Scientech A5006: Solar Power Lab

Solar Power Lab
Scientech A5006
Learning Material
Ver 1.1
Designed & Manufactured by-

An ISO 9001:2008 company
Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
94, Electronic Complex, Pardesipura, Indore - 452 010 India,
+ 91-731 4211100, : info@scientech.bz , : www.ScientechWorld.com
Scientech 5006A Solar Power Lab
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Solar Power Lab
Scientech A5006
Table of contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Features 5
3. Technical Specifications 5
4. Safety Instructions 6
5. Theory 7
6. Assignments
 Assignment 1 55
Study of V-I characteristics of Solar Cell.
 Assignment 2 58
Study of various modes of Constant Voltage Charging technique.
 Assignment 3 61
Study of Buck Converter.
 Assignment 4 64
Study of Boost Converter.
 Assignment 5 67
Study of Bypass Diodes.
 Assignment 6 70
Study of Dusk to Dawn Switch.
7. Glossary 72
8. Frequently Asked Questions 78
9. Warranty 81
10. Check List 82
11. References 82
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Introduction
Scientech A5006 Solar Power Lab is a versatile product for the study and
demonstration of panel V-I characteristics, different charging techniques of
battery using solar power, buck converter, boost converter, importance of by-
pass diodes, significance of blocking diode and dusk to dawn switch as
application. DC load and an optional variable load are also provided.
Scientech A5006 contains four 5W solar panels, four inbuilt batteries, two
voltage channels, two current channels. Solar panels are kept in sunlight for
providing an input to this lab. The panels can be manually displayed for
sunlight and shadowed from sunlight. The batteries are charged using these
panels. In V-I characteristics section the digital display of voltage and current
of entire lab can be done. With the charging section, constant voltage
charging of battery can be studied using the two different modes (Float and
Trickle charging). Inbuilt Buck converter and Boost converter circuits are used
for one DC voltage level to another DC voltage level. Bypass Diodes and
Blocking Diodes are provided to protect solar panel from damage.
An application section provided with it gives an application demo of an

automated street light. It can be checked using a DC load provided. Thus,
Solar Power Lab gives a complete description of utilization of solar energy.
Students can easily understand the various Assignments making connections
as per manual.
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Features
 Complete system to get overview of Solar Power.
 Batteries are in-built in the lab.
 In-built Digital Display for voltage and current measurement.
 Application section on the board itself.
 Arrangement to protect solar panel from damage.
Technical Specifications
Supply Voltage : 220V AC ± 10%, 50/60 Hz
Solar Panel
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) : 9V DC
Short Circuit Current (Isc) : 0.61A
Battery
Voltage rating : 6V
Current rating : 4.5 Ah
Display
Voltage range : 0-50V
Current range : 0-3 A ±10mA
Rheostat (Optional) : 110 Ω, 5A
Fuse : 3Amp
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Safety Instructions
Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating Scientech

A5006. To avoid any personal injury or damage to the instrument or any
product connected to the instrument.
Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.
The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.
For your safety:
Use proper Mains cord :Use only the mains cord designed for this
instrument. Ensure that the mains cord is
suitable for your country.
Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the

protective earth conductor of the mains cord. To
avoid electric shock, the grounding conductor
must be connected to the earth ground. Before
making connections to the input terminals,
ensure that the instrument is properly
grounded.
Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in

the manual.
1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.
2. Do not operate in an explosive

atmosphere.
3. Keep the product dust free, clean and

dry.
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Theory
Energy is something that causes a change to a system, at the macroscopic or

microscopic level. It is the capacity of a system to do work. That system may
be a jet, carrying hundreds of passengers across the ocean. A baby‟s body‟s
growing bone cells. A kite rising in the wind or a wave of light crossing a
space. In moving or growing, each of these systems is doing work, and using
energy. Every living organism does work, and needs energy from food or
photosynthesis. Humans also create machines that do work for them, and that
derive energy from fuels.
We all use energy for our daily work like when we walk, jump, eat food, drive
car, play etc. Energy is stored in different ways and can be transformed from
one type to another. Energy comes in a tremendous variety of forms, which
we can classify as kinetic (energy of motion) or potential (stored) to various
degrees: solar energy, thermal energy, gravitational potential energy, nuclear
energy, chemical potential energy, sound energy, electrical energy, elastic
potential energy, light energy, and so on. In all cases, energy can be
transformed from one type to another, and you can transfer energy from one
object to another by doing work.
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Energy is Light
Light is a type of energy we use all the time. We use it so we can see. We get
most of our light from the sun. Staying awake during the day saves money
because sunlight is free. At night, we must make our own light. Usually, we
use electricity to make light. Flashlights use electricity, too. This electricity
comes from batteries.
Energy is Heat
We use energy to make heat. The food we eat keeps our bodies warm.
Sometimes, when we run or work hard, we get really hot. In the winter, our
jackets and blankets hold in our body heat. We use the energy stored in
plants and other things to make heat. We burn wood and natural gas to cook
food and warm our houses. Factories burn fuel to make the products they sell.
Power plants burn coal and natural gas to make electricity
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Energy Makes Things Move
It takes energy to make things move. Cars run on the energy stored in
gasoline. Many toys run on the energy stored in batteries. Sail boats are
pushed by the energy in the wind. After a long day, do you ever feel too tired
to move? You‟ve run out of energy. You need to eat some food to refuel.
Energy Runs Machines
It takes energy to run our TVs, computers, and video games energy in the
form of electricity. We use electricity many times every day. It gives us light
and heat, it makes things move, and it runs our toys and microwaves. Imagine
what your life would be like without electricity. We make electricity by burning
coal, oil, gas, and even trash. We make it from the energy that holds atoms
together. We make it with energy from the sun, the wind, and falling water.
Sometimes, we use heat from inside the Earth to make electricity.
Transformation and conservation of energy
The law of the conservation of energy means that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, only transformed from one form to another i.e. energy
doesn‟t disappear.
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There is the same amount of energy today as there was when the world
began. When we use energy, we don‟t use it up; we change it into other forms
of energy. When we burn wood, we change its energy into heat and light.
When we drive a car, we change the energy in gasoline into heat and motion.
There will always be the same amount of energy in the world, but more and
more of it will be changed into heat. Most of that heat will go into the air. It will
still be there, but it will be hard to use.
Some of the many forms that energy takes are
 Mechanical energy, which includes
 Potential energy, stored in a system.
 Kinetic energy, from the movement of matter.
 Radiant or solar energy, which comes from the light and warmth of the
sun.
 Thermal energy, associated with the heat of an object.
 Chemical energy, stored in the chemical bonds of molecules.
 Electrical energy, associated with the movement of electrons.
 Electromagnetic energy, associated with light waves (including radio

waves, microwaves, x-rays, infrared waves).
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 Mass (or nuclear) energy, found in the nuclear structure of atoms.
Other types of energy are commonly thought of as being able to power homes
and automobiles. This form of energy can be broken up into two main
subgroups: renewable and non-renewable energy. Renewable energy can be
obtained for an unlimited time period. Examples of renewable energy include
solar and geothermal sources. Nonrenewable energy will eventually run out and
cannot be replaced. The most widely recognized type of nonrenewable energy
is fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas.
Sources of Renewable and Non-renewable Energy
Non-renewable energy: Nonrenewable energy is energy that comes from the

ground and is not replaced in a relatively short amount of time. Fossil fuels
are the main category of nonrenewable energy. Fossil fuels include; coal, oil
and natural gas. These resources come from animals and plants that have
died millions of years ago and then decomposed to create a useable source
of energy for humans.
Renewable Energy: Renewable energy is energy which is generated from

natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and can be generated again and
again as and when required. They are available in plenty and by far most the
cleanest sources of energy available on this planet e.g. Energy that we
receive from the sun can be used to generate electricity. Similarly, energy
from wind, geothermal, biomass from plants, tides can be used this form of
energy to another form. Renewable Sources include solar, wind, geothermal,
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biomass and hydro power. Renewable resources are clean or “green” energy
sources that have a much lower environmental impact than conventional
energy sources. Renewable resources are attractive because they are
replenished naturally which means they will never run out.
Sustainable Sun’s Energy
 The search of the new energy source gained momentum only in the
1970s following the oil crises.
 Sun energy, which is abundant and could provide security for the future
development and growth.
Solar energy (Hydrogen fusion in the Sun): The sun is the most powerful
source of energy. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used for heating, lighting
and cooling homes and other buildings, generating electricity, water heating,
and a variety of industrial processes. Most forms of renewable energy come
either directly or indirectly from the sun. For example, heat from the sun
causes the wind to blow, contributes to the growth of trees and other plants
that are used for biomass energy, and plays an essential role in the cycle of
evaporation and precipitation that makes hydro power possible. Solar
technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active
solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal
collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a
building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light
dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).
Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking
systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic
convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. The answer
lies in tapping the unlimited, clean, eco-friendly energy of the sun. The sun is
the key to the existence of life on the earth. It has been there for billions of
years and continuously shooting its solar energy in our direction. The sun
continues to warm our planet and we need to find some more efficient ways to
harness it's energy to full potential.
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This energy has to be harnessed by technology in order to be converted into
something that is usable by mankind. There are two types of solar technology
that can be used to do this, one referred to as passive, the other active. Active
solar energy traps light from the sun and then perform some action by
producing the current for e g: Solar Panels. Passive solar energy simply traps
solar energy for e.g. Green House.
Solar Energy Advantage
The biggest advantage of using solar energy is that it is a clean and green
energy. Solar energy doesn‟t pollute nor produce any green house gas; in
today‟s world where global warming is an increasing menace, these factors
matter significantly. In fact, solar energy is an important alternative to fossil
fuels, which use release harmful green house gasses into the atmosphere
and contribute to global warming.
Another big advantage of using solar energy is that solar power is a

completely renewable energy. As long as there is sunlight, there will be solar
energy. This situation is unlike the use of fossil fuels, which will eventually be
depleted with use.
The use of solar energy also decreases our dependence on oil, which is
becoming a big political and economical issue, as oil is becoming more scarce
and expensive.
The energy is free. Once the appropriate solar power equipment is installed,
you are free to tap on the sun‟s energy, whoever you are, wherever you are.
Moreover, solar energy and solar panels are also completely silent and don‟t
require much maintenance.
 It is clean energy source, no potential damage to the environment.
 It is very large source energy. The power from the sun intercepted by the
earth is about 1.8 X10 power 11 MW, which is many times larger than
our current power consumption from all sources.
 The module character of technology allows gradual implementation and

is easier to finance.
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Basic Concept of Solar Energy
When we get the solar energy from the sun it gets trapped and stored and can
be used in various ways to generate power. Solar energy can be used as
direct or indirect, active or passive. Basically there are 2 ways in which we
can harness sun's energy:
(a) Solar Thermal Energy (Heat) (b) Solar Photovoltaic Energy (Light)
Solar power is energy from the sun and without its presence all life on earth
would end. Solar energy has been looked upon as a serious source of energy
for many years because of the vast amounts of energy that are made freely
available, if harnessed by modern technology. A simple example of the power
of the sun can be seen by using a magnifying glass to focus the sun rays on a
piece of paper. Before long the paper ignites into flames.
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1. Solar Thermal: Solar thermal is also known as solar water heating. In
this process, solar energy is used directly to generate heat. Solar panels
are used to trap the heat from the sun and are used to heat water in the
glass panels. Glass panels are painted black so that they absorb
maximum energy from the sun, then water is pumped through these
pipes. These panels are positioned in such a way to maximize the
absorption of heat throughout the day and can help in reducing the
electricity bills
2. Photovoltaic Cell / Solar Cell: A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an

electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity
by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its
electrical characteristics e.g. current, voltage, or resistance vary when
light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate and
support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage
source. This method converts the sun's energy into electricity.
Photovoltaic cells are most popular form of converting solar energy into
electricity. The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek “photo” means
light and “voltaic” means electricity. The word Photo-voltaic is a
combination of the Greek word for Light and the name of the physicist
Allesandro Volta. He identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into
energy by means of solar cells. Photovoltaic refer to the creation of
voltage from light. Solar Photovoltaic System directly converts sunlight
into useful electricity. This process is called photoelectric effect,
discovered by Alexander Bequerel in 1839.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
(1) The absorption of light, generating electron-hole pairs
(2) The separation of various types of charge carriers
(3) The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
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Basic Concept of Solar Cell

Types of Solar Cells: There are three basic types of solar cells which are as
follows:
1. Crystalline solar cells are wired in series to produce solar panels. As

each cell produces a voltage of between 0.5 and 0.6 Volts, 36 cells are
needed to produce an open-circuit voltage of about 20 Volts. This is
sufficient to charge a 12 Volt battery under most conditions.
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The majority of PV cells produced today use crystalline silicon (c-Si) as it is a
light absorbing semiconductor. The c-Si technology was originally developed
for the semiconductor industry to produce PV cells for integrated circuits and
microchips. These PV cells have energy conversion efficiencies between 11
percent and 16 percent. The energy conversion efficiency of a solar cell is the
percentage of incident sunlight converted into electricity. While the efficiency
of c-Si is high, it absorbs light poorly and requires many layers to perform
efficiently in solar applications.
(I) Monocrystalline cells are cut from a single crystal of silicon. They are
effectively a slice from a crystal. In appearance, it will have a smooth
texture and you will be able to see the thickness of the slice. These are
the most efficient and the most expensive to produce. They are also rigid
and must be mounted in a rigid frame to protect them.
Mono-crystalline Solar Cell & Module

Features:
 Good power-to-size ratio: efficiency typically within the range of

135-170 Watts per m2 (13-17%, with notable exceptions).
 Outstanding performance in cooler conditions.
 Some leading units now have over 18% conversion efficiency.
 Previously the most commonly used technology in the world,

with over 50 years of technological development.
 Excellent life span / longevity. Usually come with 25yr warranty.
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(II) Polycrystalline (or Multi-crystalline) cells are effectively a slice cut
from a block of silicon, consisting of a large number of crystals. They
have a speckled reflective appearance and again you can you see the
thickness of the slice. These cells are slightly less efficient and slightly
less expensive than mono-crystalline cells and again need to be
mounted in a rigid frame.
Polycrystalline Solar Cell & Module
Features:
 Good efficiency: typically 120-150 Watts per m2 (12-15%, with

notable exceptions).
 Generally speaking, marginally less expensive to produce than

mono-crystalline.
 Slightly better performance in hotter conditions.
 Excellent life span / longevity. Usually come with 25yr warranty.
2. Concentrating Photovoltaic Solar Panel Technology: Based on the

principal that a solar cell receiving more light energy will produce more
electricity, concentrating photovoltaic solar panels simply involve a
method ( usually using a lens or mirrors) to concentrate more sunlight
onto a photovoltaic cell. As fewer cells are then required for the same
area of panel (or light capturing area) it may then become economical to
use a highly efficient multifunction cell.
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Concentrating Photovoltaic Solar Cell & Module
Concentrated photovoltaic systems are usually more effective than regular,

flat ones, because a lens focuses the sunlight on a smaller surface of
some efficient and more expensive solar cells 500 times stronger than the
cells would receive in regular operation.
Potentially, this type of panel has the following advantages:
 Higher overall efficiency, capturing more solar energy per meter

squared resulting in a smaller area of panels required for a particular
output. Resulting efficiency levels can approach 50%.
 Potentially lower cost per watt of output due to lower number of solar
cells required, while the material cost and manufacturing process of the
optics (light concentration mechanism) is relatively inexpensive.
 Lower use of environmentally unfriendly chemicals involved in the

panel manufacturing process due to lower number of PV cells.
 Where the concentration is such that cooling of the photovoltaic

module is required, a panel may have the ability to output heat at the
same time as electricity.
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There are however drawbacks:
 In all but the lower levels of concentration, heat needs to be dissipated

from the cells. Cooling is necessary as cell efficiency is significantly
reduced at higher temperatures, or in extreme situations, cells may be
damaged.
 In all but the lower levels of concentration a tracker system will be

required to keep the concentrated light focused on the cell.
 As diffuse light cannot be effectively concentrated, concentrating PV

panels are best suited to areas with a high level of clear sunshine.
 Although research has continued on concentrating photovoltaic for many

years, they have not made their mark on the industry, and where they
have been used, it has been in large scale projects. CPV panels that
have been produced have come in "various shape and size" with no
obvious design leading the field.
3. Thin film solar cell technology
In this approach thin layers of semiconductor material are deposited onto a

supporting substrate, such as a large sheet of glass. Typically, less than a
micron thickness of semiconductor material is required, 100-1000 times less
than the thickness of Silicon wafer. They are known as thin-film because they
are deposited in very thin layers on stainless steel, glass or a flexible
substrate. The thickness of the film is less than 1 micron. Like c-Si, thin-film
PV cells are combined into modules and laminated to protect them from the
elements. They are less expensive than c-Si cells, but their demonstrated
energy conversion efficiency is only around 8%. The advantage of thin-film
technology is that it can be applied over large areas, providing more
opportunity to generate electricity in cloudy conditions.
Features:
 Lowest efficiency: typically 60-80 Watts/m2 (60-80%, with notable

exceptions).
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 Expected lifespan is less than crystalline panels.
 Optimal efficiency in hot weather, less effective in cooler conditions.
 3-6 month „breaking in‟ period where long term output is exceeded.
 Requires 2-3 times more panels and surface area for same output as
crystalline.
Thin film solar cell & Module
Some of the thin film solar cells in use are as follows:
 Amorphous silicon (a – Si)
 Cd Te
 CIS
 CIGS (copper indium gallium di-selenide)
Amorphous silicon thin film (a-Si) solar cell: Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
modules are the first thin film solar module to be commercially produced and
at present has the maximum market share out of all thin film solar cell
technologies. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) solar can be fabricated at a lower
deposition temperature hence permits the use of various low cost flexible
substrates by easier processing technique. The major concern of a-Si solar
cells is their low stabilized efficiency. The overall efficiency drops inevitably at
module level and at present the efficiencies of commercial modules are in the
range of 4-8%.
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Cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film solar cell: Being a crystalline compound
Cadmium Telluride is a direct band gap semiconductor, which is a strong solar
cell material. It is usually sandwiched with cadmium sulfide to form a p-n
junction PV solar cell. CdTe with laboratory efficiency as high as 16% have
been developed at NREL. Multitudes of manufacturing techniques are main
advantage of these solar cells which are suitable for large scale production.
Limited availability of cadmium and pollution problem associated with
Cadmium is main concerns with this technology.
Copper Indium Selenium (CIS) solar cell: Copper Indium Selenium or CIS
are the very latest generation in PV modules. They are an advanced solar
panel offering the latest developments in thin film technology. Compared with
traditional panels, they perform better in shade, better under high
temperatures, and have one of the lowest energy payback times of any panel.
CIS panels feature light-soaking technology for higher nominal power output,
and maintain optimum output levels over their life comparable to crystalline
panels. Like thin film & micro morph modules, these panels appear
aesthetically pleasing dark panels and frames.
Copper Indium Gallium Di-selenide (CIGS) solar cells: This is a new

semiconductor material comprising copper, indium, gallium and selenium in a
specific order, which is used for solar cell manufacturing. It is one of the most
promising thin film technologies due to their high-attained efficiency and low
material costs. Amongst thin film solar cells, the advantage of CIGS solar cell
is its extended operational lifetime without significant degradation. The
inherent properties of CIGS also provide an opportunity for maximizing the
efficiency.
Solar Cell Structure
Solar cells are structured in layers with different functions. The working
principle is the same as in semiconductors. The main part of a silicon (Si)
solar cell generating solar power is formed by two differently doped (n- and p-)
silicon layers. A physical barrier is created between them along the p-/n-
junction, with electrons and holes diffusing into regions of lower
concentration. This depleted region or space charge region can only be
overcome with the help of photons i.e. sunlight. To be able to channel
electrons and holes and generate electric power, metal contacts need to be
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printed onto the front and rear side. Generally, a full aluminum or silver layer is
screen printed onto the rear. A thin grid forms the front contact keeping the
impact on light entering the silicon cells as low as possible. To reduce light
reflection, a thin film of silicon nitride or titanium dioxide is coated onto the
surface.
Solar cell Structure
A typical solar cell is a multi-layered material, comprising:
 A cover layer of clear glass that provides outer protection from the
elements.
 Transparent adhesive that holds the glass to the solar cell.
 An anti-reflective coating that is designed to maximize energy absorption

by preventing the light that strikes the cell from bouncing off.
 Front contact that transmits the electric current.
 A thin N-type semiconductor layer made of silicon, doped with

phosphorous.
 A second thin P-type semiconductor layer of silicon, doped with boron.
 A back contact that transmits the electric current
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There are mainly three different silicon wafer types of different qualities:
 Monocrystalline wafer: Silicon with a single, continuous crystal structure

is grown from a small seed crystal that is slowly pulled out of a
polysilicon melt into a cylindrical shaped ingot (Czochralski process). The
ingot is cut into wafers using a diamond saw. Silicon waste from the
sawing process can be re-cycled into polysilicon.
 Polycrystalline wafer: Polycrystalline silicon consists of small grains of

monocrystalline silicon. Cube-shaped ingots can be made directly by
casting molten polysilicon, which are then cut into wafers similar to
monocrystalline wafers.
 Silicon ribbons: This is a continuous process whereby thin ribbons or

sheets of multicrystalline silicon are drawn from a polysilicon melt. The
subsequent cutting into wafers does not produce waste, as the drawn
sheets are already wafer-thin. Silicon ribbons require around 5g of silicon
per Watt rather than 8g/W using crystalline wafers.
Solar cells are added together into a unit called a module. Modules are linked
together in units called arrays. Arrays put onto roofs of house may produce
up to 6000 Watts which would be enough to provide for the needs of the
occupants.
Solar cell, module & Array
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How do Solar Cells Work?
To understand the operation of a PV cell, we need to consider both the nature

of the material and the nature of sunlight. Solar cells consist of two types of
material, often p-type silicon and n-type silicon. Light of certain wavelengths is
able to ionize the atoms in the silicon and the internal field produced by the
junction separates some of the positive charges ("holes") from the negative
charges (electrons) within the photovoltaic device. The holes are swept into
the positive or p-layer and the electrons are swept into the negative or n-layer.
Although these opposite charges are attracted to each other, most of them
can only recombine by passing through an external circuit outside the material
because of the internal potential energy barrier. Therefore if a circuit is made
power can be produced from the cells under illumination, since the free
electrons have to pass through the load to recombine with the positive hole.
The basic steps in the operation of a solar cell are:
 The generation of light-generated carriers,
 The collection of the light-generated carries to generate a current,
 The generation of a large voltage across the solar cell and
 The dissipation of power in the load and in parasitic resistances.
The generation of current in a solar cell, known as the "light-generated

current", involves two key processes:
Working of Solar cell
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The first process is the absorption of incident photons to create electron-hole
pairs. Electron-hole pairs will be generated in the solar cell provided that the
incident photon has energy greater than that of the band gap. However,
electrons (in the p-type material), and holes (in the n-type material) are meta-
stable and will only exist, on average, for a length of time equal to the minority
carrier lifetime before they recombine. If the carrier recombines, then the light-
generated electron-hole pair is lost and no current or power can be generated.
A second process, the collection of these carriers by the p-n junction, prevents
this recombination by using a p-n junction to spatially separate the electron
and the hole. The carriers are separated by the action of the electric field
existing at the p-n junction. If the light-generated minority carrier reaches the
p-n junction, it is swept across the junction by the electric field at the junction,
where it is now a majority carrier. If the emitter and base of the solar cell are
connected together (i.e., if the solar cell is short-circuited), the light-generated
carriers flow through the external circuit. The ideal flow at short circuit is shown
in the figure below.
The absorption of a photon creates an electron-hole pair
Ideally the minority carrier (in this case a hole) makes it across the junction &
becomes a majority
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Carrier
After passing through the load the electron meets up with a hole and
completes the circuit
Solar cell Characteristics: The usable voltage from solar cells depends on
the semiconductor material. In silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V.
Terminal voltages is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the
current intensity increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm² silicon cell, for
example, reaches a maximum current intensity of approximately 2 A when
radiated by 1000 W/m².
Without illumination, a solar cell has the same electrical characteristics as a

large diode
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The greater the light intensity, the greater the amounts of shift
Since the cell is generating power the convention is to invert the current axis
Current-Voltage Characteristic of Silicon Solar Cell
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The output (product of electricity & voltage) of a solar cell is temperature
dependent. Higher cell temperatures lead to lower output and hence to lower
efficiency. The level of efficiency indicates how much of the radiated quantity
of light is converted into useable electrical energy.
Parameters to characterize solar cells:
 Short circuit current Isc
 Open circuit voltage Voc
 Fill Factor FF
 Efficiency η
Short-circuit current:
The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage
across the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is short circuited).
I (at V=0) = ISC
ISC occurs at the beginning of the forward-bias sweep and is the maximum
current value in the power quadrant. For an ideal cell, this maximum current
value is the total current produced in the solar cell by photon excitation.
Usually written as ISC, the short-circuit current is shown on the I-V curve
below.
I-V curve of a solar cell showing the short-circuit current
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The short-circuit current is due to the generation and collection of light-

generated carriers. For an ideal solar cell at most moderate resistive loss
mechanisms, the short-circuit current and the light generated current are
identical. Therefore, the short-circuit current is the largest current which may
be drawn from the solar cell.
The short-circuit current depends on a number of factors which are described

below:
 The area of the solar cell. To remove the dependence of the solar cell
area, it is more common to list the short-circuit current density (Jsc in
mA/cm2) rather than the short-circuit current
 The number of photons (i.e., the power of the incident light source). Isc
from a solar cell is directly dependant on the light intensity
 The spectrum of the incident light. For most solar cell measurement, the
spectrum is standardized to the AM1.5 spectrum;
 The optical properties (absorption and reflection) of the solar cell
 The collection probability of the solar cell, which depends chiefly on the
surface passivation and the minority carrier lifetime in the base.
Open-circuit voltage:
The open-circuit voltage, VOC, is the maximum voltage available from a solar
cell, and this occurs at zero current. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to
the amount of forward bias on the solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell
junction with the light-generated current.
V (at I=0) = VOC
The open-circuit voltage is shown on the I-V curve below.
30
IV curve of a solar cell showing the open-circuit voltage.
Fill Factor (FF)
The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is
calculated by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (PT)
that would be output at both the open circuit voltage and short circuit current
together. FF can also be interpreted graphically as the ratio of the rectangular
areas depicted in Figure.
Getting the Fill Factor from the I-V Sweep
A larger fill factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more
square-like. Typical fill factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often
represented as a percentage.
31
Efficiency (η)
The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the

performance of one solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of
the electrical power output Pout, compared to the solar power input, Pin, into
the PV cell. Pout can be taken to be PMAX since the solar cell can be
operated up to its maximum power output to get the maximum efficiency. In
addition to reflecting the performance of the solar cell itself, the efficiency
depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the
temperature of the solar cell.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜂= 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑃 𝑖𝑛 𝑃 𝑖𝑛
Pin is taken as the product of the irradiance of the incident light, measured in
W/m2 or in suns (1000W/m2), with the surface area of the solar cell [m2]. The
maximum efficiency (ηmax) found from a light test is not only an indication of
the performance of the device under test, but, like all of the IV parameters,
can also be affected by ambient conditions such as temperature and the
intensity and spectrum of the incident light. The efficiency of a solar cell is
determined as the fraction of incident power which is converted to electricity
and is defined as:
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝐹𝐹
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝐹𝐹
Where,
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor
η is the efficiency.
32
Factors that affect Panel Performance
The panel's output is directly proportional by the intensity of the sunlight falling
on it. More intense sunlight the greater the output. A cool crisp clear day is
best for solar output. In fact, being at higher altitudes with fewer atmospheres
can cause the solar panel to exceed its nameplate and space is heaven for a
solar panel. Bring in cloudy weather with half as much sunshine and the
panel will put out half of its nameplate.
a) Insolation is the term used to describe the amount of solar radiation.

When solar panels are rated they are "flash tested" in a chamber and the
flash is set to be 1,000 watts per square meter (Watts/m 2) of brightness.
This is another way to say a clear bright crisp sunshiny day. Output
ratings for the panel‟s label, such as watts, are then collected based on
this flash of light. We have a light meter, called the "The Daystar Meter"
which has a solar cell built into the top of it and a needle that point to a
scale that goes from 0 to 1,200 Watts/m2. During a day the sun will be at
various intensities so we need get an average to help us figure out how
much energy a panel will put out. While a panel might be putting out
only 20% of its rated power it has so many hours per day to do this. We
call the energy received during TOTAL daylight hours the PEAK SUN
HOURS. Peak sun hour is also defined as the number of hours per day
when the solar insolation equals 1,000 Watts/m2.
b) Shading: Even partial shading of crystalline solar panels will result in

dramatic reduction of solar panel output. One completely shaded cell
can reduce a solar panel's output by as much as 75%. Three cells
shaded can decrease 93% of the panel's output. Call for information on
amorphous panels.
c) Orientation: A compass is off from true south, where your solar panels
should be aimed. This is because a compass aligns with the earth's
magnetic field, which is not aligned with the earth's rotational axis. We
are basically tilted from the sun. The deviation from magnetic south to
TRUE south must be compensated for when setting your solar panels or
your house towards the south.
33
d) Tilt Angle: If all we have is a fixed solar panel rack, for example flat
and bolted to a roof, then to optimize year round solar performance, we
tilt at the latitude of the area. Latitude is the distance north or south of
the earth's equator. The earth is round so we want to get our solar panel
perpendicular or directly into the sun. In Bend, Oregon we are 44
degrees so we tilt our panels to 44 degrees. We can do even better if we
use seasonally adjustable racks. With tilt racks, in the summer we use
44 degrees minus 15 degrees in Bend. We subtract or make the panels
flatter to the sky because the sun is higher in the sky. Remember our
goal is to get the solar panels facing the sun. In the winter we must get
the panels at a steeper angle, again to face the sun so we use 44
degrees plus 15 degrees in Bend.
e) Temperature: What we mean by this is cell temperature. This, of

course, is made up of air temperature, the color of the cell, air
movement, etc. The bottom line is that as the cell heats up the voltage
or pressure becomes sluggish or falls off. Unlike solar water heating
where the hotter the temperature the hotter the water with solar
electricity higher temperatures are detrimental to solar output. Heat for
solar electricity may be thought of an electrical resistance to the flow of
the electrons or electricity.
f) Load Resistance: The output of a solar panel is affected by the voltage

or the pressure it is working at. Run the panel at too high a voltage and
its output decreases. Efficiency also decreases at voltages less than the
modules ideal.
Effect of temperature:
Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature.
Increases in temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby
effecting most of the semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the
band gap of a semiconductor with increasing temperature can be viewed as
increasing the energy of the electrons in the material. Lower energy is
therefore needed to break the bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor
band gap, reduction in the bond energy also reduces the band gap. Therefore
increasing the temperature reduces the band gap. In a solar cell, the
34
parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the open-circuit
voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.
The effect of temperature on the IV characteristics of a solar cell
The open-circuit voltage decreases with temperature because of the

temperature dependence of Io. The equation for Io from one side of a p-n
junction is given by;
𝐷𝑛𝑖2
𝐼𝑜 = 𝑞𝐴
𝐿𝑁𝐷
Where:
q is the electronic charge
D is the diffusivity of the minority carrier given for silicon as a function of

doping
L is the diffusion length of the minority carrier;
ND is the doping; and
ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration given for silicon
In the above equation, many of the parameters have some temperature

dependence, but the most significant effect is due to the intrinsic carrier
concentration, ni. The intrinsic carrier concentration depends on the band gap
energy (with lower band gaps giving a higher intrinsic carrier concentration),
and on the energy which the carriers have (with higher temperatures giving
higher intrinsic carrier concentrations).
35
Real World Considerations: Every manufacturer tests their modules under
something called Standard Test Conditions (STC). These are a set of rules
they all follow.
1. Solar Cell Temperature = 250C
2. Solar Irradiance = 1000 W/m2
3. ASTM Standard Spectrum or the type of light that shines on a solar

panel
To look at how a panel is actually affected in the real world we must look at
the following:
 Production Tolerance: Manufacturers often assign an allowable

tolerance of plus or minus 5% to the module's rating. Hence a 100 watt
solar can be either 95 or 105 watts out of the box.
 Temperature: Higher cell temperature than the 250C will decrease

efficiency. Roof mounted array's will show temperatures in the 50 to 75
C range, which is two to three times the STC rating.
 Dirt and Dust: The name of the game is sunlight to cells. Eventually
panels get dirty until the next rainfall or hose spray. This can account for
about a 2% on average loss.
 Wiring losses: DC wiring accounts for power losses due to the

resistance of the wiring system. We usually design for a 2% wire loss.
 Inverter losses: On average, over a day, this is about 90%.
Extra-terrestrial Solar Radiation
The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and

helium; they account for 74.9% and 23.8% of the mass of the Sun in the
photosphere, respectively. All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy,
account for less than 2% of the mass. The most abundant metals are oxygen
(roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron
(0.2%).The hydrogen in sun continuously going through the process of fusion,
wherein four hydrogen atoms combine to give one heavy molecule of helium.
The fusion process gives out tremendous amount of energy, equivalent to the
36
loss of mass in the process. The energy released in the process can be
estimated by the Einstein‟s formula relating mass m with energy E.
E = mc2 is energy released by the fusion process and is responsible for the
high temperature of the sun. The sun‟s average surface temperature is
maintained at about 5760K.
The earth receives energy from the sun which is necessary to sustain life on
earth. The sun transmits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The
electromagnetic radiation has very broad wavelength range from 10 -6µm for
cosmic rays to over 1000 µm for radio waves. The radiation emitted by the
sun falls in the range of 0.15 µm to 120 µm, covering portions of infrared
radiation. The spectrum (radiated energies as function wavelength or
frequency) of the sun can be estimated by modeling the sun as a black body.
Due to the virtue of temperature, anybody of mass radiates energy. Even
human radiate energy. The spectrum of radiated energy by a black body can
be obtained by Planck‟s black body radiation model, which is given as:
2𝛱ℎ𝐶 2
𝑃𝜆 =
𝜆5 (𝑒 ℎ𝑐 𝜆𝑘𝑡 − 1)
Where h = Planck‟s constant,
c = the speed of light,
λ = the wavelength,
k = Boltzmann‟s constant,
T = temperature of black body and
Pλ= Energy radiated per unit time per unit area.
Considering the sun‟s temperature as 5760K, a spectrum of black body as per

above equation can be plotted. The spectrum is shown in below figure also
shows the extra-terrestrial radiation. Both the curves, modeled extra-terrestrial
solar spectrum and the real extra-terrestrial solar spectrum, match quite well.
37
Spectrum of the extra-terrestrial solar radiation measure outside the

earth‟s atmosphere
Note that the y-axis is termed as solar irradiance. The term radiation is a
general term used in discussion related to solar, but there are two specific
terms or units which are used to distinguish between solar radiation power
(irradiance) and solar radiation energy (irradiation). Let us define these two
terms.
Solar Irradiance
Solar Irradiance (Power density) refers to the rate of energy received by a

surface per unit area; essentially irradiance is nothing but the flux of solar
energy. Therefore irradiance have unit of J/m2-s or W/m2. Solar irradiance is a
measure of how much solar power you are getting at your location. This
irradiance varies throughout the year depending on the seasons. It also varies
throughout the day, depending on the position of the sun in the sky, and the
weather.
38
Solar Irradiation or Insolation
Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface

area and recorded during a given time. It is also called solar irradiation and
expressed as hourly irradiation if recorded during an hour, daily irradiation if
recorded during a day, for example. The unit recommended by the World
Meteorological Organization is MJ/m2 (mega joules per square meter) or
J/mm2 (joules per square millimeter). Practitioners in the business of solar
energy may use the unit W-Hr/m2 (watt-hours per square meter). If this energy
is divided by the recording time in hours, it is then a density of power called
irradiance, expressed in W/m2 (watts per square meter).
Solar Constant S
The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar
electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane
perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly
the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth). When solar irradiance is
measured on the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere, the measurements can
be adjusted using the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar
irradiance at one AU and deduce the solar constant. Solar output is nearly, but
not quite, constant.
The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible
light. It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1.361 kilowatts per square meter
(kW/m²) at solar minimum and approximately 0.1% greater (roughly
1.362 kW/m²) at solar maximum. The actual direct solar irradiance at the top
of the atmosphere fluctuates by about 6.9% during a year (from 1.412 kW/m²
in early January to1.321 kW/m² in early July). The solar constant 1367 W/m²
used for calculation is only the average values of extra-terrestrial solar
radiation over a year. The variation in solar constant with time over the year S t
can be given by the following equation:
St = 1+0.033 cos (360n/365)
Where n is the nth day of the year with 1 January being n=1. The extra-
terrestrial solar radiation is also known as air mass zero (AM0) radiation or as
it refers to the radiation outside the earth‟s atmosphere or air mass.
39
What is the Solar Spectrum?
Sunlight, in the broad sense, is the total frequency spectrum of

electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. On Earth, sunlight has been
filtered through the Earth's atmosphere, and solar radiation is obvious as
daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. Although we experience daylight
as white light, it is in fact made up of a band of colors, some visible and some
invisible.
Solar Spectrum using Prism
Energy of a photon
A photon is characterized by either a wavelength, denoted by λ or equivalently

energy, denoted by E. There is an inverse relationship between the energy of
a photon (E) and the wavelength of the light (λ) given by the equation:
Where h is Planck's constant and c is the speed of light.
The above inverse relationship means that light consisting of high energy
photons (such as "blue" light) has a short wavelength. Light consisting of low
energy photons (such as "red" light) has a long wavelength.
40
When dealing with "particles" such as photons or electrons, a commonly used

unit of energy is the electron-volt (eV) rather than the joule (J). An electron
volt is the energy required to raise an electron through 1 volt, thus 1 eV =
1.602 x 10-19 J. By expressing the equation for photon energy in terms of eV
and µm we arrive at a commonly used expression which relates the energy
and wavelength of a photon, as shown in the following equation:
1.24
𝐸=
λ(µm)
Absorption of light
Photons incident on the surface of a semiconductor will be either reflected

from the top surface, will be absorbed in the material or, failing either of the
above two processes, will be transmitted through the material. For
photovoltaic devices, reflection and transmission are typically considered loss
mechanisms as photons which are not absorbed do not generate power. If the
photon is absorbed it will raise an electron from the valence band to the
conduction band. A key factor in determining if a photon is absorbed or
transmitted is the energy of the photon. Photons falling onto a semiconductor
material can be divided into three groups based on their energy compared to
that of the semiconductor band gap:
Eph < EG Photons with energy Eph less than the band gap energy EG interact
only weakly with the semiconductor, passing through it as if it were
transparent.
Eph = EG has just enough energy to create an electron hole pair and is
efficiently absorbed.
Eph > EG Photons with energy much greater than the band gap are strongly
absorbed
41
The absorption of photons creates both a majority and a minority carrier. In

many photovoltaic applications, the numbers of light-generated carriers are of
orders of magnitude less than the number of majority carriers already present
in the solar cell due to doping. Consequently, the number of majority carriers
in an illuminated semiconductor does not alter significantly. However, the
opposite is true for the number of minority carriers. The number of photo-
generated minority carriers outweighs the number of minority carriers
existing in the solar cell in the dark, and therefore the number of minority
carriers in an illuminated solar cell can be approximated by the number of light
generated carriers.
The path of the photon
After a photon makes its way through the cover glass it encounters the anti
reflective layer. The anti reflective layer channels the photon into the lower
layers of the solar cell. Once the photon passes the AR coating, it will either
hit the silicon surface or the contact grid metallization. The metallization, being
opaque, lowers the number of photons reaching the silicon surface. The
contact grid must be large enough to collect electrons yet cover as little of the
solar cell‟s surface, allowing more photons to penetrate. Now, a photon
causes the photovoltaic effect. As shown in the diagram below the region in
the solar cell where the n-type and p- type Si layers meet is called the p-n-
junction.
42
Solar Cell Model
So due to the p-n-junction, a built in electric field (about 0.6 to 0.7 volts) is
always present across the (darkened) solar cell.
When photons hit the solar cell, freed electrons (-) attempt to unite with holes
on the p-type layer. The p-n-junction, a one-way road, only allows the
electrons to move in one direction. If we provide an external conductive path,
electrons will flow through this path to their original (p-type) side to unite with
holes. The electron flow provides the current (I) and the cell's electric field
causes a voltage (V). With both current and voltage, we have power (P),
which is just the product of the two. Therefore, when an external load (such as
an electric lamp) is connected between the front and back contacts, electricity
flows in the cell, working for us along the way.
Reaction of Photons on Charge Carriers of n- and p-type
43
Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface
The atmosphere absorbs some of this radiation. But it doesn't do it evenly. As

can be seen by the graph below, there are areas within the spectrum where
water vapor, CO2 and even O2 absorb/reflect a particular wavelength. This is
known as Rayleigh scattering. In addition other mechanisms absorb/reflect
energy, namely;
 Reflection back into space by the atmosphere
 Absorption of energy by various molecules in the atmosphere (see the

marked dips in the graph below)
 Mie scattering by dust and pollutants in the air
 Rayleigh scattering by interaction with the air molecules
Solar Radiation on the Earth‟s Surface
The spectrum outside the atmosphere is often termed AM0 air mass 0. At the
equator with the sun directly overhead the reduction in light intensity due to
passing this shortest distance through the atmosphere is termed AM1. Over
the course of our year the air mass in Ireland would vary from a value of about
1.2 in mid-June to about 4 in mid-December. Thus the reduction or attenuation
factor due to the Sun' radiation travelling through the atmosphere and being
absorbed and scattered, would give have a value of between 20-40% in June
and about 50-85% in December.
44
Solar Radiation Spectrum at the Earth‟s Surface. Absorption peak of various

gaseous molecules are also shown.
Distribution of Spectral contents of Solar Radiation on the Earth‟s Surface
Type of Radiation Range of wavelengths (nm) % of energy carried

Ultraviolet radiation 150 to 380 7.6
Visible radiation 380 to 270 48.4
Infrared radiation 720 to 4000 43
Other radiation >4000 1
Air mass
The Air Mass is the path length which light takes through the atmosphere
normalized to the shortest possible path length (that is, when the sun is
directly overhead). The Air Mass quantifies the reduction in the power of light
as it passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by air and dust.
Air Mass is the measure of how far light travels through the Earth's
atmosphere. One air mass, or AM1, is the thickness of the Earth's
atmosphere. Air mass zero (AM0) describes solar irradiance in space, where
it is unaffected by the atmosphere. The power density of AM1.5 light is about
1,000W/m2; the power density of AM0 light is about 1,360W/m2, which is
considered to be the solar constant.
45
The air mass coefficient defines the direct optical path length through the
Earth's atmosphere, expressed as a ratio relative to the path length vertically
upwards, i.e. at the zenith. The air mass coefficient can be used to help
characterize the solar spectrum after solar radiation has traveled through the
atmosphere. The air mass coefficient is commonly used to characterize the
performance of solar cells under standardized conditions, and is often referred
to using the syntax "AM" followed by a number. "AM1.5" is almost universal
when characterizing terrestrial power-generating panels. If the sunrays
making an angle θ with the vertical at a given point on the earth‟s surface,
then the AM that the rays have to travel is given by the following equation:
AM = 1/ cosθ
Where θ is the angle from the vertical (zenith angle). When the sun is directly
overhead, the Air Mass is 1
Air mass is the length of the hypotenuse divided by the object height h, and
from Pythagoras's theorem we get:
𝑠
𝐴𝑀 = 1 + ( )2
ℎ
Air Mass Concept
46
Solar Irradiation under different Air mass conditions
Solar irradiation reaching the

Air mass
surface (W/m2)
AM0 (extra-terrestrial) 1376
AM1(sun at overhead position) 1105
AM1.5(sun at about 480 from overhead

1000
position)
AM2(sun at about 600 from overhead

894
position)
Charging Section:
Charging Section is used for charging the batteries through solar panel. Here
we have explained one method for charging the battery i.e. Constant Voltage
Charging. The two different modes of Constant Voltage Charging are Float
charging and Trickle charging.
Constant Voltage Charging:
Constant-voltage (often called constant-potential) chargers maintain nearly

the same voltage input to the battery throughout the charging process,
regardless of the battery's state of charge. Constant-voltage chargers provide
a high initial current to the battery because of the greater potential difference
between the battery and charger (Solar Panel). A constant-voltage charger
may return as much as 70% of the previous discharge in the first 30 minutes.
As the battery charges its voltage increases quickly.
Constant-Voltage chargers are frequently found in applications that normally

allow extended charging periods to attain full charge. Constant-voltage
chargers should not be used where there is frequent cycling of the battery.
Repeated discharges without returning the cell to its full charge will eventually
decrease the battery capacity and may damage individual cells.
47
Constant-voltage chargers are most often used in two very different
modes:
Float charging: It is a float charging to minimize the effects of overcharge on

batteries having infrequent discharges. A battery under continuous float
voltage charging is said to be under float-charging. Float voltage is the voltage
at which a battery is maintained after being fully charged to maintain that
capacity by compensating for self-discharge of the battery.
Trickle charging: It is a fast charging to restore a high percentage of charge

in a short time. Trickle charging means charging a fully charged battery under
no-load at a rate equal to its self-discharge rate, thus enabling the battery to
remain at its fully charged level.
Buck converter:
A Buck type converter steps down the input voltage using a circuit made with
two switches (a transistor and a diode), an Inductor (L) and a Capacitor (C).
Here we have considered transistor as the main switching device. As shown
in diagram, depending upon whether the switch is ON or OFF the circuit
assumes two states.
Circuit Diagram for Buck Converter
+++
48
Circuit Operation when switch is ON
Circuit Operation when switch is OFF
ON state: In this state, the BJT is ON and connects the input voltage (V i) and
inductor (L). Diode (D) is reversed biased during this mode so no conduction
can take place through it. Thus, energy is transferred from voltage source to
the load (R) and both the inductor and capacitor store energy. The voltage
across the inductor
VL (ON) = Vi-Vo
Where, Vi and Vo are the input and output voltages. In terms of duty cycle, d,
and switching time period, Ts, the length of ON state interval is dTs.
OFF state: In this state, the BJT is switched OFF to disconnect the voltage
source from the circuit. As the inductor (L) current cannot be disrupted
suddenly, the inductor uses its stored energy to forward bias the diode and
cause a current in the output section. In this mode, the voltage across the
inductor is VL (OFF) = -Vo . The length of OFF state interval is (1- d) Ts .
Buck converters, on the other hand, can be remarkably efficient (95% or

higher for integrated circuits), making them useful for tasks such as converting
the main voltage in a computer (12 V in a desktop, 12-24 V in a laptop) down
to the 0.8-1.8 volts needed by the processor.
Efficiency of Buck type DC to DC converter
For a practical circuit, the net change in energy in the inductor core at the end
of each switching cycle must be zero, or else there will be saturation.
E=0
49
This implies that the average value appearing across the inductor over a
switching cycle must be zero.
1 𝑑𝑇𝑠 (1−𝑑)𝑇𝑠
0
𝑉𝐿 𝑂𝑁 𝑑𝑡 + 0
𝑉𝐿 𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑑𝑡 =0
𝑇𝑠
Where
𝑉𝐿 𝑂𝑁 = Vi – Vo and 𝑉𝐿 𝑂𝐹𝐹 = -Vo
According to above equation the net change in current during a switching

cycle must be zero.
Thus
𝐼𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑂𝑁) + 𝐼𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑂𝐹𝐹) = 0

On solving above equations
𝑉𝑜
=𝑑
𝑉𝑖
The ratio 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖 is called voltage gain of the converter. It can be observed
the output voltage of the converter varies linearly with the duty cycle for a
given input voltage. Since d varies between 1 and 0. Thus, the output voltage
will always be equal to the input voltage.
Ideally, the output power supplied to the load should be equal to equal to the
input power supplied from the source.
It implies that Vo Io = Vi Ii and thus
𝐼𝑖
Io=
𝑑
𝑉𝑜 . 𝐼𝑜
Thus efficiency of Buck converter is given by η =
𝑉𝑖 . 𝐼𝑖
Boost converter:
A Boost converter provides an output voltage greater than the source voltage.
Therefore it is called step-up converter or boost converter. Since power must
be conserved, in this case the output current is lower than the source current.
50
ON state: In this state, the switch (SW1) is ON and the source pumps energy
into the inductor (L1). During this interval, the diode (D1) remains reverse
biased and the voltage across inductor is equal to input voltage.
OFF state: In this interval, the switch (SW1) is OFF. As the inductor current
must have a path, the diode (D1) is forward biased to release the energy
stored in the inductor into the load (R1). Therefore, voltage across inductor
(L1) will be difference of input voltage and output voltage.
Efficiency of Boost type DC to DC converter
The efficiency of Boost type converter can be obtained by observing the

difference in voltage across inductor (VL) during ON and OFF states of the
converter.
In this case
1 𝑑𝑇𝑠 (1−𝑑)𝑇𝑠
0
𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + 0
(𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑡 =0
𝑇𝑠
Simplifying above equations we get

𝑉𝑂 1
=
𝑉𝑖 1−𝑑
Thus, by changing the duty cycle one can control the output voltage of boost
type converter.
𝑉𝑜 . 𝐼𝑜
Efficiency of Boost type converter is given by η = .
𝑉𝑖 . 𝐼𝑖
51
Bypass diode:
When part of a PV module is shaded, the shaded cells will not be able to
produce as much current as the unshaded cells.
Since all cells are connected in series, the same amount of current must flow
through every cell. The unshaded cells will force the shaded cells to pass
more current. The shaded cells will dissipate power as heat and cause “hot
spots”. The effect of this shading is also dependent on how the module is
shaded. One way to minimize the effect shading has on a single module in a
series string, is to use by pass diodes in the junction box.
Bypass diodes allow current to pass around shaded cells and thereby reduce
the voltage losses through the module. When a module becomes shaded its
bypass diode becomes “forward biased” and begins to conduct current
through itself. All the current greater than the shaded cell‟s new short circuit
current is “bypassed” through the diode, thus reducing drastically the amount
of local heating at the shaded area. Bypass diode is connected in parallel with
solar cells with opposite polarity to avoid destructive effects of hot spots.
Diagram showing Bypass diodes
In normal condition bypass diode is operated in reverse bias condition. But if

a series connected cell is shaded, reverse bias will appear across it. This
reverse bias will act as a forward bias for the bypass diode since it is
connected with opposite polarity. Thus, extra current generated by the non-
shaded cells will be bypassed through the bypass diode, avoiding power
dissipation in shaded cell and hence heat generation. The main effect of
52
bypass is decrease in the open circuit voltage. The short circuit current
remains the same as that of an unshaded condition. It is recommended that
there should be at least one bypass diode for every 10 to 15 cells to avoid the
hot spots.
Blocking diode:
In the dark, when no voltage is being produced by the panels, the voltage of
the battery would cause a current to flow in the opposite direction through the
panels, discharging the battery, if it was not for the blocking diode in the
circuit. Blocking diodes will be of benefit in any system using solar panels to
charge a battery. In array blocking diode is used to prevent losses caused by
effect like shaded solar cell. In a PV array, individual PV modules are
connected in both series and parallel connection. A series-connected solar
cells or modules is called a “string” and parallel is called a “block”. Every
string (group of serial connected modules) connected parallel with other
strings should have its own blocking diode.
Diagram showing Blocking diode
53
Dusk to Dawn Switch:
Solar Power Lab can be used for different applications. An application of Solar
panel is Dusk to Dawn Switch. As the name suggests Dusk to Dawn switch
means switching with Dusk (sunset) and Dawn (sunrise).
In Dusk to Dawn switch, switch has been implemented using an op-amp,

transistor and relay. Op-amp has been used as comparator. A reference has
been set at comparator inverting terminal. When an input voltage from Solar
panel at non inverting terminal increases compared to inverting terminal, the
transistor is ON. The relay is operated through transistor and when transistor
is ON, relay is normally open. Hence there is no output voltage across load.
When an input voltage from Solar panel at non inverting terminal decreases
compared to inverting terminal, the transistor is OFF. At this situation relay is
normally closed which gives an output voltage across load. Hence, if a led is
used at the output, it will be ON. This is the simple operation of Dusk to Dawn
switch.
54
Assignment 1
Objective:
Study of V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell.
Items Required:
1. Solar Power Lab
2. Variable Load
3. Patch Cords
55
Procedure:
1. First of all make sure all switches are off.
2. Now make connections on Solar Power Lab as specified below.
3. Connect variable load at specified place.
4. Connect positive terminal of Solar Panels Section to first terminal of

variable load.
5. Connect first terminal of variable load to positive terminal of V1 and

second terminal of load to negative terminal of V1.
6. Connect second terminal of load to positive terminal of I1 and negative

terminal of I1 to negative terminal of Solar Panels section.
7. Now connect solar panel to Solar Panels Section.
8. Connect mains cord to Solar Power Lab, switch on mains and rocker
switch of Solar Power Lab.
9. Now vary variable load from zero to maximum and simultaneously note
down the respective readings.
Observation Table:
S. No. Voltage, V (Volts) Current, I (A)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.15.
10. Plot the V- I characteristics from the measurements recorded in the table.
This will demonstrate, the photoelectric current depends on the
photoelectric voltage of solar cell.
56
Sample readings
V (volts) I(mA)
0 0.15
1 0.15
2 0.15
3 0.15
4 0.14
5 0.14
6 0.14
7 0.13
8 0.13
9 0.00
Graph 1: Graph showing V-I Characteristics of Solar cell
57
Assignment 2
Objective:
Study of various modes of Constant Voltage Charging technique.
Items Required:
1. Solar Simulation Lab
2. Patch Cords
58
Procedure:
2. Connect positive terminal of Solar Panels to positive terminal of I1 and

negative terminal of I1 to positive terminal of Blocking Diode.
3. Now make connection between negative terminal of Blocking Diode and

positive terminal of Solar Panel (which is a part of Charging Section).
4. Now make connection between negative terminal of Solar, which is a

part of Charging Section, and negative terminal of Solar Panels.
5. Connect positive terminal of Solar, which is a part of Charging Section, to

positive terminal of V1 and negative terminal of Solar, which is a part of
Charging Section, to negative terminal of V1.
6. Connect positive terminal of V2 to positive terminal of Battery which is a

part of Charging Section.
7. Connect positive terminal of Battery, which is a part of Charging Section,

to positive terminal of I2.
8. Connect negative terminal of I2 to positive terminal of Batteries and

negative terminal of Batteries to negative terminal of Battery which is a
part of Charging Section.
9. Connect negative terminal of V2 to negative terminal of Battery which is

a part of Charging Section.
10. Now you can analyze various modes of Constant Voltage Charging
technique using selector switch.
11. Enter the respective readings in below table.
59
Constant Voltage
Parameters Float Charging Trickle Charging
Charging
Solar Voltage(V1)
Solar Current (I1)
Battery Voltage
(V2)
Battery Current
(I2)
12. Switch off the rocker switch & mains supply to remove connections.
Sample readings
Constant Voltage
Parameters Float Charging Trickle Charging
Charging
Solar Voltage(V1) ,V 7.5 7.5 9.08
Solar Current (I1), mA 210 130 10
Battery Voltage (V2) V 7.2 6.96 6.8
Battery Current (I2), mA 230 150 30
Conclusion:
1) In case of constant voltage charging, battery gets charged by maximum

current.
2) In case of Float charging, battery gets charged by a current less than

constant voltage charging technique with 90% on time and 10% off time.
3) In case of trickle charging, battery gets charged by minimum current with

10% on time and 90% off time.
60
Assignment 3
Objective:
Study of Buck Converter.
Items Required:
2. Variable Load
3. Multimeter
4. Patch Cords
61
Procedure:
2. Connect Variable Load at specified place and set it at minimum value of

resistance.
3. Connect two batteries in parallel i.e. positive to positive and negative to

negative terminals.
4. Connect positive terminal of parallel combination of batteries to positive

terminal of V1, positive terminal of V1 to positive terminal of I1 and
negative terminal of I1 to positive terminal of Buck Converter input.
5. Connect negative terminal of parallel combination of batteries to negative

terminal of V1 and connect negative terminal of V1 to negative terminal
of Buck Converter input.
6. Connect positive terminal of V2 to positive terminal of Buck Converter

output.
7. Connect negative terminal of V2 to negative terminal of Buck Converter

output.
8. Connect positive terminal of V2 to positive terminal of I2 and negative

terminal of I2 to one terminal of Variable Load.
9. Connect second terminal of Variable Load to negative terminal of Buck

Converter output.
11. Observe the values of V1, V2, I1 and I2 at LCD display.
12. Now vary the rheostat from minimum resistance to maximum resistance
to get all input-output parameters i.e. V1, V2, I1, I2, as required in buck
converter.
13. In Buck converter, we will analyze that V1 should be greater than V2 and
I1 should be less than I2.
14. Switch off the rocker switch & mains supply to remove connections and with
the help of multimeter measure the value of resistance at rheostat.
62
Note: V1 = Input voltage of Buck converter
I1 = Input current of Buck converter
V2 = Output voltage of Buck converter
I2 = Output current of Buck converter
Sample readings
At resistance 2.1 Ohm (approx.)
Voltages (in volts) Currents (in A)

Input voltage (V1) 6.21 Input current (I1) 0.09
Input Voltage (V2) 0.51 Output current (I2) 0.73
63
Assignment 4
Objective:
Study of Boost Converter.
Items Required:
2. Variable Load
3. Multimeter
4. Patch Cords
64
Procedure:
2. Connect Variable Load at specified place and set it at maximum value of

resistance.
3. Connect two batteries in parallel i.e. positive to positive and negative to

negative terminals.
4. Connect positive terminal of parallel combination of batteries to positive

terminal of V1, positive terminal of V1 to positive terminal of I1 &
negative terminal of I1 to positive terminal of Boost Converter input.
5. Connect negative terminal of batteries combination of batteries to

negative terminal of V1 and connect negative terminal of V1 to negative
terminal of Boost Converter input.
6. Connect positive terminal of V2 to positive terminal of Boost Converter

output.
7. Connect negative terminal of V2 to negative terminal of Boost Converter

output.
8. Connect positive terminal of V2 to positive terminal of I2 and negative

terminal of I1 to one terminal of Variable Load.
9. Connect second terminal of Variable Load to negative terminal of Boost

Converter output.
11. Measure V1, V2, I1, I2.
12. Now vary the rheostat from maximum resistance to minimum resistance
to get all input-output parameters i.e. V1, V2, I1, I2, as required in boost
converter.
13. In Boost converter, V1 should be less than V2 and I1 should be greater

than I2.
14 Switch off the rocker switch & mains supply to remove connections and
with the help of multimeter measure the value of resistance at rheostat.
65
Note: V1 = Input voltage of Boost converter
I1 = Input current of Boost converter
V2 = Output voltage of Boost converter
I2 = Output current of Boost converter
Sample readings
At resistance 32.2 Ohm (approx.)
Voltages (in volts) Currents (in A)

Input voltage (V1) 6.17 Input current (I1) 0.32
Input Voltage (V2) 7.44 Output current (I2) 0.18
66
Assignment 5
Objective:
Study of Bypass Diodes.
Items Required:
2. Patch Cords
67
Procedure:
2. Connect positive terminal of one Solar Panel to positive terminal of I1

and negative terminal of that Solar Panel to positive terminal of another
Solar Panel.
3. Connect negative terminal of another Solar Panel to negative terminal of

I1.
5. Analyze I1, I1 flows.
Figure showing panels connected in series
6. Now shadow one of the Solar Panel and analyze the I1, no current will
flow.
7. Switch off the rocker switch and connect bypass diode in anti parallel
combination of each panel i.e. connect positive terminal of one Solar
Panel to negative terminal of bypass diode as in above figure.
Bypass diode in anti parallel combination with solar panels

68
8. Now switch on the rocker switch.
9. Analyze I1, I1 flows.
10. Now shadow one of the Solar Panel and analyze the I1, current I1 will
flow.
Conclusion:
1 When bypass diodes are not used:
There will not be current flow in case when two panels are in series and
one panel is in shadow. In this case shadowed panel can be damaged.
2 When bypass diodes are used:
There will be significant current flow in case when two panels are in
series and one panel is in shadow.
In this case current will be bypassed through bypass diode. So, there is
no chance of panel damage.
69
Assignment 6
Objective:
Study of Dusk to Dawn Switch.
Items Required:
2. Patch Cords
70
Procedure:
2. Connect positive terminal of Solar Panel to Vin of Application Section.
3. Connect negative terminal of Solar Panel to ground.
4. Connect positive terminal of one of four batteries to positive terminal of

battery which is in Charging Section
5. Connect negative terminal of batteries to negative terminal of battery

which is in Charging Section.
6. Connect NC to positive terminal of one LED in DC Load section and

negative terminal of that LED to ground terminal.
8. Set Vref to 3V with the help of multimeter.
9. In this situation LED, connected to NC and ground, will remain off

because Vin is greater than Vref.
10. Now shadow the Solar Panel so that Vin is less than Vref i.e. less than
3V; we will analyze LED, connected to NC and ground, will glow.
Conclusion:
When Vin is greater than Vref, Solar energy is present, there is no need of
artificial light and simultaneously battery will be charged using solar energy.
As Vin is less than Vref, Solar energy is absent, there is need of artificial light
and thus LED will light up.
This application is significantly used in Solar Street Light.
71
Glossary
 Absorber : In a photovoltaic device, the material that readily absorbs

photons to generate charge carriers (free electrons or holes).
 Amorphous : A type of PV solar panel that, unlike multicrystalline and

monocrystalline versions, are not made from expensive crystalline silicon
solar cells. They can have a plastic substrate and a very thin layer of
silicon is sprayed onto a backing material. As much less silicon is used,
they are cheaper but less efficient than other systems.
 Ampere (amp) : A unit of electrical current or rate of flow of electrons.

One volt across one ohm of resistance causes a current flow of one
ampere. One ampere is equal to 6.235 x 10 18 electrons per second
passing a given point in a circuit.
 Ampere Hour (amp hr. or AH) : A measure of current over time, used to
measure battery capacity.
 Ampere Hour Meter : An instrument that monitors current with time. The
indication is the product of current (in amperes) and time (in hours).
 Angle Of Incidence : The angle between the direct solar beam and the
normal (90 degrees) to the active surface.
 Array : Any number of Photovoltaic modules connected together

electrically to provide a single electrical output. An array is a
mechanically integrated assembly of modules or panels together with
support structure (including foundation and other components, as
required) to form a free-standing field installed unit that produces DC
power.
 Cadmium (Cd) : A chemical element used in making certain types

of solar cells and batteries.
 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) : A polycrystalline thin-film photovoltaic

material.
 Current at Maximum Power (Imp) : The current at which maximum

power is available from a module.
72
 Diffuse Insolation : The radiant energy from the sky incident upon unit
surface area during a specified time period (Same units as for direct
insolation).
 Direct Insolation : The radiant energy from the sun (and a small area of
sky surrounding it, defined by the acceptance angle of the pyrheliometer)
incident upon unit surface area during a specified time period. (MJ/m2
per hour, day, week, month or year, as the case may be).
 Efficiency : The ratio of power output of a Photovoltaic cell to the

incident power from the sun or simulated sun sources under specified
standard insolation conditions.
 Electrolyte : The fluid used in batteries as the transport medium for

positively and negatively charged ions.
 Electrons : A negatively charged particle. The movement of electrons in

an electrical conductor constitutes an electric current.
 Electron Volt (eV) : The amount of kinetic energy gained by an electron

when accelerated through an electric potential difference of 1 Volt;
equivalent to 1.603 x 10^-19; a unit of energy or work.
 Energy : The capability of doing work; different forms of energy can be

converted to other forms, but the total amount of energy remains the
same.
 Epitaxial Growth : The growth of one crystal on the surface of another

crystal. The growth of the deposited crystal is oriented by the lattice
structure of the original crystal.
 Fill Factor : The ratio of a photovoltaic cell's actual power to its power if
both current and voltage were at their maxima. A key characteristic in
evaluating cell performance.
 Fixed Tilt Array : A photovoltaic array set in at a fixed angle with

respect to horizontal.
 Flat-Plate Module : An arrangement of photovoltaic cells or material

mounted on a rigid flat surface with the cells exposed freely to incoming
sunlight.
73
 Flat-Plate Photovoltaic’s (PV) : A PV array or module that consists of
non concentrating elements. Flat-plate arrays and modules use direct
and diffuse sunlight, but if the array is fixed in position, some portion of
the direct sunlight is lost because of oblique sun-angles in relation to the
array.
 Full Sun : The full sun condition is the amount of power density
received at the surface of the earth at noon on a clear day – about 100
mW/cm2. Lower levels of sunlight are often expressed as 0.5 sun or 0.1
sun. A figure of 0.5 sun means that the power density of the sunlight is
one-half of that of a full sun.
 Halogen Lamps : lamps with very low wattage, that generate high
intensity light through a combination of specially coated, highly efficient
reflectors. Very low voltage with high efficiency deliver of light for low
power
 Incident Light : The incident light is the amount of light reaching an

object.
 Insolation : The amount of sunlight reaching an area. Usually

expressed in mill watts per square centimeter.
 Irradiance : The direct, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation that strikes
a surface. Usually expressed in kilowatts per square meter. Irradiance
multiplied by time equals insolation.
 I-V Curve : A graphical presentation of the current versus the voltage

from a photovoltaic device as the load is increased from the short circuit
(no load) condition to the open circuit (maximum voltage) condition. The
shape of the curve characterizes cell performance.
 Load : Refers to equipment that is powered by electricity. Usually

expressed in terms of amperes or watts. In an electrical circuit, any
device or appliance that uses power (such as a light bulb or water
pump).
 Maximum Power : The power at the point on the current-voltage

characteristic where the product of current and voltage is a maximum
(measured in watts).
74
 Module : The smallest non divisible, self-contained and environmentally
protected physical structure housing interconnected Photovoltaic cells
and providing a single DC electrical output.
 Maximum Power Point (MPP) : The point on the current-voltage (I-V)

curve of a module under illumination, where the product of current
and voltage is maximum. For a typical silicon cell, this is at about 0.45
volts.
 Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) : Means of a power

conditioning unit that automatically operates the photovoltaic generator
at its maximum power point under all conditions.
 Maximum Power Tracking : Operating a photovoltaic array at the peak

power point of the array's I-V curve where maximum power is obtained.
Also called peak power tracking.
 Nominal Voltage : A reference voltage used to describe batteries,

modules, or systems (i.e., a 12-volt or 24-volt battery, module, or
system).
 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) : Voltage produced by a Photovoltaic cell

with no load applied when the cell is exposed to standard insolation
conditions, measured with a voltmeter.
 Panel : A collection of one or more modules fastened together into a

single unit, often factory pre- assembled and wired, forming a field-
installable unit.
 Parallel Connection : A wiring configuration used to increase current

(amperage). Parallel wiring is positive to positive (+ to +) and negative to
negative (- to -). Opposite of a series connection.
 Peak Power Point : Operating point of the I-V (current-voltage) curve

for a Photovoltaic cell or module where the product of the current value
times the voltage value is a maximum.
 Peak Watts : The measurement of electricity produced by a solar

generator at noon on a sunny day, under predetermined standard
conditions.
75
 Photovoltaic Cell : A device composed of specially prepared
semiconductor material or material combinations exhibiting the ability to
convert incident solar energy directly into electrical energy.
 Photovoltaic Effect : The phenomenon that occurs when photons, the

“particles” in a beam of light, knock electrons loose from the atoms they
strike. When this property of light is combined with the properties of
semiconductors, electrons flow in one direction across a junction, setting
up a voltage. With the addition of circuitry, current will flow and electric
power will be available.
 RMS : Amps, excluding the effects of all harmonic exponents; it could be

called fundamental power factor.
 Series Connection : A wiring configuration used to increase voltage.

Series wiring is positive to negative (+ to -) or negative to positive (- to +).
 Silicon : A non-metallic element, that when specially treated, is sensitive

to light and capable of transforming light into electricity. Silicon is the
basic material of most beach sand, and is the raw material used to
manufacture most photovoltaic cells.
 Single-Crystal Structure : A material having a crystalline structure such

that a repeatable or periodic molecular pattern exists in all three
dimensions.
 Solar Energy : Electromagnetic energy transmitted from the sun (solar

radiation). The amount that reaches the earth is equal to one billionth of
total solar energy generated, or the equivalent of about 420 trillion
kilowatt-hours.
 Solar-Grade Silicon : Intermediate-grade silicon used in the

manufacture of solar cells. Less expensive than electronic-grade silicon.
 Solar Panel : A collection of solar modules connected in series, in

parallel, or in series- parallel combination to provide greater voltage,
current, or power than can be furnished by a single solar module. Solar
panels can be provided to furnish any desired voltage, current, or power.
76
 Thick-Crystalline Materials : Semiconductor material, typically
measuring from 200-400 microns thick, that is cut from ingots or ribbons.
 Thin Film : A layer of semiconductor material, such as copper indium di-

selenide or gallium arsenide, a few microns or less in thickness, used to
make photovoltaic cells.
 Thin Film Photovoltaic Module : A photovoltaic module constructed

with sequential layers of thin film semiconductor materials.
 Voltage at Maximum Power (Vmp) : The voltage at which maximum

power is available from a photovoltaic module.
 Watt : The rate of energy transfer equivalent to one ampere under an

electrical pressure of one volt. One watt equals 1/746 horsepower, or
one joule per second. It is the product of voltage and current (amperage).
77
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1. What is renewable energy?
Ans: Renewable energy comes from energy resources that are

continuously replenished through the cycles of nature. Unlike fossil
fuels, their supply will never become exhausted. The main sources of
renewable energy are:
 the sun (solar energy)
 the wind
 moving water (hydropower, wave and tidal energy)
 heat below the surface of the earth (geothermal energy)
 biomass (wood, waste, energy crops)
Q2. What are the benefits of renewable energy?
Ans: Benefits of renewable energy are as follows:
 Renewable energy resources are clean sources of energy, they

can be harnessed without damaging the environment, unlike using
fossil fuels which release carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and
other harmful pollutants into the atmosphere.
 Renewable energy resources will never become exhausted.

Unlike finite fossil fuels, renewable energy resources are
continuously replenished and will not run out.
Q3. How does a solar system generate electricity?
Ans: A solar energy system generates electricity through the use of

photovoltaic (PV) technology. PV turns the suns light energy directly
into electric energy.
Q4. What is photovoltaic?
Ans: Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity using

the physical mechanism called the photovoltaic effect.
78
Q5. How Solar PV (Electric) Works?
Ans: Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert daylight into electricity via
solar panels which use a thin layer of semiconducting material, usually
silicon, enclosed between layers of glass or plastic. The incident light
dislodges electrons from the material, which then flow to produce
direct current (DC) electricity. The direct current passes through wiring
to an inverter, which converts it to alternating current (AC), so that it
can be connected to a property's main electricity distribution board.
Unlike fossil fuels, no carbon dioxide is emitted when using solar
panels. The sun provides an abundant, free source of clean energy.
Q6. How does solar power work?
Ans: PV panels contain a semiconductor material (typically silicon-based)

which converts sunlight into direct-current (DC) electricity. An on-site
inverter converts the DC power to 120-volt AC power, which can then
be connected to a home or building‟s power supply or directly to the
electricity grid. Solar thermal collectors absorb the sun‟s thermal
energy and use it to heat water or other fluids, which can be used for
hot water or circulated through a home or building for space heating.
Q7. How is solar irradiance measured?
Ans: There are two irradiance measurement methods defined and accepted
by international standards covering the performance measurement of
PV systems:
1. Pyranometer - High precision, high cost instruments using

thermal sensors in a glass dome.
2. PV Reference Cell - Effectively a small scale version of a PV

module, having the same response to solar energy.
79
Q8. What is a solar simulator?
Ans: A solar simulator is a device that provides illumination approximating

natural sunlight. Solar simulator is also called as artificial sun. The
purpose of the solar simulator is to provide a controllable indoor test
facility under laboratory conditions, used for the testing of solar cells,
sun screen, plastics, and other materials and devices.
Q9. What are the types of solar simulator based on the form of light?
Ans: Solar simulators can be divided into three broad categories on the
basis of form of light:
 Continuous,
 Flashed, and
 Pulsed.
Q10. Which types of lamps are generally used in solar simulator?
Ans: Generally used Lamps are as follows:
 Xenon arc lamps
 Metal Halide arc lamps and
 Quartz tungsten halogen lamps.
80
Warranty
 We warranty the product against all manufacturing defects for 12 months

from the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry
cell etc. are not covered under warranty.
 The warranty will become void, if
 The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the

learning material.
 The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not
followed.
 The customer resells the instrument to another party.
 Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
 The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately

giving full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically
mentioning the type, serial number of the product and date of purchase
etc.
 4 The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched
securely packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne
by the customer.
81
References
 http://electronicdesign.com/power/fundamentals-buck-converter-
efficiency.
 http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=Simple+DC+Boost+Converter+Ci
rcuit&FORM=RESTAB.
 Chetan singh Solanki, “Solar Photovoltaics, Fundamentals, Technologies

and Applications”.
 http://www.solar-facts.com/panels/panel-diodes.php#
 http://nuclearpowertraining.tpub.com/hdbk1084/css/hdbk1084_41.htm
82

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Solar Power Lab

Designed & Manufactured by-

Study of V-I characteristics of Solar Cell.

Study of various modes of Constant Voltage Charging technique.

Study of Buck Converter.

Study of Boost Converter.

Study of Bypass Diodes.

Study of Dusk to Dawn Switch.

8. Frequently Asked Questions 78

10. Check List 82

An application section provided with it gives an application demo of an

 Complete system to get overview of Solar Power.

 Batteries are in-built in the lab.

 In-built Digital Display for voltage and current measurement.

 Application section on the board itself.

 Arrangement to protect solar panel from damage.

Supply Voltage : 220V AC ± 10%, 50/60 Hz

Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) : 9V DC

Short Circuit Current (Isc) : 0.61A

Current rating : 4.5 Ah

Voltage range : 0-50V

Current range : 0-3 A ±10mA

Rheostat (Optional) : 110 Ω, 5A

Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating Scientech

Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.

The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.

For your safety:

Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the

Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in

1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.

2. Do not operate in an explosive

3. Keep the product dust free, clean and

Energy is something that causes a change to a system, at the macroscopic or

Energy Runs Machines

Transformation and conservation of energy

Some of the many forms that energy takes are

 Mechanical energy, which includes

 Potential energy, stored in a system.

 Kinetic energy, from the movement of matter.

 Thermal energy, associated with the heat of an object.

 Chemical energy, stored in the chemical bonds of molecules.

 Electrical energy, associated with the movement of electrons.

 Electromagnetic energy, associated with light waves (including radio

Sources of Renewable and Non-renewable Energy

Non-renewable energy: Nonrenewable energy is energy that comes from the

Renewable Energy: Renewable energy is energy which is generated from

Sustainable Sun’s Energy

Solar Energy Advantage

Another big advantage of using solar energy is that solar power is a

 It is clean energy source, no potential damage to the environment.

 The module character of technology allows gradual implementation and

2. Photovoltaic Cell / Solar Cell: A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

(1) The absorption of light, generating electron-hole pairs

(2) The separation of various types of charge carriers

(3) The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

Basic Concept of Solar Cell

1. Crystalline solar cells are wired in series to produce solar panels. As

Mono-crystalline Solar Cell & Module

 Good power-to-size ratio: efficiency typically within the range of

 Outstanding performance in cooler conditions.

 Some leading units now have over 18% conversion efficiency.

 Previously the most commonly used technology in the world,