aerospace

Article
A Numerical–Analytical Approach for the Preliminary
Design of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shell Structures
with Elliptical Cut-Outs
Angela Russo *, Andrea Sellitto † , Salvatore Saputo † , Valerio Acanfora † and Aniello Riccio †
Department of Engineering, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, via Roma 29, Aversa, Italy;
andrea.sellitto@unicampania.it (A.S.); salvatore.saputo@unicampania.it (S.S.);
valerio.acanfora@unicampania.it (V.A.); aniello.riccio@unicampania.it (A.R.)
* Correspondence: angela.russo@unicampania.it; Tel.: +39-081-5010-407
† These authors contributed equally to this work.




Received: 5 March 2019; Accepted: 29 April 2019; Published: 6 May 2019


Abstract: The presence of cut-outs within thin-walled shell structures is unavoidable, holes being
needed for the passage of electrical cables, fuel, or just to reduce the weight of the components.
Nevertheless, the high stress concentration can lead to a premature collapse of the structure. For this
reason, the preliminary design of cylindrical shell structures with holes needs a profound knowledge
of the stress distribution for different loading conditions and constraints. In this paper, a parametric
study of a fiber-reinforced composite shell cylinder with an elliptical cut-out has been performed.
Three different loading conditions were analyzed: Tension, bending, and torsion. Ansys® script,
capable of easily generating and analyzing different geometrical configurations, was used to study
the dependence of the geometry on the stress distribution near the cut-out. Finally, graphical and
analytical relationships were tentatively extrapolated from numerical results, aimed at linking the
geometrical parameters of the cut-out to the maximum stress near the cut-out.

Keywords: shell cylinder; cut-out; hole; stress concentration

1. Introduction
Thin-walled cylindrical structures are increasingly adopted in the frame of many engineering
applications due to their inherent lightweight characteristics; however, they are prone to undergoing
critical instability phenomena related mainly to their slimness, boundary conditions, and imperfections.
Imperfections include geometrical imperfections depending on the manufacturing process, load eccentricity
but also cut-outs and holes. The application of cut-outs within cylindrical thin-walled structures for
aeronautical applications cannot be avoided, holes being necessary for the realization of doors and
windows or for the presence of electrical cables and pipes. As a matter of fact, the structural response of
a thin-walled cylindrical component can significantly change in proximity to cut-outs due to the high
stresses’ and deformations’ concentration [1–4]. For such a reason, the preliminary design of a notched
cylindrical shell structures requires an in-depth understanding of the stress concentration for different
loading conditions and constraints. In literature, several analytical, numerical, and experimental studies
have been conducted to determine the stress distribution in a cylindrical shell with cut-outs, subject
to various loading conditions, like traction, bending, torsion, and internal/external pressure. The first
analytical studies were conducted in [5,6] to investigate the effects of axial load and internal pressure,
together with the cylinders’ curvature, on the stress concentration near circular cut-outs. Subsequently,
analytical studies were presented in [7–12], which further examined the effect of different loading
conditions on the stress concentration in cylindrical structures with various sizes and shape notches.

Aerospace 2019, 6, 52; doi:10.3390/aerospace6050052 www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 2 of 15

Experimental
Aerospace 2019,assessment
6, x was presented in [13], where the effects of circular holes in cylindrical 2 ofshells
16
under axial compression were studied. It was found that significant reductions in the buckling load of
assessment
cylindrical was
shell presenteddue
structures, in [13],
to thewhere the effects
presence of circular
of relatively holes
small in cylindrical
unreinforced shells under
cut-outs, can beaxial
found.
compression were studied. It was found that significant reductions in the
In [14], the stress state near an elliptic cut-out in a circular cylindrical shell structure, underbuckling load of cylindrical
axial load,
shell structures, due to the presence of relatively small unreinforced cut-outs, can be found. In [14],
was experimentally measured. Different ellipse eccentricities and curvature parameters were analyzed.
the stress state near an elliptic cut-out in a circular cylindrical shell structure, under axial load, was
Zirka et al.; in [15], experimentally determined the stress concentrations in proximity to elliptical
experimentally measured. Different ellipse eccentricities and curvature parameters were analyzed.
and circular holes in a cylindrical shell made of epoxy resin. A numerical approach, able to predict
Zirka et al.; in [15], experimentally determined the stress concentrations in proximity to elliptical and
the mechanical behavior of composite 3D shells with circular holes and with different configurations
circular holes in a cylindrical shell made of epoxy resin. A numerical approach, able to predict the
in terms
mechanicalof material
behavior and of structural
composite parameters,
3D shells with was presented
circular holes in
and[16].
withExperimental and numerical
different configurations in
analyses
terms of material and structural parameters, was presented in [16]. Experimental and the
were performed by Yazici et al. in [17], where the influence of cut-out shapes on buckling
numerical
behavior
analysesofwererectangular
performed glass/epoxy
by Yazici etplates, with
al. in [17], different
where orientation
the influence angles,
of cut-out wason
shapes studied. In [17],
the buckling
robust numerical techniques, to study the stresses’ and deformations’ concentrations
behavior of rectangular glass/epoxy plates, with different orientation angles, was studied. In [17], near the cut-outs
in composites
robust numericalthin-walled structures,
techniques, to study proved to be mandatory
the stresses’ in the design
and deformations’ stage.
concentrations near the cut-
outsIn in
thecomposites
present paper, the effect
thin-walled of geometrical
structures, proved toparameters’
be mandatory andinloading conditions’
the design stage. variation on
the forces’
In thedistribution
present paper, havethe been analyzed
effect in Carbon
of geometrical Fiber Reinforced
parameters’ and loading Plastic (CFRP)
conditions’ thin-walled
variation on
the forces’
cylindrical distribution
shell structures. have been analyzed in Carbon
A numerical–analytical Fiber Reinforced
procedure the ANSYS®
Plastic (CFRP)inthin-walled
has been implemented
cylindrical
Finite Element shell structures.
Method (FEM) A numerical–analytical
code, by means of the procedure has been implemented
Ansys parametric design languagein the ANSYS®
(APDL), to
Finite
build andElement
analyze Method (FEM)geometry
all possible code, by means of the Ansys
and cut-out parametric
variations, underdesign language
different loading (APDL), to
conditions.
build and analyze all possible geometry and cut-out variations, under different
Moreover, analytical relationships have been tentatively extrapolated from numerical results, aiming to loading conditions.
Moreover,
link analytical
the geometrical relationships
parameters of thehave beento
cut-out tentatively
the maximum extrapolated from
stress near numerical
the cut-out. results, aiming
The investigated
testtocase
linkisthe geometrical of
representative parameters
a fuselageof the cut-out
barrel, includingto the maximum
windows and/orstress near the cut-out.
the passenger The
door. Indeed,
investigated test case is representative of a fuselage barrel, including windows
the proposed approach is faster with respect to traditional finite element analyses, usually employed and/or the passenger
door. Indeed, the proposed approach is faster with respect to traditional finite element analyses,
to study the stress field induced by cut-out in cylindrical structures. Hence, it is particularly suitable in
usually employed to study the stress field induced by cut-out in cylindrical structures. Hence, it is
the frame of preliminary design stages coupled with optimization procedures, where fast approaches
particularly suitable in the frame of preliminary design stages coupled with optimization procedures,
are desirable over more complex, detailed, and time-consuming linear and nonlinear approaches.
where fast approaches are desirable over more complex, detailed, and time-consuming linear and
Hence, the proposed method has been validated by means of comparison with linear FEM numerical
nonlinear approaches. Hence, the proposed method has been validated by means of comparison with
approaches, neglecting, at this stage, the complexities and uncertainties resulting from experimental
linear FEM numerical approaches, neglecting, at this stage, the complexities and uncertainties
tests. Indeed,
resulting from in subsequent
experimentalmore tests.detailed
Indeed, in design stages,more
subsequent comparison
detailed with
designexperimental data will
stages, comparison
be with
mandatory.
experimental data will be mandatory.

2. Geometrical
2. Geometrical Model
Model
The thin-walled
The thin-walledshell
shellcylinder,
cylinder,made
madeofof fiber-reinforced compositematerials,
fiber-reinforced composite materials,with
withanan elliptical
elliptical
cut-out located
cut-out inin
located the
themiddle
middleofofthe
thestructure,
structure,asas shown
shown in Figure 1,
in Figure 1, has
hasbeen
beenanalyzed
analyzedininthis
thispaper.
paper.

Figure
Figure 1. Geometrical model.
Geometrical model.

Cylinders’
Cylinders’and cut-outs’
and cut-outs’size
sizeand
andeccentricity
eccentricity variations have
havebeen
beenstudied
studiedininthis
thiswork
workbyby means
means
of of a sensitivitystudy.
a sensitivity study. The
The inclination
inclinationangle
angleofof
the elliptical
the hole,
elliptical withwith
hole, respect to thetocylinder
respect axis, has
the cylinder axis,
been considered as a variable parameter, as shown in Figure
has been considered as a variable parameter, as shown in Figure 2. 2.
The cylinder and cut-out semiminor axis length values can be calculated according to Equations (1)
and (2): √
b = a 1 − e2 (1)
p
bc = ac 1 − ec 2 (2)
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 3 of 15
Aerospace 2019, 6, x 3 of 16

2a
2ac
2b
2bc

ϴ
φ
L

Figure
Figure2.2.Variable parameters.
Variable parameters.

Basically,
The the and
cylinder geometrical variables considered
cut-out semiminor axis lengthinvalues
the sensitivity analysis according
can be calculated are: to Equations
(1)
• and (2):
The radius of the cylinder (considering a zero value of the eccentricity);
• The eccentricity of the cylinder;
b=a 1 − e2 (1)
• The semiminor axis of the elliptical cut-out;
• The eccentricity of the elliptical cut-out;
bc = ac 1 − ec 2 (2)
• The cut-out inclination angle.
Basically,
A cylinder thelength
geometrical
(L) of variables
356 mm considered in the sensitivity
was considered, analysis are: stacking sequence
and a quasi-isotropic
◦ /−45◦ /90◦ /0◦ /90◦ /−45◦ /45], with a ply thickness of 0.14 mm, was selected for the computations.
•[+45 The radius of2the cylinder (considering a zero value of the eccentricity);
•The mechanical properties
The eccentricity of the of the used fiber-reinforced material are listed in Table 1.
cylinder;
• The semiminor axis of the elliptical cut-out;
Table 1. CFRP mechanical properties.
• The eccentricity of the elliptical cut-out;
• The cut-out inclination
Parameterangle. Unit of Measure Value
A cylinder lengthE11(L) of 356 mm was considered,
GPa and a quasi-isotropic
135 stacking sequence
E22 GPa 13
[+45°/−45°/90°/0°2/90°/−45°/45], with a ply thickness of 0.14 mm, was selected for the computations.
ν12 - 0.38
The mechanical properties of the used fiber-reinforced material are listed in Table 1.
G12 GPa 6.4

Table 1. CFRP mechanical properties.

3. Finite Element Model
Parameter Unit of measure Value
The finite element model was built in the ANSYS® FEM environment using a subroutine written
E11 GPa 135
in the Ansys parametric design language (APDL). Indeed, a routine has been created able to generate
E22 GPa 13
all the possible configurations of the cylindrical shell with an elliptical cut-out, analyzed in this
ν12 - 0.38
framework, by easily changing the geometrical parameters, such as eccentricity and semiminor axis
G12 GPa 6.4
length. The model was discretized by means of the Ansys® shell layered elements SHELL281 with
eight nodes and six degrees of freedom at each node (translations in the x, y, and z axes, and rotations
3. Finite element Model
about the x, y, and z axes). Different mesh sizes were adopted to try to reduce the computational effort,
The finite
preserving, element
at the same model was
time, the built inaccuracy
needed the ANSYS®
in theFEM environment
cut-out region. In using a subroutine
more detail, written
the optimized
in the Ansys
element size parametric
was found by design
meanslanguage
of a mesh(APDL). Indeed,
sensitivity a routine
analysis has been
and kept created
constant able
in the to generate
area with the
all the possible
highest configurations
element density, without of the cylindrical
taking into accountshell with an elliptical
the geometrical parameterscut-out, analyzed
variations. Thein this
model
framework, by easily
consists of 26,747 shellchanging
elements, the geometrical
with parameters,
a size of about 6 × 6 mmsuchinastheeccentricity and semiminor
area characterized axis
by a coarse
length. The model was discretized by means of the Ansys® shell layered elements
mesh, and a size of about 1 × 1 mm in the cut-out region. Figure 3 shows the Finite Element (FE) model, SHELL281 with
eight
with thenodes andofsix
detail thedegrees
refinedofmesh
freedom at hole’s
in the each node
area.(translations in the x, y, and z axes, and rotations
aboutTensile,
the x, flexural,
y, and z and axes). Different
torsional mesh
loads havesizes
beenwere adopted
considered to try
in this to reduce
study. the computational
The boundary conditions’
effort, preserving, at the same time, the needed accuracy in the cut-out
schematic representations are shown in the following Sections 4.1–4.3. Linear analyses have region. In more detail,been
the
optimized
performed element
in order size was found
to assess by means
the effect of a mesh sensitivity
of the geometrical parameters analysis and kept
on the stress constant innear
concentration the
area with the
the cut-out, highest element
neglecting density,
the nonlinear without taking
phenomena. Table into
2 listsaccount the geometrical
the geometrical parameters
parameters values’
variations.
ranges adoptedThe model consists
throughout the of 26,747 shell elements, with a size of about 6 × 6 mm in the area
analyses.
characterized by a coarse mesh, and a size of about 1 × 1 mm in the cut-out region. Figure 3 shows
the Finite Element (FE) model, with the detail of the refined mesh in the hole’s area.
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 4 of 15
Aerospace 2019, 6, x 4 of 16

Figure
Figure 3. 3. Finite
Finite elementmodel
element model with
withcut-out
cut-outdetail.
detail.
Table 2. Geometrical data of the cylindrical shell configurations.
Tensile, flexural, and torsional loads have been considered in this study. The boundary
conditions’ schematicParameter Symbolin the following subsections
representations are shown Value (3.1, 3.2, and 3.3).
Linear analyses have been
Cylinder performed
radius (e = 0) in orderR0to
/L0assess the effect of the geometrical parameters on
0.5–0.75–1–1.25
Cylinder eccentricity
the stress concentration e
near the cut-out, neglecting 0–0.166–0.333–0.5
the nonlinear phenomena. Table 2 lists the
Cut-out semiminor axis b 10 mm–20
geometrical parameters values’ ranges adopted throughout the analyses.
c mm–30 mm–40 mm
Cut-out eccentricity ec 0–0.166–0.333–0.5
Cut-out inclination angle φ 0◦ –30◦ –60◦ –90◦
Table 2. Geometrical data of the cylindrical shell configurations.

Parameter
First-order Shell Deformation Theory Symbol Value
Aerospace 2019, 6, x Cylinder radius (e = 0) R0/L0 0.5–0.75–1–1.25 5 of 16
The element SHELL281 is well-suited for linear layered applications. In Figure 4a, the geometry,
Cylinder eccentricity e 0–0.166–0.333–0.5
node locations, and the coordinate system for this element are shown. The accuracy in modeling
Cut-out semiminor axis bc 10 mm–20 mm–30 mm–40 mm
Cut-out eccentricity =
composite shells is governed by theQfirst-orderP +ecu Q =P
shear +0–0.166–0.333–0.5
u
deformation theory, usually referred to
(5)as
Mindlin–Reissner shell theory [18–20].
Cut-out inclination angle ϕ 0°–30°–60°–90°

3.1. First-order Shell Deformation Theory

The element SHELL281 is well-suited for linear layered applications. In Figure 4a, the geometry,
node locations, and the coordinate system for this element are shown. The accuracy in modeling
composite shells is governed by the first-order shear deformation theory, usually referred to as
Mindlin–Reissner shell theory [18–20].
According to Figure 4a,b, let us assume that vector 𝑷 represents the location of a shell arbitrary
point in the initial state (point 𝐵 in Figure 4b), and vector 𝑸 is the location of such point in the
deformed state. The location of the point A (mid-surface of the shell) is represented by vectors P and
Q, respectively, in the initial state and in the deformed state. Normal curvilinear coordinates 𝜉𝑖 = [𝜉𝛼,
𝜉3] at the point A, in the initial state, are definite by the righthanded triad of the base vectors [a𝛼, a3].
Figure 4. SHELL 281: (a) 8-nodes shell element geometry; (b) first-order shear deformation theory kinematics.
The unit vector
Figure a3 is perpendicular
4. SHELL 281: (a) 8-nodes to the mid-surface
shell of the shell.
element geometry; Consequently:
(b) first-order shear deformation

( ) ( )
theory kinematics.
According to Figure 4a,b, let us assume
P ξi = P ξ α +Pξ αrepresents
that vector
a3 . the location of a shell arbitrary
(3)
point in the initial state (point B in Figure 4b), and vector Q is the location of such point in the
According
deformed state. to Equations
The location (3–5),
of the the
pointdisplacement
A (mid-surface of the arbitrary
of the ispoint B of the shell, for the first-
Equally, curvilinear coordinates in the deformed state areshell)
definiterepresented
by [A𝛼, A3by vectors
]. Here, and
theP vector Q,
order approximation,
respectively, in the can
initial be
stateexpressed
and in theas in Equation
deformed (6),
state. where
Normal φ is the rotation
curvilinear vector
coordinates at
ξi the
= [ξ mid-ξ
A3 may not be normal to the mid-surface of shell. In Equation (4), the vector Q is expanded in Taylor’s α 3]
,
surface, defined
at the with by
pointrespect Equation
A, in the (7).
initial state,𝜉3are definite by mid-surface
the righthanded triad of the base vectors [aα , a3 ].
series, to coordinate , normal to the of shell.

( )( ) ( () ) ( )
The unit vector a3 is perpendicular to theα mid-surface α α
of the shell. Consequently:
u ξ = u ξ + ξ3ϕ ξ (6)
Q ξ i = Q ξ α + ξ α ∇ ⊗ Q ⋅ a3 + L , (4)
i α α
ξ ξ ξ
( ) ( ) ( )
α P α = P ( )α+ a3 . (3)
ϕ ξ = A ξ − a ξ with A = G ⋅ a
where ∇⊗Q characterizes the strains’ gradient with respect to coordinate 𝜉3. The displacements of
3 3 3 3 (7)

vectors u and 𝒖, which represent the displacement of the

a points A and B respectively, are given by
The field of displacements, written in terms of Δu , which is the nodal incremental vector, is
Equation (5).
expressed by Equation (8)
8
 ha a  a
Δu (ξ ) =  N (ξ )  I3 x 3ξ3 H  Δu ,
a a a
(8)
a =1  2 
where Δu a = Δu a , Δu a , Δu a , Δφ a , Δφ a , Δφ a and H𝑎 is the rotational matrix of the normal vector
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 5 of 15

Equally, curvilinear coordinates in the deformed state are definite by [Aα , A3 ]. Here, the vector
A3 may not be normal to the mid-surface of shell. In Equation (4), the vector Q is expanded in Taylor’s
series, with respect to coordinate ξ3 , normal to the mid-surface of shell.

Q ξi = Q(ξα ) + ξα ∇ ⊗ Q·a3 + L,
 
(4)

where ∇ ⊗ Q characterizes the strains’ gradient with respect to coordinate ξ3 . The displacements of
vectors u and u, which represent the displacement of the points A and B respectively, are given by
Equation (5).
Q = P+u Q = P+u (5)

According to Equations (3–5), the displacement of the arbitrary point B of the shell, for the
first-order approximation, can be expressed as in Equation (6), where ϕ is the rotation vector at the
mid-surface, defined by Equation (7).

u(ξα ) = u(ξα ) + ξ3 ϕ(ξα ) (6)

ϕ(ξα ) = A3 (ξα ) − a3 (ξα ) with A3 = G·a3 (7)

The field of displacements, written in terms of ∆ua , which is the nodal incremental vector, is
expressed by Equation (8)
8
ha a
X " #
a
∆u(ξ ) = N (ξ ) I3x3 ξ3 H ∆ua ,
a a
(8)
2
a=1
n o
where ∆ua = ∆ua1 , ∆ua2 , ∆ua3 , ∆φa1 , ∆φa2 , ∆φa3 and Ha is the rotational matrix of the normal vector at
node a, described in Equation (9).
Ha = ha TaR φa TA (9)

According to Equation (9), TaR is the transformation matrix between the initial and the deformed
shell normal. It can be expressed in terms of finite rotations φ1 , φ2 , and φ3 as in Equation (10).
The terms φa and TA are described, respectively, in Equations (11) and (12).

cos φ2 cos φ3 − cos φ2 sin φ3 sin φ2

 
 
TaR =  cos φ1 sin φ3 + sin φ1 sin φ2 cos φ3 cos φ1 cos φ3 − sin φ1 sin φ2 sin φ3 − sin φ1 cos φ2
 

 (10)
sin φ1 sin φ3 − cos φ1 sin φ2 cos φ3 sin φ1 cos φ3 + cos φ1 sin φ2 sin φ3 cos φ1 cos φ2
 

aa3 −aa2 
 
 0
φa =  −aa3 aa1 
 
0 (11)
 a
a2 −aa1

0

 cos φ2 cos φ3 sin φ3 0 

 

TA =  − cos φ2 sin φ3 cos φ3 0 

 
(12)
sin φ2
 
0 1
The linear strain parts can be described as in Equation (13).

∆Em = Bm ∆u ∆Eb = ξ3 Bb ∆u ∆Es = Bs ∆u (13)

4. Results
In this section, the numerical results, in terms of maximum attained stress as a function of the
cylinder radius and the cut-out eccentricity, are shown for each geometrical configuration and loading
conditions. From the numerical results, empirical relationships, relating the geometrical parameters to
the maximum stress near the hole was tentatively extrapolated.
4. Results
4. Results
In this
In this section,
section, the
the numerical
numerical results,
results, in
in terms
terms of
of maximum
maximum attained
attained stress
stress as
as aa function
function of
of the
the
cylinder radius
cylinder radius and
and thethe cut-out
cut-out eccentricity,
eccentricity, areare shown
shown for
for each
each geometrical
geometrical configuration
configuration and and
loading
loading2019,conditions.
conditions. From the numerical results, empirical relationships, relating the
From the numerical results, empirical relationships, relating the geometrical geometrical
Aerospace 6, 52 6 of 15
parameters to
parameters to the
the maximum
maximum stress
stress near
nearthe
the hole
hole was
was tentatively
tentatively extrapolated.
extrapolated.

4.1. Tensile
4.1.
4.1. TensileLoading
Tensile LoadingCondition
Loading Condition
Condition
Firstly,the
Firstly,
Firstly, thestructural
the structuralbehavior
structural behaviorof
behavior ofthe
of thecylinder
the cylinderwas
cylinder wasstudied
was studiedunder
studied under tensile
under tensile loading
tensile loading condition
loading condition by
condition by
by
clamping
clamping one
one edge
edge and
and by
by applying
applying a
a unit
unit traction
traction displacement
displacement to
to the
the opposite
opposite one,
one, as
as schematically
schematically
clamping one edge and by applying a unit traction displacement to the opposite one, as schematically
shownin
shown
shown inFigure
in Figure5.
Figure 5.
5.

Figure
Figure 5. Tensile
Figure 5.
5. Tensileload.
Tensile load.
load.

A
AAfirst
firstset
first setof
set ofanalyses
of analyseswas
analyses wasperformed
was performedunder
performed underthe
under thehypothesis
the hypothesisof
hypothesis ofzero
of zeroeccentricity
zero eccentricityfor
eccentricity forthe
for thecylinder
the cylinder
cylinder
and
and the cut-out
the cut-out
and the cut-out (a (a ==b;b;acac= =
(a = b; a c = bc).
bcIn
bc). In Figure
). Figure
In Figure 6, the
6, the
6, the maximum
maximum
maximum stress
stress near
stress
nearnearthe cut-out
the cut-out
the cut-out is displayed
is displayed
is displayed as aa
as
function
as
function of the
a function
of the cylinder
ofcylinder
the cylinderradius.
radius. Different
radius. configurations,
Different
Different with different
configurations,
configurations, with different
with cut-out
different
cut-out radiusradius
cut-out
radius (bcc),), were
(b were
(bc ),
analyzed.
were The
analyzed. stress
The value
stress was
value normalized
was normalized with respect
with to
respect tothe
theapplied
applied
analyzed. The stress value was normalized with respect to the applied load (reaction to the unit load
load (reaction
(reaction to
to the
the unit
unit
traction
traction displacement).
traction displacement). According
displacement). According
Accordingto to Figure
toFigure 6,
Figure6,6,the the maximum
themaximum
maximumstressstress
stress value
value
value near
near
near the
thethe cut-out
cut-out
cut-out decreases
decreases
decreases as
as
the the radius
radius of of
the the
shellshell cylinder
cylinder increases,
increases, as as expected.
expected. On On
the the
other other hand,
hand, a
as the radius of the shell cylinder increases, as expected. On the other hand, a significant growth in a significant
significant growth
growth in in
the
the maximum
maximum
the maximum stress stress
value
stress value near
nearnear
value the
the hole hole is observed
is observed
the hole is observed by increasing
by increasing
by increasing the cut-out
the cut-out size.
size.size.
the cut-out

3.5
3.5
aab=c=c=10
10mm
mm
b =10 mm
resultant

3.4 10 mm
Stressresultant

3.4
3.3 a b=
ab==20 20
c =20 mm
mm
20 mm
mm
3.3 c

aab=c=c=30
30mm
mm
3.2 b =30 mm
3.2 30 mm
a b= 40
c =40 mm
mm
NormalizedStress

3.1 ab==40 40 mm
mm
/N0]0]

3.1 c
3
[N[Nθθθθ/N

3
MaxNormalized

2.9
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.6
Max

2.6
2.5
2.5
0.5 0.75 1 1.25
0.5 0.75 1 1.25
Non-DimensionalShell
Non-Dimensional ShellRadius
Radius[R
[R00/L
/L00]]

Figure
Figure 6. Maximum
6. Maximum
Maximum stressvs.
stress vs.cylinder
cylinder radius–traction
radius–traction load (zero
load eccentricity
(zero condition).
eccentricity condition).
Figure 6. stress vs. cylinder radius–traction load (zero eccentricity condition).
Then, additional analyses were performed with variation of the cylinder and cut-out eccentricity.
Figure 7 shows the maximum tension near the cut-out as a function of the cut-out eccentricity for a
circular cylinder. Different curves, obtained by varying the inclination of the hole, for a fixed cylinder
radius, are presented. The results showed that the maximum stress experiences a slight increase as
the cut-out eccentricity growth, for φ = 0◦ and φ = 30◦ , while a maximum stress decrease was found
for φ = 60◦ and φ = 90◦ . As expected, the lower stress was found when the cut-out inclination is 90◦
(semiminor axis aligned with the loading direction).
The maximum stress variation as a function of the cylinder eccentricity, for different circular
cut-out size, is represented in Figure 8, according to which, the effect of the cylinder eccentricity on the
maximum stress value is negligible for a given cut-out size.
As an example, in Figure 9, the deformed shape with the displacement magnitude contour plot
for one of the investigated configurations is reported.
 Figure 7 shows the maximum tension near the cut-out as a function of the cut-out eccentricity for a
(semiminor axis aligned with the loading direction).
circular cylinder. Different curves, obtained by varying the inclination of the hole, for a fixed cylinder
radius, are presented. The results showed that the maximum stress experiences a slight increase as
the cut-out eccentricity growth, for ϕ = 0° and ϕ = 30°, while a maximum stress decrease was found
for ϕ = 60° and ϕ = 90°. As expected, the lower stress was found when the cut-out inclination is 90°
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 7 of 15
(semiminor axis aligned with the loading direction).

Figure 7. Maximum stress vs. cut-out eccentricity–traction load.

The maximum stress variation as a function of the cylinder eccentricity, for different circular cut-
out size, is represented in Figure 8, according to which, the effect of the cylinder eccentricity on the
maximum stress value is negligible for a given cut-out size.
Maximum stress
Figure7.7.Maximum
Figure stress vs.
vs.cut-out
cut-outeccentricity–traction
eccentricity–tractionload.load.

The maximum stress variation as a function of the cylinder eccentricity, for different circular cut-
out size, is represented in Figure 8, according to which, the effect of the cylinder eccentricity on the
maximum stress value is negligible for a given cut-out size.

Aerospace 2019, 6, x 8 of 16
Figure 8. Maximumstress
8. Maximum
Figure stress vs.
vs. cylinder
cylinder eccentricity–traction
eccentricity–tractionload.
load.

As an example, in Figure 9, the deformed shape with the displacement magnitude contour plot
for one of the investigated configurations is reported.

Figure 8. Maximum stress vs. cylinder eccentricity–traction load.

As an example, in Figure 9, the deformed shape with the displacement magnitude contour plot
for one of the investigated configurations is reported.

Figure 9.
Figure Deformed shape
9. Deformed shapewith
withdisplacement magnitude
displacement contour
magnitude plot–tensile
contour load, cut-out
plot–tensile load, region.
cut-out
region.
4.2. Bending Loading Condition
The structural
4.2. Bending behavior of the cylinder was then studied under a bending loading condition,
loading condition
as schematically shown in Figure 10. As for the previous loading condition, a circular cylinder and
The structural behavior of the cylinder was then studied under a bending loading condition, as
cut-out were firstly considered to investigate the influence of cylinder and cut-out size on the structural
schematically shown in Figure 10. As for the previous loading condition, a circular cylinder and cut-
behavior, then the eccentricity’s effects were studied. In Figure 11a, the maximum stress near the cut-out
out were firstly considered to investigate the influence of cylinder and cut-out size on the structural
was plotted as a function of the cylinder shell radius, for different values of the cut-out semiminor
behavior, then the eccentricity’s effects were studied. In Figure 11a, the maximum stress near the cut-
out was plotted as a function of the cylinder shell radius, for different values of the cut-out semiminor
axis (bc). As observed for the tensile loading condition, the maximum stress value near the cut-out
decreases as the radius of the cylinder grows. On the other hand, cut-out size (bc) variations do not
significantly influence the maximum stress trend. It is interesting to observe that by increasing the
hole size, an increase of the maximum tension is found up to a certain cut-out’s semiminor axis value
4.2. Bending loading condition
4.2. Bending loading condition
The structural behavior of the cylinder was then studied under a bending loading condition, as
The structural behavior of the cylinder was then studied under a bending loading condition, as
schematically shown in Figure 10. As for the previous loading condition, a circular cylinder and cut-
schematically shown in Figure 10. As for the previous loading condition, a circular cylinder and cut-
out were
Aerospace firstly
2019, 6, 52 considered to investigate the influence of cylinder and cut-out size on the structural 8 of 15
out were firstly considered to investigate the influence of cylinder and cut-out size on the structural
behavior, then the eccentricity’s effects were studied. In Figure 11a, the maximum
behavior, then the eccentricity’s effects were studied. In Figure 11a, the maximum stress near the cut-
stress near the cut-
out was plotted as a function of the cylinder shell radius, for different values
out was plotted as a function of the cylinder shell radius, for different values of the cut-out semiminor of the cut-out semiminor
axis (b
axis ). As observed for the tensile loading condition, the maximum stress value near the cut-out
cc). As observed for the tensile loading condition, the maximum stress value near the cut-out
axis(b(b c). As observed for the tensile loading condition, the maximum stress value near the cut-out
decreases
decreases as the radius of the cylinder grows. On the other hand, cut-out size (bcc)) variations do not
decreasesas asthetheradius
radius of of the cylinder grows.
the cylinder grows.On On theother
the otherhand,
hand, cut-out
cut-out sizesize
(bc)(bvariations
variations do
do not not
significantly
significantly influence the maximum stress trend. It is interesting to observe that by increasing the
significantlyinfluence influence the the maximum stresstrend.
maximum stress trend.ItItisisinteresting
interesting toto observe
observe thatthat by by increasing
increasing the the
hole
hole size,
holesize,size,an
an increase
anincrease
increase of
of the
of the
maximum
the maximum
tension is found
tensionisisfound
maximum tension foundup up to a certain
uptotoa acertain
certain cut-out’s
cut-out’s
cut-out’s
semiminor
semiminor
semiminor
axis
axisaxis
value
value
value
(b cc ==
(b(b 30
c=
30 mm);
30mm);
mm);beyondbeyond
beyond thisthisvalue,
this value,aadecrease
decreaseisis
decrease isobserved.
observed.Figure
observed. Figure
Figure 11b
11b
11b shows
shows
shows the
thethe trend
trend
trend of the
of
of the the maximum
maximum
maximum
stress for ◦ value of the hole’s
stress
stressfor fordifferent
differentcut-out
different cut-out eccentricity
cut-out eccentricity variations.
variations.ItIt
eccentricity variations. Ithas
hasbeen
has been
been found
found
found that
that
that for
forfora 0°aa 0°
0value
value of the
of the hole’s
hole’s
inclination
inclinationangle,
inclination angle,
angle,thethe effect
the effect of the
effect of the cut-out’s
cut-out’seccentricity
cut-out’s eccentricityon
eccentricity on
onthethe
the maximum
maximum
maximum stress
stress
stress is substantially
substantially
is substantially
is zero. zero.
zero.
However, ◦
However,as
However, asasfor
forthe
for theprevious
the previousloading
previous loadingcondition,
loading condition,changing
condition, changingthe
changing theinclination
the inclination
inclination angle
angle
angle from
from from0 ,0°,
0°, anincrease
an increase
an increaseor
decrease
or decrease in the
in maximum
the maximum stress value
stress can
value be
can observed
be observed depending
depending
or decrease in the maximum stress value can be observed depending on the inclination angle itself.on
on the
the inclination
inclination angle itself.
itself.

Figure 10. Bending load.

Figure
Figure10.
10. Bending load.
Bending load.

Aerospace 2019, 6, x 9 of 16

Figure 11. Bending load: (a) Maximum stress vs. cylinder radius; (b) maximum stress vs.
Figure 11. Bending load: (a) Maximum stress vs. cylinder radius; (b) maximum stress vs.
cut-out eccentricity.
cut-out eccentricity.

The
The effect
effect ofof the
the cylinder
cylinder eccentricity
eccentricity on
on the
the maximum
maximum stress,
stress, for
for different
different cut-out
cut-out semiminor
semiminor
axis
axis values
values (b(bc),
c ),has
hasnot
notbeen
been reported
reported for the
for sake
the of
sake brevity,
of it
brevity, being
it negligible.
being As
negligible. an
As example,
an in
example,
Figure 12, a detail of the cut-out region’s deformed shape, with the displacement magnitude
in Figure 12, a detail of the cut-out region’s deformed shape, with the displacement magnitude contour contour
plot,
plot, is
is plotted
plotted forfor one
one of
of the
the considered
considered configurations.
configurations.

Figure 12.Deformed
Figure 12. Deformed shape
shape with
with displacement
displacement magnitude
magnitude contour
contour plot–bending
plot–bending load,
load, cut-out cut-
region.
out region.

4.3. Torsional loading condition

Finally, the shell cylinder was subjected to torsional loading conditions, as schematically
represented in Figure 13. Once again, the circular cylinder and cut-out were firstly considered to
 Figure
Aerospace 2019, 12.
6, 52Deformed shape with displacement magnitude contour plot–bending load, cut-9 of 15
out region.

4.3. Torsional Loading

4.3. Torsional Condition
loading condition
Finally,
Finally, the
the shell
shell cylinder
cylinder was
was subjected
subjected to to torsional
torsional loading
loading conditions,
conditions, as as schematically
schematically
represented
represented in Figure 13. Once again, the circular cylinder and cut-out were firstly considered to
in Figure 13. Once again, the circular cylinder and cut-out were firstly considered to
investigate
investigate the
the influence
influence of cylinder and
of cylinder cut-out size
and cut-out size on
on the
the structural
structural behavior,
behavior, then
then the
the eccentricity’s
eccentricity’s
effects were studied.
effects were studied. The
Themaximum
maximumstress,
stress,inin proximity
proximity to to
thethe cut-out,
cut-out, versus
versus thethe cylinder
cylinder radius,
radius, for
for different values of the cut-out radius (b ), is presented in Figure 14a. As expected, the
different values of the cut-out radius (bc), is cpresented in Figure 14a. As expected, the maximum stress maximum
stress nearhole
near the the experiences
hole experiences a reduction
a reduction as the
as the cylinder
cylinder radius
radius increases.The
increases. Thesame
sametrend
trendas as the
the one
one
found for the bending loading condition has been observed; hence, the same considerations
found for the bending loading condition has been observed; hence, the same considerations apply. apply.

Aerospace 2019, 6, x 10 of 16
Aerospace 2019, 6, x 10 of 16
Figure
Figure13.
13. Torsional load.
Torsional load.

Figure 14. Torsional load: (a) Maximum stress vs. cylinder radius; (b) maximum stress vs.
Figure 14.Torsional
14.
cut-out
Figure load:load:
eccentricity.
Torsional (a) Maximum stress vs.stress
(a) Maximum cylinder
vs.radius; (b) maximum
cylinder radius; stress vs. cut-out eccentricity.
(b) maximum stress vs.
cut-out eccentricity.
According
AccordingtotoFigure
Figure14b, whichshows
14b, which showsthethemaxmax normalized
normalized stress
stress versus
versus cut-out
cut-out eccentricity,
eccentricity, an
anincrease
increase ofof the
the hole’s
hole’s eccentricity
eccentricity leads,
leads, basically,
basically, to a to a decrease
decrease of the of the
maximum maximum
stress, stress,
which
According to Figure 14b, which shows the max normalized stress versus cut-out eccentricity, an which
strongly
strongly
depends
increase depends
of on the
the on eccentricity
the cut-out
cut-out
hole’s inclination
inclination angle.
leads, angle.to a decrease of the maximum stress, which strongly
basically,
AsAsananexample,
example,ininFigure
Figure15,
15,the
depends on the cut-out inclination angle.
the displacements magnitudecontour
displacements magnitude contourplotplotnear
nearthethe cut-out
cut-out forfor
torsional
torsional loading
loading conditionsisispresented.
conditions presented.
As an example, in Figure 15, the displacements magnitude contour plot near the cut-out for
torsional loading conditions is presented.

Figure
Figure 15. 15. Deformed
Deformed shape
shape withwith displacement
displacement magnitude
magnitude contour
contour plot–torsional
plot–torsional load, region.
load, cut-out cut-
out region.
Figure 15. Deformed shape with displacement magnitude contour plot–torsional load, cut-
4.4. Bending-torsion Loading Condition
out region.
Further simulations considering combined loading conditions, such as coupled bending-torsion
4.4.load were performed.
Bending-torsion Figure
Loading 16 shows the maximum stress, in proximity to the cut-out, versus the
Condition
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 10 of 15

4.4. Bending-Torsion Loading Condition

Further simulations considering combined loading conditions, such as coupled bending-torsion
load were performed. Figure 16 shows the maximum stress, in proximity to the cut-out, versus the
cylinder radius, for different values of the cut-out radius (bc ), considering the zero eccentricity of the
cylinder and6,the
Aerospace 2019, x cut-out. As expected, the maximum stress value decreases as the radius of the 11 shell
of 16
cylinder increases. Moreover, an increase in the maximum stress value near the hole is observed by
Aerospace
increasing2019,the
6, xcut-out size. bc=10 bc=20 bc=30
11 of 16

Stress Resultant
4.5

4
bc=10 bc=20 bc=30
Stress Resultant

4.5
3.5
4
3
Max Normalized

3.5
2.5
3
2
Max Normalized

2.5
1.5
2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Non-Dimensional Shell Radius [R0 /L0 ]
1.5
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Non-Dimensional
Figure 16. Maximum stress vs. Cylinder Shell Radius [R0 /L0 ]
radius–bending-torsion load (zero eccentricity
condition).
Figure 16. Maximum stress vs. Cylinder radius–bending-torsion load (zero eccentricity condition).
Figure 16. Maximum stress vs. Cylinder radius–bending-torsion load (zero eccentricity
condition).
The results, in terms of maximum normalized stress, were found less critical than the previous
considered
considered loading
loadingconditions.
conditions.ForFor
such a reason,
such the effect
a reason, the of the cut-out
effect of the eccentricity on the maximum
cut-out eccentricity on the
The
stress, results,
for in
different terms of maximum
inclination angles, normalized
has not been stress,
reported were
for found
the less
sake of critical
brevity. than
maximum stress, for different inclination angles, has not been reported for the sake of brevity. the previous
considered loading conditions. For such a reason, the effect of the cut-out eccentricity on the
maximum
4.5. stress, for
Linear buckling
4.5. Linear Buckling different inclination angles, has not been reported for the sake of brevity.
Analysis
analysis
The buckling behavior
The buckling behavior of the cylinder was studied under compressive loading condition
4.5. Linear buckling analysis of the cylinder was studied under compressive loading condition by
by
clamping one edge andand
clamping one edge by by applying
applying a unit
a unit compressive
compressive displacement
displacement to the
to the opposite
opposite one,one,
as
as The buckling
schematically behavior
shown in of the
Figure
schematically shown in Figure 17. cylinder
17. was studied under compressive loading condition by
clamping one edge and by applying a unit compressive displacement to the opposite one, as
schematically shown in Figure 17.

Figure
Figure17.
17. Compressive load.
Compressive load.

AA first
first set
set of
of simulations
simulations was Figure 17.
was carried
carried outCompressive
out considering
considering zero load.eccentricity
zero eccentricity forfor the
the cylinder
cylinder and
and the
the
cut-out
cut-out (a (a==b;b;acac==bc).bc).InInFigure
Figure 18a, thethe
18a, buckling loadload
buckling was wasplotted as a function
plotted of the cylinder
as a function radius.
of the cylinder
radius.A first
Different set of configurations,
simulations
configurations,
Different with was carried
a different
with out considering
cut-out
a different radius
cut-out zero eccentricity
(bradius
c ), were(bconsidered.
forThe
thebuckling
c), were considered.
cylinder and has
load
The bucklingthe
cut-out
been
load has (abeen
= b; normalized
normalized acwith
= bc). In with
respect Figurethe18a,
to respect the
buckling buckling
to the load of aload
buckling was
cylinder
load plotted
ofwith the as
a cylinder samea function
with of the
geometrical
the same cylinder
dimensions,
geometrical
radius.
but Different
without cut-outs.
dimensions, configurations,
but without According with a different
cut-outs.toAccording
Figure 18a, cut-out
to the radius
buckling
Figure 18a, the load(b ), were
growths
c
buckling considered.
as the
load The buckling
radiusasofthe
growths theradius
shell
load has
cylinder been normalized with respect to the buckling load of a cylinder
of the shell cylinder is increased. On the other hand, a significant decrease in the buckling loadby
is increased. On the other hand, a significant decrease in the with
buckling the same
load is geometrical
observed is
dimensions,
increasing
observed by thebut without
hole size.the
increasing cut-outs.
hole size.According to Figure 18a, the buckling load growths as the radius
of theAccording
shell cylinder is increased.
to Figure 18b, whichOn the other
shows hand, a significant
the normalized buckling load decrease
versusincut-out
the buckling load an
eccentricity, is
observed
increase ofbythe increasing the hole leads,
hole’ eccentricity size. basically, to a slight increase of the buckling load, that depends
a. b.
on the cut-out inclination angle. However, the buckling load 0.61
variation can be considered negligible.
1

a.0.9As an example, in Figure 19, the out-of-plane displacement b. 0.6 contour plot near the cut-out for
0.59
compressive
0.8
1 loading conditions, is presented. 0.61
0.58
0.6
buckling load

0.7
buckling load

0.9
0.57
0.59
0.6
0.8
0.56
0.58
buckling load

0.5
0.7
buckling load

0.55
0.57 φ = 0°
Normalized
Normalized

0.4
0.6 bc=10 mm 0.54
0.56
0.3
0.5
φ = 30°
bc=20 mm 0.53
0.55
φφ ==0°
60°
Normalized

0.2
Normalized

0.4 bc=30mm
bc=10 mm 0.52
0.54
0.1
0.3 0.51 φφ ==30°
90°
bc=40mm
bc=20 mm 0.53

0.20 0.5
0.52 φ = 60°
bc=30 mm 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.5 0.75 1 1.25
radius. Different configurations, with a different cut-out radius (bc), were considered. The buckling
load has been normalized with respect to the buckling load of a cylinder with the same geometrical
dimensions, but without cut-outs. According to Figure 18a, the buckling load growths as the radius
of the shell cylinder is increased. On the other hand, a significant decrease in the buckling load is
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 11 of 15
observed by increasing the hole size.

a. b.
0.61
1
Aerospace 2019,
Aerospace 6, 6,
2019, x x 0.6
12 12 of 16
of 16
0.9
0.59
0.8
Figure18.
Figure 18.Compressive
Compressiveload:
load: (a)
(a) Buckling
Buckling load
load vs.
vs. cylinder
cylinder
0.58 radius;
radius;(b)
(b)buckling
bucklingload vs.vs.
load

Normalized buckling load

0.7
Normalized buckling load

0.57
cut-out eccentricity.
0.6cut-out eccentricity.
0.56
0.5
0.55
φ = 0°
According
According totoFigure
Figure18b,18b,whichwhichshows
0.4 shows the normalized
bc=10 mm the normalized0.54 buckling
bucklingload loadversus
versus cut-out
cut-out eccentricity,
eccentricity,
φ = 30°
anan increaseofofthe
thehole’
hole’eccentricity
eccentricity leads, leads, basically,
basically, to aa slight increase ofofthe buckling load, that
0.3 bc=20 mm 0.53
increase
0.2
to slight
0.52
increase the buckling
φ = 60°
load, that
bc=30 mm
depends
depends on the cut-out inclination
on the cut-out inclination angle. angle. However, the buckling
However, the buckling load variation
load variation can can be considered
be considered
0.1 bc=40 mm 0.51 φ = 90°
negligible.
negligible.
0 0.5
0 0.1 0.2
0.5 0.75
As an example, in Shell
Figure 1 1.25
19, the out-of-plane displacement contour plot near0.3[ethe 0.4
cut-out for0.5
As an example, in Figure
Non-Dimensional Radius 19,
[R /L ] the out-of-plane displacement contour plot
Cutout near ] the cut-out for
eccentricity
0 0 c

compressive loading conditions, is presented.

compressive
Figure 18.loading
Compressiveconditions,
load: (a) is presented.
Buckling load vs. cylinder radius; (b) buckling load vs. cut-out eccentricity.

Figure 19. Deformed shape with out-of-plane displacements contour plot–compressive

load,19.
Figure
Figure cut-out region.
19.Deformed
Deformed
shapeshape with out-of-plane
with out-of-plane displacements
displacements contour plot–compressive
contour plot–compressive load, cut-out region.
load, cut-out region.
Additionally,
Additionally, the
thebuckling
bucklingbehavior
behavior under bendingloading
under bending loadingconditions
conditions(Figure
(Figure10)10)
waswas analyzed.
analyzed.
In In Figure
Figure 20a,
20a, thethe normalized
normalized buckling
buckling load
load isis displayed
displayed as
as aa function
function of
of the
the cylinder
cylinder
Additionally, the buckling behavior under bending loading conditions (Figure 10) was analyzed. radius,
radius, while in
in
FigureFigure
20b, 20b,
the the buckling
buckling load
load versus
versus thethe cut-out
cut-out eccentricity
eccentricity is
is reported.
reported. It was
It
In Figure 20a, the normalized buckling load is displayed as a function of the cylinder radius, was found
found that the
that effect
the effect
while
in of the
of Figure cut-out
the cut-out eccentricity
eccentricity
20b, the on the
on the
buckling load buckling
buckling
versus load value
load value
the cut-out is negligible,
is negligible,
eccentricity for a given
for aItgiven
is reported. cut-out
cut-out
was found inclination.
inclination.
that the effect
Moreover,
Moreover, a a slightvariation
slight variationofofthe
thebuckling
buckling load
load can
can be
be observed
observed when
when varying
varying the cylinder
the cylinderradius,
radius,
of the cut-out eccentricity on the buckling load value is negligible, for a given cut-out inclination.
for a given cut-out
for a given acut-out size.
size.
Moreover, slight variation of the buckling load can be observed when varying the cylinder radius,
for a given cut-out size.
a. b.
1.2 1

a. b.
0.995
1.2 1
buckling load

1.1
Normalized buckling load

0.99
0.995
buckling load

1.1
1 0.985 φϕ=0
= 0°
Normalized buckling load

NormalizedNormalized

0.99
φϕ=60
= 60°
bc=10 mm 0.98
1 0.9 0.985 φϕ=0
= 0°
bc=30 mm 0.975
φϕ=60
= 60°
bc=10 mm 0.98
0.9 0.8
0.97
0.5 0.75 1 1.25
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Non-Dimensional Shell Radius [R0/Lbc=30
0]
mm 0.975
Cutout eccentricity [e c]

0.8
0.97
0.5 Figure Bending
20.20.
Figure 0.75 load:
Bending (a) Buckling
load: (a)
1 load vs.
Buckling 1.25cylinder
load radius;
vs. cylinder (b) buckling
radius;
0
load vs.
(b)0.1buckling cut-out
0.2 load vs.
0.3
eccentricity.
cut-out
0.4 0.5
Non-Dimensional Shell Radius [R0/L0] Cutout eccentricity [e c]
eccentricity.
4.6. Unified Analytical Formulation
Figure 20. Bending load: (a) Buckling load vs. cylinder radius; (b) buckling load vs. cut-out
4.6.Taking
Unifiedinto
Analytical
account Formulation
all the performed analyses for the analyzed single loading conditions, such as
eccentricity.
tension,Taking
bending, and torsion,
into account all thean attempt
performedto extrapolate
analyses foran
theempirical
analyzedrelationship was
single loading made. The
conditions, basic
such
idea was to
4.6.asUnified link the
tension,Analytical variation
and torsion, an attempt to extrapolate an empirical relationship was made. Thethe
bending, Formulation of the geometric parameters to the maximum tension value near
cut-out, withwas
basic idea the to
aim to the
link perform the of
variation initial dimensioning
the geometric of the thin-walled
parameters cylindrical
to the maximum tensionstructures and
value near
Taking into account all the performed analyses for the analyzed single loading conditions, such
the cut-out, with the aim to perform the initial dimensioning of the thin-walled cylindrical structures
as tension, bending, and torsion, an attempt to extrapolate an empirical relationship was made. The
and of the cut-out, without the need of finite element calculations. The shell cylinder eccentricity (e)
basic idea was to link the variation of the geometric parameters to the maximum tension value near
was excluded, since the effects on maximum stress near the cut-out were found to be negligible.
the cut-out, with the aim to perform the initial dimensioning of the thin-walled cylindrical structures
and of the cut-out, without the need of finite element calculations. The shell cylinder eccentricity (e)
was excluded, since the effects on maximum stress near the cut-out were found to be negligible.
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 12 of 15

of the cut-out, without the need of finite element calculations. The shell cylinder eccentricity (e) was
excluded, since the effects on maximum stress near the cut-out were found to be negligible.
The relationship, derived by means of a second-order polynomial model for four explanatory
R
variables, is reported in Equation (14), where x1 = ec , x2 = bc , x3 = L00 and x4 = φ.

MaxStress(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = c1 x21 + c2 x22 + c3 x23 + c4 x24 + c5 x1 + c6 x2 +

+c7 x3 + c8 x4 + c9 x1 x2 + c10 x1 x3 + c11 x1 x4 + c12 x2 x3 + c13 x2 x4 + c14 x3 x4 + c15 x1 x2 x3 + (14)
+c16 x1 x3 x4 + c17 x1 x2 x4 + c18 x2 x3 x4 + c19 x1 x2 x3 x4 + c20

The cn (n = 1, . . . ,20) constants’ values, reported in Table 3, for each loading condition, were
evaluated by means of a MATLAB routine.

Table 3. Constant values.

Max Stress
Constant
Traction Bending Torsion
c1 0.054118 1.0386 −0.9049
c2 −0.00021075 −0.002581 −0.0030235
c3 0.43428 10.43 12.622
c4 2.2118 × 10−8 −7.5549 × 10−5 0.00010336
c5 0.42616 −1.4326 −2.5875
c6 0.040678 0.1767 0.23742
c7 −0.74793 −25.978 −30.206
c8 0.00064053 0.0056456 −0.010479
c9 0.0038458 0.10604 0.11993
c10 0.049341 0.67843 2.0817
c11 −0.010845 0.021606 0.023188
c12 −0.017707 −0.036045 −0.062669
c13 5.9633 × 10−6 8.117 × 10−5 9.6716 × 10−5
c14 1.3043 × 10−6 0.00086709 0.00072332
c15 −0.0035319 −0.079826 −0.089864
c16 6.1511 × 10−5 −0.015691 −0.014884
c17 −9.2267 × 10−5 −0.0014505 −0.001739
c18 −4.4331 × 10−6 −6.5018 × 10−5 −7.0629 × 10−5
c19 7.1732 × 10−5 0.0011356 0.0012687
c20 2.6924 17.075 20.397

Additionally, an empirical relationship, derived by second-order polynomial regression and

described in Equation (15), was extrapolated to link the variation of the geometric parameters to the
buckling load under compressive loading conditions. The cut-out eccentricity and the inclination angle
was found to be irrelevant on the buckling load; for such a reason, they were neglected in the formulas.
R
According to Equation (5), x = L00 and y = bc .

BucklingLoad(x, y) = p0 + p1 x + p2 y + p3 x2 + p4 xy + p5 y2 (15)

The pn (n = 0, . . . , 5) constants are listed in Table 4.

Table 4. Constants values, compressive load.

Constant Buckling Load

p0 0.9697
p1 0.4218
p2 −0.03659
p3 −0.1457
p4 0.002061
p5 0.0003753
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 13 of 15

4.7. Validation
Additional geometrical parameters’ values, not included in Table 2, were used to validate the derived
analytical formulation. Indeed, three numerical simulations, considering tensile, bending, and torsional
loads, were performed. The obtained numerical maximum stresses, normalized with respect to the applied
load, were compared with the ones obtained from the derived analytical formulations. The geometrical
parameters, adopted in the frame of the validation analyses, are introduced in Table 5.

Table 5. Geometrical parameters.

Parameter Symbol Value

Cylinder radius R0 /L0 0.9
Cylinder eccentricity e 0
Cut-out semiminor axis bc 25
Cut-out eccentricity ec 0.2
Cut-out inclination angle φ 50◦

From the numerical analyses, the location which experiences the max normalized stress is
identified, and the corresponding stress value is compared to the one resulting from the analytical
procedure. The numerical–analytical results comparisons are listed in Table 6, where a maximum
percentage error of 1.8% can be pointed out. Hence, this analytical relationship could be significantly
useful in the preliminary design phase, when the hole size and shape need to be defined and its
influence on the structural performance of the thin-walled components needs to be evaluated.

Table 6. Result comparison.

Tensile Load Bending Load Torsional Load

Numerical Analytical Error (%) Numerical Analytical Error (%) Numerical Analytical Error (%)
2.88147474 2.8773 0.1% 4.23667432 4.3131 1.8% 5.92798841 5.8445 1.4%

Furthermore, a linear buckling simulation, considering compressive loading condition,

was performed. The obtained numerical buckling load was compared with the ones obtained from
the derived analytical formulation. The numerical–analytical result comparison is reported in Table 7,
where a percentage error of 0.7% can be observed.

Table 7. Result comparison.

Compressive Load
Numerical Analytical Error (%)
0.6015 0.5975 0.7%

In order to verify the proposed procedure, a comparison against the numerical results from
Reference [21] is presented in Figure 21. A quasi-isotropic circular cylindrical shell with circular
cut-out, subjected to a uniform tension load, was considered (geometrical parameters are described in
Figure 21B) The max stress, normalized by the applied uniform stress resultant, as a function of the
position around the cut-out (indicated by the cutout angle β), is shown in Figure 21B. Contour plot of
the stress around the cut-out is displayed in Figure 21A; the highest stress-resultant concentration is
Nθθ (90◦ )/N0 = 4.9, measured from the center of the cut-out.
Aerospace 2019, 6, 52 14 of 15
Aerospace 2019, 6, x 15 of 16

Figure 21. Maximum stress vs. cut-out angle–tension load (zero eccentricity condition).
Figure 21. Maximum stress vs. cut-out angle–tension load (zero eccentricity condition).
5. Conclusive Remarks
6. Conclusive remarks
In this work, thin-walled cylindrical shell structures with elliptical cut-outs were investigated.
In this tool,
A numerical work, thin-walled
written in Ansys cylindrical
parametricshelldesignstructures
language with
andelliptical cut-outs
able to generate were investigated.
different geometrical
configurations, was developed and adopted for numerical computations. Indeed, sizes anddifferent
A numerical tool, written in Ansys parametric design language and able to generate shapes
geometrical
of configurations,
the shell cylinder was developed
and the cut-out and adopted
were combined for numerical
in a sensitivity computations.
analysis to study all Indeed,
the possible sizes
and shapes of the shell cylinder and the cut-out were combined in a
configurations, choosing among ranges of geometrical parameters values, to assess the dependence ofsensitivity analysis to study all
thegeometry
the possible configurations, choosing among
on the stress distribution near theranges
cut-out. of geometrical
The effect ofparameters
the cylindervalues, to assess
eccentricity the
on the
dependence of the geometry on the stress distribution near the cut-out.
maximum stress value was found to be negligible, while an increase of the cut-out eccentricity was The effect of the cylinder
eccentricity
found to lead,onbasically,
the maximum stress value
to a reduction of thewas found to
maximum be negligible,
attained while an increase
stress. Moreover, of the
for circular cut-out
cylinders
eccentricity
and was found
circular cut-outs, thetomaximum
lead, basically,
attainedto stress
a reduction
near the of hole
the maximum
was foundattained
to decrease stress. Moreover,
by increasing
for circular cylinders and circular cut-outs, the maximum attained stress
the cylinder radius for all the loading conditions. A significant impact on the stress distribution near the hole was found wasto
decrease
given by hole
by the increasing the cylinder
inclination radius
angle with for all
respect to the
the loading
cylinderconditions.
axis. Indeed, A significant
a substantial impact
increase on the
or
decrease in the maximum stress was observed depending on the inclination angle itself. An attempta
stress distribution was given by the hole inclination angle with respect to the cylinder axis. Indeed,
substantial
was made toincrease
extrapolate or decrease in therelation,
an analytical maximum from stress was observed
the obtained depending
numerical results,on the inclination
which is able to
angle itself. An attempt was made to extrapolate an analytical relation,
describe the dependence of maximum stress near the hole on the geometrical parameters analyzed in from the obtained numerical
results,
the frame which is able to
the activity describe in
presented thethis
dependence
paper. This of maximum stress near
analytical relation, the hole
which has on
beenthepreliminary
geometrical
parameters analyzed in the frame the activity presented in this paper.
validated in the frame of this activity, proved to be fast and very low computationally demanding, This analytical relation, which
has been to
compared preliminary
the traditional validated
procedure,in thesuchframe
as theof thiselement
finite activity,approach.
proved These
to be fastfast approaches
and very low are
computationally demanding, compared to the traditional procedure,
very useful in the framework of preliminary design and/or optimization stages when cut-out such as the finitegeometry
element
approach.
needs to be These
definedfast andapproaches
the influence areofvery useful
cut-outs on inthethe framework
structural of preliminary
behavior of thin-walled design and/or
structures
optimization stages when cut-out geometry needs to be defined and the
needs to be preliminary assessed before the detailed dimensioning design stage. Finally, comparison influence of cut-outs on the
structural behavior of thin-walled structures needs to be preliminary
against numerical results from literature was proposed. The results in terms of maximum stress, assessed before the detailed
dimensioning
normalized design
by the stage.
applied Finally,
uniform comparison
stress resultant, as against numerical
a function results from
of the position around literature
the cut-out was
proposed. The results in terms of maximum stress, normalized by
were found to be in excellent agreement with the ones from the literature, proving the effectiveness ofthe applied uniform stress
resultant,
the proposed as anumerical–analytical
function of the position around
approach. the cut-out
Linear bucklingwere found were
analyses to beperformed,
in excellentby agreement
varying
with and
sizes the shapes
ones from of thetheshell
literature,
cylinder proving
and thethe effectiveness
cut-out, to assessofthethedependence
proposed numerical–analytical
of the geometry on
approach.
the buckling Linear
load buckling analyses
of thin-walled were
shell performed,
cylinders withby varyingAsizes
cut-outs. and analytical
unified shapes of the shell cylinder
formulation for
and the cut-out, to assess the dependence of the geometry on the buckling
coupled loading conditions, able to take into account the percentage of the individual loads, will be
load of thin-walled shell
cylinders with cut-outs. A unified analytical formulation for coupled loading conditions, able to take
implemented in future studies.
into account the percentage of the individual loads, will be implemented in future studies.
Author Contributions: All authors contributed equally to this work.
Author Contribution: All authors contributed equally to this work.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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