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Big Picture

Week 4-6: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to

3. Explain the development of the Learners at various stages: Pre-natal, Infancy,

Toddlerhood, and Early Childhood; and
4. Discuss the development of the Learners at various stages: Middle childhood,
Late childhood, and Adolescence.

Big Picture
Big Picture in Focus:
Focus: ULO3.
ULO3.Explain
Explainthe
thedevelopment of the Learners
different phenomena at
such as
various stages:earthquakes
Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood,
and volcanic and Early Childhood
eruptions.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of the
development of the Learners at various stages: Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood, and
Early Childhood to demonstrate ULO3 will be operationally defined to establish a
common frame of refence as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You
will encounter these terms as we go through the study of this topic. Please refer to
these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding certain scientific
concepts.

1. Endoderm. The inner layer of the cell that develops into the digestive and
respiratory systems.
2. Ectoderm. The outermost layer which becomes the nervous system,
sensory receptors, and the skin parts.
3. Mesoderm. The middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal,
muscular, excretory, and reproductive systems.
4. Myelinization. The process by which the axons are covered and insulated
by layers of fat cells.
5. Holophrases. One-word utterances used by infants.
6. Language Acquisition Device. A metaphorical organ that is responsible
for language learning.
7. Temperament. A word that “captures the ways that people difference, even
at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention
span, persistence, and ability to regulate emotions.
8. Gender Typing. The process of forming gender roles, gender-based
preferences and behaviors accepted by society.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the second
three (3) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are
not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize
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other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the university’s
library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.

PRE-NATAL PERIOD

Human life begins at conception

That which is in the mother's womb is indeed a developing human being. An unborn
baby of eight (8) weeks is not essentially different from one of eighteen (18) weeks or
twenty - eight (28) weeks. From conception the zygote, the embryo and the fetus are
undeniably human life.

Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have and all that we are
have been there at the moment of conception! The fact that you hay brown eyes and
black, straight, or curly hair and the fact that you will tum bald at age 50 have been
there already at the moment of conception. What were added in the process of
development is nutrition.

I remember the film on abortion that I once saw. "The Silent Scream". The mother
submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion in her third month of pregnancy.
When the abortionist inserted his scalpel into the woman's womb to crush the head of
the fetus, very clearly in that film. the fetus had his/ her mouth open like he was
screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist. That's why the
film was given the title " The Silent Scream ". This only means that the developing
being in the womb is a human being not just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.

Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb is supposed to be the

safest of all places for human development. Unfortunately, however, with the scourge
of abortion, it has become a tomb!

The development that takes place in 3 stages proves that the developing embryo in a
mother's womb is truly a human being.

The Stages of Prenatal Development

Prenatal development is divided into three (3) periods – germinal, embryonic, and fetal

1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception). This includes the a creation of
the zygote, b) continued cell division and c) and the attachment of the zygote to the
uterine wall.
The following are the details of development during this period:
a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization the male (sperm) and female (egg) chromosome
unite
b) 36 hours - the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2)
c) 48 hours (2days) - 2 cells become 4 cells
d) 72 hours (3 days) - 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells
e) 96 hours (4 days) - hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f) 4-5 days - inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the
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g) 6-7 days - blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus

h) 11-15 days - blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it
(implantation)

In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer
layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, the miner layer of cells that
develops during the germinal period, develops later into the embryo. The trophoblast
the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, later provides
nutrition and support for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics. 17th ed. 2004).

2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception). In this stage, the name of the
mass cells. Zygote, becomes embryo. The following developments take place:
a) cell differentiation intensifies
b) life - support systems for the embryo develop and
c) organs appear

As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed.
The embryo's endoderm, the inner layer of cells, develops into the digestive and
respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two parts - the ectoderm
and the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous
system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The
mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular,
excretory, and reproductive systems. This process of organ formation during the first
two months of pre - natal development is called organogenesis.

As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo develop
rapidly. These life – support systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord, and the
amnion. The placenta is a life - support system that consists of a disk - shaped group
of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine
but do not join. The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects
the baby to the placenta. The amnion is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear
fluid in which the developing embryo floats. All these embryo life - support systems
develop from the fertilized and not from the mother's body.

3. Fetal period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – Growth and development

continue dramatically during this period. The details of the developmental process are
as follows (Santrock, 2002):
a) 3 months after conception - fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce;
fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth, and
moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be distinguished and
also the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs; the genitals can now be
identified as male or female.
b) 4 months after conception - fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7 ounces;
growth spurt occurs in the body's lower parts; pre - natal reflexes are stronger, mother
feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
c) 5 months after conception - fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close to a pound;
structures of the skin (fingernails, toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d) 6 months after conception- fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and half
pound; eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer of head covers the head;
grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur;
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e) 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds; and
f) 8 and 9 months after conception. fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight
about 4 pounds.

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A
teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek word " tera "
which means " monster.

Below are clusters of hazards to pre - natal development:

1) Prescription and nonprescription drugs. These include prescription as well as
non - prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of a prescription drug that can be
harmful Examples of harmful nonprescription drugs are diet pills. aspirin, and coffee.

Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took in

thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness that gave rise to several
deformed babies.

Cocaine exposure during pre - natal development is associated with reduced

birthweight, length and head circumference (Hurt, et al. 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002).
Impaired motor development (Arendt. et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002). impaired -
information processing (Singer. et al. 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) and poor attention
skills (Bandstra, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002)

2.) Psychoactive drugs. These include nicotine. caffeine and illegal drugs such as
marijuana, cocaine, and heroin.

Researches found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee were
more likely to have preterm deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight compared
to their counter parts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi. et al. 1999)
quoted by Santrock. 2002).
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so – called fetal alcohol syndrome
(FAS) which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers who
drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include facial deformities
and defective limbs. face and heart (Santrock. 2002). Most of these children are below
average in intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson, 2000 and
Burgess. 1996 quoted by Santrock, 2002).

Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking mothers. There are also higher
incidences of preterm bins and lower birthweights among children with smoking
mothers (Wang. et al. 2000 quoted by Santrock, 2002). On the average, maternal
heroin addicts deliver smaller than average size babies with more incidence of
toxemia. premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging after birth
and breech deliveries (http://www.yale.edu/yhti/ curriculum units/ 1980/
8/ 800503.html

3) Environmental hazards. These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays

environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to beat in saunas and
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bathtubs.

Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among the offspring of
fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations (Schrag and
Dixon, 1985 cited by Santrock 2002). Radiation from X - rays also can affect the
developing embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time being the first several
weeks after conception when women do not yet know that they are pregnant
(Santrock, 2002).

Researchers found that toxic wastes such as carbon monoxide. mercury and lead
caused defects in animals exposed to high doses. For instance, early exposure to lead
affects children's mental development. (Markowits, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2000).
Remember the action of the U.S.A. for the children's toys with high lead content
manufactured in China?

Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises the mothers '
body temperature creating fever that endangers the fetus The high temperature due
to fever may interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects or even fetal death
of the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods of time (Santrock, 2002).

4) Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis genital

herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age. (too early or too late, beyond 30)

A rubella (German measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000 pre - natal and neonatal
(newborn) deaths and more than 20,000 affected infants were born with
malformations, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness, and heart problems
(Santrock, 2002).

Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These damages include eye lesions,
which can cause blindness, and skin lesions. When syphilis is present at birth other
problem involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract, can develop.

About one - third of babies delivered through herpes - infected time canal die another
one - fourth become brain – damaged.

A mother can infect her child in three ways: D during gestates across the placenta. 2)
during delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids, and 3) postpartum (after
birth) through breast – feeding.

Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to pro mature birth and
reduced birth weight. Other studies have shown that increased stress during
pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life.

Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and stress needs to be
conducted for more conclusive findings. It is recognized that maternal malnutrition
during pregnancy may result to inadequate growth in the fetus. If a fetus does not
receive enough nourishment, the rate of cell division is seriously hampered. An
extremely deprived fetus may have 20 % fewer brain cells than normal. If an infant has
been malnourished both in utero and infancy, the brain may be as much as 60 %
smaller than that of the normal child.
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Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce the risk of having
a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord, called the 'neural tube'.
A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube defect is born with a spine that
is not closed. The exposed nerves are damaged, leaving the child with varying
degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental retardation.

As maternal age increases the risks for numerical chromosomal abnormalities

increase. Maternal age effect.

The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born
to mothers in their twenties. A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother an
under age 30 but the risk increases after the mother reaches 30. By age 40, the
probability is slightly over 1 in 100, and by age 50 it is almost in 10. The risk is also
higher before age 18. (Santrock. 2002)

5) Paternal factors - Fathers' exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides, and

petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases
such as childhood cancer.
As in the case pf older mothers, older fathers also may place their offspring at risk for
certain defects (Santrock, 2002).

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

Physical Development

Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns

The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when
the head grows more than the body. This cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies
to the development of the fetus also applies in the first months after birth. Infants learn
to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The same pattern occurs in the head
area because the top parts of the head – the eyes and the brain – grow faster than the
lower parts such as the jaw.

The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus
grows from the inside of the body outwards. This also applies in the first month after
birth as shown in the earlier maturation of muscular control of the trunk and arms,
followed by the hands and fingers. When referring to motor development, the
proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from the center of the
body outward.

Height and Weight

• It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 -10 percent of their body weight within
a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to neonatal
feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing, and digesting, they grow
rapidly.
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• Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first
six months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-
fed babies.
• In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five
months.
• A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second
year of life.
• Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a
natural curve of steady development.

Brain Development

• Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are
the spreading connections of dendrites to each other. Remember neurons,
dendrites, axon, and synapses?

Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered

and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins pre-natally and continues after birth.
The process increases the speed at which information travels through the
nervous system.

• At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the
second birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.
• Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connections between
neurons than it can possibly use. The brain eliminates connections that are
seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant’s brain is literally waiting for
experiences to determine how connections are made.

Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a depressed
environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock, 2002).

Motor Development

Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to
gross motor skills and fine motor skills.

Reflexes

• The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and
serve as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many
reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within a few months
as the baby grows and matures.

• There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that
babies have are:

Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the
roof of an infant's mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to
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ensure they can latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong
in some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort

Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex IS most evident when an infant's cheek is
stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the
touch and opening their mouth for feeding.

Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The
strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight
in their grip.

Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant
respond by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby's foot is
stroked the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.

Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by

throwing their arms and legs out and throwing their heads back. Most infants
will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their
bodies.

Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant's middle or lower
back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or
her body toward the side which is being stroked.

Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are
placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the child's head is facing, the limbs
on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl.

Gross Motor Skills

It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the

infant's first year of life. This dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable
to even lift their heads to being able to grab things out the cabinet, to chase the ball
and to walk away from parent.

Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling
the hand, fingers. and thumb. The development of these skills allows one to be able
to complete tasks such as writing. drawing. and buttoning.

The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-hand
coordination. The development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined during
the first two years of life. Initially. Infants show only crude shoulder and elbow
movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of
the thumb and fore-finger.

Sensory and Perceptual Development

The newborn senses the world into which he/she is born through his/her senses of
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vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Ideally as he she advances physically his/her
sensory and perceptual abilities also develop.

What are some research findings regarding newborns Visual perceptions? Can
newborns see?

• The newborn's vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision. By
6 months of age, vision becomes better and by the first birthday, the infant's
vision approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek. 1983 cited by
Santrock, 2002)

• Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment

conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 cited by Santrock. 2002). it was found out
that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles
rather than at color or brightness. Based on these results. it is likely that pattern
perception has an innate basis (Santrock, 2002). Among the first few things that
babies learn to recognize is their mother's face, as mother feeds and nurses
them.

Can newborns hear?

• The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby.
When in the womb, the baby hears his/her mother's heartbeats. the grumbling
of his/her stomach. The mother's voice and music. How soothing it must have
been for you to listen to your mother 's lullaby.

• Infants sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which
means that stimulus must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by an adult.

Can newborns differentiate odors?

• In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) "young infants who were

breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling their mother's breast pad
when they were 6 days old. This preference did not show when the babies were
only two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to
recognize their mother's breast pad odor."

Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?

• They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator
of stress) after a circumcision than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited
by Santrock. 2002).
• Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of this Module on motor
development, you learned that a newborn automatically sucks an object placed
in his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek makes the newborn turn his/her head
toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
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Can newborns distinguish the different tastes?

• In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made different facial
expressions when they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and
Oster, 1988, cited by Santrock. 2002)
• When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near-term fetus, increased
swallowing was observed.
• This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth.

Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants capable of
intermodal perception?

• Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information

about two or more sensory modalities such as vision and hearing.
• In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979). it was found out that as
early as at 3 1/2 months old, infants looked more at their mother when they also
heard her voice and long at their father when they also heard his voice.
• This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming
through various modes gets sharpened considerably through experience.

Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor stage
• An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget's cognitive
development shows that development begins from reflexive behaviors to more
refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive development of infants
evolves in orientation from becoming focused on themselves to becoming
object or world-oriented, from one that is action-based to one that is mentally-
based, from one that does not involve much of coordination of schemes to one
involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a thinking that is purely
sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
• Piaget's substages are termed circular because the adaptive behavior to the
world involves repeated actions. Circular reactions are attempts to repeat an
event that the baby likes. Circular reactions serve as the building blocks for
intelligence (Pasek, P., and Golinkoff. R, 2003).
• Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant's own body, whereas
secondary circular reactions are aimed toward the environment including
others. Here is an example of a primary circular reaction:

At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth. But she doesn't
know how to do it again. She waves her hand around and. after many attempts,
eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how to do it at will
(Pasek. K., and R., Golinkoff, 2003).

• Secondary circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve recreating

events which 4-10 month old babies observe outside of their own bodies, Such
as making their mobile crib shake by kicking their legs (Pasek, K
and R.Golinkoff, 2003).
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• Tertiary circular reactions. Seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is when

a baby does things over and over again. Just a little differently each time. e.g
When a baby seems to enjoy dropping the spoon over and over again in any
different ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in events Piaget
described the baby at this stage as "the scientist" When parents don't
understand their child's behavior, they see this act as abusive and get
frustrated.

• From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways, the baby
discovers a pattern "objects fall down not up" They create the patterns with their
repetitive actions and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern seekers
(Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003).

• Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant's most important
accomplishments, according to Piaget." Object permanence is the
understanding that objects continue to exist even when the objects are not
immediately perceptible through the senses. Before the infant's acquisition of
the sense of object permanence, the principle that applies is "out of sight, out
of mind”.

Learning and Remembering

Do infants learn and remember?

Yes! Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning have been
proven to apply to infants. We’ll ask you to research on researches that prove this.

All of us experience infantile amnesia. the inability to recall events that happened when
we were very young (Spear, 1979). Generally. We can remember little or nothing that
has happened to us before the age of about 5 years, and it 1s extremely rare for
someone to recall many memories before age 3 years. Reports of childhood memories
usually involve memories of significant events (e.g. birth of a sibling or the death of a
parent: Fivush and Hammond, 1991). For example, some adults have recalled their
own hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far as back as age 3 years (Usher and
Neisser, 1993).

Language Development

From day one. infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic

environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have
remarkably acute language learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus, Vijayan.
Bandi Rao and Vishton. 1999; Pinker 1997, 1999 cited by Sternberg. Robert. 2003).

Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through the following stages
in producing language (Sternberg. 2005):

1. Cooing. which comprises largely vowel sounds

2. Babbling. which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most people's
ears, the babbling of infants growing up among speakers from different language
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groups sounds very similar

3. One-word utterances: these utterances are limited in both the vowels and the
consonants they utilize (Ingram. 1999 cited by Sternberg 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years) with continuing
vocabulary acquisition.

The infant utters his/her first word- followed by one or two more, and soon after, yet a
few more. The infant uses these one-word utterances termed holophrases-to convey
intentions. desires and demands. Usually, the words ae nouns describing familiar
objects that the child observes (e.g. book, ball, baby) or wants (e.g. Mama. Dada).

By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words

(Siegler. 1986). Because the young child's vocabulary is very limited at this point in
the development process, the child overextends the meaning of words in his/her
existing lexicon to cover things and Ideas for which a new word is lacking. For
example, the general term for any kind of four-legged animal may be "doggie". In
linguistics this is called overextension error.

Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age. children start combining single words to
produce two-word utterances. These two-word or three-word utterances with
rudimentary syntax but with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as
telegraphic speech.

Vocabulary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 words at about 2. years
of age to about 1,000 words at about 3 years of age. At about 4 years, incredibly
children acquire the foundations of adult syntax and language structure (Sternberg.
2003).

It is clear that no toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one capable of telegraphic
speech. As the 5 stages above show, the acquisition of language comes in stages
beginning with cooing. then babbling to one-word utterances, to two- or three-word
utterances or even more but without articles and prepositions thus called telegraphic
speech.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist. claims that humans have an innate
language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a "metaphorical organ that is
responsible for language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood this
language acquisition devices preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the
language community children find themselves in."

This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be ready to

acquire language. Indeed. children seem to have a knack for acquiring an implicit
understanding of the many rules of language structure, as well as for applying those
rules to new vocabulary and new contexts. This may partly explain why children are
said to learn language fast.
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Professor Laura-Ann Petito of Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire and

her colleagues conducted a recent study that concluded that "by 5 months of age.
babies are already specializing by using the left side of their brains for language
sounds and the right side for expression emotion. We all speak out from the right side
of our mouths...Babies babble out from the right side of their mouths.

The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain while the left side of
the body is controlled by the right side of the brain (connections in the brain are
contralateral or crossed). Babies use the right side of their mouths for babbling, then
babbling is language function controlled by the left side of the brain.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human
development. They are so-called the formative years that is why, parents and other
caregivers at this stage of human development play a significant role in the
development of infants and toddlers.

Attachment

For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an enduring

emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a
specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the social phenomenon of
attachment.

According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of
attachment occur within the first 6 months of baby's life with a variety of built-in signals
that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into her mother's
eyes, smiles, etc. n the next few months, the baby develops in her degree of
attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at them than at any stranger whom
she seldom sees. This is what Bob Greene must have experienced.

The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot of responsive
interaction with the baby (K.Pasek and R.Golinkoff, 2003). Babies thrive on social
interaction when it is in response to their social bids. Babies seem to let us know when
they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver's response to the baby is
important.

Temperament

Another factor related to the infant's socio-emotional development is temperament.

Temperament is a word that "captures the ways people differ, even at birth, in such
things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention span, persistence, and
ability to regulate their emotions" (K. Pasek and R. Golinkof. 2003). Every baby
expresses personality traits we call temperament. How a child responds emotionally
to objects, events, and people is a reflection of his individual temperament.

2. Researchers Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different temperament

categories (Honig, 2010, Secure Relationships: Nurturing Infant-Toddler Attachments
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in Early Care Settings.)

These include:

Activity level
Mood
Threshold for distress
Rhythmicity
Intensity of response
Approach-Withdrawal
Distractibility
Adaptability
Persistence

To determine a child's temperament, make the following observations

Activity level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot
and, as toddlers, are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched
carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely attached
emotionally to their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look more solemn or
unhappy.
Child's threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become upset
very easily when stressed. Other babies can more comfortably wait when they need a
feeding or some attention. The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get hungry or
sleepy on a regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying times, urinate,
or have bowel movements at unpredictable times, and get hungry at different times.
they are hard to put on a schedule."

The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby's threshold for distress has
been reached, some babies act restless. Others act cranky or fret just a little. Still
others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are stressed. They
shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reacting to happy or challenging
situations.

Approach to new situations. Some infants are very cautious. They are wary and
fearful of new teachers, being placed in a different crib, or being taken to visit a new
setting. Other infants approach new persons, new activities, or new play p0sSibilities
with zest and enjoyment.

Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding bustle

or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.

Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult Situations with
distress but recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or after
a very long period.

Child's attention span. Some children have a long attention span. They continue with
an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit from one activity to another.
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Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess
studied babies temperament and clustered temperaments into 3 basic types 1) the
easy child; 2) the difficult child; and 3) the slow-to-warm-up child and those that
did not fall under any of the 3 basic types. The "easy child" easily readily establishes
regular routines, is generally cheerful, and adapts readily to new experiences. The
"difficult child" is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences and
tends to react negatively and intensely to new things while the "slow-to warm-up-child"
shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental changes, is negative in mood, and
adjusts slowly to new experiences.

The Emergence of the Moral Self

A sense of morality presupposes awareness of the existence of moral standards and

the ability to evaluate oneself against standards. Once children can recognize
themselves as entities. they become capable of self-evaluation and self-description
against a set of standards. In the research conducted by Professor Deborah Stipek
and her colleagues at the University of California, Los Angeles, (Pasek, K. and R.
Golinkoff) about 50% of the 19-to-24 month-olds and 80 % of the 25-to-29 months old
and almost all 30-to-40-month-olds are capable of self-evaluation. These age groups
of babies therefore have a sense of morality.

Children who aren't capable of self-evaluation and self-description don't have the
capacity to experience a sense of shame and remorse. Moral behavior cannot occur
when children do not recognize themselves as social beings whose behavior can be
evaluated against some standard." (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003)

It is not then surprising why some babies show their parents they have done something
wrong sometimes even with laughter or at other times with no particular emotion. It is
not because they are bad babies. It is simply because 'they are not yet able to hold a
standard in mind and evaluate situations in terms of these standards.

The development of emotions

Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler's emotional development and
social development:

Early infancy (birth-six months)

It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using adult
facial expressions as the standard, simply superimpose their own understanding of
the meaning of infant facial expressions.

Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by other
pleasure-indicative actions and sounds. Including cooing and mouthing. This social
smile occurs in response to adult smiles and interactions.

As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in response to a

Wider variety of contexts. They may smile when they, see a toy they have previously
enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around three or four months, requires a level of
cognitive development because it demonstrates that the child can recognize
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incongruity. That 15, laughter is usually elicited by actions that deviate from the norm,
such as being kissed on the abdomen or a caregiver playing peek-a-boo. Because it
fosters reciprocal interactions with others. laughter promotes social development.

Later infancy months (7-12)

During the last half of the first year. infants begin expressing fear, disgust, and anger
because of the maturation of cognitive abilities. Anger often expressed by crying is a
frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants respond to distressing
events with sadness, anger is more common.

Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an unfamiliar
event with what they know. Unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit fear responses
in infants. One of the most common is the presence of an adult stranger, a fear that
begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this stage is called
separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve months old may cry in fear if the mother or
caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place.

Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this process is significant

in the infant's acquisition of cultural and social codes for emotional display. teaching
them how to express their emotions, and the degree of acceptability associated with
different types of emotional behaviors.

Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing. Infants begin to
recognize the emotions of others and use this information when reacting to novel
situations and people. As infants explore their world, they generally rely on the
emotional expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety or
appropriateness of a particular endeavor.

Toddlerhood years (1-2)

During the second year, infants express emotions of shame or embarrassment, and
pride. These emotions mature in all children and adults contribute to their
development.

Emotional understanding

During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to
verbally express their feelings. This ability. rudimentary as it is during early
toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of emotional self-regulation skills. In
infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional states. If
they are uncomfortable, they may be able to communicate this state by crying. but
have little hope of alleviating the discomfort on their own.

In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate emotions with the
emergence of language providing an important tool to assist in this process. Being
able to articulate an emotional state in itself has a regulatory effect in that it enables
children to communicate their feelings to a person capable of helping them manage
their emotional state, Speech also enables children to self-regulate, using soothing
language to talk themselves through difficult situations.
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Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in toddlerhood,

usually by age two. he development of empathy requires that children read others
emotional cues, understand that other people are entities distinct from themselves,
and take the perspective of another person (put themselves in the position of another).

Erikson's Psychosocial theory

The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person's psychosocial development) apply at
the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed below:

Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)

Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust

Virtue: Hope

The first stage of Erik Erikson's centers around the infants basic needs being met by
the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food,
sustenance, and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society come
from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to
warmth, regularity. and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one
of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's
basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik Erikson, the major
developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially
primary caregivers regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources
of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others are dependable and
reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns
mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly dangerous
place.

Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Main Question: "Can do things myself or must I always rely on others?"

Virtue: Will

As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to
explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from
which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’ patience and
encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however,
are more likely to instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new
challenges.

As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable
of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress
themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior,
toddlers develop a sense of autonomy- a sense of being able to handle many problems
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on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children
perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency,
children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.

EARLY CHILDHOOD (The Preschooler, 3-5 years of age)

Physical Development

Big ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers

1. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschooler.

2. The pre-schoolers physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and
fine motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the
preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development of
preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms cam thrive well with the
appropriate adaptations made in the classrooms, materials and activities.

Significant Changes in Physical Growth

Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower in pace
than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move. from
the remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a slenderer appearance of a
child. The trunk, arms and legs become longer.

The center of gravity refers to the point at which body weight is evenly distributed.
Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level, about the chest level. This is why
they have difficulty doing sudden movements without falling down. Preschoolers on
the other hand, have their center of gravity at a lower level, right about near the belly
button. This gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than the toddler. The
preschooler moves from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to a steadier bearing.
They no longer toddle, that wobbly way that toddlers walk. This also allows the
preschooler to move more success fully than the toddler. Some say that the later part
of the preschooler years at around 5 or 6 is the best time to begin learning skills that
require balance like riding a bike or skating.

By the time the child reaches three years old. all primary or deciduous, or what are
also called baby or milk teeth are already in place. The permanent teeth which will
begin to come out by age six are also developing. The preschooler years are therefore
a time to instill habits of good dental hygiene.

Gross and Fine Motor Development

Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.
These gross motor skills are categorized into three: locomotor, non-locomotor and
manipulative skills. Locomotor skills are those that involve going from one place to
another, like walking, running, climbing. skipping, hopping. creeping, galloping, and
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dodging. Non-locomotor ones are those where the child stays in place, like bending,
stretching. turning and swaying. Manipulative skills are those that involve projecting
and receiving objects, like throwing, striking, bouncing, catching, and dribbling.

Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest around three
and becomes a little less as the preschooler gets older. Preschoolers should be
provided with a variety of appropriate activities which will allow them to use their large
muscles. Regular physical activity helps preschoolers build and maintain healthy
bones, muscles, and joints, control weight and build lean muscles, prevent or delay
hypertension, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety and increase capacity for
learning.

Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in
the arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking
squeezing, pounding. and opening things. holding and using a writing implement. It
also involves self-help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating. buttoning,
zipping, combing, and brushing.

By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with their
thumb and fingers, draw pictures, write letters, use scissors, do stringing and threading
activities. They can also do self-help skills like eating and dressing up independently.
Significant progress in fine motor skills can be expected of preschoolers especially if
they are aptly supported and appropriate activities are provided for them.

Handedness, or the preference of the use of one hand over the other, is usually
established around 4 years of age. Earlier than this, preschoolers can be observed to
do tasks using their hands interchangeably. We can observe a preschooler shifting the
crayon from left to right and back again while working on a coloring activity.

Preschoolers’ Artistic Development

At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms of
artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor
Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early childhood:

Stage 1. Scribbling stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later
become circular markings. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. The child may start to
name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.

Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include carly representations (This also
becomes very significant when we discuss about cognitive development). At this point
adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend to give the
same names to their drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise of a
prominent head with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands and even facial features
are included.

Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually
draw from experience and exposure. Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun
and sky and people. Initially, they may appear floating in air but eventually drawings
appear to follow a ground line.
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Cognitive Development

Preschoolers Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking

There are two substages of Piaget's preoperational thought, namely, symbolic

substage and intuitive substage. In the symbolic stage, being able to draw objects
that are not present, by their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe
play. In the intuitive substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning
and ask a litany of questions. The development in their language ability facilitates their
endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive
development, their improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of
immaturity or limitations.

Language Development

Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. As children go

through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language increases.

Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children rapidly
conclude that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas, people,
and things. Throughout the preschool years, children's language development
becomes increasingly complex in the four main areas: phonology (speech sounds),
semantics (word meaning), syntax (sentence construction), and pragmatics
(conversation or social uses of language). As they advance in age and as they
continuously interact with people, preschool children expand rapidly in their vocabulary
through fast mapping, a process by which children absorb the meaning of a new word
after hearing it once or twice in conversation. Preschool children combine syllables
into words and words into sentences in an increasingly sophisticated manner.

Language and Social Interaction

Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socially and
to plan. guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory 1ashion called inner
speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002).

For P1aget. private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an
important tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development requires
social interaction and language. Children must use 1anguage to communicate with
others before they can focus on their own thoughts (Santrock, 2002). This implies the
importance of interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for language development.

Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest cognitive
development (language development included) on their own and that they can improve
their cognitive development through use of scaffolding from more-skilled children and
adults. He introduced the term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to refer to tasks
too difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the guidance and
assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock, 2002). In short, the ZPD
captures the preschool children’s cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing.
The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit. The lower limit of the ZPD is "the level
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of cognitive development reached by the preschool child independently. The upper

limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with assistance of an
able instructor (Santrock, 2002)

Closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language development is the concept
of scaffolding, a term that refers to the "changing support over the course ol a teaching
session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to it the child 's current
performance level" (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is also called More
Knowledgeable Other (MK0). Can you think of ways of scaffolding preschoolers to
help them reach optimum cognitive and language development?

Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory

The Information Processing model is another way of examining and understanding

how children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes children's mental
processes through the metaphor of a computer processing encoding, storing, and
decoding data. The preschoolers' attention span lasts longer than that of toddlers. The
child's ability to pay attention changes significantly during the preschool years.

But one deficit in attention during preschool years is that attention is focused only on
aspects that stand out at the expense of those that are relevant to solving a problem
to performing well on a task Preschool children recognize previously encountered
information, recall old information, and reconstruct it in the present. 1ry asking a
preschooler what she did on Christmas vacation when she returns to preschool after
the holiday. She will be able to. Among the interesting questions about memory in the
preschool years are those involving short-term memory In short-term memory (STM)
information for up to 15-30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal, which can help
keep information in STM for a much longer period (Santrock, 2002).

Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to: a) rehearsal and b) speed
and efficiency of processing information. Older children rehearse items more than
younger children. On this count, preschool children may have shorter memory span
than primary and intermediate pupils. The speed with which a child processes
information is an important aspect of the child's cognitive abilities.
The Young Children's Theory of Mind

Theory of mind refers to individuals thoughts about how mental processes work
(Santrock, 2002).

By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer to needs,
emotions, and mental states. When a preschool child says, forgot my doll", "I want my
ice cream- these imply that he/she is aware that a mind exists. Cognitive terms such
as know, remember, and think usually appear after perceptual and emotional terms,
but are used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002). As their representation of the world and ability
to remember and solve problems improve. children start to reflect on their own thought
processes. They begin to construct a theory of mind or a set of ideas about mental
activities (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007). This develops markedly
between the ages of three and five. It includes awareness of one's own thought
processes, social cognition, understanding that people can hold false beliefs, ability to
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deceive, ability to distinguish appearance from reality and ability to distinguish fantasy
from reality (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).

Socio-emotional Development

Preschoolers' Initiative

Erikson's view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social changes that happen
during the preschool years. Preschoolers deal with the psychological conflict of
initiative versus guilt. Initiative, the tendency of preschoolers to want to take action and
assert themselves. They will yearn to create, invent, pretend, take risks and engage
in lively and imaginative activities with peers. When parents, teachers and other adults
support these attempts and provide a stimulating environment, the preschooler's
sense of initiative will grow. On the other hand, if the adults show overprotection,
extreme restriction and criticisms, the preschooler will develop guilt.

As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs. guilt, they show so much energy
in doing imaginative play activities. Every place becomes a playground to explore,
every single thing an interesting piece to tinker with. Adults sometimes get
exasperated over this behavior and begin to see the preschooler as "naughty or
"makulit. Some parents and teachers then become overly restrictive, resorting to
threats, intimidation and other scary tactics that disrespect the preschooler just to
establish "control". Consequently, the child may develop excessive guilt. Although a
good amount of guilt helps in making children take responsibility for their behavior,
excessive guilt hampers emotional growth.

Preschoolers who are always punished and criticized end up constructing a view of
themselves as being salbahe (bad) "bobo" (dumb) or even "walang kwenta
(worthless). This is really sad because childhood years should be happy years. One
poster says, "You don't have to hit to hurt. The message emphasizes that even the
things we say and the way we deal with preschoolers can already hurt them at this
vulnerable stage.

The key thing to remember is to apply "judicious permissiveness." This involves setting
realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers safe and respectful of self and others,
while allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take risks and to engage in creative
processes. Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an affirming,
encouraging and stimulating environment.

Self-Concept and the Preschooler

By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they are a
separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can now
think and reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one sees himself, a
general view about one's abilities, strengths, and weaknesses. The preschooler's self-
concept mainly focuses on observable characteristics and his/her usual beliefs,
emotions, and attitudes. One will hear a preschooler say, "Kaya ko na! (I can do it)"
"Ako lang nagsuot ng shoes ko." (wore my shoes all by myself.) An important aspect
of self-concept is self-esteem, which specifically refers to one's judgments about one's
worth. Preschoolers are naturally positive. Usually they will tend to evaluate their skills
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high and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to try again even if they don't
succeed with something. However, they may become negative because of repeated
frustration and disapproval. Preschoolers need a lot of patience and encouragement
from adults.

Environmental Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers' Socio-emotional

Development

As the preschooler's ability to create schemas develop, they become capable of

gender typing, the process of forming gender roles. gender-based preferences and
behaviors accepted by society. They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers
begin to associate certain things like toys, tools. games. clothes, jobs, colors or even
actions or behaviors as being only for boys" or "only for girls. Consequently, they form
their own gender identity, the view of oneself as being masculine or feminine.

Parten’s stages of Play

1. Unoccupied. The child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on
anything that interests him.
2. Onlooker. The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them but
does not enter into play with them
3. Solitary Play. The child plays independently.
4. Parallel Play. The child plays with toys similar to those near him, but only plays
beside and not with them. No interaction takes place.
5. Associate Play. the child plays with others. There is interaction among them,
but no task assignment, rules, and organization are agreed upon.
6. Cooperative. The child plays with others bound by some agreed rules and
roles.

Caregiving Styles

Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children. Caregivers

here refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that care for the child.
Baumrind gave a model that describes the different types of caregiving styles. She
identified varying degrees of demandingness and responsiveness as determinants of
four styles of caregiving.

Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of affection

and communication. It refers to how warm, caring, and respectful the adult is to the
child. It involves openness in communication and the willingness to explain things in
ways that the child will understand.

Demandingness refers to the level of control and expectations. This involves

discipline and confrontation strategies.

1. Authoritative: high demandingness/high responsiveness

2. Authoritarian: high demandingness/low responsiveness
3. Permissive: low demandingness/high responsiveness
4. Negligent: low demandingness/low responsiveness
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Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

*Corpuz, B.B, Lucas, M.A, Borabo, H.L, and Lucido, P.I, (2015). The Child and
Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles: Looking at Learners at Different
stages. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
*Gray, Co Lette & Macbian Seon (2015). Learning theories in childhood. USA: Sage
Publications

Let’s Check

Activity 1. Now that you know the most essential terms and concepts pertaining to the
development of the learners at various stages: Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood, and
Early Childhood. Let us try to check your knowledge. In the space provided, kindly
supply the answer for each of the questions below.

1. It is the field which uncovers the causes of congenital (birth) defects

a. oncology b. teratology c. pediatrics d. teratogen
2. This refers to the cluster of abnormalities that appears in alcoholic pregnant
mothers.
a. autism b. neonatal deaths c. fetal alcohol syndrome d. maternal
heroin
3. The following are the results of smoking mothers on their baby EXCEPT one:
a. higher incidences of preterm births c. higher probability of lower
birthweights
b. fetal and neonatal deaths d. facial deformities
4. Which of the following are the effects of maternal heroin addicts?
a. smaller than average babies with more incidence of toxemia c.
hemorrhaging after birth
b. premature separation of placenta d. all of the
above
5. The following are environmental hazards EXCEPT:
a. radiation in jobsites b. X-rays c. toxic wastes d.
thalidomide
6. This is an important requirement in maternal nutrition, without which leads to a
birth defect of the brain and spinal cord.
a. vitamin A b. folic acid c. calcium d. all of the
above

a. sucking reflex b. gripping reflex c. curling reflex

d. startle reflex e. galant reflex d. tonic neck reflex

7. This is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal
cord. The baby will respond by curving his or her body toward the side which is
being stroked.
8. The baby throws his/her arms and legs out when he/she is startled by sudden
sounds.
9. The baby latches unto a bottle or breast; they need pacifier to suck on for comfort.
10. Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm.
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11. When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant responds by curling
his/her toes.

12. It is a repetitive action that is focused on the infant’s body.

a. Circular reactions
b. Primary circular reactions
c. Secondary circular reactions
d. Tertiary circular reactions
13. This stage of producing language comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds.
a. Babbling
b. Cooing
c. One-word utterances
d. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
14. At this substage, 3 new abilities occur: the intentional grasping for a desired
object, secondary circular reactions and differentiations of ends and means. What
is this substage?
a. Simple reflexes
b. First habits and primary circular reactions phase
c. Secondary circular reactions
d. Coordination of reactions stage secondary circular

True or False
15. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when
they are out of sight.
16. Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant’s body.
17. Secondary circular reactions are aimed toward the environment.
18. Cooing comprises largely of consonant sounds.
19. Babbling comprises of vowel sounds.
20. Holophrases involves the use of the infant of single words.
University of Mindanao 72
College of Teacher Education “Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged”

Let’s Analyze

Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms pertaining to the development
of the learners at various stages: Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Early Childhood
is not enough, what also matters is you should also be able to explain the underlying
theories and principles of the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of
these life stages. Now, I will require you to explain thoroughly your answers.

1. What are proofs that which is developing in the mother’s womb is a living human
being?

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2. One of the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are
the spreading connections of dendrites. Explain how this process takes place.

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3. Do all toddlers learn language at the same pace?

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University of Mindanao 73
College of Teacher Education “Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged”

4. Explain how Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development relates to Preschool’s

cognitive development.

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University of Mindanao 74
College of Teacher Education “Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged”

In a Nutshell

Activity 1. Understanding the principles and concepts pertaining to the

development of learners at various stages namely, Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood,
and Early Childhood provides us with broader knowledge about the physical, cognitive,
and socio-emotional development of these individuals. Again, these are essential
concepts necessary to be acquired by a potential science teacher.

Based from the definition of the most essential concepts and terms of the development
of learners at various stages namely, Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Early
Childhood and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to write
below your arguments or the lessons that you have learned from the topic.

1. ___________________________________________________________________
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2. ___________________________________________________________________
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3. ___________________________________________________________________
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4. ___________________________________________________________________
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5. ___________________________________________________________________
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University of Mindanao 75
College of Teacher Education “Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged”

Q&A LIST. This section allows you to list down all the emerging questions or issues
you have come across. Note that these questions or issues may be raised in the LMS
or other modes. Just kindly write the answers after clarification.

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

KEYWORDS INDEX. This section lists down the keywords that help you recall the
important concepts and terms you have encountered above. This section also helps
in your review.

Endoderm LAD
Ectoderm Temperament
Mesoderm Gender Typing
Holophrases Myelinization