mass zero (AM0)
describes solar irradiance in space, where it is unaffected by the atmosphere. The
power density of AM1.5 light is about 1,000W/m2; the power density of AM0 light is
about 1,360W/m2, which is considered to be the solar constant.
The air mass coefficient defines the direct optical path length through the Earth's
atmosphere, expressed as a ratio relative to the path length vertically upwards, i.e.
at the zenith. The air mass coefficient can be used to help characterize the solar
spectrum after solar radiation has traveled through the atmosphere. The air mass
coefficient is commonly used to characterize the performance of solar cells under
standardized conditions, and is often referred to using the syntax "AM" followed by
a number. "AM1.5" is almost universal when characterizing terrestrial power-
generating panels. If the sunrays making an angle θ with the vertical at a given point
on the earth’s surface, then the AM that the rays have to travel is given by the
following equation:
AM = 1/ cosθ
where θ is the angle from the vertical (zenith angle). When the sun is directly
overhead, the Air Mass is 1
Air mass is the length of the hypotenuse divided by the object height h, and from
Pythagoras's theorem we get:
45
Air Mass Concept

Solar Irradiation under different Air mass conditions
Air mass Solar irradiation reaching the surface (W/m2)
AM0 (extra-terrestrial) 1376
AM1(sun at overhead position) 1105
AM1.5(sun at about 480 from overhead 1000

position)
AM2(sun at about 600 from overhead 894
The Sun –Earth Movement
position)
Two types of motions are involved between the earth and the sun; the revolution
and the rotation of the earth. There is a distinct and important difference in the
concepts of revolution and rotation. Earth rotates on its axis as it revolves around
the Sun.
(a) Rotation of Earth (b) Revolution of earth

46
Earth rotates about its axis at approximately 15 angular degrees per hour. Rotation
dictates the length of the diurnal cycle (i.e. the day/night cycle), creates "time
zones" with differing local noon, and also causes the apparent movement of the
Moon, stars, and planets across the "celestial sphere". The rotation of Earth is
eastward (from west to east) making the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere
from east to west.
The rates of rotation and revolution are functions of a planet's mass and orbital
position. For example, the mass of Jupiter is approximately 317.5 times Earth's mass
and the rotation time (the time for Jupiter to revolve once about its axis) is
approximately nine hours.
Earth takes approximately 365.25 days to complete one revolution around the Sun in
a slightly elliptical orbit with the Sun at one focal point of the ellipse. Ranging
between the extremes of perihelion (closest approach) in January and aphelion
(most distant orbital position) in July, Earth's orbital distance from the Sun ranges
from approximately 91.5 to approximately 94 million miles (14751 million km),
respectively. Although these distances seem counterintuitive to residents of the
Northern Hemisphere who experience summer in July and winter in January
seasons are not nearly as greatly affected by distance as they are by changes in
solar illumination caused by the fact that Earth's polar axis is inclined 23.5
degrees from the perpendicular to the ecliptic (the plane of the solar system
through or near which most of the planet's orbits travel) and because the Earth
exhibits parallelism (currently toward Polaris, the North Star) as it revolves about the
Sun.
The motion of the earth with respect to sun over a year

On June 21 or 22, the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere, the North Pole is
leaning 23.5 ° toward the sun. All locations North of the equator have day lengths
greater than twelve hours, while all locations South of the equator have day lengths
less than twelve hours.
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On December 21 or 22, the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere, the South
Pole is leaning 23.5 ° toward the sun.
The red circle represents the Arctic Circle (66.5 ° N). During the summer solstice, the
area above the Arctic Circle has 24 hours of daylight because the North Pole is
tilted 23.5 ° toward the sun. At the winter solstice, it has 24 hours of night because
the North Pole is tilted 23.5 ° away from the sun. During the two equinoxes, the
circle of illumination cuts through the polar axis and all locations on the Earth
experience 12 hours of day and night.
Position of sun & earth showing solstice

On September 22 or 23, the autumnal equinox, neither pole is tilted toward the sun.
March 20 or 21 marks the arrival of the spring or vernal equinox when once again
the poles are not tilted toward the sun. Day lengths on both of these days,
regardless of latitude, are exactly 12 hours.
Declination Angle δ Position of sun & earth showing Equinox

Solar Declination is a measure of how many degrees North (positive) or South
(negative) of the equator that the sun is when viewed from the centre of the earth.
This varies from approximately +23.5 (North) in June to -23.5 (South) in December.
The maximum and minimum declination of the sun, expressed in decimal units is
easy to remember:
+23.45o and -23.45o. Here, the sequence 2-3-4-5 is just the integers. The simplest
approximation to the sun’s declination as a function of day is a sinusoid. A sinusoid is
the simplest expression of the shape of a wave – an ocean swell, a sound wave. The
maximum extent is the amplitude. A sinusoid can be expressed as a function of time,
in the form:
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Here δ is the declination we seek, A is the amplitude, which is 23.450. The sine
function is something that asks for an angle. You can think of the angle as the
number of degrees that have passed in the earth’s orbit from some starting point. As
with the equinoctial colure, the starting point here is the Vernal Equinox March 21st.
One minor nuisance is the fact that there are 360o in a circle and 365.25 days in a
year, so a rendering of this sine function would be:
The graph below shows how solar declination varies throughout the year.
Variation in the declination angle over the year

Apparent motion of Sun and solar Altitude
The apparent motion of the sun, caused by the rotation of the Earth about its axis,
changes the angle at which the direct component of light will strike the Earth. From
a fixed location on Earth, the sun appears to move throughout the sky. The position
of the sun depends on the location of a point on Earth, the time of day and the time
of year. This apparent motion of the sun is shown in the figure below. This apparent
motion of the sun has a major impact on the amount of power received by a solar
collector. When the sun's rays are perpendicular to the absorbing surface, the
power density on the surface is equal to the incident power density. However, as
the angle between the sun and the absorbing surface changes, the intensity on the
surface is reduced. When the module is parallel to the sun's rays (and the angle to
the module normal = 90°) the intensity of light essentially falls to zero. For
intermediate angles, the relative power density is cos (θ) where θ is the angle
between the sun's rays and the module normal.
The angle between the sun and a fixed location on Earth depends on the particular
location (the longitude of the location), the time of year and the time of day. In
addition, the time at which the sun rises and sets depends on the longitude of the
location. Therefore, complete modeling of the sun's angle to a fixed position on
Earth requires the latitude, longitude, day of the year, and time of day.
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The Solar altitude angle α (at the noon time only), for the location at northern
hemisphere can be estimated using the following equation:
Note that α is presented w.r.t. the south and also the value of δ can be –ve as well
as +ve. The solar altitude will be minimum for the summer season (+ve δ).This
information about solar altitude is very useful in deciding the orientation of solar
energy collector.
Apparent motion of sun for an observer in the northern hemisphere Angle of sunrays
on solar collector
In order to estimate amount of solar radiation falling on an object (a solar
collector) the angle of incidence of sunrays on collector should be known. In
practice it is required that solar collectors are aligned perpendicular to the sunrays,
from morning to evening, in order to collect the maximum solar radiation.
Angle of sunrays
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Angle of Incidence θ: Angle between the beam sun rays and a vector normal
(perpendicular) of the aperture or surface of the collector. If Ib is intensity of beam
or direct radiation making an
angle θ with a solar collector normal, the amount of radiation incident on the
collector surface I, will be given by:
I = Ib cos θ
The incident angle θ depends on several parameters mainly five angles which are
located to the location of collector, time of year and orientation of collector. These
angles are as follows:
Latitude of location φ: It is an angle between the lines joining the earth’s centre to
the location with its projection on the equatorial plane. It varies between +900 and -
900. Latitude angle in northern hemisphere is considered positive.
Day of the year δ: It is represented by declination angle δ. It varies between +23.450

and -23.450.Time of the day ω: It is represented by hour angle ω. The hour angle is
the angular measure of time. Since the earth rotates by 3600 in 24 h, 1h is equivalent
to 150. Hour angle is measured from the noon time. Hour angle can vary from +1800
and -1800. It is considered positive in the morning and negative in the afternoon.
Also the noon time reference of local apparent time (LAT) is taken. Inclination of
surface β: It is an angle made by collector surface with the horizon. It can vary from
00 and 1800.Orientation of collector in horizontal plane γ: It is represented by
surface azimuth angle γ and specifies the orientation of collector. It is the angle
between the lines due south and the projection of the normal to the collector on the
horizontal plane.
Relationship between the incidence angle and other angles can be given by the
following equation:
Local Apparent Time (LAT): In the calculations of angles, the local noon time or LAT
one can say, solar time taken as a reference. It is the time at which sun becomes
overhead at a given location. Normally the standard time for a country is based on a
noon (overhead sun position) at a particular longitude. If the location for which the
calculation is done is not falling on the same longitude at which the standard time is
fixed, the real noon time at the place of calculation will be different from the
standard noon time. The noon time for location under consideration should be
corrected by considering the difference in the longitude w.r.t. the standard longitude
of that country or region. Since 1 hour = 150,10 of longitude difference will be equal
to 4 minutes difference in time. Depending on whether the longitude of the location
under consideration is ahead or behind the standard longitude (standard meridian).
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The time should be either added or subtracted. Other than the longitudinal time
correction, one more correction called equation of time correction should also be
applied. As the earth moves around the sun, solar time changes slightly with respect
to the local standard time. It is because of the fact that the earth’s orbit and its
rotational speed are not fixed, and are subjected to some fluctuations.
The equation of time correction is based on the experimental observations. The
amount of time to be corrected varies from month to month as shown in below
figure. The LAT or solar time for a location can be given as:
Where Tlocal is the local time, Longst and longlocal is the longitude of standard time
and local time resp.
The equation of time correction
The equation of time refers to the irregularity of the natural length of a day as
measured on a sundial.
This irregularity is caused by the non-circular orbit of the earth spinning around the
sun and the tilt of its axis relative to the sun. Combined it gives the composite curve
as presented below. In the form of a correction table is the graph below presented in
the form of the full calendar of order. With this table one can set a reference clock to
the sun. The graph below shows the difference the sundial makes with the mean
local time of a clock. A positive value means the clock has to be set back so many
minutes departing from mean local time in order to read the true of solar time. The
curve of this table looks as follows:
Equation of time correction
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Sundial
An instrument which uses the shadow cast by the Sun to tell the time. Because the
Earth’s axis is tilted in space and because the Earth does not travel at a constant
speed around the Sun, the time shown on a sundial can differ from true „clock‟ time.
The correction needed to convert sundial time to clock time is called the Equation of
Time.
Sundial
Clock time = Time on sundial - Equation of time
h2 + r2 = c2
c = (h2 + r2)1/2
h/r = tan (θ)
Calculation of Elevation Angle using Sundial
-1
θ = tan (h/r)
Where h = height of gnomon
r = length of shadow &
θ = incident angle of light source (Sun or artificial light source)
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Sun hour Angle:

The hour angle measures time before solar noon in terms of one degree for every
four minutes, or fifteen per hour. Solar Hour Angle for a particular location on
the earth is zero when the sun is straight overhead, negative before local noon
and positive in the afternoon. In one 24 hour period, the Solar Hour Angle
changes by 360 degrees (i.e. one revolution)
Sun hour Angle

Sun Hour Table:
o Te Solar Time Time (O’clock)
-90 6 hours before Solar Noon 6:00:00Am

-75 5 hours before Solar Noon 7:00:00 Am
-45 3 hours before Solar Noon 900:00 Am
-15 1 hour before Solar Noon 11:00:00 Am
0 Sun overhead i.e. Solar Noon 12:00:00
15 1 hour after Solar Noon 1:00:00Pm
30 2 hours after Solar Noon 2:00:00 Pm
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Sun tracking / Solar Tracking: In order to maximize the amount of radiation

collected by a solar collector tracker must follow the sun throughout the day.
The tracking mechanism of sun requires electric motors, light sensors, gear box
and electronic control to accurately focus at the sun at all times.
A solar tracker is a generic term used to describe devices that orient various
payloads toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or
other optical devices.
In flat-panel photovoltaic (PV) applications trackers are used to minimize the angle of
incidence between the incoming light and a photovoltaic panel. This increases
the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power generating
capacity. In concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar thermal (CSP)
applications trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP
systems. The optics in concentrated solar applications accept the direct component
of sunlight and therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect energy.
Tracking systems are found in all concentrator applications because such systems
do not produce energy unless oriented closely toward the sun.
Basic concept
Sunlight has two components, the "direct beam" that carries about 90% of the
solar energy, and the "diffuse sunlight" that carries the remainder - the diffuse
portion is the blue sky on a clear day and increases as a proportion on cloudy days.
As the majority of the energy is in the direct beam, maximizing collection requires
the sun to be visible to the panels as long as possible. The energy contributed by the
direct beam drops off with the cosine of the angle between the incoming light and
the panel. In addition, the reflectance (averaged across all polarizations) is
approximately constant for angles of incidence up to around 50°, beyond which
reflectance degrades rapidly.
For example trackers that have accuracies of ± 5° can deliver greater than 99.6% of
the energy delivered by the direct beam plus 100% of the diffuse light. As a result,
high accuracy tracking is not typically used in non-concentrating PV applications.
The sun travels through 360 degrees east-west a day, but from the perspective of
any fixed location the visible portion is 180 degrees during a 1/2 day period. Local
horizon effects reduce this somewhat, making the effective motion about 150
degrees. A solar panel in a fixed orientation between the dawn and sunset
extremes will see a motion of 75 degrees on either side, and thus, according to
the table above, will lose 75% of the energy in the morning and evening. Rotating
the panels to the east and west can help recapture these losses. A tracker rotating in
the east-west direction is known as a single-axis tracker.
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The sun also moves through 46 degrees north-south over the period of a year. The
same set of panels set at the midpoint between the two local extremes will thus see
the sun move 23 degrees on either side, causing losses of 8.3% A tracker that
accounts for both the daily and seasonal motions is known as a dual-axis tracker.
Generally speaking, the losses due to seasonal angle changes is complicated by
changes in the length of the day, increasing collection in the summer in northern or
southern latitudes. This biases collection toward the summer, so if the panels are
tilted closer to the average summer angles, the total yearly losses are reduced
compared to a system tilted at the spring/fall solstice angle (which is the same as
the latitude).
Non-concentrating photovoltaic (PV) trackers
Photovoltaic panels accept both direct and diffuse light from the sky. The panels on
standard photovoltaic trackers always gather the available direct light. The tracking
functionality in standard photovoltaic trackers is used to minimize the angle of
incidence between incoming light and the photovoltaic panel. This increases the
amount of energy gathered from the direct component of the incoming light.
Technologies supported
The physics behind standard photovoltaic (PV) trackers works with all standard
photovoltaic module technologies. These include all types of crystalline silicon
panels (mono crystalline, multi crystalline, polycrystalline) and all types of thin film
panels (amorphous silicon, CdTe, CIGS, microcrystalline).
Types of Tracker system: There are three common methods that can be used to
implement a solar tracking system, i.e. time-based control method, sunlight intensity
comparison method and the space- time synchronization method. Time-based
control method works with a simple principle. However there are difficulties that lie
in the setup job of the system and the control accuracy is not good enough. Sunlight
intensity comparison method features high accuracy, simple circuit and easy
implementation, but doesn’t perform well in cloudy and gloomy days. Space-time
synchronization method has a high control precision and excellent adaptability, but
needs a complicated software system to support the hardware. Therefore the
control methods should be selected according to the practical requirements.
According to the mechanisms used to change the facing direction of solar panel,
solar tracking systems can be divided into single-axis and dual-axis systems. Single-
axis solar tracking system can only track the sunlight by rotating around a fixed
horizontal axis azimuthally moving from east to west over the course of a day, while
dual-axis solar tracking system can rotate about two axes, i.e. X and Y axes east to
west and zenith ally (vertically) to ensure the sunlight always hits solar panel
vertically.
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Single axis trackers

Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation.
The axis of rotation of single axis trackers is typically aligned along a true North
meridian. It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking
algorithms.
There are several common implementations of single axis trackers. These include
horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), vertical single axis trackers (VSAT), tilted single
axis trackers (TSAT) and polar aligned single axis trackers (PSAT). The orientation of
the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling
performance.
Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT)
The axis of rotation for horizontal single axis tracker is horizontal with respect to
the ground. The posts at either end of the axis of rotation of a horizontal single axis
tracker can be shared between trackers to lower the installation cost.
Field layouts with horizontal single axis trackers are very flexible. The simple
geometry means that keeping all of the axis of rotation parallel to one another
is all that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one
another.
Appropriate spacing can maximize the ratio of energy production to cost, this
being dependent upon local terrain and shading conditions and the time-of-day
value of the energy produced. Backtracking is one means of computing the
disposition of panels.
Horizontal trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis
of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric
around the axis of rotation. In single axis horizontal trackers, a long horizontal tube
is supported on bearings mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on
a north-south line. Panels are mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its
axis to trace the apparent motion of the sun through the day.
Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT)
The axis of rotation for vertical single axis trackers is vertical with respect to the
ground. These trackers rotate from East to West over the course of the day. Such
trackers are more effective at high latitudes than are horizontal axis trackers.
Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to
optimize land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to the
nature of the shading over the course of a year. Vertical single axis trackers typically
have the face of the module oriented at an angle with respect to the axis of rotation.
As a module tracks, it sweeps a cone that is rotationally symmetric around the axis
of rotation.
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Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT)

All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are considered
tilted single axis trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind
profile and decrease the elevated end’s height off the ground. Field layouts must
consider shading to avoid unnecessary losses and to optimize land utilization. With
backtracking, they can be packed without shading perpendicular to their axis of
rotation at any density. However, the packing parallel to their axis of rotation is
limited by the tilt angle and the latitude. Tilted single axis trackers typically have the
face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it
sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.
Polar aligned single axis trackers (PASAT)
This method is scientifically well known as standard method mounting a structure
which supports a telescope. The tilted single axis is aligned to the polar star. It is
therefore called polar aligned single axis tracker (PASAT). In this particular
implementation of a tilted single axis tracker the tilt angle is equal to the latitude of
the installation. This aligns the tracker axis of rotation with the earth‟s axis of
rotation.
Dual axis trackers Single-axis Tracker

Dual-axis Tracker
Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These
axes are typically normal to one another. The axis that is fixed with respect to the
ground can be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary
axis can be considered a secondary axis.
There are several common implementations of dual axis trackers. They are
classified by the orientation of their primary axes with respect to the ground. Two
common implementations are tip-tilt dual axis trackers (TTDAT) and azimuth-altitude
dual axis trackers (AADAT).
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The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when
modeling performance. Dual axis trackers typically have modules oriented parallel to
the secondary axis of rotation.
Dual axis trackers allow for optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow
the sun vertically and horizontally. No matter where the sun is in the sky, dual axis
trackers are able to angle themselves to be in direct contact with the sun.
Tip–tilt dual axis tracker (TTDAT)
A tip–tilt dual axis tracker is so-named because the panel array is mounted on
the tip of a long pole.Normally the east-west movement is driven by rotating the
array around the top of the pole. On top of
the rotating bearing is a T- or H-shaped mechanism that provides vertical rotation of
the panels and provides the main mounting points for the array.
The posts at either end of the primary axis of rotation of a tip–tilt dual axis tracker
can be shared between trackers to lower installation costs.Field layouts with tip–tilt
dual axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that keeping the
axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately
positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Normally the trackers would
have to be positioned at fairly low density in order to avoid one tracker casting a
shadow on others when the sun is low in the sky. Tip-tilt trackers can make up for
this by tilting closer to horizontal to minimize up-sun shading and therefore
maximize the total power being collected.
The axes of rotation of tip–tilt dual axis trackers are typically aligned either along a
true north meridian or an east west line of latitude. It is possible to align them
in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms.
Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT)
An azimuth–altitude dual axis tracker has its primary axis vertical to the ground.
The secondary axis is then typically normal to the primary axis. They are similar to
tip-tilt systems in operation, but they differ in the way the array is rotated for daily
tracking. Instead of rotating the array around the top of the pole, AADAT systems
typically use a large ring mounted on the ground with the array mounted on a series
of rollers. The main advantage of this arrangement is the weight of the array is
distributed over a portion of the ring, as opposed to the single loading point of
the pole in the TTDAT. This allows AADAT to support much larger arrays. Unlike
the TTDAT, however, the AADAT system cannot be placed closer together than the
diameter of the ring, which may reduce the system density, especially
considering inter-tracker shading.
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Sun Tracking Mechanism Principle

Sun was visible for approximate half orbit only, so the mechanism was to track the
sun for 11 hrs and 20 minutes in a 24 hours orbit. This required about 170 degrees
rotation about satellite pitch axis. Pitch axis sun tracking was accomplished by
harmonic geared stepper motor drive. For the other perpendicular axis
declination correction, the pitch axis drive was designed to move/Over-drive about
10 degrees beyond 170 degrees of tracking angle on both ends.
Block diagram: Solar Tracking System
Block Diagram of Solar Tracking System

Basic Components:
 DC Motor
 H-bridge Motor Driver A Display Unit (LCD) Microcontroller
 Sensors: Light sensor & Tilt Sensor
 The Solar Panel
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DC Motor: A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC)

electricity. DC motors were used to run machinery, often eliminating the need for a
local steam engine or internal combustion engine. DC motors can operate directly
from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric
vehicles. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk
drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Modern DC
motors are nearly always operated in conjunction with power electronic devices.
DC Motor
H-Bridge (Motor Driver): An H-bridge is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage
to be applied across a load in either direction. It is an arrangement of transistors that
allows a circuit full control over a standard electric DC motor. That is, with an H-
bridge a microcontroller, logic chip, or remote control can electronically command
the motor to go forward, reverse, brake, and coast. The four transistors are
connected together in a “H-bridge” configuration with the motor connected in the
middle. To make the motor rotate in the forward direction, a high (logic “1″ or +5V)
signal is applied to the forward input, while no signal is applied to the reverse input
(applying a voltage to both inputs at the same time is not allowed). The transistors
work in diagonal pairs to provide +ve & -ve to the motor terminals or -ve & +ve to
the motor terminals for forward / reverse.
H-Bridge (Motor Driver)
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The four power diodes D1-D4 protect the transistors from the voltage created by the
motor in the instant(s) after the motor has been stopped. As the motor still has
angular momentum, it will generate a voltage and current (Power). Diodes provide a
safe path for the motor energy to be dispersed or returned to the battery when the
motor is commanded to coast or stop.
Resistors R1-R4 prevents too much current from passing through the base (labeled
B) control pin of the transistor. The resistor value of 1 kilo ohm (1000 ohms) was
chosen to provide enough current to fully turn on (saturate) the transistor. A higher
resistance would waste less power, but might cause the motor to receive less power.
A lower resistance would waste more power, but wouldn’t likely provide better
performance for motors running on consumer batteries.
LCD: Most of the projects with the any processor/microcontroller CPU
(8085/8051/ARM) require some form of display. In market various displays are
available like 7-segment, 5*7 matrix LED and LCD, bar graph, LCD, etc. It’s important
for deciding the required display set for our project. Selection of display depends on
various factors like power consumption, ambient light conditions, surrounding
temperature, visibility from long distance, total information to be display, cost of
display, circuit/lines required for display interfacing, etc.
Microcontroller: This is the heart of the circuit which performs all commanding and
controlling operations. Microcontroller now days are becoming more popular
because of several advantages over microprocessor. As it reduces the requirement
of additional interfacing IC those are needed in microprocessor, the data which has
to be read and controlled is directly fed to microcontroller and the output is
displayed on LCD.
Light Sensor: Solar tracker monitors the position of the sun using two Photo
transistors as light sensor and made the decision to move the solar panels to
properly orient to the sun. The light sensor phototransistors are mounted on a shaft
that turns on the same axis as the solar panel. A phototransistor is in essence a
bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-
collector.
(a) Phototransistor (b) Mounting position on solar panel (c) Test circuit
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Phototransistor operation: Photo transistors are operated in their active regime,

although the base connection is left open circuit or disconnected because it is not
required. The base of the photo transistor would only be used to bias the transistor
so that additional collector current was flowing and this would mask any current
flowing as a result of the photo-action.
For operation the bias conditions are quite simple. The collector of an n-p-n
transistor is made positive with respect to the emitter or negative for a p-n-p
transistor. The light enters the base region of the phototransistor where it
causes hole electron pairs to be generated. This mainly occurs in the reverse biased
base-collector junction. The hole-electron pairs move under the influence of the
electric field and provide the base current, causing electrons to be injected into the
emitter.
Tilt Sensor: Accelerometer sensor is used for angle sensing which can measure
static (earth gravity) or dynamic acceleration in all three axes. Accelerometer
sensor measures level of acceleration where it is mounted this enable us to
measure acceleration/deceleration of object like car or robot, or tilt of a
platform with respected to earth axis, or vibration produced by machines.
Sensor provides 00 output which detect linear free fall. Sensitivity can be adjusted
in two ranges. By monitoring the three axis Acceleration one can measure the level
of tilt of any platform.
Solar Panel: A solar panel (also called solar module, photovoltaic module or
photovoltaic panel) is a packaged, connected assembly of photovoltaic cells. The
solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate
and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each panel is rated
by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from
100 to 450 watts. The efficiency of a panel determines the area of a panel given
the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 watt panel will have twice the area of a
16% efficient 230 watt panel.
Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power, most
installations contain multiple panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an
array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and or solar tracker and
interconnection wiring.
(a) Solar Panel (b) Solar panel Mounted on pole
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Advantages of Solar Tracker:

 Solar panels are usually set up to be in full direct sunlight at the middle of
the day, facing south in the Northern Hemisphere, or facing north in the
Southern Hemisphere. Therefore morning and evening sunlight hits the panels
at an acute angle and reduces the total amount of electricity which can be
generated each day. A solar tracker is a device onto which solar panels
are fitted which tracks the motion of the sun across the sky, thus ensuring
that the maximum amount of sunlight strikes the panels throughout the day.
 Solar Trackers enhances the photovoltaic modules performance: Solar trackers
give substantial advantage for increasing collection efficiency for solar
concentrating devices like parabolic collectors and PV panels. The advantage
gained depends upon the weather. In summer with clear sky, the efficiency of
energy collection may reach 80-90%, whereas in winter the efficiencies may
be as low as 40-50%.
 For heat to direct electric power conversion devices solar tracking gives
substantial advantage by increasing solar collection efficiency. This is
particularly true for direct energy conversion devices like PV panels, while;
presently give about 14% overall solar energy to electricity conversion
efficiency. With further development in technology, this figure may reach a
substantially high value of about 28% in near future.
 For solar driers, solar stills and solar water heaters, using direct solar heat
energy, a single axis tracking system is sufficient. We need not go to double
axis solar trackers as by using double axis system; the efficiency of energy
collection is only marginally increased and does not justify the investment in a
double axis tracker. The efficiency of collection of solar energy over a fixed
collector can be increased by using a single axis tracking system.
 One time investment, which provides higher efficiency & flexibility on
dependency over other sources.
 Tracking systems can help reducing emissions and can contribute against global
warming.
 Bulk implementations of tracking systems help reduced consumption of power
by other sources. It enhances the clean and emission free power production.
 Thus we can say that Solar tracking system will help us utilize every bit of
solar energy in most efficient way and reduce emissions and also enhances
green and clean Energy.
64
Graph showing higher solar energy collected by dual axis solar tracker as compared
to fixed system
Dual Axis Solar Tracking System Fixed Axis System
Comparison between solar energy collected by dual axis solar tracker & fixed system
65
Operating Procedure
The operating procedure of Solar Tracking System is as follows:
1 First of all connect the Solar Panel and Battery terminals on mimic at
indicated position with proper polarity.
2 Now short the Ammeter terminals indicated on mimic with help of patch cord.
3 Now switch ON the toggle given on battery box for this move toggle switch
towards positive (red) terminal.
4 Now Complete system will ON and message will display on LCD which is given
below:
5 Now Select switch as follows:

S1 – for selecting Single (Single Axis Tracking)
S2 – for selecting Dual (Dual Axis Tracking)
S3 – for selecting Sensor
Single Axis Tracking: If you select Single Axis Tracking then system will follows the
Sun’s East- West Movement only. Following message will display on LCD & System
will operate in three modes which are as follows:
I. Manual Mode: In manual mode panel will move according to user from east
to west and track the sun’s East-West movement only.
II. Time Mode: In Time mode solar panel will move from east to west when we
select start button in sub menu of time mode. Panel will move approx 10 in
every 4 minutes i.e. 150 movement in every hour.
66
III. Auto Mode: In auto mode first we keep panel on maximum east position
using Max. East button. On selecting Max. East button panel will move
towards maximum east (i.e. Y-axis angle will be 550 approx.) and then start
tracking using start button.
Dual Axis Tracking: If you select Dual Axis Tracking then System will track the sun’s
movement both in east-west axis as well as in north-south axis. Dual-axis tracker will
operate only in Manual mode.
Sensor: If you select Sensor following message will display on LCD
 By Pressing Switch „S1‟ i.e. Light Sensor you can see readings of Light Sensor 1
& 2 in terms of percentage.
 On selecting Switch „S2‟ i.e. Angle Sensor, the angular position of panel in X &
Y – direction will display on LCD.
 On selecting Switch „S3‟ i.e. Panel, reading of Voc & Isc will be displayed on
LCD. Initially only voltage will display, for current reading you have to move Pot
RL completely clockwise.
Note:
 Emergency Stop Switch is provided to stop motor at any time or any condition.
 Master Reset Switch is provided for resetting whole system.
 Never press Switch S1 & S2 simultaneously.
 Similarly never press Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously.
 Initially keep position of Master Reset Switch & Emergency Motor stop towards
downward position.
67
Experiment 1
Objective: Study of V-I characteristics of fixed Solar Panel i.e. without tracking the
Sun.
Items Required:
1 Patch Cords
2 Halogen lamp with tripod
3 Rechargeable Battery
4 Rheostat
Note:
 If sunlight is not properly available then use halogen lamp.
 During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery .Before using battery make sure that battery is fully
charged. Never press Switch S1& S2 simultaneously.Similarly never press
Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously.
Connection Diagram
68
Procedure:
 Now vary load resistance by moving rheostat RL towards maximum and
observe change in the reading of voltage and current of solar panel.
 Now record the value of V & I in following observation table and plot the V-I
characteristics of Solar Panel. Expected V-I curve is as follows:
Observation Table:
Load Resistance Power (in watt)

S.No. Voc (in Volts) Isc (in Amp)
RL P = Voc * Isc
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
V – I characteristic curve of Solar Panel
69
Experiment 2
Objective:
Study of V-I characteristics of Solar Panel using Single-Axis Solar tracking in Manual
Mode.
Items Required:
1 Patch Cords
Note:
 If sunlight is not properly available then use halogen lamp
 Switch for recovery
 Before using battery make sure that battery is fully charged. Never press Switch
S1 & S2 simultaneously.
Connection Diagram
70
Procedure:
1 Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
polarity as shown in above figure.
2 Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
3 Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other
terminals of patch chord to battery box with proper polarity.
4 `Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and
message will display on LCD as follows:
5 Now Press Switch S1 for selecting Single- axis tracking, as you press switch S1
LCD will look as below:
6 Now for selecting Manual mode press switch S1.
7 Now Select Switch S1 for moving panel towards East & S2 for towards West.
8 Now observe change in readings of voltage & Current and plot V-I
characteristics Curve.
9 Now Compare above obtained V-I characteristics curve with V-I characteristics
curve obtained in experiment no. 1 i.e. without sun tracking.
71
Experiment 3
Objective: Study of V-I characteristics of Solar Panel according to incident angle of
rays of light keeping Light source at fixed position and moving solar panel in manual
mode.
Items Required:
 Patch Cords
 Halogen lamp with tripod
 Rechargeable Battery
Note:
Switch for recovery.
 Concentrate only on shadow of gnomon (of sundial) made by halogen lamp,
avoid any other shadow.
 You can also perform this experiment with sunlight.
Connection Diagram
72
Procedure:
 Firstly fit the halogen lamp on given tripod and place the tripod such that
the light source (halogen lamp) directs the light straight at the solar panel
keeping solar panel horizontal on given assembly using single-axis solar
tracking in manual mode. for this follow below mentioned procedure.
 Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
 Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
 Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other
 Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and
 Now Press Switch S1 for selecting Single- axis tracking, as you press switch S1
 Now for selecting Manual mode press switch S1, as you press switch S1 LCD will
look as below:
 Adjust solar panel horizontal using Switch S1 for moving panel towards East &
S2 for towards West.
Note: At horizontal position of solar panel angle of Y-axis will be 00 ± 20

approx.
 Now switch on the halogen lamp and then wait for 1 minute to avoid errors
due to temperature fluctuations.
 Now place sundial on centre of solar panel.
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 Now observe shadow of gnomon (stick mounted on sundial). For directing

straight light at solar panel there must be no shadow of gnomon on sundial
(i.e. r = 0) so adjust halogen lamp position with help of tripod. Calculate angle
of incident sunrays with help of following formula:
Calculation of Elevation Angle using Sundial

tan (θ) = h/r
-1
θ = tan (h/r)
Where h = height of gnomon
r = length of shadow &
θ = incident angle of light
Sundial Measurements: Gonomon height (h) = 36.5mm Sundial Radius = 32mm
 Note down the reading of voltage displaying on LCD which is open circuit
voltage Voc of solar panel.
 Now for Current reading move the rheostat RL at minimum and note the
reading of I displaying in LCD which is short circuit current Isc of solar panel.
 Make the table as given below and record the readings.
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Observation Table:
Power (in watt) P =

S.No.
Incident angle of light Voc (in Volts) Isc (in Amp)
Voc * Isc
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
12. Now move the panel towards west direction using switch S2 and calculate
incident angle and note down the corresponding readings of Voc & Isc.
13. Now calculate power using following formula:
P=V*I
14. Now record the corresponding value of power on above observation table and
you will observe that solar panel will give maximum power at 900.
75
Experiment 4
Objective: Study and observation of Single-Axis Solar tracking in Time Mode.
Items Required:
1. Patch Cords
2. Rechargeable Battery
Note:
 Concentrate only on shadow of gnomon (of sundial) made by halogen lamp,
avoid any other shadow.
 You can also perform this experiment with sunlight.
Connection Diagram
76
Time Mode
Procedure:
Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other terminals of
patch chord to battery box with proper polarity.
Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and message
will display on LCD as follows:
Now Press Switch S1 for selecting Single- axis tracking, as you press switch S1 LCD
will look as below:
Now press Switch S2 for selecting Time mode and following message will display on
LCD.
Now Press Switch S1 for Start time.
Now you will observe solar panel will move towards West direction with time.
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Experiment 5
Objective: Study and observation of Single-Axis Solar tracking in Auto Mode.
Items Required:
1. Patch Cords
2. Rechargeable Battery
3. Rheostat
Note:
 Before using battery make sure that battery is fully charged.
 Never press Switch S1 & S2 simultaneously.
 Start experiment at morning 8:20 O’clock, at this time angle of y-axis will be
550(Approx.) While starting experiment from other time set the solar panel’s
position as per given table of Sun hour Angle.
Connection Diagr
78
Procedure:
1. Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
2 Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
3. Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other
4. Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and
5. Now Press Switch S1 for selecting Single- axis tracking, as you press switch S1
6. Now press Switch S3 for selecting Auto mode and following message will display
on LCD.
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7. Firstly orient the solar panel at max East position using switch S3. At this
position angle of y- axis will be 550 (approx.) and LCD will look like as follows:
8. Now Press Switch S1 to Start and following message will display on LCD.
Note: On Selecting switch S2 system will stop and on pressing Switch S4
system will go back to previous position.
9. Now note the readings of V & I, for this record the reading of voltage
displaying on LCD and for current reading move rheostat RL completely
towards minimum and wait 1 minute to avoid fluctuation in sunlight and note
the reading of current.
10 If there is change in intensity of sunlight falling on sensor L1 & L2 then solar

panel will move 10 in every 4 minute, and if sunlight intensity is constant then
panel will move approximately 15 0 in every one hour.
11 Note the readings of Voltage and Current in equal interval of half an hour in
following observation table there should be movement of panel 7.50 (approx.).
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Observation Table
Angle Voltage Current Power

S.No. Time
(Y-axis) (in volts) (in Ampere) (in Watts) P =
V*I
1. 8:20Am -550 (default)
2. 8:30Am
3. 9:00Am
4. 9:30Am
5. 10:00Am
6. 10:30Am
7. 11:00Am
8. 11:30Am
9. 12:00
10. 12:30Pm
11. 1:00Pm
12. 1:30Pm
13. 2:00Pm
14. 2:30Pm
15. 3:00Pm
16. 3:30Pm
17. 4:00Pm
12. Now you will observe from observation table that the readings of voltage
and current are almost equal for every hour.
81
Experiment 6
Objective: Study the operation of Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System in Manual mode.
Items Required:
1 Patch Cords
Note:
1. If sunlight is not properly available then use halogen lamp.
2. During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
3. Never press Switch S1 & S2 simultaneously.
4. Similarly never press Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously. Before using battery make
sure that battery is fully charged.
Connection Diagram
Manual Mode
82
Procedure:
 Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
 Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
 Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other
 Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and
 Now Press switch S2 for selecting Dual – axis Tracking, following message
will display on LCD.
 Now presses switch S1 for Manual mode operation of Dual-axis Solar tracker.
Now Select switches as follows:

 For selecting To East
 For selecting To West
 For selecting To North
 For selecting To South
On selecting any one switch solar panel will move towards particular direction as
per selected switch.
83
Glossary
 Absorber: In a photovoltaic device, the material that readily absorbs
photons to generate charge carriers (free electrons or holes).
 Alternating Current (AC): The direction of electrical current reverses,
usually many (50) times per second. Electricity transmission networks use AC
because voltage can be controlled with relative ease.
 Amorphous: A type of PV solar panel that, unlike multi crystalline and
mono crystalline versions, are not made from expensive crystalline silicon solar
cells. They can have a plastic substrate and a very thin layer of silicon is sprayed
onto a backing material.
 Ampere Hour (AH): A measure of current over time, used to measure battery
capacity.
 Ampere Hour Meter: An instrument that monitors current with time. The
indication is the product of current (in amperes) and time (in hours).
 Angle Of Incidence: The angle between the direct solar beam and the normal
(90 degrees) to the active surface.
 Array: Any number of Photovoltaic modules connected together
electrically to provide a single electrical output. An array is a mechanically
integrated assembly of modules or panels together with support structure
(including foundation and other components, as required) to form a free-
standing field installed unit that produces DC power.
 Azimuth Angle: Angle between the north direction and the projection of the
surface normal into the horizontal plane; measured clockwise from north. As
applied to the PV array, 180 degree azimuth means the array faces due south.
 Battery: Two or more electrochemical cells enclosed in a container and
electrically interconnected in an appropriate series/parallel arrangement to
provide the required operating voltage and current levels. Under common
usage, the term battery also applies to a single cell if it constitutes the entire
electrochemical storage system.
 Battery Energy Capacity: The total energy available, expressed in watt-
hours (kilowatt- hours), that can be withdrawn from a fully-charged cell or
battery. The energy capacity of a given cell varies with temperature, rate, age,
and cutoff voltage. This term is more common to system designers than it is to
the battery industry where capacity usually refers to ampere- hours.
 Battery Life: The period during which a cell or battery is capable of
operating above a specified capacity or efficiency performance level. For
example, with lead-acid batteries, end- of-life is generally taken as the point in
time when a fully charged cell can deliver only 80% of its rated capacity.
Beyond this state of aging, deterioration and loss of capacity begins to
accelerate rapidly. Life may be measured in cycles and/or years, depending on
the type of service for which the cell or battery is intended.
84
 Cadmium (Cd): A chemical element used in making certain types of solar cells
and batteries.
 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): A polycrystalline thin-film photovoltaic material.
 Cat hodic Protection: Systems that protect underground metal from
corrosion by running small electrical currents along the metal. Most often
used to protect well heads, oil, gas, and water pipelines.
 Charge Rate: The current applied to a cell or battery to restore its available
capacity. This rate is commonly normalized by a charge control device with
respect to the rated capacity of the cell or battery.
 Charge Controller: A component of photovoltaic system that controls the
flow of current to and from the battery to protect the batteries from over-
charge and over-discharge. The charge controller may also indicate the system
operational status.
 Concentrator: A photovoltaic module which includes optical components,
such as lenses, to direct and concentrate sunlight onto a solar cell of smaller
area. Most concentrator arrays must directly face or track the sun.
 Current at Maximum Power (Imp): The current at which maximum power is
available from a module.
 Diffuse Insulation: The radiant energy from the sky incident upon unit surface
area during a specified time period (Same units as for direct insulation).
 Direct Insulation: The radiant energy from the sun (and a small area of sky
surrounding it, defined by the acceptance angle of the pyrheliometer) incident
upon unit surface area during a specified time period.
 Efficiency: The ratio of power output of a Photovoltaic cell to the incident
power from the sun or simulated sun sources under specified standard
insulation conditions.
 Electrolyte: The fluid used in batteries as the transport medium for positively
and negatively charged ions.
 Electric Current: The rate at which electricity flows through an electrical
conductor, usually measured in amperes (amps).
 Electricity: Energy resulting from the flow of charge particles, such as electrons
or ions.
 Electrons: A negatively charged particle. The movement of electrons in an
electrical conductor constitutes an electric current.
 Electron Volt (eV): The amount of kinetic energy gained by an electron
when accelerated through an electric potential difference of 1 Volt;
equivalent to 1.603 x 10^-19; a unit of energy or work.
 Energy: The capability of doing work; different forms of energy can be
converted to other forms, but the total amount of energy remains the same.
 Energy Density: The ratio of available energy per pound; usually used to
compare storage batteries.
85
 Epitaxial Growth: The growth of one crystal on the surface of another crystal.
The worth of the deposited crystal is oriented by the lattice structure of the
original crystal.
 Equalization: The process of restoring all cells in a battery to an equal state-
of-charge. Some battery types may require a complete discharge as a part of
the equalization process.
 Equalization Charge: The process of mixing the electrolyte in batteries by
periodically overcharging the batteries for a short time.
 Equinox: The two times of the year when the sun crosses the equator and
night and day are of equal length; usually occurs on March 21st (spring
equinox) and September 23 (fall equinox).
 Fill Factor: The ratio of a photovoltaic cell's actual power to its power if
both current and voltage were at their maxima. A key characteristic in
evaluating cell performance.
 Fixed Tilt Array: A photovoltaic array set in at a fixed angle with respect to
horizontal.
 Flat-Plate Array: A photovoltaic (PV) array that consists of non-concentrating
PV modules.
 Flat-Plate Module: An arrangement of photovoltaic cells or material mounted
on a rigid flat surface with the cells exposed freely to incoming sunlight.
 Flat-Plate Photo voltaic (PV): A PV array or module that consists of non
concentrating elements. Flat-plate arrays and modules use direct and diffuse
sunlight, but if the array is fixed in position, some portion of the direct sunlight
is lost because of oblique sun-angles in relation to the array.
 Full Sun: The full sun condition is the amount of power density received at the
surface of the earth at noon on a clear day – about 100 mW/cm2. Lower levels
of sunlight are often expressed as 0.5 sun or 0.1 sun. A figure of 0.5 sun
means that the power density of the sunlight is one-half of that of a full sun.
 Grid: Transmission line network used to distribute electric power.
 Halogen Lamps: Lamps with very low wattage, that generate high intensity
light through a combination of specially coated, highly efficient reflectors.
Very low voltage with high efficiency deliver of light for low power
 Incident Light: The incident light is the amount of light reaching an object.
 Irradiance: The direct, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation that strikes a
surface. Usually expressed in kilowatts per square meter. Irradiance multiplied
by time equals insulation.
 I-V Curve: A graphical presentation of the current versus the voltage from
a photovoltaic device as the load is increased from the short circuit (no load)
condition to the open circuit (maximum voltage) condition. The shape of the
curve characterizes cell performance.
 Junction Diode: A semiconductor device with a junction and a built-in
potential that passes current better in one direction than the other. All solar
cells are junction diodes.
86
 Kilowatt-Hour: Unit of energy used to perform work (energy and work are
equivalent in units, energy being the potential value and work the achieved
value).
 Load: Refers to equipment that is powered by electricity. Usually expressed
in terms of amperes or watts. In an electrical circuit, any devise or appliance
that uses power (such as a light bulb or water pump).
 Maximum Power: The power at the point on the current-voltage
characteristic where the product of current and voltage is a maximum
(measured in watts).
 Maximum Power Point (MPP): The point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve
of a module under illumination, where the product of current and voltage is
maximum. For a typical silicon cell, this is at about 0.45 volts.
 Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT): Means of a power conditioning unit
that automatically operates the photovoltaic generator at its maximum power
point under all conditions.
 Maximum Power Tracking: Operating a photovoltaic array at the peak power
point of the array's I-V curve where maximum power is obtained. Also called
peak power tracking.
 Nominal Voltage: A reference voltage used to describe batteries, modules, or
systems (i.e., a12-volt or 24-volt battery, module, or system).
 pen Circuit Voltage (Voc): Voltage produced by a Photovoltaic cell with no
load applied when the cell is exposed to standard insulation conditions,
measured with a voltmeter.
 Peak Power Point: Operating point of the I-V (current-voltage) curve for a
Photovoltaic cell or module where the product of the current value times the
voltage value is a maximum.
 RMS: Amps, excluding the effects of all harmonic exponents; it could be called
fundamental power factor.
 Renewable Energy: Flows of energy that are regenerative or virtually
inexhaustible. Most commonly includes solar (electric and thermal), biomass,
geothermal, wind, tidal, wave, and hydro power sources.
 Semiconductor: A material such as silicon, which has a crystalline structure
that will allow current to flow under certain conditions. Semiconductors are
usually less conductive than metals but not an insulator like rubber.
 Series Connection: A wiring configuration used to increase voltage. Series
wiring is positive to negative (+ to -) or negative to positive (- to +).
 Silicon: A non-metallic element, that when specially treated, is sensitive to
light and capable of transforming light into electricity. Silicon is the basic
material of most beach sand, and is the raw material used to manufacture
most photovoltaic cells.
 Single-Crystal Structure: A material having a crystalline structure such that a
repeatable or periodic molecular pattern exists in all three dimensions.
87
 Solar Cooling: The use of solar thermal energy or solar electricity to

power a cooling appliance. Photovoltaic systems can power evaporative
coolers ("swamp" coolers), heat- pumps, and air conditioners.
 Solar Energy: Electromagnetic energy transmitted from the sun (solar
radiation). The amount that reaches the earth is equal to one billionth of total
solar energy generated, or the equivalent of about 420 trillion kilowatt-hours.
 Solar-Grade Silicon: Intermediate-grade silicon used in the manufacture of
solar cells. Less expensive than electronic- grade silicon.
 Solar Panel: A collection of solar cells connected in series, in parallel, or in
series- parallel combination to provide greater voltage, current, or power
than can be furnished by a single solar module. Solar panels can be provided
to furnish any desired voltage, current, or power. They are made up as a
complete assembly.
 Solar Tracker: A solar photovoltaic array that is designed to follow the
movement of the sun throughout the day.
 Single Axis Tracker: Moves in only one direction, side to side - A single axis
tracker follows the sun from east to west but does not move automatically up
and down. The solar panels are at a fixed angle that either does not change or
must be changed manually.
 Thin Film Photovoltaic Module: A photovoltaic module constructed with
sequential layers of thin film semiconductor materials.
 Tilt Angle: A fixed angle measured from the horizontal to which a solar array
is tilted. The tilt angle is chosen to maximize the array output. Depending
upon latitude, season and time of day this angle will vary.
 Tracking Array: An array that is mounted on a movable structure that
attempts to follow the path of the sun. Some tracking arrays are single axis
while others are dual.
 Two-Axis Tracking (Dual-axis Tracking): A photovoltaic array tracking system
capable of rotating independently about two axes (e.g., vertical and
horizontal).
 Voltage: A measure of the force or “push” given the electrons in an electrical
circuit; a measure of electrical potential. One volt produces one amp of current
when acting against a resistance of one ohm.
 Voltage at Maximum Power (Vmp): The voltage at which maximum power
is available from a photovoltaic module.
 Wafer: A thin sheet of semiconductor (photovoltaic material) made by
cutting it from a single crystal or ingot.
 Watt: The rate of energy transfer equivalent to one ampere under an
electrical pressure of one volt. One watt equals 1/746 horsepower, or one
joule per second. It is the product of voltage and current (amperage).
 Zenith Angle: the angle between the direction of interest (of the sun, for
example) and the zenith (directly overhead).
88
Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What is renewable energy?
Ans: Renewable energy comes from energy resources that are continuously
replenished through the cycles of nature. Unlike fossil fuels, their supply will
never become exhausted. The main sources of renewable energy are:
 the sun (solar energy)
 the wind
 moving water (hydropower, wave and tidal energy)
 heat below the surface of the earth (geothermal energy)
 biomass (wood, waste, energy crops)
Q2. What are the benefits of renewable energy?
Ans: Benefits of renewable energy are as follows:
 Renewable energy resources are clean sources of energy. They can
be harnessed without damaging the environment, unlike using fossil
fuels which release carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and other
harmful pollutants into the atmosphere.
 Renewable energy resources will never become exhausted. Unlike
finite fossil fuels, renewable energy resources are continuously
replenished and will not run out.
 Renewable energy resources are indigenous resources. Ireland is
heavily reliant on imported fossil fuels. We now import approx 89% of
the fuels we need for energy. By tapping into the renewable energy
resources with which Ireland is richly endowed, we could reduce this
reliance on imports. By increasing our use of renewable resources, we
can achieve a more secure and stable energy supply for the long term.
Q3. How does a solar system generate electricity?
Ans: A solar energy system generates electricity through the use of photovoltaic
(PV) technology. PV turns the suns light energy directly into electric energy.
Q4. What is photovoltaic?
Ans: Photo voltaics is the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity using the
physical mechanism called the photovoltaic effect.
89
Q5. How Solar PV (Electric) Works

Ans: Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert daylight into electricity via solar
panels which use a thin layer of semiconducting material, usually silicon,
enclosed between layers of glass or plastic. The incident light dislodges
electrons from the material, which then flow to produce direct current (DC)
electricity. The direct current passes through wiring to an inverter, which
converts it to alternating current (AC), so that it can be connected to a
property's main electricity distribution board. Unlike fossil fuels, no carbon
dioxide is emitted when using solar panels. The sun provides an abundant,
free source of clean energy.
Q6. How does solar power work?
Ans: The two most commonly used types of solar energy technology in the
Midwest are photovoltaic (PV) panels and solar thermal collectors. PV panels
contain a semiconductor material (typically silicon-based) which converts
sunlight into direct-current (DC) electricity. An on-site inverter converts the
DC power to 120-volt AC power, which can then be connected to a home or
building’s power supply or directly to the electricity grid. Solar thermal
collectors absorb the sun’s thermal energy and use it to heat water or other
fluids, which can be used for hot water or circulated through a home or
building for space heating.
Q7. Give type of solar cell?
Ans:
90
Q8. What is the difference between a solar cell and a photovoltaic panel or
array?
Ans: A solar cell is a single device. A photovoltaic or solar panel consists of
multiple solar cells connected together into a single unit to protect the
solar cells and increase the voltage and power above that of a single solar
cell. Typically, you cannot buy solar cells, only photovoltaic panels.
“Photovoltaic panel” and “photovoltaic array” are sometimes used interchangeably,
but a photovoltaic array refers to all of the photovoltaic panels in particular
systems that are connected together.
Q9. What type of electricity is produced by a PV panel?
Ans: PV panels produce DC power, which stands for direct current. This is the
same type of power as in a battery, but is different to that produced by the
utility company, which is AC power. “AC” stands for “alternating current”. DC
power is converted into AC power via an inverter, which may be incorporated
into some types of PV modules, such that these modules produce AC power.
Q10. Why should we use photo voltaics (PV)?
Ans: For a growing number of users, PV is the clear choice. The number of
installed PV systems increases each year because their many advantages
make them the best option overall. Consider the following issues:
1 Site Access - A well-designed PV system will operate unattended
and requires minimum periodic maintenance. The savings in labor
costs and travel expenses can be significant.
2 Modularity - A PV system can be designed for easy expansion. If your
power demand could increase in future years, the ease and cost of
increasing the PV power supply should be considered.
3 Fuel Supply - Supplying conventional fuel to the site and storing it
can be much more expensive than the fuel itself. Solar energy is
delivered free of charge!
4 Environment - PV systems create no pollution and generate no waste
products when operating.
5 Maintenance - Any energy system requires maintenance, but
experience shows that PV systems require less maintenance than other
alternatives.
6 Durability - Most of today's PV modules are based on a proven
technology that has experienced little degradation in more than 25
years of operation.
7 Cost - Most solar panels are warranted for 25 years and have a
payback period that is far less than the warranty. Moreover, as oil and
gas costs rise the payback periods will be even shorter going forward.
91
Q11. What is a kilowatt hour (kWh)?

Ans: A kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to one thousand watts of
power expended for one hour of time. For example, one kWh is used to light
a 100-watt light bulb for 10 hours. The consumption of electrical energy by
homes and small businesses is usually measured in kilowatt-hours and your
electric utility charges are based on kilowatt-hours used.
Q12. What is solar tracker?
Ans: Tracking systems automatically adjust the position of PV modules to follow
the sun and increasing the efficiency of system. In order to increase the
yields, the modules can be mounted so that they can swivel. Tracking it
with electric motors, the module surface follows the path of the sun
exactly in the course of the day. Compared with a fixed south-facing
installation, this allows the annual yield to be increased by about 30% in our
latitudes. The mast support of solar tracking systems allows the choice of an
optimal location. This allows a shade-free swivel range of 180°, regardless of
the structural conditions.
Q13. What’s the difference between a passive and active solar tracker?
Ans: Passive solar trackers use the heat of the sun to move the panels using a
system of fluid-filled tubes. On a cloudy or cold day, the passive system’s
positioning can be compromised which leads to a loss in energy production.
An active solar tracker uses a motor and GPS to position the panels to the
optimum position of the sun for each day of the year, maximizing the solar
gain in all weather conditions.
Q14. What’s the difference between a fixed panel system and a solar tracker
system?
Ans: Both contain solar panels but the fixed system is stationary whereas the
tracker follows the sun across the sky increasing the efficiency of the solar
panels by keeping them at a perpendicular angle to the sunlight. A fixed
panel system (whether ground mounted or roof mounted) will capture the
sun’s rays in the same position each day. With a tracker, the solar PV panels
have more direct exposure to sunlight as they move with the sun across the
sky.
92
Q15. What are the basic pros and cons of single axis vs. dual axis solar
tracking systems?
Ans: There are mostly "pros" for both but you need to use the right system for the
right reasons. Generally Dual-axis trackers are more accurate in pointing
directly at the sun which is usually the brightest spot in the sky, however,
Dual axis comes at the price of higher complexity and lower reliability (more
down time and more maintenance) than single axis. On the other hand single
axis offers lower cost and higher reliability since there are fewer things that
can go wrong over the life of the system, which may be expected to exceed
20years or more. Watch a group of dual axis trackers in an overcast day and
you'll see them pointing all over the sky. Meanwhile, a group of single
axis trackers will be all facing the same direction and producing about the
same amount of energy per hour with a lot less wear and tear.
Q16. What is solar hour angle?
Ans: The Solar Hour Angle is a measure of the position of the sun relative to
solar noon at a given time at any given location on the earth. The hour angle
is zero when the sun is directly overhead (local solar noon). It is negative
before local solar noon and is positive in the afternoon. The hour angle
changes by 15o each hour or one degree in 4 minutes.
Q17. Why a Charge Controller is necessary?
Ans: Since the brighter the sunlight, the more voltage the solar cells produce, the
excessive voltage could damage the batteries. A charge controller is used to
maintain the proper charging voltage on the batteries. As the input voltage
from the solar array rises, the charge controller regulates the charge to the
batteries preventing any overcharging
Q18. What is a PWM charge controller?
Ans: PWM stands for Pulse Width Modulation and is basically a 3 stage
charging cycle type controller. Most decent charge controllers use this
technique.
Q19. What is a MPPT charge controller?
Ans: MPPT stands for Maximum Power Point Tracking. This is a newer type
controller that not only provides multi-stage charging, but it also delivers
more power to the batteries by matching the battery voltage to the solar
panel voltage. This makes them more efficient especially in varying levels of
sunshine. They also cost a little more.
Q20. What is solar cell efficiency and why do numbers of efficiency appear to
vary so widely?
Ans: Solar cells are often characterized by the percentage of the incident power
that they convert into power, called the power conversion efficiency or just
efficiency. The efficiency is given by a percentage. The efficiency of a solar
cell is determined by the material from which it is made and by the
production technology used to make the solar cell. Efficiencies for
commercially available solar cells range from about 5% to about 17%.
93
Warranty
 We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 12 months
from the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell
etc. are not covered under warranty. The guarantee will become void, if
 The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the learning
material.
 The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
 The customer resells the instrument to another party.
 Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
 The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately
giving full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning
the type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.
 The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched
securely packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the
customer.
Note: Following items are not covered in the warranty: Battery
List of Accessories
 Tripod 1 No.
 Halogen Lamp with Assembly 1No.
 Fuse 1A 10Nos.
 24” Patch Cord (2 mm) Red/black . 1 Each
 DB 25 pin connector cable 1 No.
 12” Patch Cord (2 mm) Red/black 1 Each
 Rechargeable Battery 1 No.
 Rheostat with cable 1 No.
 Sun Dial 1 No.
 Allen key(2mm) 1 No
 12V Battery charger 1No.
94

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Understanding Solar Tracking System

Understanding Solar Tracking System

Examples of Potential & Kinetic Energy

Basic Concept of Kinetic & Potential Energy

Sources of Renewable and Non-renewable Energy

Sources of Non-renewable Energy

Sources of Non-renewable Energy Coal & fossil oil

Sources of Non-renewable Energy Natural gas & Uranium

Sources of Renewable Energy

The examples of biomass that are commonly used as fuel includes:

Biomass & Electricity generation from Biomass

Geothermal Energy source & Power generation

Tidal Energy source & concept of Power generation

Sustainable Sun’s Energy

Basic Concept of Solar Energy

(a) Solar Thermal Energy (b) Solar Photovoltaic Energy

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

Basic Concept of Solar Cell

Types of Solar Cell

Mono-crystalline Solar Cell & Module

Polycrystalline Solar Cell & Module

Concentrating Photovoltaic Solar Cell & Module

Potentially, this type of panel has the following advantages:

Thin film solar cell & Module

Solar cell Structure

A typical solar cell is a multi-layered material, comprising:

Wafer manufacturing process

Solar cell, module & Array

The generation of light-generated carriers,

Working of Solar cell

The absorption of a photon creates an electron-hole pair

Current-Voltage Characteristic of Silicon Solar Cell

IV curve of a solar cell showing the short-circuit current

The short-circuit current is due to the generation and collection of light-generated

Getting the Fill Factor from the I-V Sweep

 Temperature: What we mean by this is cell temperature. This, of course, is

The effect of temperature on the IV characteristics of a solar cell

 Solar Cell Temperature = 250C

 Solar Irradiance = 1000 W/m2

 Temperature: Higher cell temperature than the 250C will decrease

The Sun and Earth

Where h = Planck’s constant, c = the speed of light,

Spectrum of the extra-terrestrial solar radiation measure outside the earth’s

Solar Spectrum using Prism

Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface

Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface

Solar Radiation Spectrum at the Earth’s Surface. Absorption peak of various

Distribution of Spectral contents of Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface

Air Mass Concept

Air mass Solar irradiation reaching the surface (W/m2)

AM0 (extra-terrestrial) 1376

AM1(sun at overhead position) 1105

AM1.5(sun at about 480 from overhead 1000

(a) Rotation of Earth (b) Revolution of earth

The motion of the earth with respect to sun over a year

Position of sun & earth showing solstice

Declination Angle δ Position of sun & earth showing Equinox

Variation in the declination angle over the year

Day of the year δ: It is represented by declination angle δ. It varies between +23.450

Equation of time correction

Clock time = Time on sundial - Equation of time

Sun hour Angle:

Sun hour Angle

o Te Solar Time Time (O’clock)