Mec281 Notes

MEC281
MATERIALS SCIENCES
Course Description
This course covers some fundamentals of materials science, which are

necessary for the understanding of materials properties for their
appropriate applications. The major families of materials such as
metals, ceramics, polymers and composite are discussed for their
structures, properties and applications.
Course Outcome
• CO1 :Explain basic concepts of structure, mechanical and physical
properties of engineering materials. [PO1, LO1].
• CO2 ;Apply the basics concepts to identify the relationships

between properties and structure of materials. [PO3, LO3, SS1].
• CO3 :Choose the suitable material for appropriate engineering

applications. [PO3, LO3, SS1].
ASSESSMENT
• Course Work : 40%
Test 1 : 15%
Test 2 : 15%
Quiz (x4) : 10% (i-Learn)
• Final Examination : 60%
• Total : 100%
Syllabus content
CHAPTER CONTENT/SUB-CHAPTER
1. Atomic Structure.
1 2. Interatomic Bonding Amorphous and Crystalline Solid.
STRUCTURE 3. Crystal Structures.
(10 HOURS) 4. Efficiency of Atomic Packing, Density Computation, Miller Indices.
5. Relationship between Atomic Structure, Crystal Structures and
Properties of Material.
1. Solidification Of Pure Metal And Alloys
2. Phase Diagram: Microstructure Development, Microconstituent of
2
Phases.
METALLIC MATERIALS
3. Fe-Fe3C System: Microstructure Development, Microconstituent of
(14 HOURS)
Phases.
4. Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals
3
THERMAL 1. Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metals
TREATMENT OF 2. Hardenability
METALLIC MATERIALS 3. Isothermal Transformation Diagram (TTT Diagram)
(8 HOURS)
1. Classification of Engineering Materials
4
2. Plastics And Elastomer: Molecular Structures, Properties and
ENGINEERING
Applications
MATERIALS
3. Ceramic: Structure, Properties, and Applications
(10 HOURS)
4. Composite Materials: Types, Properties and Applications.
REFERENCES
 William D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and

Engineering and Engineering, An Introduction, John
Wiley & Sins, Inc., 2011.
 William F. Smith, Foundations of Materials Science and

Engineering, Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000.
 William F. Smith, Structure and Properties of

Engineering Alloys, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1993.
 K.R. Tretheway and J. Chamberlain, Corrosion,

Longman Scientific Technical, 1998.
Teaching Plan (DEC2014 – APRIL 2015)
Week Date Syllybus Activity(s)
1* 1 Dec 2014 – 7 Dec 2014
2* 8 Dec 2014 – 14 Dec 2014 CHAPTER 1 Tutorial 1
3 15 Dec 2014 – 21 Dec 2014 Tutorial 2
22 Dec 2014 – 4 Jan 2015 Mid Term Break
4 5 Jan 2015 – 11 Jan 2015 Tutorial 3
5 12 Jan 2015 – 18 Jan 2015 QUIZ 1’
6 19 Jan 2015 – 25 Jan 2015 CHAPTER 2 Tutorial 4
7 26 Jan 2015 – 1 Feb 2014 Tutorial 5
8 2 Feb 2015 – 8 Feb 2015 TEST 1
9 9 Feb 2015 – 15 Feb 2015 Tutorial 6 & QUIZ 2’
10 16 Feb 2015 – 22 Feb 2015 CHAPTER 3 Tutorial 7
11 23 Feb 2015 – 1 Mar 2015 Tutorial 8
12 2 Mar 2015 – 8 Mar 2015 Tutorial 9 & QUIZ 3’
13** 9 Mar 2015 – 15 Mar 2015 CHAPTER 4 TEST 2
14** 16 Mar 2015 – 22 Mar 2015 Tutorial 10 & QUIZ 4’
1 week 23 Mar 2015 – 29 Mar 2015 Revision
3 weeks 30 Mar – 17 Apr 2015 Examination
Remarks: (online –iLearn )
Quiz’ SuFO (16 Feb 2015 – 29 Mar 2015)
*Entrance Survey Lecture Notes, Tutorial, etc. - FOLDER (DEC2014-APRIL2015)
**Exit Survey
Tutorial
Tutorial Topic
1 Atomic structure
2 Interatomic bonding, Crystal Structures
3 APF, Density Computation, Miller Indices.
4 Phase diagram
5 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
6 Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metal
7 TTT- Diagram
8 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metal
9 Plastic and Elastomer
10 Ceramic and Composite materials
CHAPTER 1 : STRUCTURE
(10 hours)
SUBCONTENT :
1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE.
1.2 INTERATOMIC BONDING AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE SOLID.
1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES.
1.4 EFFICIENCY OF ATOMIC PACKING, DENSITY COMPUTATION,

MILLER INDICES.
1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC STRUCTURE, CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
You should be able:
Describe an atomic structure
Configure electron configuration
Differentiate between each atomic bonding
Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen
and Van der Waals bonds
Relate the atomic bonding with material
properties
1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What are ATOMS?
All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
Since the atom is too small to be seen even with the most powerful
microscopes, scientists rely upon on models to help us to understand the
atom.
Even with the world’s best

microscopes we cannot clearly
see the structure or behavior
of the atom.
4
Is this really an ATOM?
Even though we do not know what an
atom looks like, scientific models
must be based on evidence. Many of
the atom models that you have seen
may look like the one below which
shows the parts and structure of the
atom.
This model represents the
most modern version of the
atom.
Wave Mechanical Atomic Model
Bohr Theory 5
What does an ATOM look like?
•Atoms are made of a nucleus that contains protons, neutrons and electrons that
orbit around the nucleus at different levels, known as shells.
Protons and neutrons join together Neutron Nucleon or

to form the nucleus – the central
part of the atom
Nucleus
Proton
+
‐ ‐
+
Electrons
move
around the
nucleus
Electron
Shell @ Orbital @ Energy level
Fig. : A simplified diagram of atom
6
•These particles have the following properties:
Particle Charge Location Mass (amu) Symbol
Proton Positive (+ve) Nucleus 1.0073

+
Neutron Neutral Nucleus 1.0087
Electron Negative (-ve) Orbital 0.000549

‐
To describe the mass of atom, a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu) is used.
•The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom completely determine
its properties and identity. This is what makes one atom different from another.
7
Why are all ATOMS are ELECTRICALLY
NEUTRAL?
Most atoms are electrically neutral, meaning that they have an equal number of
protons and electrons. The positive and negative charges cancel each other out.
Therefore, the atom is said to be electrically neutral.
Neutron
‐
Proton
‐ +
Electron
+
++ +
‐
Fig. : Beryllium atom
‐
Proton = 4 NEUTRAL
Electron = 4 CHARGE
8
If an atom gains or loses electrons, the atom is no longer neutral and
it become electrically charged . The atom is then called an ION.
cation ‐ ion with a positive charge
‐ If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a cation.
11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons
Cations are smaller than their “parent atom” because
there is less e‐e repulsion
anion ‐ ion with a negative charge
‐ If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes an anion.
17 protons
Cl 17 electrons 17 protons
Cl‐ 18 electrons
Anions are larger than their “parent atom” because there is
9 more e‐‐ e repulsion
Basics of the PERIODIC TABLE
periodic: a repeating pattern
table: an organized collection of information
Periodic Table (P.T.)

An arrangement of elements in
order of atomic number;
elements with similar
properties are in the same
group.
10
The periodic table below is a simplified representation which
usually gives the :
Two main classifications in P.T.

1) period: horizontal row on the P.T.
•Designate electron energy levels
2) group or family: vertical column on the P.T.

11
ATOMIC NUMBER and ATOMIC MASS
Atom can be described using :
1) ATOMIC NUMBER 2) ATOMIC MASS
ATOMIC NUMBER, Z = no. of protons
SYMBOL
ATOMIC MASS , A =
no. of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (N)
The element helium has the atomic number 2, is represented by

the symbol He, its atomic mass is12 4 and its name is helium.
PERIODIC TABLE
ATOMIC NUMBER tells how many PROTONS (Z) are in its atoms which determine the
atom’s identity.
The list of elements (ranked according to an increasing no. of protons) can be looked up
on the Periodic Table. So, if an atom has 2 protons (atomic no. = 2), it must be helium(He).
ATOMIC MASS tells the sum of the masses of PROTONS (Z) and NEUTRONS (N) within the

nucleus E.g :
Lithium:
Atomic number = 3
3 protons, Z
4 neutrons, N
Atomic mass, A = 3 + 4 = 7
BUT... although each element has a defined number of protons, the number of neutrons
is not fixed isotopes
14
ISOTOPES
Different mass number
•Atoms which have the same
number of protons but different 1 2 3
numbers of neutrons. 1H 1 H (D) 1 H (T)
Same atomic no. @ no. of protons
Natural Proton Neutron Atomic

•Atoms which have the same Isotope Mass
atomic number but different atomic Hydrogen 1

(hydrogen)
mass .
Hydrogen 2
(deuterium)
•Eg : Hydrogen has 3 isotopes.
Hydrogen 3
(tritium)
15
Exercise of isotopes :
Number of Nucleon Number of

Element Name
Proton Number Neutron
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen‐16
Oxygen Oxygen‐17
Oxygen‐18
Carbon‐12
Carbon Carbon‐13
Carbon‐14
Chlorine‐35
Chlorine
Chlorine‐37
Sodium‐23
Sodium
Sodium‐24
EXERCISE
Naturally occurring carbon consists of three isotopes,
12C, 13C, and 14C. State the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in each of these carbon atoms.
12C 13C 14C
6 6 6
#p _______ _______ _______
#n _______ _______ _______
#e _______ _______ _______
17
ELECTRON SHELLS
The electron cloud that surrounded the nucleus is divided into 7 shells (a.k.a energy level)
 K (1st shell, closest to nucleus) followed by L, M, N, O, P, Q.
Each of the shell, hold a limited no. of electrons.
 E.g : K (2 electrons), L (8 electrons), M (18 electrons), N (32 electrons).
N (32 electrons)
4th shell M (18 electrons)
3rd shell L (8 electrons)
2nd shell K (2 electrons)
1st shell
18
ORBITAL
• Within each shell, the electrons occupy sub shell (energy sublevels)
– s, p, d, f, g, h, i. Each sub shell holds a different types of orbital.
• Each orbital holds a max. of 2 electrons.
• Each orbital has a characteristic energy state and characteristic shape.
• s - orbital
–Spherical shape
–Located closest to nucleus (first energy level)
–Max 2 electrons
• p - orbital
- There is 3 distinct p - orbitals (px, py, pz)
- Dumbbell shape
- Second energy level
- 6 electrons
d- orbital
- There is 5 distinct d – orbitals
- Max 10 electrons
- Third energy level
20
Table : The number of available electron states in some of the electrons
shells and subshells.
The max. no. of electrons that can occupy a specific shell can be found
using the following formula:
Electron Capacity = 2n2
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Electron configuration – the ways in which electrons are arranged
around the nucleus of atoms. The following representation is used :
• The following representation is used :
Orbital
Energy level @
Principal
quantum no. 1s2 No. of electrons
in the orbital
• Example: it means that there are two electrons in the ‘s’ orbital of the
first energy level. The element is helium.
Based on the Aufbau principle, which assumes that electrons
enter orbital of lowest energy first.
The sequence of addition of the

electrons as the atomic number
increases is as follows with the
first being the shell number the
s, p, d or f being the type of
subshell, the last number being
the number of electrons in the
subshell.
The electrons in their orbital are represented as follows :
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p6
How to Write the Electron Configuration of the Element?
Lithium Magnesium
24
Exercise: Electron Configurations
Atom Symbol Atomic Number Electron configuration
Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Potasium K
Calcium Ca
25
Exercise
Write the electron configuration for below element.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
a) K
b) K1+
c) Fe
d) Fe3+
Answer: TEST 1 [July 2011]
1a] With the aid of sketches, describe the Bohr Model of the
sodium [Na] and its ion in terms of valence electron , number of
electron and shell.
[4 marks]
TRANSITION ELEMENT
Cr [Z = 24]
Mo [Z = 42]
Cu [Z = 29]
Ag [Z = 47]
Au [Z = 79]
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
1.2 INTERATOMIC BONDING AMORPHOUS
AND CRYSTALLINE SOLID
• The forces of attraction that hold atoms together are called chemical bonds which can
be divided into 2 categories :
1) Primary Interatomic Bonding 2) Secondary Atomic Bonding

Metallic, ionic and covalent Van der Waals
• Chemical reactions between elements involve either the releasing/receiving or sharing of
electrons .
PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDING
1) IONIC BONDING
How is ionic bonding formed??
•Often found in compounds composed of electropositive
elements (metals) and electronegative elements (non metals)
•Electron are transferred to form a bond
•Large difference in electronegativity required
30
• Example: NaCl
IONIC BONDING
• Properties :
 Solid at room temperature (made of ions)

 High melting and boiling points
 Hard and brittle
 Poor conductors of electricity in solid state
 Good conductor in solution or when molten
EXAMPLE : IONIC BONDING
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics

NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 CsCl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Exercise : Final Exam [April 2008]
1c] With the aid of sketches, describe how Sodium and Chlorine
atoms are joined.
[3 marks]
EXERCISE
Draw the following ionic bonding?
IONIC BONDING :
Group 1 metal + Group 7 non metal, eg : NaCl
Group 2 metal + Group 7 non metal, eg : MgF₂, BeF₂, MgBr₂, CaCl₂ or CaI₂
Group 2 metal + Group 6 non metal, eg : CaO, MgO, MgS, or CaS
2) COVALENT BONDING
How is covalent bonding formed??
• Electrons are shared to form a bond.
• Most frequently occurs between atoms with similar electronegativities.
• Often found in:
• Molecules with nonmetals
• Molecules with metals and nonmetals
(Aluminum phosphide (AlP)
• Nonmetallic elemental molecules (H₂, Cl₂, F₂, etc)
• Elemental solids (diamond, silicon, germanium)
• Compound solids (about column IVA)
(gallium arsenide - GaAs, indium antimonide - InSb
and silicone carbide - SiC)
2) COVALENT BONDING
Properties
• Gases, liquids, or solids (made of molecules)

• Poor electrical conductors in all phases
• Variable ( hard , strong, melting temperature, boiling point)
EXAMPLE : COVALENT BONDING
H2O
column IVA
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
SiC - Cl2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9 GaAs
• Molecules with nonmetals

• Molecules with metals and nonmetals
• Elemental solids
• Compound solids (about column IVA)
EXERCISE
Draw the following covalent bonding?
SINGLE BOND :
Hydrogen
Fluorine
Water
DOUBLE BOND :
Oxygen
TRIPLE BOND :
Nitrogen
3) METALLIC BONDING
How is metallic bonding formed??
• Occur when some electrons in the valence shell separate
from their atoms and exist in a cloud surrounding all the
positively charged atoms.
• The valence electron form a ‘sea of electron’.
• Found for group IA and IIA elements.
• Found for all elemental metals and its alloy.

3) METALLIC BONDING
42
3) METALLIC BONDING
Properties:
 Good electrical conductivity
 Good heat conductivity
 Ductile
 Opaque
Explain why are metals ductile and can conduct
electricity?
SECONDARY INTERATOMIC BONDING
VAN DER WAALS
• Arise from atomic or molecular dipoles
• Three bonding mechanism
– Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
• Eg: Inert gases, symmetric molecules (H2, Cl2)
– Polar molecule‐Induced Dipole Bonds
• Asymmetrical molecules such as HCl, HF
– Permanent Dipole Bonds
• Hydrogen bonding
• Between molecules
• H‐F, H‐O, H‐N
MOLECULE
• Molecule is considered the smallest particle of a pure
chemical substance that still retains its composition
and chemical properties.
• Most common molecules are bound together by
strong covalent bonds.
• E.g. : F2, O2, H2.
• The smallest molecule : Hydrogen molecule .
Summary of BONDING
Type Bond energy Melting point Hardness Conductivity Comments
Ionic Large Very high Hard and Poor Nondirectional

bonding (150-370kcal/mol) brittle -required (ceramic)
moving ion
Covalent Variable Variable Very hard Poor Directional
bonding (75-300 kcal/mol) (diamond) (Semiconductors,
Highest – ceramic, polymer
Large -Diamond diamond chains)
Small – Bismuth (>3550)
Mercury (-39)
Metallic Variable Low to high Soft to hard Excellent Nondirectional
bonding (25-200 kcal/mol) (metal)
Large- Tungsten
Small- Mercury
Secondary Smallest Low to Fairly soft Poor Directional

bonding moderate inter-chain
(polymer)
inter-molecular
* Directional bonding – Strength of bond is not equal in all directions
48
* Nondirectional bonding – Strength of bond is equal in all directions
SUMMARY : PRIMARY BONDING
Ceramics Large bond energy
(Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm
large E
small 
Metals Variable bond energy

(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate 
Polymers Directional Properties

(Covalent & Secondary): Secondary bonding dominates
small T
secon
dary
b ondin
small E
g large 
Exercise : Final Exam [March 2002]
1a] Briefly describe differences between metallic bond and covalent bond.
Support your answer with an example and simple sketch.
(7 Marks)
1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Crystal
structure
Noncrsytalline
Crystalline
material
Material
(Amorphous)
Single Crystal polycrystal

* comprised of many single
crystal or grain
Crystalline materials...
• atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
• typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers crystalline SiO2
Si Oxygen
Noncrystalline materials...
• atoms have no periodic packing
• occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
noncrystalline SiO2
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline
Structure of SOLID
Amorphous Crystal
•No recognizable long- •Atoms are disordered •Entire solid is made up •All atoms arranged on
range order of atoms in an orderly a common lattice
•No lattice
array
Polycrystalline
•Completely ordered •Different lattice

orientation for each
•In segments grain
• Some engineering applications require single crystals:
--turbine blades
The single crystal turbine blades

are able to operate at a higher
working temperature than
crystalline turbine blade and thus
are able to increase the thermal
efficiency of the gas turbine cycle.
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
grain
QUESTION : FINAL EXAM [OCT 2012]
1a] With the aid of sketches, explain the following terms :
i. Crystalline materials
ii. Amorphous materials
iii. Single crystalline
iv. Polycrystalline
[8 marks]
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Most metals exhibit a crystal structure which show a unique arrangement of atoms
in a crystal.
A lattice and motif help to illustrate the crystal structure.

Lattice (lines network in 3D) + Motif (atoms are arranged in a repeated pattern)
= CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
+ =
lattice motif crystal structure

59
Unit Cell - When a solid
has a crystalline
structure, the atoms are
arranged in repeating
structures called unit
cells. The unit cell is the
smallest unit
that demonstrate the full
symmetry of a crystal.
+
Lattice - The three
dimensional array
formed by the unit cells
of a crystal is called
lattice.
=
A crystal is a three-
dimensional repeating
array.
Unit cell - a tiny box that
describe the crystal structure.
Fig. : The crystal structure (a) Part of the space lattice for natrium chloride (b)Unit cell for natrium
chloride crystal
•Crystal structure may be present with any of the

four types of atomic bonding.
•The atoms in a crystal structure are arranged

along crystallographic planes which are designated
by the Miller indices numbering system.
•The crystallographic planes and Miller indices are

identified by X-ray diffraction.
Fig. : The wavelength of the X-ray is
similar to the atomic spacing in crystals.
61
CRYSTAL SYSTEM AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
BRAVAIS LATTICE - describe the geometric arrangement of the lattice points and
the translational symmetry of the crystal.
•7 crystal systems :
cubic, hexagonal,
tetragonal,
rhombodhedral,
orthorhombic, monoclinic,
triclinic.
•By adding additional
lattice point to 7 basic
crystal systems –
form 14 Bravais
62 lattice.
Crystal Structure of Metals
Common crystal structures for metals:
• Simple Cubic (SC) ‐ Manganese
• Body‐centered cubic (BCC) ‐ alpha iron, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum,
tungsten, and vanadium.
• Face‐centered cubic (FCC) ‐ gamma iron, aluminum, copper, nickel, lead, silver,
gold and platinum.
SC BCC FCC
SIMPLE CUBIC (SC)
• The atoms lie on a grid: layers of rows and
columns.
• Sit at the corners of stacked cubic
Example : Manganese
64
Body‐centered Cubic Crystal
Structure
The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells
BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)
• Cubic unit cell with 8 atoms located at the corner & single atom at cube
center
Example : Chromium, Tungsten,Molybdenum,Tantalum,

66
Vanadium
Face‐centered Cubic Crystal
Structure
The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells
FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)
Atoms are located at each of the corners and the centers of all the
cube faces. Each corner atom is shared among 8 unit cells,face
centered atom belong to 2.
Example : Cu,Al,Ag,Au, Ni, Pt
68
1.4 EFFICIENCY OF ATOMIC PACKING,
DENSITY COMPUTATION AND MILLER
INDEX
69
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR
•Atomic packing factor (APF) is defined as the efficiency of atomic arrangement
in a unit cell.
•It is used to determine the most dense arrangement of atoms. It is because how
the atoms are arranged determines the properties of the particular crystal.
•In APF, atoms are assumed closely packed and are treated as hard spheres.
•It is represented mathematically by :
APF = no. of atom, n x volume of atoms in the unit cell, (Vs)

volume of the unit cell, (Vc)
70
EXAMPLE
Calculate the APF for Simple Cubic (SC)?
a
R=0.5a
close-packed directions
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell
71
EXERCISE
Calculate the APF for FCC and BCC ?
a) FCC b) BCC
72
Table : APF for simple cubic, BCC, FCC and HCP
a (lattice constant) and Atoms/unit Packing Examples
R (atom radius) cell Density
(APF)
Simple 1 52% CsCl
a = 2R
cubic
BCC 2 68% Many metals:

a = 4R/√3
α-Fe, Cr, Mo, W
FCC 4 74% Many metals : Ag,

a = 4R/√2
Au, Cu, Pt
73
QUESTION : FINAL EXAM [Oct 2010]
1a] Give the definition of a unit cell. Briefly describe lattice constant in the unit cell.
[ 4 marks]
1b] Give the definition of APF for a unit cell and calculate the APF for FCC.
[4 marks]
74
DENSITY COMPUTATIONS
• A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic
solid permits computation of its density through the
relationship :
ρ= nA
Vc NA
Where
n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell
A = atomic weight
Vc = volume of the unit cell
NA = Avogadro’s number (6.023 x 1023 atoms/mol)
75
EXAMPLE
Calculate the density for nickel (simple cubic structure).
Note that the unit cell edge length (a) for nickel is 0.3524 nm.
76
EXERCISE
Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, FCC crystal structure. Compute its
density and compare the answer with its measured density.
Element Symbol Density of Crystal Atomic

solid, 20oC Structure, radius
(g/cm3) 20oC (nm)
Copper Cu 8.94 FCC 0.128
77
QUESTION : TEST 1 [August 2012]
1b] Platinum has a FCC structure, a lattice parameter of 0.393 nm. Determine :
i. Atomic radius [in cm]

ii. Density of platinum
[ 6marks]
Solution :
78
MILLER INDICES
Miller indices is used to label the planes and directions of atoms in a crystal.
Why Miller indices is important?

To determine the shapes of single crystals, the interpretation of X-ray
diffraction patterns and the movement of a dislocation , which may determine
the mechanical properties of the material.
Miller indices
• (h k l) : a specific crystal plane or face
• {h k l} : a family of equivalent planes
• [h k l] : a specific crystal direction
• <h k l> : a family of equivalent directions
Figure : Planes of the form {110} in cubic systems

79
POINT COORDINATES
- The position of any point located within a unit cell may be
specified in terms of its coordinates (x,y,z)
z
Example : BCC structure
Point Point
Number x axis y-axis z-axis Coordinated
1 0 0 0 000
2 1 0 0 100
3 1 1 0 110
4 0 1 0 010
5 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
6 0 0 1 001
7 1 0 1 101
8 1 1 1 111
9 0 1 1 011
80
MILLER INDICES OF A DIRECTION
How to determine crystal direction indices?
i) Determine the length of the vector
projection on each of the three axes,
based on .
ii) These three numbers are expressed as the

smallest integers and negative quantities
are indicated with an overbar.
iii) Label the direction [hkl]. Figure : Examples of direction
Axis X Y Z
Head (H) x2 y2 z2
Tail (T) x1 y1 z1
Head (H) –Tail (T) x2-x1 y2-y1 z2-z1
Reduction (if necessary)

Enclosed [h k l]
81
* No reciprocal involved.
EXAMPLE : CRYSTAL DIRECTION INDICES
0,0,0
1
1 1,1,0
0,1,0
1,0,0
82
EXERCISE : CRYSTAL DIRECTION INDICES
1
½ 0
1
0
1
1
83
EXERCISE : CRYSTAL DIRECTION INDICES
½½
0
½
84
Determine the direction indices of the cubic
direction between the position coordinates
TAIL (3/4, 0, 1/4) and HEAD (1/4, 1/2, 1/2)?
Axis x y z
Head
Tail
Projection
(Head – Tail)
Reduction
(x4)
Enclosed
Draw the following Miller Indices
direction.
a) [ 1 0 0 ]
b) [ 1 1 1 ]
c) [ 1 1 0 ]
d) [ 1 1 0 ]
e) [ 1 1 2 ]
MILLER INDICES OF A PLANE
How to determine crystal plane indices?
i) Determine the points at which a given crystal plane
intersects the three axes, say at (a,0,0),(0,b,0), and (0,0,c). If
the plane is parallel an axis, it is given an intersection ∞.
ii) Take the reciprocals of the three integers found in step (i).
iii) Label the plane (hkl). These three numbers are expressed
as the smallest integers and negative quantities are indicated
with an overbar,e.g : a.
Axis X Y Z
Interceptions
Reciprocals
Reduction (if necessary)

Enclosed (h k l) Figure : Planes with different Miller
indices in cubic crystals
87
(0 , 0 , 1)
+z
_
_ (1 , 0 , 0)
x
_ _
(0 , 1 , 0) y +y (0 , 1 , 0)
+x
(1 , 0 , 0) _
z _
(0 , 0 , 1)
EXERCISE. : CRYSTAL PLANE INDICES
89
0
Determine the Miller Indices plane for the
following figure below?
Draw the following Miller Indices
plane.
a) ( 1 0 0 )
b) ( 0 0 1 )
c) ( 1 0 1 )
d) ( 1 1 0 )
ANSWER : Draw the following Miller Indices plane.
a) ( 1 0 0 )
b) ( 0 0 1 )
c) ( 1 0 1 )
d) ( 1 1 0 )
NOTE (for plane and direction):
• PLANE
Make sure you enclosed your final answer in parentheses (…) with no
separating commas → (hkl)
• DIRECTION
Make sure you enclosed your final answer in brackets (…) with no
separating commas → [hkl]
• FOR BOTH PLANE AND DIRECTION

Negative number should be written as follows :
-1 (WRONG)
1 (CORRECT)
Final answer for labeling the plane and direction should not have fraction
number do a reduction.
95
1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ATOMIC STRUCTURE, CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
96
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Physical properties are the characteristic responses of materials to
forms of energy such as heat, light, electricity and magnetism.
The physical properties of metals can be easily explained as follows :
•Solid at room temperature (mercury is an exception)

•Opaque
•Conducts heat and electricity
•Reflects light when polished
•Expands when heated, contracts when cooled
•It usually has a crystalline structure
97
Mechanical Properties
 Terminology for Mechanical Properties
 The Tensile Test: Stress‐Strain Diagram
 Properties Obtained from a Tensile Test
 Hardness of Materials
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Mechanical properties are the characteristic dimensional changes in response to
applied external or internal mechanical forces such as shear strength, toughness,
stiffness etc.
The mechanical properties of metals can be easily explained as follows :
99
Tensile Test
specimen
machine
100
Tensile Test
101
Terminology
 Load ‐ The force applied to a material during testing.
 Strain gage or Extensometer ‐ A device used for
measuring change in length (strain).
 Engineering stress ‐ The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross‐sectional area of the
material.
 Engineering strain ‐ The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UTS
Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε Region fracture
4
σ 1
E
ε E
σy
Strain (  ) (L/Lo)
ε 2  ε1
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
σ
σ Eε or E
ε
σ : Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) (psi)
ε : Strain (in/in)
- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
• Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.
• Tensile Strength (Point 3)

- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
• Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
• This diagram is used to determine how material will react under a certain load.
Typical regions that can

be observed in a stress-
strain curve are:
• Elastic region
• Yielding
• Strain Hardening
• Necking and Failure
Figure : Stress strain diagram
108
Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
• Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear portion
of the stress‐strain curve, it is usually specific to each
material; a constant, known value.
• Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the yield
point, calculated by plotting young's modulus at a
specified percent of offset (usually offset = 0.2%).
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest value of
stress on the stress‐strain curve.
• Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge length
divided by the original gauge length.
109
The stress-strain curve for an aluminum alloy.
Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000
800 Diamond Eceramics
600
400 Tungsten
Molybdenum
Si carbide
Al oxide Carbon fibers only > Emetals
Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
>> Epolymers
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Composite data based on
Graphite GFRE( fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
10
8 of aligned carbon (CFRE),
CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE)
Polyester
4 PET fibers.
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE
111
T
E
N
S
I
L
E
P
R
O
P
E
R
T
I
E
S 112
Yield Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140)qt
in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

1000
Yield strength, y (MPa)
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a
in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

W (pure)
700
600 Cu (71500)cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140)a
Steel (1020)cd
Hard to measure,
300
Al (6061)ag
Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020)hr

¨
Ti (pure)a Room T values
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500)hr a = annealed
100 hr = hot rolled
dry ag = aged
70 PC cd = cold drawn
60 Al (6061)a Nylon 6,6
50 PET cw = cold worked
humid
40 PVC qt = quenched & tempered
PP
30 HDPE
20
LDPE
Tin (pure)
10 113
Yield Strength, y
Elastic+Plastic
tensile stress, 
tensile stress,  at larger stress
y
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
p engineering strain, 
plastic strain
engineering strain, 
p = 0.002
114
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial

F F Linear-
elastic
• Atomic bonds are stretched but not
broken. Non-Linear-
• Once the forces are no longer elastic
applied, the object returns to its 
original shape.
• Elastic means reversible. 115
Typical stress-strain
behavior for a metal
showing elastic and
plastic deformations,
the proportional limit P
and the yield strength
σy, as determined
using the 0.002 strain
offset method (where there
is noticeable plastic deformation).
P is the gradual elastic
to plastic transition.
116
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
elastic + plastic plastic
F
F
• Atomic bonds are broken and new linear linear
elastic elastic
.
bonds are created. 
• Plastic means permanent. plastic
117
Permanent Deformation
• Permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called
slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
• Most structures are designed to ensure that
only elastic deformation results when stress
is applied.
• A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape,
may not be capable of functioning as
intended. 118
Tensile Strength, TS
• After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and
then decreases to the eventual fracture
point (F).
• All deformation up to the maximum
stress is uniform throughout the tensile
sample.
• However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form.
• Subsequent deformation will be confined
to this neck area.
• Fracture strength corresponds to the
stress at fracture.
Region between M and F:
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
119
In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned locally.
The neck continues to
grow until the chains
in the entire gage
length have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased
120
Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)
2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE (|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE (|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE (|| fiber)
Steel (4140) a
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
200 Ta (pure) Room T values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
<100> Nylon 6,6 a = annealed
Glass-soda PC PET
PVC GFRE ( fiber) hr = hot rolled
40 Concrete PP CFRE ( fiber)
30 ag = aged
AFRE( fiber) cd = cold drawn
HDPE
20 Graphite cw = cold worked
LDPE
qt = quenched & tempered
10 AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber‐reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
wood ( fiber) fibers.
1 121
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F
Area, A Area, A Fs
Fs
Ft Ft
 Fs F Ft

Ao Ao
original area
before loading
Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2 122

VMSE
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/index.htm
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/strstr.htm
123
Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the plastic
l f  lo
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture:
% EL  x100
lo
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile Ao
stress,  larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
A material that %EL>5%)
suffers very
little plastic Engineering tensile strain, 
deformation is
Ao  A f
brittle. • Another ductility measure: % AR  x100
Ao
• Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (% plastic strain at fracture)
or percent reduction in area.
• %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck.
124
Toughness is Toughness
the ability to
Lower toughness: ceramics
absorb
energy up to Higher toughness: metals
fracture (energy
per unit volume of
material).
A “tough”
material has
strength and
ductility.
Approximated
by the area
under the
stress-strain
curve. 125
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain, 
21
F
Linear Elastic Properties
• Hooke's Law: =E
F
• Poisson's ratio: xy simple
tension
metals:  ~ 0.33 test
ceramics:  ~0.25
polymers:  ~0.40

E
1  Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)
Linear-
elastic
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless 127
Engineering Strain
Strain is dimensionless.
128
Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y) contractions (negative strains) in
response to an imposed tensile stress.
129
True Stress and True Strain
 True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area of the specimen at that load.
 True strain The strain calculated using actual and not
original dimensions, given by εt ln(l/l0).
•The relation between the true stress‐true
strain diagram and engineering stress‐
engineering strain diagram.
•The curves are identical to the yield point.
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials compared with

that of more ductile materials
Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastomers
3 different responses:
A – brittle failure
B – plastic failure
C ‐ highly elastic (elastomer)
(MPa)
x
60 brittle failure
plastic failure
40 x
20 x
elastomer
final: chains
0
0 2 4 6  8
are straight,
still
cross-linked
initial: amorphous chains are Deformation

kinked, heavily cross-linked. is reversible!
‐‐brittle response (aligned chain, cross linked & networked case)
‐‐plastic response (semi‐crystalline case)
132
Stress-Strain Results for Steel
Sample
133
FRACTURE MECHANISM OF METALS
Metals can fail by brittle or ductile fracture.
Ductile fracture is better than brittle fracture because :

Ductile fracture occurs over a period of time, where as brittle fracture is fast
and can occur (with flaws) at lower stress levels than a ductile fracture.
Figure : Stress strain curve for brittle and ductile material

134
Ductile Vs Brittle Fracture
Ductile Fracture
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a

necked region.
• The image shows necked region in a fractured sample
QUESTION : FINAL EXAM [April 2011]
1c] Ductility is one of the important mechanical properties.
i] Define the ductility of a metal.

ii] With the aid of schematic diagrams, describe elastic and plastic deformations.
[6 marks]
137
What are the differences between
ductile fracture & brittle fracture?
Hardness of Materials
 Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to

penetration by a sharp object.
 Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials
measured using loads >2 N.
 Microhardness Hardness of materials typically measured
using loads less than 2 N using such test as Knoop
(HK).
 Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1–
10 nm length scale using extremely small (~100 µN)
forces.
Hardness
• Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance
to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or
scratch).
• Quantitative hardness techniques have been
developed where a small indenter is forced into
the surface of a material.
• The depth or size of the indentation is measured,
and corresponds to a hardness number.
• The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
140
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
‐‐resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
‐‐better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond
increasing hardness
141
Hardness Testers
142
Hardness Testers
Indentation Geometry for Brinnel
Testing
Figure Indentation geometry in
Brinell hardness testing: (a)
annealed metal; (b) work-
hardened metal; (c) deformation
of mild steel under a spherical
indenter. Note that the depth of
the permanently deformed zone
is about one order of magnitude
larger that the depth of
indentation. For a hardness test
to be valid, this zone should be
developed fully in the material.
Hardness
Scale
Conversions
Figure Chart for converting

various hardness scales. Note
the limited range of most scales.
Because of the many factors
involved, these conversions are
approximate.
Conversion of
Hardness Scales
Also see: ASTM E140 - 07

Volume 03.01
Standard Hardness Conversion
Tables for Metals Relationship
Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop
Hardness, and Scleroscope
Hardness
147
Correlation
between
Hardness and
Tensile
Strength
• Both hardness and tensile
strength are indicators of
a metal’s resistance to
plastic deformation.
• For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.
• Tensile strength (psi) =

500*BHR
148
QUESTION : FINAL EXAM [Oct 2012]
1c] Hardness is one of the important mechanical properties

in engineering. Describe FOUR [4] types of hardness
measurement method in terms of name and types of
indenter.
[ 4 marks]
149
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size‐independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
150
CHAPTER 2
METALLIC MATERIALS
(14 hours)
1
CONTENTS
2.1 Solidification of Pure Metal and Alloys
2.2 Phase diagram: Microstructure development,
Microconstituent of phases.
2.3 Fe‐Fe3C system: Microstructure development,
2.4 Ferrous and Non‐Ferrous Metals
2
2.1 Solidification of Pure Metal
and Alloys
3
2.1 Solidification of Pure Metal and Alloys
• Terminology • Cooling Curve
• Solution – Cooling Curve of Pure Metal
– Metal Solid Solution – Cooling Curve of Alloys
– Type of Solid Solution – Development of Phase
• Substitutional Solid Solution Diagram
• Interstitial Solid Solution – Cooling Curve for Binary
– The Solubility Limit Isomorphous
• Solidification
4
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Students should be able to :
• Understand the phase transformation during
solidification process.
• Differentiate between cooling curve for pure
metal and alloys.
5
TERMINOLOGY
Solvent
In an alloy, the element or compound present in greater amount.
Solute
In an alloy, the element or compound present in lesser amount.
Solution
When two components combine to form a single phase.
Solubility
Degree to which the two components mix.
Solubility limit
The max. concentration of solute that may be added without forming
a new phase. 6
TERMINOLOGY
Components:
The elements or compounds which are mixed initially
(e.g., Al and Cu)
Phases:
The physically and chemically distinct material regions
that result (e.g.,  and ).
Example :
Liquid - 1 phase
L (liquid) + α (alpha-solid) - 2 phases
 (lighter
phase)
(darker
phase)
* Note that solid, gas and liquid is a phase. 7

Aluminum-Copper Alloy
SOLUTION
• When 2 components combined they can
either remain separate or combine to form
a single phase which is referred to as a
solution.
• i.e.
– Alcohol and water – completely soluble
– Hot choc – powder mix soluble in water but
limited extent
– Oil and vinegar – insoluble liquids can be
temporarily mixed
8
METALLIC SOLID SOLUTION
• Most metals are combined to form alloy in order to impart
specific characteristic.
• An alloy is a combination of two or more elements (added
impurity atoms), at least one of which is a metal.
• The addition of impurity atoms to a metal will result in the
formation of a solid solution.
• A solid solution is a solid‐state solution of one or more

solutes in a solvent.
• E.g : Steel/Cast Iron (Iron base alloys),
Bronze/Brass (Copper base alloys),
Al alloys, Ni base alloys, Mg base alloys, Ti alloys. 9
METALLIC SOLID SOLUTION
Characteristic of solid solution:
• Form when solute atoms are added to the host material.
• Crystal structure is maintained.
• No new structure formed.
• Compositionally homogeneous.
Solute
Used to denote an
element/compound present in a
minor concentration
Solvent
Element / compound that is
present in the greatest amount
(host atoms)
10
TYPES OF SOLID SOLUTION
i. Substitutional solid solution
Known as point defects

(where an atom is missing or
ii. Interstitial solid solution is in an irregular place in the
lattice structure).
11
Substitutional Solid Solution
Hume -Rothery Rules
Substitutional solid solution with complete solubility exists when :
RULE PROPERTIES CONDITIONS
1 Atomic radius Less than about ± 15% difference in atomic radii
2 Crystal structure Same crystal structure (e.g : BCC, FCC or HCP).
3 Electronegativity Similar electronegativity/ smaller diff.
4 Valence electron Similar valance electron
Note:
Not all alloys
systems that fit these rules
will form appreciable solid
solutions
Host atoms are replaced/substitute with solute/ impurity atoms. 12

EXAMPLE 1 : Cu-Ni system
• Both metals are completely soluble in each other
because all the requirement of Hume Rothery Rules
have been satisfactorily fulfilled.
• The solid phase is a substitutional solid solution.
System RULE 1 RULE 2 RULE 3 RULE 4
Atomic radius, R (nm) Crystal structure E/negativity Valences
Cu 0.128 FCC 1.90
Ni 0.125 FCC 1.80
13
EXAMPLE 2: Cu-Ag system
• Both metals are partially soluble in each other because
one of the requirement of Hume Rothery Rules have not
been satisfactorily fulfilled.
• The solid phase is a substitutional solid solution.
System RULE 1 RULE 2 RULE 3 RULE 4
Atomic radius, R (nm) Crystal structure E/negativity Valences
Cu 0.128 FCC 1.90

Ag 0.144 FCC 1.80
14
Interstitial Solid Solution
Interstitial Solid Solution exists when :
• Impurity atoms fill the voids in the solvent atom lattice.
• It interstices among the host atoms.
• Atomic diameter of an interstitial impurity must be smaller
than host atoms.
• Normal max. allowable concentration of interstitial
impurity atom is low (<10%).
The atoms of the parent or
solvent metal are bigger
than the atoms of the
alloying or solute metal. In
this case, the smaller atoms
fit into spaces between the
larger atoms.
15
THE SOLUBILITY LIMIT
• Solubility Limit: Max concentration for which only a solution
occurs. 100
Solubility
Temperature (°C)
80 Limit L
(liquid)
Ex: Phase Diagram:
60 +
Water-Sugar System L
40 (liquid solution S
i.e., syrup) (solid
20 sugar)
0 20 40 6065 80 100
Sugar
Water
Co=Composition (wt% sugar)
Pure
Pure
• Question : What is the solubility limit at 20oC?
If Co < 65wt% sugar:

If Co > 65wt% sugar:
Solubility limit increases with T:

16
SOLIDIFICATION OF PURE METAL
& ALLOYS
COOLING CURVE
PHASE DIAGRAM
17
SOLIDIFICATION
• Solidification is the most important phase transformation
because most of metals/alloys undergo this transformation
before becoming useful objects.
• Solidification involve liquid-solid phase transformation,

e.g : casting process.
• The solidification process differs depending on whether

the metal is a pure element or an alloy.
18
SOLIDIFICATION
Solidification of Pure Metal and Alloys
1. The formation of stable nuclei in the melt (nucleation)
2. The growth of nuclei into crystal
3. The formation of a grain structure
Grain boundaries
Liquid (means region between crystals)
Liquid
Nucleus
Crystals growing Grain

(irregular grain)
(a) (b) (c)
Crystals Grow
Solution Nucleation Crystal Together and Form
(Liquid State) of Crystals Growth Grain Boundaries 19
& ALLOYS
COOLING CURVE
PHASE DIAGRAM
20
COOLING CURVE
• Used to determine phase transition temperature.
• Temperature and time data of cooling molten metal is
recorded and plotted.
• Produce a graph known as PHASE DIAGRAM which
shows the relationship among temperature,
composition and phases present in alloy
21
Cooling Curve of Pure Metal
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature
equal to its freezing point, which is the same as its
melting point.
22
Figure : Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting
Cooling Curve of Alloys
Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at
a single temperature.
Figure : a) Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system and 23

b) Associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni-50%Cu composition during casting
Development of Phase Diagram
• Series of cooling curves at different metal composition are
first constructed.
• Points of change of slope of cooling curves (thermal arrests)
are noted and phase diagram is constructed.
• More the number of cooling curves, more accurate is the
phase diagram.
24
Cooling Curve For
Binary Isomorphous
• For pure metal, the cooling
curves show horizontal 1
D
thermal arrest at their C
freezes points, as seen for L9
pure A and pure B (at AB
and CD). S9
• Different composition will
give different cooling Freezing L1
zone
curves. S1
A B
• The slope changes at L1‐L9
are correspond to the
liquidus point.
• The slope changes at S1‐S9
are correspond to the
solidus points. 25
Red regions – material is liquid
Green regions – solid and liquid
2 phases are in equilibrium.
Blue regions – material is solid
By removing the time axis and
replacing it with composition
get straight lines
3
L1
Connection of points on a S1phase

diagram representing the temp. at
which each alloy in the system begins
to solidify --- obtain liquidus line
Join all the points where the liquid has
solidified is complete --- obtain solidus
line
26
& ALLOYS
COOLING CURVE
PHASE DIAGRAM
27
2.2 Phase diagram
Microstructure development,
28
2.2 Phase diagram: Microstructure development,
• Phase Diagram • Invariant Equilibrium
• The Lever Rule • Terminology
• Binary Phase Diagram
– Binary Isomorphous Phase Diagram
(COMPLETE SOLID SOLUTION)
– Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
– Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
(LIMITED SOLID SOLUTION)
29
Learning objective:
Students should be able to:
• Schematically sketch and label the various phase
regions for simple binary phase diagrams.
• Determine the phase(s) present, composition(s)
and relative amount of phase(s).
• Discuss the development of the microstructures,
upon cooling, for several situations.
• Locate the invariant point and write reaction for
all the transformations for either heating or
cooling.
30
PHASE DIAGRAM
What is PHASE DIAGRAM?
A graphical representations of what phases are present in a
materials system at various temperature (T), pressure (P) and
composition (C).
Why do I need to know about PHASE DIAGRAM?
1. Because there is a strong correlation between microstructure
and mechanical properties.
2. Besides, development of alloy microstructure is related to the
characteristics of its phase diagram.
Applications of PHASE DIAGRAM?
1. Casting
2. Soldering
31
PHASE DIAGRAM
Types of PHASE DIAGRAM?
1. Unary – Consists of One components in an alloy
2. Binary – Consists of two components in an alloy
3. Ternary‐ Consists of three components in an alloy
Example: Unary Phase Diagram
32
PHASE DIAGRAM
What do I need to know about BINARY PHASE DIAGRAM?
Definition : Consists two components in an alloy.
Types :
1. Complete solid solution (e.g. Cu and Ni are completely soluble)
2. No solid solution (e.g. Pb insoluble in copper)
3. Limited solid solution (e.g. Sn has limited solubility in Pb)
33
BINARY PHASE DIAGRAM
There are three(3) types of binary phase diagram :
1) Complete solid 2) No solid solution 2) Limited solid
solution solution
Alcohol and water Oil and water Pepper powder and water
−Complete solubility in - Result in multi phase −Often soluble up to limit

liquid and solid - Result in multi phase
- Result in single phase
Cu and Ni Pb and Copper Zinc and Copper,
Sn and Pb
34
BINARY
ISOMORPHOUS
PHASE DIAGRAM
(COMPLETE SOLID SOLUTION)
35
BINARY ISOMORPHOUS
PHASE DIAGRAM
Isomorphous
• Complete liquid & solid solubility
• Only one solid phase forms
• Same crystal structure
Example : Cu-Ni system

• phases:
• different phase fields/regions
Figure : Cu-Ni system
Note that :
• Liquidus is line above which all of alloy is liquid
36
• Solidus is line below which all of alloy is solid
BINARY ISOMORPHOUS PHASE DIAGRAM:
# and types of phases
• Rule 1: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the # and types of phases present.
• Examples:
T(°C)
160 0
150 0 L (liquid)
u s
B(1250,35)
u i d
140 0 liq us
il d
so Some common features of
130 0 + 
L (FCC solid phase diagrams
120 0  “α”, “β” and “γ” and etc. are used
solution)
to indicate solid solution
110 0 A(1100,60) phases.
 “L” represents a liquid.
100 0
0 20 40 60 80 10 0 wt% Ni
37
Cu-Ni system
composition of phases
--the composition of each phase (weight percent, wt%).
T(°C) Cu-Ni system
• Examples:
TA A
tie line dus
i
1300 L (liquid) liq u

B L + dus
i
TB so l

L + (solid)
1200 D
TD
20 3032 35 4043 50
CLCo C wt% Ni
Determination of phase compositions
1. Locate the temperature.
2. If one phase present, the composition
= overall composition (Co) of alloy.
38 3. If two phase present, use tie line.
weight fractions of phases
--the amount of each phase [e.g: Single phase (1.0 or 100%)].
T(°C) Cu-Ni system
• Examples: A
TA tie line dus
l iqui
1300 L (liquid)
+ 
B L dus
oli
TB R RS S
s
L + 
1200 D
TD (solid)
20 3032 35 4043 50
CLCo C
wt% Ni
Note
•Within single phase alloy, the alloy is completely
(100%) that phase.
•If two phase alloy exists, use Lever Rule
39
THE LEVER RULE
Let WL = fraction of liquid and Wα = fraction of solid (unknown)
• Sum of weight fractions: WL  W  1

• Conservation of mass (Ni): Co  WL CL  W C
• Combine above equations:
 C  Co  S Co  CL  R
WL W 
C  CL R  S C  CL R  S
• A geometric interpretation:
Co moment equilibrium:
CL C
WLR  WS
R S
WL W 1 W
solving gives Lever Rule
40
THE LEVER RULE
Ask yourself ?
Smaller Larger distance

distance
smaller mass
Higher mass
41
THE LEVER RULE
EXAMPLE : Calculate the amounts of α and L at 1250°C in the
Cu-35% Ni alloy?
C  35 wt .%, C  31 . 5 wt .%, C  42 . 5 wt .% 42
o L 
43
THE LEVER RULE
EXERCISE : Determine the relative amount on each phase in the Cu 40% Ni alloy
shown in Figure below at 1300°C, 1270°C, 1250°C and 1200°C ?
Microstructure
Consider Co = 35wt% Ni
T(°C) L (liquid) L: 35wt%Ni
Microstructure
A
1300
A + 
L: 35wt%Ni L
: 46wt%Ni B
35 46
B 32 C 43
24 D L: 32wt%Ni
36
1200 +  : 43wt%Ni
C L E
L: 24wt%Ni
: 36wt%Ni

D (solid)
E 1100
20 30 35 40 50
Co wt% Ni
Figure : Cooling of Cu-Ni alloy 44
BINARY EUTECTIC
PHASE DIAGRAM
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
45
BINARY EUTECTIC PHASE DIAGRAM
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
Eutectic: the composition of
a mixture that has the lowest
melting point where the
phases simultaneously
crystallize from molten solution
at this temperature.
From the Greek 'eutektos',
meaning ‘easily melted’.
No solid solution where the
components are completely •Region above line ced = liquid solution
soluble in the liquid state •Line ce and ed = liquidus
but complete insoluble in •Line cfegd = solidus
•Region below line feg = mixture of solid A & B
the solid state.
•Point e = eutectic point
(the lowest temp. at which a liquid solution can exist)
Example : Pb-Cu system
46
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
Determination of phase and phase composition:
Same as in binary isomorphous system.
Determination of weight fraction
HYPOEUTECTIC HYPEREUTECTIC
Weight fraction of liquid,
WL= R/(R+Q)
Weight fraction of solid A,

WA = Q/(R+Q)
Three phases in equilibrium at

eutectic point compositions and
temperature
Eutectic reaction
L A+ B
47
EUTECTIC
HYPOEUTECTIC
HYPEREUTECTIC
48
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
Eutectic α Eutectic β
Figure : Lamellar eutectic structure
The eutectic microstructure forms in the alternating layers which

is known as lamellar:
→ atomic diffusion of lead and tin only occur over relatively short distances
in solid state.
49
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
Hypoeutectic alloy Hypereutectic alloy
When the composition of an When the composition of an
alloy, places it to the left of the alloy, places it to the right of
eutectic point the eutectic point
First solid to form : Primary α First solid to form : Primary β
(a.k.a. proeutectic α) (a.k.a. proeutectic β)
β
Liquid
50
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
1. Cooling curve at eutectic alloy
Same as single component (pure metal) because solidification
takes place at a single temperature.
Figure : Cooling curve at eutectic alloy
51
(No SOLID SOLUTION)
2. Cooling curve at hypo/hypereutectic alloy
Once the liquid reach TE, it will have the eutectic composition and
will freeze at that temperature to form solid eutectic mixture of
two phases.
HYPOEUTECTIC HYPOEUTECTIC
TE
TL = temperature of liquid Figure : Cooling curve at hypo/hyper
TE = temperature at eutectic point eutectic alloy 52
BINARY EUTECTIC
PHASE DIAGRAM
53
Limited solid solution where the components are completely
soluble in the liquid state but limited solubility in the solid state.
E.g : Sn‐Pb system, Cu‐Ag system
• 3 single phase region = α, β, L

• Solvus cf denotes the solubility
limit of B in A
• Solvus dg shows the solubility
limit of A in B
α, β = solid solution
ae, be = liquidus
ac, cd, bd = solidus
cf, dg = solvus
54
TM Cu
Liquidus
TM Ag
Solidus
Eutectic point
Solvus
a.k.a. triple point.
Eutectic temp.
(TE) : below TE
form 2 different
solid phases.
CE
Figure : Copper-silver phase diagram Eutectic composition (CE) 55
Determination of phase and phase composition:
Same as in binary isomorphous system
Determination of weight fraction
Weight fraction of liquid,

WL= Q/(R+Q)
Weight fraction of β,
Wβ = R/(R+Q)
56
Ex.: Cu-Ag system T(°C)

1200
• 3 single phase regions L (liquid)
(L, ) 1000
• Limited solubility:  L +  779°C
TE 800 L+
: mostly Cu 8.0 71.9 91.2
: mostly Ni
600
• TE: No liquid below TE

• CE: Min. melting T 400
composition 200
0 20 40 60 CE 80 100
Eutectic reaction Co, wt% Ag
L α + β
(Liq.) (s.s) (s.s) Cu-Ag system
57
EXERCISE:
1) Label each phase region
(i), (ii) and (iii).
2) Determine Tm for pure (i)
Sn and Bi. α +L
(ii)
3) Determine the eutectic

(iii)
temperature and β
eutectic composition.
Sn-Bi phase diagram
58
T(°C)
300
L (liquid)
200  L +  183°C L+ 

18.3 61.9 97.8
150
100 
0 20 40 60 80 100
Co
Co, wt% Sn
Pb-Sn system
59
EXERCISE:
a) What is the TE and CE?
b) Consider an alloy contains 20wt%
Cu, what are the compositions of
the phase in equilibrium at just
above and below TE?
c) Consider Ag‐Cu alloy contains
40 wt% Ag, at temperature just
below TE, find the relative amounts
of each phase. 60
(LIMITED SOLID SOLUTION) : MICROSTRUCTURES
1. Consider Co < 2wt% Sn
Liquid
Liquid +  grains of solid
polycrystal of  grains

phase solid)
Pb-Sn system 61
2. Consider 2wt%Sn < Co < 18.3wt%Sn
T(°C) L: Cowt%Sn
400 Liquid
L
L
300 
L+ Liquid +  grains of solid
: C owt%Sn

200
TE


100
polycrystal of  grains
+ phase solid)
0 10 20 30
2 Co Co, wt% Sn
(sol. limit at Troom) 18.3  polycrystal + fine  crystals
(sol. limit at TE)
phase solid)
Pb-Sn system 62
3. Consider Co = CE = 61.9 wt% Sn EUTECTIC
T(°C)
L: Cowt%Sn
300 L
L+
200
TE  183°C L+ 
100 +
: 97.8wt%Sn
: 18.3wt%Sn
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
18.3 CE 97.8
Pb-Sn system 61.9 Co, wt% Sn
Eutectic reaction
L α + β
(Liq.) (s.s) (s.s) 63
Cooling Curve
4. Consider 18.3wt%Sn < Co < 61.9wt%Sn HYPOEUTECTIC
T(°C) L: Cowt%Sn  L
L
300 L 
L+
200
TE  R S L+ 
R S
100
+
primary 
eutectic 
0 eutectic 
0 20 40 60 80 100
18.3 Co 61.9 97.8
Pb-Sn system Co, wt% Sn
Cooling Curve 64
5. Consider 61.9wt%Sn < Co < 97.8wt%Sn HYPEREUTECTIC
Pb‐Sn system
65
Cooling Curve
HYPOEUTECTIC & HYPEREUTECTIC
Eutectic reaction
L α + β
(Liq.) (s.s) (s.s)
Eutectic : Co=85wt%Sn
mixture Eutectic
 mixture

Proeutectic  Proeutectic β
or Primary  or Primary
66
β
INVARIANT EQUILIBRIUM
Different systems have different types of alloy transformation.
Invariant equilibrium involve :
– 3 phases co‐exist in.
– Exist only at one temperature / fixed temp.
– Composition for 3 phases co‐exist is fixed at the point.
– Zero degree of freedom.
Below are the example of alloy transformation at invariant
equilibrium :
1.Eutectic 5. Metatectic
2.Eutectoid 6. Monotectic
7. Synthectic
3.Peritectic
4.Peritectoid
67
Invariant Point Reaction Example System
Eutectic l α +β L + α L L + β Ag‐Cu,
α β
α + β Pb‐Sn
Eutectoid γ α+β γ Fe‐C,
γ + α γ + β β
α
α + β Al‐C
Peritectic l +α β L + α Cu‐Zn
L
α β+α
β L + β
Peritectoid β+α γ α + β
β
Al‐Ni,
α
γ + α γ γ + β Cu‐Zn
Metatectic α l +β β + α α L + α
L U‐Mn
β
L + β
Monotectic l1 α + l2 L1 + α L1 L1 + L2 Cu‐Pb
α L2
L2 + α
Syntectic l1 + l2 α L1
L1 + L2 K‐Zn,
L2
L1 + α α L2 + α Na‐Zn68
EXAMPLE: Find the eutectoid and peritectic reactions in the
Cu-Zn system?
69
Exercise: Refer to zinc‐copper phase diagram. Specify temperature‐composition points at
which all eutectics, eutectoids and peritectics phases’ transformation occurs. Also for each,
write the reaction upon cooling.
70
TERMINOLOGY
• Liquidus : Line above which all of alloy is liquid.
• Solidus : Line below which all of alloy is solid.
• Solvus : Boundaries between solid phase regions.
• Invariant point : It is a point at which three phases are in
equilibrium.
• Eutectic structure : The resulting microstructure consists of
alternating layers, called lamellae, of α and β that form during
eutectic reaction.
• Proeutectic : Form before (higher temperature) eutectic.
• Terminal solid solutions : Phases containing the pure components
which situated at the end of the phase diagram.
• Hypoeutectic : Having a composition less than eutectic.
• Hypereutectic : Having a composition greater than eutectic.
71
2.3 Fe‐Fe3C system
Microstructure development,
72
2.3 Fe‐Fe3C system: Microstructure development,
• Fe‐Fe3C Phase Diagram
− Solid Phases
− Phase Transformation Reactions
− Allotropy Transformation
− Microstructural Changes
Eutectoid
Hypoeutectoid Steel
Hypereutectoid Steel
73
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
• Sketch and label in the iron‐iron carbide phase
diagram up to eutectic isotherm.
• Specify whether the alloy is hypoeutectoid or
hypereutectoid.
• Identify the proeutectoid phase.
• Explain the development of the microstructure
at a temperature just below the eutectoid.
• Compute the relative amount of pearlite and
proeutectoid phase.
74
Fe-Fe3C PHASE DIAGRAM
The effect of
adding C into Fe
will introduce
various types of
steel and cast iron
which are
represented by
the iron‐iron
carbide phase
diagram.
75
Fe-Fe3C PHASE DIAGRAM
76
SOLID PHASES
Phases present in Fe-Fe3C system :
1) δ Ferrite
2) γ (Austenite)
3) α Ferrite
4) Fe3C (Cementite)
5) α + Fe3C (Pearlite)
77
SOLID PHASES
1) δ Ferrite
• This is a solid solution of carbon in iron and has a BCC crystal
structure (same structure as α‐ferrite).
• It is a phase which exists at extreme temperature (>1400°C)
and stable only at high temperature, above 1394 °C.
• It melts at 1538 °C.
• The maximum solubility of C in Fe is 0.09% at 1495°C. This has
no real practical significance in engineering.
78
Figure : δ Ferrite crystal structure
SOLID PHASES
2) Austenite (γ Iron)
• It is also known as (γ) gamma‐iron, which is an interstitial solid
solution of carbon dissolved in iron with a face centered cubic
crystal (FCC) structure.
• Transforms to BCC δ‐ferrite at 1394°C.
• The maximum solubility of carbon in austenite, 2.14%.
• Austenite is normally unstable below eutectoid temperature
unless cooled rapidly.
• It is a non magnetic material.
79
Figure : Austenite (γ iron) crystal structure
SOLID PHASES
3. α Ferrite
• It is also known as alpha(α) iron, which is an interstitial solid
solution of a small amount of carbon dissolved in iron with a Body
Centered Cubic (BCC) crystal structure.
• It is the softest structure on the iron‐iron carbide diagram.
• Stable form of iron at room temperature.
• The maximum solubility of C is 0.022 wt%.
• Ferrite dissolves considerably less carbon than austenite.
• Transforms to FCC γ‐austenite at 912°C.
• α ‐ferrite is magnetic (below 768°C).
Figure : Ferrite (α iron) crystal structure 80

SOLID PHASES
3) Cementite (Fe3C)
• Cementite is also known as iron carbide which has a chemical formula,

Fe3C.
• Crystal structure: orthorhombic
• Fe3C is an intermetallic compound. It is because a fixed amount of C
and a fixed amount of Fe are needed to form cementite (Fe3C).
• It is a hard and brittle material, low tensile strength and high
compressive strength.
• It contains 6.70 wt% C and 93.3 wt% Fe.
• This intermetallic compound is metastable,
it remains as a compound indefinitely at room
temperature, but decomposes (very slowly,
within several years) into α-Fe and C
(graphite) at 650 - 700°C.
81
SOLID PHASES
5) α + Fe3C (Pearlite)
• It is resulted from transformation of austenite of eutectoid
composition on very slow cooling.
• Pearlite is a laminated structure (lamellar structure) formed of
alternate layers of ferrite (white matrix‐ferritic background) and
cementite (thin plate).
• In most steels, the microstructure consists of both α+Fe3C
(pearlite) phases.
• It has intermediate mechanical properties between α and Fe3C.
Cementite
(hard)
Figure : Pearlite microstructure

Ferrite
(Light background is the ferrite matrix,
(soft)
dark lines are the cementite network)
82
Phase Transformation Reactions
3 Invariant points:
83
The iron-carbon diagram exhibits three phase transformation reactions :
84
Peritectic
HYPO HYPER HYPO HYPER

%
85
EUTECTOID EUTECTIC Carbon
ALLOTROPIC TRANSFORMATION
• A material that can exist in more than one lattice structure
(depending on temperature‐heating@cooling) allotropic.
• An allotropic material is able to exist in two or more forms having
various properties without change in chemical composition.
• E.g : Upon heating, pure iron experiences two changes in crystal
structure:
– At room temperature, it exists as ferrite,or α iron (BCC).
– When we heat it to 912°C, it experiences an allotropic
transformation to austenite,or γ iron (FCC).
– At 1394°C, austenite reverts back to a BCC phase called δ ferrite.
86
ALLOTROPIC TRANSFORMATION
Allotropy of iron(Fe)
Delta iron Austenite Alfa iron
(BCC) (FCC) (BCC)
1538°C
High Temp
Moderate
Temp
912°C
768°C
Low Temp
87
MICROSTRUCTURAL CHANGES
• Microstructure that exists in those reactions depends on :
− Composition(carbon content)
− Heat treatment
• Three significant regions can be made relative to the steel portion of the
diagram which known as:
1) Eutectoid
− Carbon content 0.76% and temperature 727°C.
− It entirely consists of pearlite (α + Fe3C).
2) Hypoeutectoid
− Carbon content from 0.022 to 0.76%.
− It consist of pearlite and primary (proeutectoid) ferrite.
3) Hypereutectoid
− Carbon content from 0.76 to 2.14%.
− It consist of pearlite and primary (proeutectoid) cementite.
88
EUTECTOID STEEL
Pearlite
Fe3C α
γ α + Fe3C
austenite pearlite
Note :
• Many cementite layers are so thin
that adjacent phase boundaries are
indistinguishable (appear dark). Figure : Photomicrograph of a
• Alternating layers of α and Fe3C eutectoid steel showing the pearlite
form pearlite. microstructure consisting of
alternating layers of α ferrite
(thick layers, light phase) and
Fe3C (thin layers most of which
appear dark). 89
EUTECTOID STEEL
The layers of alternating phases in
pearlite are formed for the same
reason as layered structure of eutectic
structures:
Redistribution C atoms
between ferrite (0.022 wt%)
and cementite (6.7wt%) by
atomic diffusion.
The pearlite exist as grains,
often termed as colonies.
90
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
γ
(Austenite)
α’ + γ
(proeutectoid ferrite) + (Austenite)
α’ + α + Fe3C
(proeutectoid ferrite) + (pearlite)
Note :
Eutectoid α = Ferrite that is present in the
pearlite.
Proeutectoid (meaning pre- or before
eutectoid) = Formed above eutectoid
temperature.
Figure : Microstructures for Fe-Fe3C system of
hypoeutectoid composition Co
91
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
92
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
EXERCISE
Consider an Fe – C alloy containing 0.25 wt% C, Determine
the mass fractions of
a) mass fractions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite
b) total ferrite, and cementite.
c) eutectoid ferrite
93
HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL
γ
(Austenite)
Fe3C’ + γ
(proeutectoid cementite) + (Austenite)
Fe3C’ + α + Fe3C
(proeutectoid cementite) + (pearlite)
Note :
Eutectoid Fe3C= Cementite that is present in
the pearlite
Figure : Microstructures for Fe-Fe3C system of

hypereutectoid composition
94
95
EXERCISE
Consider an Fe – C alloy containing 1.25 wt% C, Determine
the mass fractions of
a) proeutectoid cementite and pearlite
b) total ferrite and cementite
c) eutectoid cemmentite.
96
HYPO vs HYPER EUTECTOID STEEL
Hypoutectoid steel Hypereutectoid steel
+Fe3C (pearlite) +Fe3C (pearlite)
+ +
proeutectoid ferrite(α) proeutectoid cementite(Fe3C)
Figure : Photomicrograph of a 1.4wt% C steel

Figure : Photomicrograph of a 0.38wt% C having a microstructure consisting of a white
steel having a microstructure consisting of proeutectoid cementite network surrounding
pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite. the pearlite colonies. 97
2.4Ferrous and
Non‐Ferrous Metals
98
2.4 Ferrous and Non‐Ferrous Metals
• Introduction • Non‐Ferrous Alloys
• Classification of Metal Alloys – Aluminium and its alloys
• Classification of Ferrous Alloys – Copper and its alloys
– Steel – Magnesium and its alloys
• Plain Carbon Steel – Titanium and its alloys
• Low Carbon Steel – The Noble Metal
• Medium Carbon Steel – The Refractory Metals
• High Carbon Steel
• Stainless Steel
• Tool Steel
– Cast Iron
• Gray Cast Irons
• Nodular (Ductile) Cast Irons
• White Cast Irons
• Malleable Cast Irons
99
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
• Differentiate the differences between ferrous
and nonferrous metals.
• Describe the characteristics of white, gray,
ductile and malleable cast irons.
• Understand the properties and applications of
metals and its alloys.
100
INTRODUCTION
Metal alloys can be divided into two categories :
1. Ferrous 2) Nonferrous
• Metal alloys that • Metal alloy contain less
contain iron as a prime @ no iron.
constituent. • E.g : Cu, Al, Mg, Ti and
• E.g : steels, cast iron. its alloys
• Tend to have a higher • Have a much higher
chance of corrosion. resistance to corrosion.
Note :
The word ferrous is derived from the Latin term "Ferrum" which means
"containing iron".
101
INTRODUCTION
Advantages of Ferrous Advantages of Non‐Ferrous
alloys over Non‐Ferrous alloys over ferrous alloys:
alloys:
– Generally greater strength. – Good resistance to corrosion.
– Generally greater stiffness. – Casting and cold working
– Better for welding processes and are often
easier.
– High ductility.
– Higher thermal and electrical
conductivities.
– Colors.
102
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL ALLOYS
Al Cu Mg Ti
Noble
Metal
Refractory
metal
103
CLASSIFICATION OF FERROUS ALLOY
 Definition : Those of which iron is the prime constituent.
 Advantages :
1. Iron ores exist in abundant quantities within the earth’s
crust.
2. Produced from economical process : Extraction, refining,
alloying and fabrication techniques are available.
3. Versatile material : Wide range of mechanical and physical
properties.
 Disadvantages :
1. Tends to corrode.
2. High density.
3. Low electrical conductivity.
104
• The ferrous alloys are classified based on the
percentage of carbon present in the ferrous.
(steel <2.14 %C, cast iron 2.14 ‐ 4.3%C)
• Carbon is the most important commercial
steel alloy (↑C, ↑hardness, ↑ strength,
↑bri leness, ↓ weldability)
105
106
Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C
heat austentitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
107
Steels
• Are iron carbon alloys that may contain carbon
less than 2.14%.
• Classification by carbon content
– Low, medium and high carbon type
• Subclasses by concentration of other alloying
elements :
– Plain carbon steel
– Alloy steel
• The microstructures of steel are normally ferrite
and relatively soft and weak but good ductility
and toughness.
108
Steels
First digit indicates the family to which the steel belongs (a.k.a. the major alloying elements) :
Second digit indicate % of major alloying elements (1 means 1%).
Last two digits(3rd and 4th number) indicate amount of carbon in steel (10 means 0.10% C).
Example
• SAE 5130 means alloy chromium steel, containing 1% of chromium and 0.30% of Carbon.
• AISI 1020 which means 10 indicates plain carbon steel with 0.2% amount of Carbon.
109
*SAE : Society of Automotive Engineers *AISI : American Iron and Steel Institute
Plain Carbon Steels
• Iron with less than 1% carbon alloy contains a
small amount of manganese, phosphorous, sulfur
and silicon.
• Disadvantages of plain carbon steel:
– Hardenability is low
– Loss of strength and embrittleness
– Subjected to corrosion in most environments
• 3 groups:
– Low carbon steels
– Medium carbon steels
– High carbon steels
110
Low Carbon Steels (< 0.25%C )
High‐strength low alloy (HSLA)
Plain carbon steels steels
• unresponsive to heat treatments • Low Carbon Steel combine with 10
intended to form martensite. wt% of alloying elements, such as
• Microstructures consist of ferrite Mn, Cr, Cu, V, Ni, Mo
and pearlite • Properties:
• Properties: – higher strength than plain low
carbon steels.
– Relatively soft and weak, but
possess high ductility and toughness – ductile, formable and machinable
– Good formability, Good weldability – More resistance to corrosion
– Low cost • Strengthening by heat treatment.
– Rated at 55‐60% machinability • Application : bridges, towers,
• Application: Auto‐body support columns in high rise
components, structural shapes, building, pressure vessels.
sheets for pipelines, building,
bridges, tin cans, nail, low
temperature pressure vessel. 111
Medium Carbon Steel
• Composition: 0.25 ‐ 0.6% C • Plain medium carbon steel
• Advantages: −Low hardenability
– Machinability is 60‐70%. − Heat treatment:
Both hot and cold rolled quenching and tempering
steels machine better
when annealed. • Heat treatable steel
– Good toughness and −Containing Cr, Ni and Mo
ductility − Heat treated alloy stronger
than Low Carbon Steel, lower
– Fair formability ductility and toughness than
– Responds to heat Low Carbon Steel
treatment but often used
in natural condition.
Applications : Couplings, forgings, gears, crankshafts other high‐strength
structural components.
: Steels in the 0.40 to 0.60% C range are also used for rails,
railway wheels and rail axles. 112
High Carbon Steels
• Composition: 0.6% ‐ 1.4% C • Advantages:
• Properties: – Hardness is high
– hardest – Wear resistance is high
– strongest – Fair formability
– least ductile of the carbon • Disadvantages:
steels
• Application: – Low toughness, formability
– Used for withstanding wear. – Not recommended for
– A holder for a sharp cutting welding
edge. – Usually joined by brazing with
E.g : drills, woodworking tools, low temperature silver alloy
axes, turning and planning tools, making it possible to repair or
milling cutters, knives. fabricate tool steel parts without
affecting their heat treated
– Used for spring materials, condition.
high‐strength wires, cutting
tools, and etc. 113
Stainless Steels
• Primary alloying element is chromium (>11%)
• Others element : Nickel, Manganese, Molybdenum.
• Called stainless because in the presence of oxygen, they develop a
thin, hard, adherent film of chromium oxide (Cr2O3) that protect the
metal from corrosion.
• Highly resistance to corrosion.
• 3 basic types of stainless are
– Martensite
– Ferritic
– Austenitic
• Applications
− Decorative trim, nozzles.
− Springs, pump rings, aircraft fittings.
− Cookware, chemical and food processing equipment.
− Turbine blades, steam boilers, parts in heating furnaces.
− Temporary implant devices such as fractures plates, screw and hip nails.
− The best choice for the walls of a steam boiler because it is corrosion resistant
to the steam and condensate.
114
Tool Steels
• High carbon steel alloys (containing Cr, V, W and Mo)
that have been designed to prevent wear resistance
and toughness combined with high strength.
• Have excess carbides (carbon alloys) which make
them hard and wear resistant.
• Most tool steels are used in a heat treated state
generally hardened and tempered.
• Applications:
– gauges, shear knives, punches, chisels, cams, mould for
die casting.
– Best choice for a drill bit because it is very hard and wear
resistant and thus will retain a sharp cutting edge.
115
Cast Irons
• Carbon contents : Greater than 2.14wt% C.
• Si content : 0.5‐3wt%Si
(used to control kinetics of carbide formation)
• Commercial range : 3.0‐4.5 wt% C + other alloying elements.
• The differences between cast irons and steels :
– Carbon content.
– Silicon content.
– Carbon microstructure (stable form and unstable form).
• Properties :
– Low melting points (1150‐1300°C).
– Some cast iron are brittle.
• Microstructure:
– Most commonly graphite (C) & ferrite.
116
Cast Irons
• Properties of cast iron is controlled by three main factors:
– The chemical composition of the iron
– The rate of cooling of the casting in the mould
– The type of graphite formed
• Advantages:
– Low tooling and production cost
– Ready availability
– Good machinability without burring
– Readily cast into complex shapes
– High inherent damping
– Excellent wear resistance and high hardness
• Types of cast irons :
• Gray Cast Irons
• Nodular (Ductile) Cast Irons
• White Cast Irons
• Malleable Cast Irons
117
Gray Cast Irons
• Composition : Carbon content : 2.5 ‐ 4.0 wt% C and
Silicon content : 1.0 ‐ 3.0wt% Si.
• Microstructure : Graphite flakes surrounded by α‐ferrite or
pearlite matrix.
• The formation of graphite occurs because of the cooling rate is
too slow where austenite in unstable position and brake down
to give graphite microstructure.
• Properties:
– Less hard and brittle (easy to machine)
– Very weak in tension due to the pointed and sharp end of graphite flake
– Good during compression (high compressive strength)
– Low shrinkage in mould due to formation of graphite flakes
– High damping capacity
– Low melting temperature (1140‐1200oC).
• Applications: Base choice for milling machine base because it
effectively absorbs vibration (good vibration damping).
118
THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF
GRAY CAST IRONS
Graphite flakes
Figure : Dark graphite flakes in a‐Fe matrix.
* Graphite flakes shows fracture surface (gray appearance).
119
Ductile (Nodular) Cast Irons
• Composition: Mg or Ce is added to the gray iron composition
before casting occurs (to prevent the formation of
graphite flakes during the slow cooling of the iron)
• Microstructure : Nodular or spherical‐like graphite structure in
pearlite or ferritic matrix.
• Properties :
– Significant increase in material ductility.
– Tensile strength > gray cast iron.
– Others mechanical properties ≈ steel.
• Applications : Valves, pump bodies, gear and other automotive
and machine components.
• A HT can be applied to pearlite nodular iron to give
microstructure of graphite nodules in ferrite (ferrite structure is
more ductile and weldable but less tensile strength)
120
DUCTILE (or NODULAR) CAST IRONS
Graphite nodules (a.k.a. spherical‐like)
Figure : Dark graphite nodules in α‐Fe matrix.
* Note that the carbon is in the shape of small sphere, not flakes.
121
White Cast Iron
• Composition: 2.5 < C < 4.0%C and Si<1%
• Microstructure : Pearlite and cementite
(due to rapid cooling).
• An intermediate metal for the production of malleable cast
iron.
• Properties:
– Relatively very hard, brittle and not weldable compare
to gray cast iron
– When it is annealed, it become malleable cast iron
– Not easily to machine
– Fracture surface: white appearance
122
WHITE CAST IRONS
Pearlite
Fe3C
(Light regions)
Figure : Light Fe3C regions surrounded by pearlite.
123
Malleable Cast Irons
• Is produced by the HT of white cast irons
− Heating temperature: 800oC – 900oC
− Duration : 2 or 3 days (50 hours)
− Heating environment: Neutral atmosphere
• Microstructure : A clumps (rossette) of graphite
(due to decomposition of cemmentite) surrounded by a
ferrite or pearlite matrix
• Properties:
− Similar to nodular cast iron and give higher strength
− More ductile and malleability
• Applications : Pipe fittings, valve parts for railroad, marine
and other heavy duty.
124
MALLEABLE CAST IRONS
Graphite rosettes
Figure : Dark graphite rosettes in α‐Fe matrix.
125
Non‐Ferrous Alloys
• Definition: Used for alloys which do not have iron as
the base element.
• Examples: Al alloys, Cu alloys, Mg alloys, Ti alloys,
Noble metals, Refractory metals, etc.
• Advantages of Ferrous alloys over Non‐Ferrous alloys:
– Generally greater strength
– Generally greater stiffness ( ↑E)
– Better for welding
• The advantages of Non‐Ferrous alloys over ferrous
alloys:
– Good resistance to corrosion
– Much lower density
– Casting is often easies ( ↓ mel ng points)
– Cold working processes are often easier (ductility)
– Higher thermal and electrical conductivities
– colors 126
NON‐FERROUS ALLOYS
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear)
Cu-Be:
NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
-very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
127
Aluminium and its alloys
• Atomic weight 26.97; Crystal structure: FCC
• Appearance: silvery white metal Characteristics
• Tm=660oC, boiling point 2270oC
• Relatively low density 2.7 g/cm3
(very light i.e. light weight vehicle, vessels, etc.)
• Tensile strength= 45 MPa, E : 7.5 GPa
• Ductile and malleable
• High resistant to corrosion
(Al naturally produces a fine oxidized surface film which protect it from corrode)
• Stable against normal condition but attacked by both acids & alkalis.
• Nonmagnetic
• High electrical and thermal conductivities (second to copper)
• Non toxic (widely used as packing materials (food))
128
The All Aluminum
Audi A8
(a) The Audi A8 automobile
which has an all‐aluminum
body structure.
(b) The aluminum body
structure, showing various
components made by
extrusion, sheet forming,
and casting processes.
Disadvantages :
• Difficult to weld.
• Prone to severe spring back.
• Abrasive to tooling.
• Expensive than steel.
• Low melting point 660oC.
Applications :
• Used in applications that required lightness, high
corrosion resistance, electrical and thermal conductivities.
• E.g : cooking utensil, container, appliances, building
materials and etc.
130
• Al alloys are alloys in which Al is the predominant metal.
• The typical alloying elements are : Cu, Mg, Mn, Si and Zn.
• Al alloys can be divided into 2 groups:
1. Wrought alloys ‐ shaping by working process.
E.g. forging, extrusion, rolling
– Non‐heat treatment wrought alloys
– Heat treatable wrought alloys
2. Cast alloys – shaping by casting process. E.g : die casting.

– Non‐heat treatment cast alloys
– Heat treatable cast alloys
 Non‐heat treatment alloys ‐An alloy which cannot be improved by heat treatment
 Heat treatable alloys ‐ An alloy whose mechanical strength is improved by
precipitation hardening/ martensitic transformation.
131
Non‐heat treatment wrought alloys
• Do not respond to HT but have their properties controlled by the
extent of the working to which they are subjected.
• E.g. Al with Mn (increase the TS of Al)
• Applications: kitchen utensil, tubing, constructional material for
boats and ship
Heat treatable wrought alloys
• The properties changed by HT.
• Common alloy addition: Cu, Zn, Si
• E.g : 4% Cu, 0.8% Mg, 0.5% Si, 0.7% Mn and 94% Al is known as
Duralumin. The heat treatment process used is quenching and then
precipitation hardening at room temperature for about 4 days. This
alloys is widely used in aircraft, bodywork.
• Applications: aircraft, bodywork, container bodies etc.
132
Non‐heat treatment cast alloys
• E.g. Al with 9 –13% Si. The addition of Si will
increase its fluidity for casting purposes.
• Applications: oil sumps, gear boxes, radiators.
Heat treatable cast alloys
• The addition of Cu, Mg to Al alloys enable the
alloys to be heat treated to give a high
strength casting materials.
133
Aluminum Alloy Properties and
Applications
Copper and its alloys
• Atomic weight 63.57 Characteristics
• Appearance: Reddish metal of bright luster
• Highly malleable and ductile
• High electrical and heat conductivitiy
• Excellent corrosion resistance.
• Relatively high strength.
• Tm=1083oC, boiling point 2336oC
• Sg = 8.94
• Used in pure state as sheet, tube, rod and wire
Disadvantages :
1) Difficult to machine.
2) Expensive.
Applications : Jet aircraft landing gear bearing, radiator parts for cars and trucks,
surgical and dental instruments.
135
• Alloyed by other elements: Zn, Al, Sn and Ni
• Examples: Brass, Bronze, Copper‐Nickel, Copper‐Zinc‐Nickel, Aluminium Bronze
i. Brasses ii. Bronze

• Cu based alloys in which Zn is the • Contain up to 8% Sn and can be
principal added element. cold work
• Harder and stronger that Cu or Zn • Softer and weaker than steels
• Malleable and ductile • It resists corrosion (especially in
• Develops high tensile with cold seawater)
working • Wrought bronzes are stronger,
• Ease of working better corrosion resistance but
• Colour high cost compare brass
• Widely used for spring, bearing,
• Resistance to atmospheric and
bushing and similar fittings
marine corrosion
• Used for electrical fittings,
ammunition cases, screws,
household fittings, and
ornaments. 136
iii. Copper – Nickel alloys iv. Aluminium Bronze
• a.k.a – cupronickels • Cu rich Al alloys
• It is an alloy of Cu that • Properties
contains Ni and strengthening − High strength
elements, such as Fe and Mn − Resistance to corrosion
• Good resistance to seawater, and wear
alkalies, sulphric acids and − High resistance to
alkaline solution. fatigue
• Poor resistance to nitric acids, − Fine golden colour
cyanide solution − Possibility of heat
treatment in manner
• Application: turbine blade, similar to steel
valve parts, pump rod liners • Application: heat exchanger
and impellers tubes
137
Wrought Copper and Brasses:
Properties and Applications
Wrought Bronzes: Properties and
Applications
Magnesium and its alloys
• Atomic weight 24.302, Appearance: Silver‐white
• Density 1.7 g/cm3, Tm = 627oC
• Light, malleable, ductile metallic element
• Low TS, relatively soft, low E.
• At Troom difficult to deform. Most fabrication is by casting or hot working.
• Corrosion resistance in natural atmosphere. On the other hand relatively
unstable especially susceptible to corrosion in marine environments.
– E.g. Mg anode provide effective corrosion protection for water heaters,
underground pipelines, ship hulls and ballast tanks.
• Mg alloys are used in applications where lightness is primary consideration,
e.g. aircraft components, missile application.
• Replaced engineering plastics that have comparable densities since Mg are
stiffer, more recyclable and less costly to produce. Example
– in a variety of handheld devices (chain saws, power tools, hedge clippers),
– in automobiles (steering wheel and column, seat frames, transmission cases) and
– in audio‐video‐computer‐communications equipment (laptop computers, cam
recorders, TV sets, cellular telephones)
140
Wrought Magnesium Alloys:
Properties and Forms
Titanium and its alloys
• Relatively low density (4.5 g/cm3)
• High Tm = 1668oC, E= 107 GPa
• Low strength when pure but alloying gives a considerable
increase in strength, highly ductile and easily forged and
machined
• Expensive metal: excellent corrosion resistance (immune
to air, marine and a variety of industrial environment);
high cost reflecting the difficulties in extraction and
formation of material.
• Limitation: chemical reactivity with other materials at
elevated temperature
• Applications:
– pure Ti – chemical plant components, surgical implants, marine
and aircraft engine parts.
– Ti alloys – steam turbine blades, rocket motor cases
142
Wrought Titanium Alloy Properties and
Applications
The Noble Metals
• Characteristics/Properties:
– Expensive (precious)
– Soft, ductile
– Resistant to corrosion and oxidation
– Good electrical conductivity
• A group of 8 elements:
– The precious metal group: silver (Ag) and gold (Au).
– The six platinum metals: platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd),
iridium (Ir), rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), and
osmium (Os).
144
The Noble Metals
Element Properties Application
Ag ↑electrical & themal jewelry, dental restoration materials, brazing solder,

conductivity coins, silver coatings (reflectors), electrical contact
Au ↑ corrosion resistance, jewelry, electric wiring, colored‐glass production,
nontarnishing characteristics, dentistry, electronics, brazing solder, heat shielding
good electrical conductivity foil in the engine compartment
Pt ↑ corrosion resistance, thermocouple, thermometer elements, electrical
↑ Tm, contact, electrodes, jewelry, catalyst in the
ductility production of sulfuric acid
Pd properties ≈Pt telephone relay contacts, catalyst to remove oxygen
however lower cost from heat treating atmosphere
Ir most corrosion resistant, crucibles, extrusion dies
↑temperature
Rh ↑ reflec vity, reflector for motion picture projectors and aircraft
↑corrosion resistance searchlight, alloying addition to Pt and Pd
Ru corrosion resistant catalyst for synthesis of hydrocarbon, a hardener
for Pt and Pd
Os ↑ hardness, fountain‐pen nibs, phonograph needles, electrical
↑wear resistance, contacts instrument pivots
good corrosion resistance 145
The Refractory Metals
• Five elements widely used: niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo),
tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), and rhenium (Re).
• Properties:
– Tm above 2000 °C
– High hardness at room temperature.
– Chemically inert
– Relatively high density
– Resistance to heat and wear
– Resistant to corrosion (ability to form a protective layer), although
they do readily oxidize at high temperatures.
– Resistance to creep (the tendency of metals to slowly deform under
the influence of stress)
– Resistant to thermal shock (repeated heating and cooling will not
easily cause expansion, stress and cracking).
– Good electrical and heat conducting properties
• Applications include tools to work metals at high temperatures, wire
filaments, casting molds, and chemical reaction vessels in corrosive
146
environments.
The Refractory Metals
Element Properties Application
↑ Tm, immune to attack by Superconducting alloys for electronic applications;
most acids, a wide variety High strength alloys for aerospace applications;
Nb of strengths and elasticity Moderately strengthened alloys for nuclear applications;
aircraft gas turbines, aerospace rocket engines, insulators
↑ Tm, Missile and rocket engine components, Die‐casting dies,
↑ resistance to arc erosion Alloying additions; Electric furnace heating elements,
Mo boats, heat shields
corrosion resistant, Crucibles for handling molten metal and alloys,
high temperature strength, Electrolytic capacitors, Heat exchangers, Cutting tools,
Ta low vapor pressure Surgical implants, Aerospace engine components,
Vacuum tube filaments,
↑ Tm (3410oC), Lamp filaments, Anodes and targets for x‐ray tubes,
↑ density Electrodes for inert gas arc welding, Forming dies,
W Catalysts in chemical and petrochemical processes,
Lubricants, Cutting tools for metal machining
↑ Tm, Catalysts for reforming in conjunction with platinum,
↑ density, nuclear reactors, semiconductors, electronic‐tube
Re ductile to brittle transition components, thermocouples, gyroscopes, miniature
temperature rockets, electrical contacts, thermionic converters,
aerospace applications. 147
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys
Thermal Treatment
of Metallic Material
1
HEAT TREATMENT

3.1 Time-Temperature Transformation Diagram (TTT)
 Products of cooling austenite
 Factors affecting position of the TTT diagram
3.2 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metals

 Annealing
 Normalizing
 Quenching/Hardening
 Tempering
3.3 Hardenability of Steel

 Hardenability curve
 Martensite microstructure
2
OBJECTIVE

After completing this chapter, students should be
able to :
• Explain the principles of heat treatment.
• Explain the differences among the various kinds of

heat treatment processes.
3
3.1 TIME-TEMPERATURE-
TRANSFORMATION (TTT) DIAGRAM

What is TTT diagram?
 Time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram is also known as isothermal
transformation (IT) diagram or Bain S Curve.
 It shows the effect of time and temperature on the microstructure of steel.
 Generated from the % transformation vs log. times measurements.
 Plot as temperature vs. the log. of time for a steel alloy of definite composition.
 (why log. of time so that times of 1 min, 1 day or 1 week can be fitted into a reasonable space).
 Knowledge of the TTT diagram of steels is important in the processing of steels.
Why used TTT diagram?

 Because the iron-iron carbide phase diagram shows no time axis.
 To show the transformation of the microstructure especially for martensite, bainite
structure.
 To determine the microstructure produced in a steel at various rates of cooling.
4
3.1 TIME-TEMPERATURE-TRANSFORMATION
(TTT) DIAGRAM
A plot of temperature vs. the logarithm of time for a steel alloy of definite composition
• Fe-C system, Co = 0.77wt%C

% transformed
100 • Transformation at T = 675C.

T=675°C
y,
50
0
1 102 104 time (s)
T(°C) Austenite (stable)
TE (727°C)
700 Austenite
(unstable) isothermal transformation at 675°C
600 Pearlite
10
500
50 pear
0%
0%
%
400
lite
1 10 102 103 104 105

time (s)
5
The time-temperature transformation curves correspond to the start and finish
of transformations which extend into the range of temperatures where
austenite transforms to pearlite.

Refer Figure :
• Line AB indicate the rapid cooling of austenite.
• Horizontal line C-D marks the beginning and end of isothermal
transformations (isothermal means temperature stay constant).
• At point C, the transformation of austenite to pearlite begins.
6
• At point D, the transformation is complete.
Products Of Cooling Austenite :
PEARLITE MORPHOLOGY
Two cases:
• Ttransf just below TE • Ttransf well below TE
--Larger T: diffusion is faster --Smaller T: diffusion is slower
--Pearlite is coarser. --Pearlite is finer.
10m
- Smaller T: - Larger T:
colonies are colonies are
larger smaller
7
Products Of Cooling Austenite
• Bainite:
-- lathes (strips) with long
rods of Fe3C
--diffusion controlled.
• Isothermal Transf. Diagram
Fe3C
800 Austenite (stable) (cementite)
T(°C) A TE (ferrite)
P
600 100% pearlite
pearlite/bainite boundary
100% bainite
400 A B 5 m
200
10
0%
50
0%
%
10-1 10 103 105

time (s)
8
• Martensite:
--(FCC) to Martensite (BCT)
(involves single atom jumps)
x
60 m
Fe atom potential
x x
sites x x C atom sites
x

800 Austenite (stable) Martentite needles
T(°C) A TE Austenite
P
600
S
B
400 A
10
•  to M transformation..
0% -- is rapid!
0%
50
0% -- % transf. depends on T only.

%
200 M+A 50%

M+A 90%
M+A
10-1 10 103 105 time (s) 9
11
In TTT diagram for iron-carbon alloy, there are 5 regions to observe :

1. Stable austenite
2. Unstable austenite (to the left of the transformation start curve)
3. Pearlite and austenite region (upper side inside nose-shaped curve)
4. Austenite and bainite region (lower side inside nose-shaped curve)
5. Martensite region (below ≈ 200˚C)
 Below 200 down to -20°C = Martensitic start temperature (Ms)
 Below -20°C = Martensitic finish temperature (Mf) 10
11
Example:
12
13
14
15
16
EXERSICE

1. Using the time-temperature-transformation
diagram given in of eutectoid composition, sketch
the time-temperature paths to produce the
following microstructures at room
temperature:(October 2010)
a) 100% Bainite,
b) 100% Martensite,
c) 50% Pearlite and 50% Martensite, and
d) 25% Pearlite and 75% Bainite.
17
TIME-TEMPERATURE-TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM
18
Tempered martensite
• Immediately after quenching, sample is heated (about 250-650˚C)

• Held at that temperature for about 2 hours.
• Lastly removed from the bath and cooled in air (at room temperature).
Microstructure produced :
 Tempered martensite - This microstructure consists of extremely small
and uniformly dispersed cementite particle embedded with a matrix of
19
ferrite.
EXERSICE

2. Using the Time-Temperature Transformation diagram
given in for eutectoid steel, draw and label time-
temperature cooling paths that will produce the following
microstructures. In each case assume that the specimen
begins at 780°C.(October 2012)
a) 100% tempered martensite,

b) 75% pearlite, 25% lower bainite,
c) 25% fine pearlite, 37.5% upper bainite and 37.5% austenite,
d) 80% upper bainite, 5.00% lower bainite, 15% martensite,
and
e) 50% pearlite, 12.5% bainite, 37.50% martensite.
20
21
• Spheroidite:
-- crystals with spherical Fe3C
--diffusion dependent.
--heat bainite or pearlite for long times 
--reduces interfacial area (driving force)(ferrite)
800 Fe3C
Austenite (stable)
TE (cementite)
T(°C) A
P
600 100% spheroidite
Spheroidite
100% spheroidite
60 m
400 A B
200
10
0%
50
0%
%
10-1 10 103 105 time (s)

22
EXERSICE
3. Using the Time-Temperature Transformation diagram for iron-carbon alloy
of eutectoid composition, specify the nature of the final microstructure (in term

of micro constituents present and approximate percentage) of a small specimen
that has been subjected to the following heat treatment : (March 2013)
a) Heated up to temperature 780°C and held until the
microstructure completely transformed to austenite. Quenched
rapidly to room temperature.
b) Reheated specimen (a) to temperature 55O°C, held for 20 s, then
quenched to room temperature.
c) Reheated specimen (a) to temperature 700°C and held for 24 hrs.
Then, left to cool to room temperature, naturally.
d) Reheated specimen (a) to temperature 800°C and held for 24 hrs.
Cooled rapidly at temperature 600°C, held for 100 s, then
quenched to room temperature.
e) Reheated specimen (a) to 350°C, held for 2 hrs, then cooled to
room temperature in normal air.
23
24
Factors affecting position of the TTT diagram

 The addition of carbon, nickel, manganese, silicon and copper
move the nose-shaped curve to the right
 Molybdenum, chromium and vanadium move the pearlite C-curve
to the right and also displace it upwards to high temperature.
25
3.2 HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS
• Heat treatments are widely used in various manufacturing processes to
enhance the quality of a product.
•
WHAT IS HEAT TREATMENT?


The basis for the understanding heat Fe-C phase diagram.
Process involved the heating and cooling of metals in the solid state. Heat
treatment can be a primary process in itself (heat in furnace), or as a secondary
phase of another process (casting, welding, forging).
TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT?

The most common heat treatment process :
• Annealing
• Normalizing
• Spherodizing
• Quenching/Hardening
• Tempering
26
3.2 HEAT TREATMENT OF
FERROUS METALS

WHY WE NEED TO DO HEAT WHEN WE NEED TO DO HEAT
TREATMENT? TREATMENT?
Heat treatments are usually Most parts will require heat
applied to : treatment either after or during
• Change the mechanical the processing for proper in-
properties e.g : increase or service properties. Example :
decrease the strength/ • Before shaping
hardness/ machinability etc. of – To softening a metal for
metal. forming.
• Relieve the internal stress • After forming
Several problems may occur if heat – To relieve strain hardening.
treatment process is not carefully • Final finish
performed.
– To achieve final strength and
eg : cracking, distortion. hardness. 27
TEMPERATURE REGIME OF STEEL
HEAT TREATMENT

28
FORMS OF HEAT
TREATMENT

 Annealing
 Process anneal
 Full anneal
 Normalizing
 Spherodizing
 Quenching/Hardening
 Tempering
29
ANNEALING
Annealing :
A heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for
an extended time period and then slowly cooled.
When it should be done :

Annealing is done between process steps to allow further working or for final
stress relief.
Purpose :
1) Relieve stress.
- relieve internal stresses induced by some previous treatment (e.g:
machining).
2) Soften the steel.
- improve machinability and respond better to forming operations.
3) Refinement of grain structures.
Three stages of annealing (applicable for all heat treatment under annealing):
1. Heat to the specified temperature.
2. Hold or “soaking” at that temperature for a specified time.
3. Cool slowly, usually to room temperature. Time and Temperature
are important at all 3 30
steps
(i) PROCESS ANNEAL
Pearlite (α+Fe3C)

Purpose :
 Used to treat parts made out of low carbon steel (<0.25% Carbon) which
allow the parts to be soft enough to undergo further cold working without
fracturing.
 Commonly employed for wire & sheets steels because it restores the
ductility to cold-worked materials and permit further cold working to
achieve the required deformation.
Process :
 Raise the steel temperature just below the eutectoid region (line A1 at
727°C), about 500°C to 650°C for several hours until the recrystallization of
ferrite phase occur.
 Then, cooled in still air.
Microstructure desired :
31
 Fine grained structure
(ii) FULL ANNEAL

Purpose :
 Utilized for low, medium & high carbon steels.
 Full annealing is used to soften pieces which have been hardened by plastic
deformation, and which need to undergo subsequent machining/forming.
Process :
 Heat the steel above the austenite temperature either 15-40˚C above line A3
[hypo] – to form austenite or line A1 [hyper] – to form austenite and
cementite phases.
 Cool very slowly in furnace.
 Coarse pearlite that will give soft and ductility properties. 32
NORMALIZING
•

Similar to full annealing but performed at a higher
• temperature and cooling at faster rate (e.g: in air) to form fine pearlite.
• Normalizing is a process that makes the grain size normal.
• This process is usually carried out after forging, extrusion, drawing or heavy
bending operations. It is also used to avoid softening steel too much.
Purpose :
• Refine grains (decrease the average grain size).
• More uniform & desirable size distribution of pearlite
(fine-grain size).
• Increase toughness.
33
NORMALIZING

UC‐Upper critical temperature
LC‐Lower critical temperature
Process : RT‐Room temperature
• Heat the steel above the austenite temperature (either 55-80˚C above line A3
[hypo] or line ACM [hyper]) .
• After sufficient time has been allowed for the alloy to completely transform
to austenite - austenitizing
• Removed from the furnace and cool it in air (at room temperature).
 Fine pearlite (due to faster cooling rate) will give toughness properties &
acceptable softness to the metal.
Properties :
34
 Faster cooling provides higher strength and hardness but lower ductility if
compared to full annealing.
SPHEROIDIZING
Purpose :

• Used for medium and high carbon steels (Carbon>0.6%) that will be
machined or cold formed.
• Applied when more softness is needed.
Process :
• Heat the part to a temperature just below the eutectoid temperature (line A1
at 727°C) or at about 700°C in the α + Fe3C region for several hours (about
20 hours or more) and followed by slow cooling.
• Cementite transforms into soft globes/spheroids which
dispersed throughout the ferrite matrix.
Properties :
• Result in a more ductile material.
35
• Improve machining in continuous operations such as lathe and screw
machined. These spheroids act as chip-breakers –easy machining.
Effect of treatment
( pearlite vs spherodite)
36
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):

stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25h.
• Full Anneal (steels):
Types of Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming by heating
to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
cold working by • Normalize (steels):
(recovery/ Deform steel with large
recrystallization) grains, then normalize
to make grains small.
37
QUENCHING/HARDENING

Quenching : It is the act of rapidly cooling the hot steel to harden the steel.
Hardenability :
 The ability of an alloy to be hardened by the formation of martensite as a
result of heat treatment.
 A qualitative measure of the rate at which hardness drops of with distance
Purpose :
 To increase strength and wear properties.
Process :
 Heat the steel above the austenite temperature until the austenite
composition is form and cooled very rapidly in the quench media (a.k.a.
cooling medium).
 Martensite (hard but brittle).
38
MARTENSITE MICROSTRUCTURE
 Formed when austenitized iron-carbon alloys are quenched to a
relative low temperature.
 Non-equilibrium single phase

 Rapid quenching will prevent the carbon diffusion.
 Carbon remain as interstitial impurities in martensite
 Instantaneously transformation
 Martensite:
 ƴ (FCC) to Martensite (BCT)
39
MARTENSITE
MICROSTRUCTURE

• Two types of martensite microstructure
1. Lath ( massive martensite)
2. Lenticular (needlelike/platelike)
1. Lath martensite
– For alloy < about 0.6 wt% C
– Long and thin plates, form side by side, aligned parallel to one another
– Lath group form block
2. Lenticular martensite
– For alloy > ≈ 0.6 wt% C.
– Needlelike / platelike appearance.
– Under m/scope observation appears as a dark regions
40
Unit Cells

The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of percentage of
carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown in (d).
Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms. Also note, the increase in dimension c
with increasing carbon content: this effect causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the
shape of a rectangular prism.
Pearlite vs martensite

• Fine Pearlite vs Martensite:
• Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite.

42
QUENCHING/HARDENING

To produce microstructure of martensite throughout
the cross section need to consider:
1. Composition alloy,
2. Type & character of quenching medium,
3. Geometry of specimen
43
QUENCHING/HARDENING
1. Composition of alloy 
– Higher carbon content gives higher hardenability.
– Alloying element gives higher hardenability compare to
plain carbon steel.
44
QUENCHING/HARDENING
2. Type & character of quenching medium
Water

• Advantages
– Most efficient quenching media in commercial use where
maximum hardness is required
• Disadvantage:
– Liable to cause distortion and cracking the sample
– Not suitable for higher carbon steel.
– Form soft spot
– Corrosion
45
QUENCHING/HARDENING
2. Type & character of quenching medium
Oil 
 Lower efficiency quenching media than water
 Oil such as mineral & cotton seed are used
 Less cracking and distortion compare to water
 Safety factors is required
Air
 Cooling with air pressure
 Less efficiency quenching media
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air small small
oil moderate moderate 46
water large large
QUENCHING/HARDENING
3. Effect of geometry

 When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
 cooling rate increases
 hardness increases
diameter size hardness value
Position Cooling rate Hardness

center small small
surface large large
47
TEMPERING
Tempering :

• It is a process of heating a martensitic steel at a temperature below
the eutectoid temperature to make it softer and more ductile.
• Used to reduce brittleness on martensite (tempered martensite).
• Precipitation of fine carbide particle.
• BCT BCC
Purpose :
• To increase ductility and toughness of martensite.
• To relieve the internal stress.
Procedure :
• Immediately after quenching, sample is heated (normally below A1
line at about 250-650˚C)
• Held at that temperature for about 2 hours.
• Lastly removed from the bath and cooled in air (at room
temperature). 48
TEMPERING

 Tempered martensite which is hard but more malleable and ductile
is produced.
 This microstructure consists of extremely small and uniformly
dispersed cementite particle embedded with a matrix of ferrite.
49
TEMPERING MARTENSITE
• reduces brittleness of martensite,
• reduces internal stress caused by quenching.
TS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
1800
1600 TS
Adapted from
YS
9 m
1400 Fig. 10.24,
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 10.24
1200 60 copyright by
United States
1000 50
%AR %AR Steel
40 Corporation,
800 1971.)
30
200 400 600
Tempering T (°C)
• produces extremely small Fe3C particles surrounded by 
• decreases TS, YS but increases %AR
TEMPERING

Steel will oxidize (oxygen in air react with iron to form iron oxide)as it is
reheated and begin to show colors. The higher the temperature, the thicker the
oxide layer and the darker the colors. These temper colors sometimes used as a 51
guide to temperature.
Summary : Processing Options

52
EXERCISE
1. Describe the required heat treatment that Tony Stark should do on his mask
after he has finished cold forging process. (October 2012)
2. Compare between normalizing process and full annealing process in terms of

microstructure, cooling rate, properties, cooling medium and purpose of those
heat treatments. (April 2011)
3. Describe the following heat treatment process in terms of the purpose,
temperature, cooling medium, microstructure produced and properties for
eutectoid steel. (September 2011)
a) Normalizing
b) Annealing
4. Heat treatment is used to change the microstructure and properties of
materials. (October 2010)
a) Differentiate between coarse pearlite and fine pearlite in terms of the type
of heat treatment and the properties of material that may be obtained from
the microstructures.
b) Briefly describe the hardening in terms of the purpose, process,
microstructure and effect to the properties of materials.
5. Explain the influence of quenching medium and specimen size on the
formation of martensite. (October 2012) 53
3.3 HARDENABILITY OF STEELS

Hardenability:
 A measure of the depth to which the metals of an alloy may be hardened by
the formation of martensite as a result of a given heat treatment.
 Hardening process (e.g: quenching) for steels consist of heating and rapid
cooling form martensite.
 The cooling rate depends on the medium used for the quenching, e.g: water
gives a faster cooling rate than oil and air cooling.
 Generally, the faster steel cools, the harder it will be.
The Jominy Test is used to measure the hardenability of a steel.

54
3.3 HARDENABILITY OF STEELS

Jominy test:
 used to measure the hardenability of steels by heat treatment which shows
the effects of cooling rate on steel hardness.
Jominy Process:
 Heating a standard test piece of the steel to a standard austenite state.
 Fixing it in a vertical position and then quenching it with a jet of water at
one end only, thus producing a range of cooling rates along the steel bar.
 After the quenching, a flat portion is ground along one side of the test
piece, 0.38mm deep, and hardness measurements are made along the
length of the test piece from the quench end.
Jominy distance:
55
 the distance from the quenched end of a Jominy bar which is related to the
cooling rate.
HARDENABILITY CURVE
• Hardenability curve is the graph showing the effect of the cooling

rate on the hardness of as-quenched steel.
• The cooling rate at the quench end is very fast but becomes slower
as the distance from the quench end increases.
• Therefore, the distance from the quench end is an equivalent

measure of the cooling rate, and can be used to give the
hardenability of the steel. 56
HARDENABILITY CURVE
• At quenched end - cools most rapidly, therefore it contains

most martensite.
• Cooling rate decrease with distance from quenched end:
greater C diffusion- more pearlite/bainite, lower hardness.
57
End-Quench
Hardenability
 Test
(a) End‐quench test and
cooling rate.
(b) Hardenability curves for
five different steels, as
obtained from the end‐
quench test. Small
variations in composition
can change the shape of
these curves. Each curve
is actually a band, and its
exact determination is
important in the heat
treatment of metals for
better control of
properties.
EXERSICE
1. Hardenability can be defined as the ability of an alloy to be hardened by the
formation of martensite. (March 2013)

a) Explain THREE (3) factors that influence the hardenability of steel.
b) Figure shows a sample that has been preceded to Jominy End-Quench
Test. Identify the microstructure at point A, B, C and D.
2. Define hardenability of steel. (April 2009)

3. With the aids of neat sketches, describe how hardenability can be
determined experimentally. (April 2009)
59
CHAPTER 4
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
(10 hours)
CONTENT:
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
4.2 PLASTICS AND ELASTOMER: MOLECULAR,
STRUCTURES, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
4.3 CERAMIC: STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND
APPLICATIONS
4.4 COMPOSITE MATERIALS: TYPES, PROPERTIES AND
APPLICATIONS.
4.1Classification of
Engineering Materials
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROPERTIES,
STRUCTURE AND PROCESSING
(METALS)
Metals can be further classified as Ferrous & Non-Ferrous, and
some examples include:
Ferrous Non-Ferrous
Steels Aluminium
Stainless Copper
Steels
Cast Irons Titanium

(POLYMERS)
Polymers can be further classified as
Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers

Acrylics Epoxy resins Rubbers
Nylons Phenolic Silicones
PVC Polyesters Polyurethanes
Polyethylene
(CERAMICS)
Ceramics are compounds of metallic and
non-metallic elements, examples include;
• Oxides (alumina – insulation and
abrasives, zirconia – dies for metal
extrusion and abrasives)
• Carbides (tungsten-carbide tools)
• Nitrides (cubic boron nitride, 2nd in

hardness to diamond)
Materials in our lives – electronic & electrical

Materials in our lives – Civil & Structural

METAL AND NON-METAL USE IN
AUTOMOBILES
Some of the metallic and nonmetallic materials used in a typical automobile

Materials in our lives – Aerospace & Mechanical

4.2 PLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS:
Molecular structures,
properties and applications
POLYMER - INTRODUCTION
 Naturally (those derived from plants, animals) –

wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather, silk.
 Other natural polymer – proteins, enzymes,
starches, cellulose.
 Development of numerous polymer – synthesis
from small organic molecules.
 Synthetic polymer – plastics, rubbers, fibers
(inexpensive & properties managed to degree that
many are superior to their natural counterparts.
POLYMER MOLECULES
 To understand the chemistry of the polymer, we need
to understand the definition of hydrocarbon,
 Hydrocarbon
 are composed of hydrogen and carbon.
 Has covalent bonds for the intramolecular/interatomic
bonds but for intermolecules exist secondary bond, thus
these hydrocarbons have relatively low melting and
boiling points (p’).
 Saturated and unsaturated
 May have different atomic arrangements, isomerism
CnH2n+2 (Molecular formula)

POLYMER MOLECULES
 Most polymer are organic – review concept relating
to structure of their molecules.
 Each C atom has 4 electron that may participate in
covalent bonding, whereas every H atom has only 1
bonding electron.
 A single covalent bond exits when each of the
bonding atoms contributes 1 electron – saturated
(no new atoms may be joined without removal of
others that are already bonded.
 E.g. paraffin family ethane C2H6, propane C2H8
 Covalent bond –strong
 Van de waals bonds exit between molecules – low
melting & boiling temp. T boil rise with increasing
molecular weight
POLYMER MOLECULES
 Saturated hydrocarbon –all bonds are single

H H
H
C C
H H
H
 Molecules that have double or triple covalent
bonds are termed unsaturated.
 Double or triple bonds between 2 C atoms involve
sharing of 2 or 3 pairs of electrons, respectively.
 Within molecule, atoms are bonded together by
covalent interatomic bonds.
POLMER MICROSTRUCTURE
Mer
• a structural entities or part
• a single mer is called a monomer
Bifunctional mer
Functionality
 no of bonds that a given monomer can form
 Bifunctional mer – 2 covalent bonds with other monomer
forming 2D chainlike molecular structure
OH
 Trifunctional mer – 3 active bonds, form 3D
molecular network structure CH2 CH2
CH2
trifunctional mer
( )n
• Mer – a repeat unit (repeated along the chain)

• Monomer – small molecule from which polymer is synthesized.
• Polymer – many mer
• The repeat units are enclosed in parentheses (), subscript n indicate
the number of times it repeats.
• R depicits either atoms i.e. H, Cl or an organic group i.e. CH3 (methyl),
C2H5 (ethyl), C6H5 (phenyl)
• vinyl or ethenyl is the functional group −CH=CH2, namely the ethene
molecule (H2C=CH2) minus one hydrogen atom
Polymer = many mers
( )n
mer mer mer

HHHHHH HHHHHH H H H H H H
C CCC CC CC CCC C C C C C C C
HHHHHH H Cl H Cl H Cl H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polypropylene (PP)
( 2-CH2 --)n
--CH ( 2-CHCl--
-CH )n ( 2-CHCH3)--n
--CH
CHEMISTRY OF POLYMER
Polymers
• Consist of many mers
• Are gigantic/ macromolecules
• Mostly these molecules are long and flexible chain, the

backbone of the chain is a string of carbon atoms.
• A large molecule (macromolecule) built up by repetitive
bonding (covalent) of smaller molecules (monomers)
• Generally not a well defined structure, or molecular weight.
(A A A A )n n, degree of polymerization
POLYMER
STRUCTURE
Basic structure of some polymer

molecules:
(a) ethylene molecule;
(b) polyethylene, a linear chain of many
ethylene molecules;
(c) molecular structure of various
polymers.
These molecules are examples of the

basic building blocks for plastics.
BULK OR COMMODITY POLYMERS
Name(s)/Tradename Formula Monomer
Poly(vinylidene chloride) vinylidene chloride

–(CH2-CCl2)n–
(Saran A) CH2=CCl2
Polystyrene styrene
–[CH2-CH(C6H5)]n–
(PS) CH2=CHC6H5
Polyacrylonitrile acrylonitrile
–(CH2-CHCN)n–
(PAN, Orlon, Acrilan) CH2=CHCN
Polytetrafluoroethylene tetrafluoroethylene
–(CF2-CF2)n–
(PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2
Poly(methyl methacrylate) methyl methacrylate
–[CH2-C(CH3)CO2CH3]n–
(PMMA, Lucite, Plexiglas) CH2=C(CH3)CO2CH3
Poly(vinyl acetate) vinyl acetate
–(CH2-CHOCOCH3)n–
(PVAc) CH2=CHOCOCH3
cis-Polyisoprene isoprene
–[CH2-CH=C(CH3)-CH2]n–
natural rubber CH2=CH-C(CH3)=CH2
Polychloroprene (cis + trans) chloroprene

–[CH2-CH=CCl-CH2]n–
(Neoprene) CH2=CH-CCl=CH2
POLYMER STRUCTURE
• Physical characteristics of a polymer depends on its
molecular weight, shape, differences in the structure of
the molecular chains.
• Covalent chain configurations and strength:
secondary
bonding
Linear Branched Cross-Linked Network
Direction of increasing strength

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
i. Linear polymers
 the repeat unit are joined together end to end in
single chain
 May have extensive van der Waals and hydrogen
bonding between the chains
 uninterrupted straight chain, spegetti
 These long chains are flexible
 Extensive van de waals and hydrogen bonding
between the chains
 e.g. Polyethylene, secondary
poly(vinyl chloride), bonding
nylon
Linear
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
ii. Branched polymer
 occasional branches off longer chain
 which the side-branch chains are connected to the
main chain
 Lowering of the polymer density
 The branches may result from side reactions that
occur during the synthesis of polymer
 Branches considered to be part of the main chain
molecule
 e.g. high density polyethylene (HDPE) – primary linear
polymer & low density polyethylene (LDPE) – short
chain branches
B ranched
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
iii. Crosslinked polymer
 The adjacent linear chains are joined one to
another at various positions by covalent bond
 of crosslinking is achieved either during synthesis
or by a non-reversible chemical reaction
 Many in rubber elastic materials
Cross-Linked
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
iv. Network polymer
 Having three active or more covalent bond, form
three dimensional network
 highly crosslinked
 Distinctive mechanical and thermal properties
 e.g. epoxies, phenol formaldehyde
Network
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER
 Thermoplastics - Linear or branched polymers in

which chains of molecules are not interconnected to
one another.
 Thermosetting polymers - Polymers that are heavily
cross-linked to produce a strong three dimensional
network structure.
 Elastomers - These are polymers (thermoplastics or
lightly cross-linked thermosets) that have an elastic
deformation > 200%.
Thermoplastic Thermoset Elastomer
THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS
Characteristic: Properties:
• Soften when heated • relatively soft
• Harden when cooled • melt processability
• Reprocessable • lower thermal
• Relatively soft resistance,
• High viscosity at processing • higher creep,
temperatures • Higher moisture
• Difficult to process absorption
• Examples: polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene
CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
FOR COMMON THERMOPLASTIC
Polymer Major application characteristic Typical application
Polyethelylene Chemically resistant and electrically Flexible bottle, toys,
(HDPE, LDPE) insulating, tough and relatively low tumblers, battery part, ice
coefficient of fraction, low strength trays, film wrapping
and poor resistance to weathering materials
Polypropylene Resistant to heat distortion, excellent Sterilizable bottles,
electrical properties and fatigue packaging film, tv
strength, chemically inert, relatively cabinets, luggage, Tanks,
inexpensive, poor resistance to uv rope
light
Polyvinyl Good low cost, general purpose Floor coverings, pipe,
cloride (PVC) materials, ordinarily rigid, but may be electrical wire insulation,
made flexible with plasticizer, garden hose, valve, fitting
susceptible to heat distortion
Polystyrene Excellent electrical properties and Packaging, wall tile,
optical clarity, good thermal and battery cases, toys,
dimensional stability, relatively appliance housing
inexpensive
THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
(THERMOSETS)
Characteristic:
• do not melt on heating
• ease of their processing
• low cost
• Lose their stiffness properties at the heat distortion temperature
• Examples: rubbers, epoxies, polyester, phenolics
• NETWORK POLYMERS – have covalent cross links between
adjacent molecular chains.
• They become permanently hard during their formation and do not
soften upon heating.
• Only heating to excessive temp will cause severance of these link
bonds and polymer degration.
Properties:
• harder, stronger, better dimensional stability and more brittle than
thermoplastics.
Characteristics and typical applications for
common thermoset
Polymer Major application characteristic Typical application
Epoxies Excellent combination of Electrical moldings, sinks,
mechanical adhesives, protective
properties and corrosion resistance; coatings,
dimensionally stable; used with fiberglass
Good adhesion; laminates
relatively inexpensive;
good electrical properties
Polyesters Excellent electrical properties and Helmets, fiberglass boats,
low cost; can be formulated for auto body components,
room- or high-temperature use; chairs, fans
often fiber reinforced
Phenolics Excellent thermal stability to over Motor housings,
150C (300F); may be telephones, auto
compounded with a large number distributors,
of resins, fillers, etc.; inexpensive electrical fixtures
THERMOPLASTICS VS THERMOSETS
ELASTOMER (RUBBER)
Characteristic:
• Soft
• have low elastic modulus values
• show great dimensional change when

stressed but it will return to its original
dimensions immediately after the
deforming stress is removed
• low glass transition temperature.
ELASTOMER (RUBBER)
Two type of rubber:
i. natural rubber
ii. synthetic rubber (SBR, NBR)
Classification of Natural rubber:

• R Class,
 composed of unsaturated chain polymers (these
unsaturated materials can have their properties
by modified by cross linking)
• M Class
 which are saturated chain linear polymers,
• U Class or polyerethanes and the Q Class
 silicone rubbers
Characteristic and typical application for
common Elastomers
COMMON PLASTIC
COMMON PLASTIC
LOAD-ELONGATION CURVE AND TENSILE-TEST
SPECIMEN
(a) Load-elongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic.

(b) High-density polyethylene tensile-test specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long,
narrow region in the specimen).
PLASTIC PRODUCT RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY: POLYMER CHAINS
Schematic illustration of polymer chains.

(a) Linear structure; thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have
linear structures.
(b) Branched structure, such as polyethylene.
(c) Cross-linked structure; many rubbers and elastomers have this structure. Vulcanization of rubber
produces this structure.
(d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked; examples include thermosetting plastics
such as epoxies and phenolics.
4.3 Ceramic:
Structure,
Properties,
and
Applications
CERAMICS
 Ceramic (burnt stuff)-desirable properties a high temp heat
treatment process (firing)
 composed of at least two elements or more (e.g.,Al2O3, NaCl,
SiC, SiO2)
 Crystal structure more complex than metals
 Inorganic & non metallic materials
 Most ceramics – metallic & nonmetallic element – ionic or
predominantly ionic but having some covalent character
 Types of ceramic materials:
 Oxide
 Aluminum oxide/Alumina (Al203),
 Zirconium oxide/ Zirconia (ZrO2),

 Non-oxide
 Carbide, Silicate
47
Oxygen sensor
Class of ceramics
Traditional Ceramics:
primary raw materials is clay
Example: porcelain, bricks, tiles, sewer, Engineering Ceramics :
glasses, pipe, whiteware, high Contain more of pure compounds of oxides,
temperature ceramics
carbides, nitrides, etc.
Example: refractory tubing, crucibal, spark
plung insulator, advance ceramic,
electroceramic
48
CERAMICS
Properties :
• Generally hard and brittle
• Generally electrical and thermal insulators
exceptions: graphite, diamond, Aluminium nitride (AlN)
• Can be optically opaque, semi-transparent, or transparent
• High chemical stability and high melting temperature
• Corrosion resistant
• Better compressive strength than tensile (5-10 times)
• Tmelt for glass is moderate, but large for other ceramics.
• Small toughness, ductility; large moduli & creep resist.
Applications:
• High T, wear resistant, novel uses from charge neutrality.
49
TAXONOMY OF CERAMICS
Ceramic Materials
- - - -
-
-
Glasses Clay Refractories Abrasives Cements Advanced
-
products ceramics
-optical -whiteware -bricks for -sandpaper -composites -engine
-composite -structural: high T -cutting structural -rotors
reinforce bricks (furnaces) -polishing -valves
-containers/ -bearings
household -sensors
50
GLASSES
- Glasses
- Glass-Ceramic
51
GLASSES
• Non crystalline silicates containing network modifiers; Na2O,
CaO, K2O and Al2O3
• Typical example of glass;

soda-lime silica glass  70% SiO2 + soda (Na2O) and lime (CaO)
• Glass is transparent and easy to be fabricated
52
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON COMMERCIAL GLASSES
53
APPLICATIONS : GLASSES
Borosilicate, 81% Silica, 3.5%
Na2O, 2.5% Al2O3 and 3%
B2O3
Pyrex
Laboratory ware/oven ware
96% Silica
Laboratory ware
54
GLASS CERAMICS
• Most glass are amorphous (non crystalline)
• But can be transformed to crystalline by heat treatment  fine
grained polycrystalline material – glass-ceramics
• The heat treatment process  devertification process
• During the heat treatment process, a nucleating agent is
required to initiate crystallization or devertification process
• Easy to fabricate; mass production.
• Glass ceramic commercially under trade names of Pyroceram,
corning ware, cercor, vision
• Applications: ovenware, tableware, oven windows, range top –
primary coz of their strength & excellent resistant to thermal
shock
55
APPLICATIONS :GLASS CERAMICS
Properties/characteristics
High mechanical strength
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
(to avoid thermal shock)
high temperature capabilities
Good biological compatibility
Some optical transparent;
others are opaque
Electrical insulator
Other Applications
Glassware
Electrical insulator
Substrate for printed circuits board
Architectural cladding
Heat exchangers
Generator
56
CLAY
PRODUCTS
- Structural clay products
- Whitewares
57
CLAY PRODUCT
- Widely used as ceramic raw materials
- Inexpensive ingredient
- Found naturally in great abundance
• Adding water to clay

-- very amenable to shaping (form a plastic mass)
-- enables extrusion
-- enables slip casting
• The formed piece is dried to remove moisture
• Fired at elevated temp to improve its mechanical strength
• 2 broad classification
1) structural clay product - structural integrity is important
2) whitewares
58
CLAY COMPOSITION
A mixture of components used
(50%) 1. Clay
Clay facilitates the forming operation since, when mixed with water,
the mass may be made to become either hydroplastic or form a
slip. Also, since clays melt over a range of temperatures, the
shape of the piece being fired will be maintained .
(25%) 2. Filler – e.g. quartz (finely ground)
(25%) 3. Fluxing agent (Feldspar) aluminosilicates + K+, Na+, Ca+

binds it together
The flux facilitates the formation of a glass having a relatively low
melting temperature
59
CLAY PRODUCT:
STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCT
used mainly in construction
Properties :
load-bearing strength, resistance to wear, resistance to chemical
attack, attractive appearance, and an ability to take a decorative finish.
Products :
facing buildings, surfacing highways, making containers for corrosive
acids, as aggregate for low-density concrete, as conduits for sewage, as
structural arches supporting bridges, as roofs, and as chimney liner
60
Application : structural clay product
Bricks chimney liners
roofs
conduits for sewage
61
CLAY PRODUCT :WHITEWARES
- ceramic products that are white to off-white in appearance
- become white after high temp firing
- frequently contain a significant vitreous, or glassy,
component.
Properties :
imperviousness to fluids, low conductivity of electricity,
chemical inertness, and an ability to be formed into
complex shapes.
Products :
china dinnerware, lavatory sinks and toilets,
dental implants, and spark-plug insulators, 62
Application : Whiteware
china dinnerware (Porcelain, pottery, tableware)
lavatory sinks and toilets, plumbing

fixture (sanitary ware)
dental implants
spark-plug insulators
63
REFRACTORIES CERAMICS
64
Characteristic of Refractory Ceramics
 Can withstand high temperature without

melting or decomposing
 Can remain inert even at sever conditions
 Can provide thermal insulations
 In a form of bricks (most common)
 Use as furnace linings for metal refining,
glass manufacturing heat treatment and
power generation
65
REFRACTORIES CERAMICS
Several classification
• fireclay-used in furnace construction, to confine hot atm & to
thermally insulate structural members from excessive temp (alumina
& silica)
• Silica (asid refractories) – high temp load bearing capacity (used in
arched roofs of steel & glass making furnace),
• basic – magnesia(MgO) + Ca, Cr, Fe + silica (used in some steel
making furnace)
• special refractories – e.g. (SiC) cruciable material & electrical
resistance heating elements & internal furnace component
Raw ingredients – (both) large & fine particles
• Upon firing, fine particles –formation of bonding phase –increased
strength of the brick
• Control the porosity – porosition reduction incred strength, load
bearing capacity, resistance to corrosive materials
• However, diminished the thermal insulation characteristic and
resistance to thermal shock
APPLICATION: REFRACTORIES CERAMICS
• Need a material to use in high temperature furnaces.
• Fireclay bricks, crucible material, internal furnace
components
internal furnace components
crucible
Fireclay bricks 67
APPLICATION: REFRACTORIES
• Consider Silica (SiO2) - Alumina (Al2O3) system.
• Phase diagram shows:
mullite, alumina, and crystobalite (made up of SiO2)
tetrahedra as candidate refractories.
2200 3Al2O3-2SiO2
T(°C)
mullite
2000 Liquid
(L) alumina + L
1800
mullite alumina
crystobalite
+L +
+L
1600 mullite
mullite
+ crystobalite
1400
0 20 40 60 80 100
Composition (wt% alumina)
3
ABRASIVE CERAMIC
69
ABRASIVE CERAMICS
• Used to wear, grind and cut away other material

• Hardness and wear resistance important
• High degree of toughness – do not want material
which deform or facture during cutting!
• Diamond is the best but expensive
• Other examples; Tungsten carbide (WC) , Alumina
(Al2O3) and Silica(SiO2), SiC, silica sand
70
APPLICATION: ABRASIVE CERAMICS
• Abrasive are used in several forms-Bonded to grinded wheels
- as coating abbrasive – the abrasive particles/powder is
coated on some type of paper or cloth material; sand
paper, wood, metal ceramics & plasric
- loose grains – grinding, lapping & polishing wheels often
employ loose abrasive grain that are delivered in some
type of oil or water based vehicles (diamods, SiC, iron
oxide) grinding wheel, sandpaper
grinding wheel 71
APPLICATION: ABRASIVE CERAMICS
• Tools:
--for grinding glass, tungsten, carbide, ceramics
--for cutting Si wafers
--for oil drilling
blades oil drill bits
5
CEMENTS
73
Cements
• Inorganic cements : cement, plaster of paris and lime
• known as binder,
• When mixed with water, forms a paste which harden as
a results of complex hydration reactions
• substance that sets and hardens independently
• can bind other materials together
• The role of cement is similar to glassy bonding when clay
product & refractory brick are fired.
•The different is cementitious bond develop at room temp.
•Lime involved in hardening reaction
74
APPLICATION : CEMENTS
• as an ingredient in the production of mortar in masonry, and
concrete
concrete
Mortar
75
CEMENTS
• Produced in extremely large quantities.
• Portland cement:
--mix clay and lime bearing materials
--calcinate (heat mixture to 1400°C in rotary kiln)
--primary constituents:
tri-calcium silicate
di-calcium silicate
• Adding water
--produces a paste which hardens
--hardening occurs due to hydration (chemical reactions
with the water).
• Forming: done usually minutes after hydration begins.
16
CEMENTS
 Hydration reactions begin just as soon as water is
added to the cement
1) Setting i.e. stiffening of once plastic phase (several
hours)
2) Hardening –water actually participates in a chemical
bonding reaction
 Porland cement- its hardness develops by
chemical reaction with water
 Used in mortar & concrete to bind aggregated of
inert particles (sand) into cohesive mass
(composite materials)
ADVANCED CERAMICS
78
ADVANCED CERAMIC
 Ceramics that displays unique
electrical, magnetic and optical MEMS
properties
 Utilized in microelectromechanical
system (MEMS), Sensors, fuel
cells, superconductors, actuators,
electronics packaging,
semiconductor devices, solar cells,
fibre optics, laser production, etc Ceramic cannula in fibre optics
79
Applications: Advanced Ceramics
 Ceramic Armor
 Al2O3, B4C, SiC & TiB2
 Extremely hard materials
 shatter the incoming bullet
 energy absorbent material underneath
80
Applications: Advanced Ceramics
Electronic Packaging
 Chosen to securely hold microelectronics & provide heat transfer
 Must match the thermal expansion coefficient of the
microelectronic chip & the electronic packaging material. Additional
requirements include:
- good heat transfer coefficient
- poor electrical conductivity
 Materials currently used include:
 Boron nitride (BN)
 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
 Aluminum nitride (AlN)
- thermal conductivity 10x that for Alumina

- good expansion match with Si
81
CERAMIC TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
EXERCISE :
1. Describe the main Difference between traditional ceramics and
engineering ceramics.
2. List two example of applications for traditional ceramics and

engineering ceramics.
3. Some of our modern kitchen cookware is made of ceramic materials.

a) List three (3) important characteristics required of a materials to be used
for this application.
b) Choose the material that most suitable for cookware.

83
4.4 COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
TYPES, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
• Consists of two or more physically and/or chemically

distinct, suitably arranged or distributed phases with an
interface separating them.
• Composite – multiphase materials (metal alloys, ceramics &
polymers) artificially made
• Has characteristics that are not represent by any of the
components in isolation.
• Material have specific & unusual prop in i.e. aerospace,
underwater, bio-engineering & transportation industries.
• e.g. low density, strong, stiff, abrasion, impact resistance & do
not easily corrode.
COMPONENTS OF COMPOSITE
INTERFACE
MATRIX
Composite composed of 2 phases

1) Matrix –continuous & surround the other phase
2) Dispersed phases – shape of particles, particle
size, distribution and orientation REINFORCEMENT
MATRIX
• A bulk phase, which is continuous

• Surrounds the reinforcements
• Providing uniform load distribution to the
reinforcing constituents
• General polymer and metal – ductility is desirable
• Ceramic matrix to improve fracture toughness
• Examples:
metal-, polymer- and ceramic- matrix
MATRIX
Purpose of Matrix :
• to bind and hold the reinforcements.
• to transfer load to and between reinforcements.
• allows the strength of the reinforcements to be used to

their full potential by providing effective load transfer from
external forces to the reinforcement.
• to protect the reinforcements from environments and

handling.
• provides a solid form to the composite which aids handling

during manufacture and is typically required in a finished
part.
• controls the transverse properties, interlaminar strength

and elevated-temperature strength of the composite.
REINFORCEMENT
• Fiber reinforcement are classified as follows
a) Fibers – normally polymer or ceramics (amorphous or
polycrystalline) i.e glass, carbon, boron, aluminum
oxide, SiC
b) Whiskers – thin single crystals that have very small
diameters) i.e. Graphie, SiC, Al2O3
c) Wires – metal/alloys that have relatively large
diameters. . i.e. steel, Molybdenum, W
• provide superior levels of strength and stiffness to
the composite.
• provide thermal and electrical conductivity,
controlled thermal expansion, and wear resistance
in addition to structural properties.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS FOR REINFORCEMENT
• Diameter size
 strength decreases with an increases of diameter
• A high aspect ratio (l/d)

 allows a very large fraction of the applied load to be
transferred via the matrix to stiff and strong fiber
• High degree of flexibility

 it is a characteristic of material having a high
modulus and a small diameter.
 Permits a variety of techniques for making
composites
INTERFACES
• can be defined as a bounding surface where a

discontinuity of some kind occurs (between matrix and
reinforcement).
• the interface is an essentially two-dimensional region

through which material parameters such as
 concentration of an element, crystal structure,
atomic registry, elastic modulus, density and
coefficient of thermal expansion, change from one
side to another
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES (MATRIX)
Polymer Matrix
Composite
(PMC)
composite
Ceramic-Matrix Metal-Matrix
Composite Composite
(CMC) (MMC)
POLYMER-MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC)
 PMCs consist of a polymer resin as the matrix, with

fibers as the reinforcement medium
 They may be reinforced with glass, carbon and aramid
fibers, etc.
 Polymer Matrix
 The most widely used (least expensive) polymer resins are
polyesters and vinyl ester.
 Epoxies (more expensive)
 PMCs for aerospace applications
 Better mechanical properties and resistance to moisture than
polyesters and vinyl ester.
 Polyimide resins for high temperature applications
 aerospace application – polyetheretherketone,
polyphenylene sulfide, polyetherimide
Polymer-Matrix Composites (PMC)
EXAMPLE OF PMC:
Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites
• fiberglass consist of glass fibers (continuous or discontinuous) contained
within polymer matrix (polyester resin)
• widely use due to
a. Easily drawn into high strength fiber
b. Easily to be processes to composite ( less cost)
c. Very high specific strength
d. Most type chemical inertness -- variety of corrosion environment
• Limitation
a. High strength but not very stiff (rigidity) – not suitable for structure application
b. Low service temperature ( below 200oC) – improve by adding high temp purity silica
and high temp polymer (polymide) – ( 300oC)
• Application
 plastic pipeline, tanks and vessel for chemical process industry, storage
containers, automotive & marine bodies
 Transportation industries – decrease vehicle weight & boost fuel efficiency
EXAMPLE OF PMC:
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites
 Carbon widely use as fiber reinforced due to
a. Highest specific modulus and specific strength
b. High tensile modulus and high strength retain at elevated temp
c. At room temp, carbon fiber are not effected by moisture, most
solvent, acids bases
d. Low fabrication cost and effective
 Limitation
a) fabrication of carbon fiber are complex

b) at high temp, carbon - high tendency to oxidized
 Application
sport and recreational equipment ( fishing rod, golf clubs), filament wound
rocket motor casing, pressure vessel, aircraft structural, Helicopters (wing,
body, stabilizer), crank arms for bicycle
EXAMPLE OF PMC:
Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
 aramid – chemical name : poly paraphenylene (polymer)
 high strength, high modulus materials (outstanding strength to weight ratio)
 good longitudinal tensile strength, toughness, impact resistant,
resistance to creep and fatigue failure
 even polymer group but resist to combustion and stable to relatively high
temperature ( application range -200oC to 200oC)
 degradation to strong acid and base but inert to solvent and other
chemical
 Trade name-Kevlar, Nomex
 Polymer matrix – epoxies, polyesters
 Higher fatigue resistant than carbon PMC
 Application:
 Racing yachts and private boats, helmets, rocket engine cases, gasket,
clutch lining, ballistic products (bulletproof vest & armor), tires, ropes,
sporting goods
EXAMPLE OF PMC:
Boron/epoxies composite
 Golf clubs, tennis rackets, horizontal stabilizers and tail
section of military aircraft, helicopter rotor blade
CROSS-SECTIONS OF FIBER-REINFORCED
MATERIALS
(a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing fibers.
(b) Cross-section of boron fiber-reinforced composite material
POLYMER-MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC)
Advantages:
 found widespread applications.
 can be easily fabricated into any large complex

shape, do not involve high pressures and temp.
(less degradation of reinforcement)
 Equipment required may be simpler; (hand lay-

up)
Disadvantages:
• low maximum working temperatures.

• high coefficients of thermal expansion and hence
dimensional instability (except: carbon fibre-
reinforced polymers )
• sensitivity to radiation (except: epoxies) and
moisture.
• The absorption of water from the environment may
have many harmful effects which degrade mechanical
performance, including swelling.
• formation of internal stresses and lowering of the
glass transition temperature.
Properties
• improve strengths and stiffnesses,
• Ease of molding for complex shapes,
• high environmental resistance all coupled with low densities
• Make the resultant composite superior for many

applications
Fibre Reinforced Polymer

Application in general:
• Aramid and carbon fibers have strengths and low
densities and are used in many applications,
particularly aerospace, in spite of their higher
cost.
• In electronic applications, glass fiber from E-glass
type is used as reinforcement in substrate
application because the fibers have very desirable
and stable electrical properties.
BOEING 757-200
Application of advanced composite materials in Boeing 757-200 commercial aircraft.

METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITE (MMC)
Examples of metal-matrix composite parts.

METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMC)
 The matrix is a ductile metal

 The most common metals employed in MMC are
aluminum, copper, titanium and magnesium.
 Typical fibers used in the composite systems are
carbon and silicon carbide
 Metals are mainly reinforced to increase or decrease
their properties to suit the needs of the design.
 Reinforcement
- may improve sp stiffness, sp strength, abrasion resistance,
creep resistance, thermal conductivity, dimensional stability
- Particulate, fibers (continuous & discontinuous), wiskers
- E.g. Boron aluminum oxide, refractory metals
Advantages :
• higher application temperature ranges,
• higher transverse stiffness and strengths,
• high electric and thermal conductivities and can be fabricated with
conventional metal working equipment
• high toughness values. higher strength-to-density, stiffness-to-density ratios as
well as better fatigue resistances, lower coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE)
and better wear resistances as compared with monolithic metals
Disadvantages:
 most metals are heavy
 Susceptible to interfacial degradation at
the reinforcement and matrix interface
 susceptible to corrosion
 high material and fabrication costs
 exhibit degradation of properties at very
high temperatures
EXAMPLE MMC
• Automotive
• Al alloy MMC; reinforced with aluminum oxide
and carbon fibers
• drive shaft ( higher vibration rotational speed)
• Extruded stabilizer bars
• Forged suspension and transition

components
• Aerospace (MMC is light in weight)
• Al alloys MMC;
• boron fibers – space shuttle orbiter
• Continuous graphite fibers – Hubble Space

telescope
METAL MATRIX AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE CALIPER
Aluminum-matrix composite brake caliper

using nanocrystallyne alumina fiber
reinforcement
METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND
APPLICATIONS
CERAMIC-MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMC)
• Contains a ceramic matrix such as alumina and

calcium alumino silicate reinforced by fibers such as
carbon or silicon carbide.
• The main objective is to increase the toughness,
strength and stiffness of the material.
• High temp & severe stresses applications –
automobile & aircraft gas turbine engines
• Fracture toughness value for ceramic materials are
low.
• Reinforced – particulates, fibers, whiskers of one
ceramics
• Matrix- another ceramics
Advantages:
• a very high application temperature range (>2000ºC).
• provide advanced heat engine applications
• low density and usually have very high elastic modulus
values
• chemical inertness.
Disadvantages:
 brittleness which makes them easily susceptible to flaw
 Only employed high temperature reinforcement
 High temperature for processing (High production costs)
 lack uniformity in properties and have low thermal and mechanical
shock resistances as well as low tensile strengths
EXAMPLE OF CMC
• SiC wiskers reinforced Al2O3

 cutting tool material replacing the metallic carbide
cutting tool
 Cutting tool insert for machining hard metal alloys
 Resistance to thermal shock
 Improve strength, fracture toughness
• C/C composite
 Disc brake, hot pressing mold
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
COMPOSITE BENEFITS
• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/
Force ceramics
particle-reinf 103
E(GPa) PMCs
10 2
10 metal/
fiber-reinf metal alloys
1
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10-4 Density,  [Mg/m3]
ss (s-1)
6061 Al
• MMCs:
10-6
Increased
creep 6061 Al
10-8
resistance w/SiC
whiskers (MPa)
10-10
20 30 50 100 200
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
composites
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
Dispersion-
Continuous Discontinuous
Large- particle strengthened Laminates Sandwich panel
(aligned) (short)
(0.01 and 0.1 µm)
aligned
Randomly
oriented
PARTICLE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
1. Large - Particle
• The particle diameter is typically a few microns (μ)
• Particle reinforced composites are much easier and less
costly than making fiber reinforced composites.
• Particulate phase is harder & stiffer than the matrix.
• Particulate –same dimension in all direction
Particulate Flake Filler

1. Large - Particle (cont.)

Based on reinforcement or strengthening mechanism.
Example:
• concrete composed of cement (matrix) and sand & gravel
(particulates). Cerment (ceramic metal composite) matrix
“metal” such as Co, Ni, particles “ceramic” such as WC or
TiC.

Example:
• Used as cutting tools for hardened steel – carbide is brittle.
toughness is enhanced by inclusion in the ductile metal
matrix. Withstand high temp generate during cutting.

Example:
• automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a
matrix of polyisobutylene elastomeric polymer. Carbon
black evenly distributed though out the rubber (inexpensive
material) – enhanced TS, toughness, tear & abrasion
resistance
2. Dispersion Strengthen
• The particle diameter is small particles between 0.01 and 0.1 μm(10–100nm)
• An example : metal matrix composite with a fine distribution.
Metal & metal alloys + dispersed phases (metallic/ nonmetallic/oxide
materials)
• The strengthening mechanism involve the interactions between the particles
dislocation between the matrix. Particle matrix interaction leads to
strengthening
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITE
•The fibers can be in the form of long continuous fibers, or

discontinuous fibers, particles, whiskers and even weaved
sheets, wires.
•Fiberglass is likely the best know fiber reinforced composite.
(a) (b) (c)

Continuous and aligned Discontinuous and aligned discontinuous and
randomly oriented
• Aligned Continuous fibers
• Examples:
--Glass w/SiC fibers
--Metal: '(Ni3Al)-(Mo) formed by glass slurry
by eutectic solidification. Eglass = 76GPa; ESiC = 400GPa.
matrix: (Mo) (ductile)
fracture
surface
(a)
2m
fibers: ’ (Ni3Al) (brittle)

(b)
• Discontinuous, random 2D fibers
• Example: Carbon-Carbon C fibers:

--process: fiber/pitch, then very stiff
very strong
burn out at up to 2500C. C matrix:
--uses: disk brakes, gas less stiff
turbine exhaust flaps, nose view onto plane less strong
fibers lie
cones. in plane
• Other variations:
--Discontinuous, random 3D
--Discontinuous, 1D
Factor that influence composites properties
1. Fiber length
- short fiber --- less significant improvement in strength
- more effective if continuous fiber
2. Fiber orientation
- parallel alignment - align direction, reinforcement and strength are max;
perpendicular to alignment, they are minimum
- random alignment -Able to support multiple direction forces
3. Fiber concentration
- Better properties when fiber distribution is uniform
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
1. Laminar Composites
• Composed of 2D sheets or panels.
• Sheets (panels) with different orientation of high strength
directions are stacked and glued together
• Examples : plywood and modern ski, application more in
aircraft
Laminate composite
1. Laminar Composites (cont.)

• # of laminated – varies
• joined by plastic adhesive ( for glass, effect from adhesive more
importance)
• improve corrosion resistance with low cost , high strength & light
weight
• improve thermal expansion characteristic
• improve fatigue failure
• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness
A small sample of Aerospace grade

Carbon-fibre/Epoxy laminate
Plywood is used widely in
construction
2. Sandwich Panels
• Consist of two strong and stiff sheet (faces) separated by a layer of less-
dense material (core materials) or structure for instance honeycomb which
provides strength to shear.
• Benefit: These structure combine relatively high strength and stiffness with
low density.
• Application
 roofs, walls, and aircraft structures (wings, fuselage, tailplane skin).
2. Sandwich Panels (cont.)
Diagram of an assembled composite sandwich (A), and its
constituent face sheets or skins (B) and honeycomb core (C)
(alternately: foam core)
• Faces – support all load (relatively stiff & strong materials)
- example : Al alloy, fiber reinforce plastic,
titanium, steel, plywood
- thick enough to withstand tensile & compressive
stresses from loading
• Core –lightweight, low modulus of Elasticity.
-Rigid polymeric foams (phenolics, epoxy,
polyurethanes), synthetic rubber
 Wood (balsa wood)
 Honeycomb ( thin foils that have been formed
into interlocking hexagonal cells)
- Function:
1) provide continuous support for faces
2) have sufficient shear strength to withstand
transverse shear stresses
3) thick enough to provide high shear stiffness(to
resist buckling of the panel) shear rigidity
COMPOSITE SAILBOARD CROSS-SECTION
Cross-section of a composite sailboard, an example of advanced materials construction.

SUMMARY:
METHODS OF REINFORCING PLASTICS
Schematic illustration of methods of reinforcing plastics (matrix) with (a) particles, (b)
short or long fibers or flakes, and (c) continuous fibers. The laminate structures shown in
(d) can be produced from layers of continuous fibers or sandwich structures using a foam
or honeycomb core.
SUMMARY: COMPOSITE
• Composites are classified according to:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).
• Composites enhance matrix properties:
-- MMC: enhance y, TS, creep performance
-- CMC: enhance Kc
-- PMC: enhance E, y, TS, creep performance
• Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
• Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
• Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.
SUMMARY:

Mec281 Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mec281 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MEC281

This course covers some fundamentals of materials science, which are

• CO2 ;Apply the basics concepts to identify the relationships

• CO3 :Choose the suitable material for appropriate engineering

• Final Examination : 60%

 William D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and

 William F. Smith, Foundations of Materials Science and

 William F. Smith, Structure and Properties of

 K.R. Tretheway and J. Chamberlain, Corrosion,

1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE.

1.2 INTERATOMIC BONDING AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE SOLID.

1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES.

1.4 EFFICIENCY OF ATOMIC PACKING, DENSITY COMPUTATION,

1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC STRUCTURE, CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Even with the world’s best

Wave Mechanical Atomic Model

Protons and neutrons join together Neutron Nucleon or

Proton Positive (+ve) Nucleus 1.0073

Neutron Neutral Nucleus 1.0087

Electron Negative (-ve) Orbital 0.000549

Periodic Table (P.T.)

Two main classifications in P.T.

2) group or family: vertical column on the P.T.

1) ATOMIC NUMBER 2) ATOMIC MASS

ATOMIC NUMBER, Z = no. of protons

The element helium has the atomic number 2, is represented by

ATOMIC MASS tells the sum of the masses of PROTONS (Z) and NEUTRONS (N) within the

Natural Proton Neutron Atomic

atomic number but different atomic Hydrogen 1

Number of Nucleon Number of

• The following representation is used :

The sequence of addition of the

Atom Symbol Atomic Number Electron configuration

1) Primary Interatomic Bonding 2) Secondary Atomic Bonding

•Electron are transferred to form a bond

 Solid at room temperature (made of ions)

• Predominant bonding in Ceramics

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

• Gases, liquids, or solids (made of molecules)

• Molecules with nonmetals

• The valence electron form a ‘sea of electron’.

• Found for group IA and IIA elements.

• Found for all elemental metals and its alloy.

 Good heat conductivity

VAN DER WAALS

Ionic Large Very high Hard and Poor Nondirectional

Secondary Smallest Low to Fairly soft Poor Directional

Metals Variable bond energy

Polymers Directional Properties

Single Crystal polycrystal

•Completely ordered •Different lattice

The single crystal turbine blades

1a] With the aid of sketches, explain the following terms :

A lattice and motif help to illustrate the crystal structure.

lattice motif crystal structure

•Crystal structure may be present with any of the

•The atoms in a crystal structure are arranged

•The crystallographic planes and Miller indices are

The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure:

Example : Chromium, Tungsten,Molybdenum,Tantalum,

The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure:

Example : Cu,Al,Ag,Au, Ni, Pt

•It is represented mathematically by :

APF = no. of atom, n x volume of atoms in the unit cell, (Vs)