WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION

Objectives:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define the term communication .
2. State and explain the elements of communication.
3. Discuss the barriers to effective communication.
4. Suggest ways to overcome barriers to communication.
5. Relate the models of communication to various communications setting.
Meaning and definition of communication
The word communication has been derived from the Latin word communis, which means share
or to participate. Thus, communication stands for sharing or transmission of information, idea, an
option, an emotion, a fact or an attitude. It includes both, the act of communicating as well as the
message to be communicated. Communication is the process of passing information and
understanding from one person to another. It is also the “the act of any natural or artificial
means of conveying information or giving instruction.” Thus communication is the process of
passing information and understanding from one person to another with three sides to it:
-Transmission of subject-matter or message
- Involvement of two parties to complete the process of communication
- The person to whom the message is transmitted understands it in the same sense in
which the sender of the message wants him to understand it.

Attempts have been made by different authors to define communication. A few are enumerated
below:
Alder and Towne (1996)- Communication is an on -going process involving a relationship
between participants who occupy individual but overlapping fields of experience who are
involved in the simultaneously sending and receiving of messages which are subject to distortion
from various forms of noise
W. H. Newman and C.F. Summer Jr. -Communication means to share in, to give to another, or
to interchange thoughts, opinions or an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by two
or more persons.
Hudson - Communication in its simplest form is conveying of information from one person to
another..

Keith Davis - Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one
person to another.”.
George R. Terry -Communication is a continuing and thinking process dealing with the
transmission and interchange with understanding of ideas, facts and courses of action.”
Berelso and Steiner -Communication is the transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills,
e.t.c. by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs, e.t.c. It is the act or process of
transformation that is usually called communication.”
Peter little- Communication is a process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and or organizations that an understanding response results.
William Scott - Administrative Communication which involves the transmission and accurate
replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will
accomplish organizational goal.
Whatever the definition there are key emphasis of these definitions namely
i) That there has to be something to be communicated
ii) That communication is about accurate replication in the receivers mind.
iii) That there should be feedback from the recipient.
iv) There has to be parties involved in communication

Main aspect of communication

 Communication must have a source (sender)
 Communication must have content (message)
 Communication must have a media
 Communication must have a destination: i.e. recipient
 Communication must have a feedback
Characteristics of communication
i) Communication maintains and animates life. It creates a common pool of ideas,
strengthens the feeling of togetherness through exchange of messages and translates
thought into action.
 ii) Interchange of information: The basic characteristics of human communication is
that it aims at the exchanging of information. It is a two-way process. The exchange
can be between two or more persons. It may be at the individual or the
organizational level.
iii) Continuous process: communication is a continuous process. It is not static. It is
constantly subject to change and is dynamic. The people with whom communication is held, its
content and nature, and the situation in which communication is held-all keep changing.
iv) Mutual understanding: The main purpose of communication is to bring about mutual
understanding. The receiver should receive and understand the message in the manner
that the sender intended him to.
v) Response or reaction: Communication always leads to some response or reaction. A
message becomes communication only when the receiving party understands and
acknowledges it, and also reacts and responds to it.

vi) Universal function: Communication is a universal function, which covers all levels
of authority.
vii) Social activity: Communication is a social activity, too. The components of a society
are into a relationship of sharing, be it information, feelings or emotions. The same
holds true for business communication. It involves the effort of the people to get in
touch with one another and to make themselves understood. The process by which
people attempt to share meaning and relate to one another is, thus, a social `activity

Why has communication become so important?

Communication has become increasingly more important compared to the yester years
particularly in this era of globalization dominated by modern management education., Society
and businesses have become more complex and more global. The following factors have added
to the importance of communication.

i) Big size of organizations: Modern organizations are gigantic as compared to

those of yesteryears. Moreover, they are in a continuous process of expansion.
Communication is the only link among the large number of people in the set-up.
ii) Growing importance of human relations: Modern management has brought in the
concept of human resource management. Its importance cannot be ignored. The
style of working has changed considerably over the years. It is no longer the
management- decides-and-workers-follow kind of working pattern.
Participative management has become the watchword. Men will not cooperate
unless they are treated humanely. This has only increased the importance of
communication in business organizations.

iii) Public relations: Just like the human beings, organizations cannot function in
isolation. Every organization has certain social responsibilities. It also has to
interact with different segments of the society. The responsibilities are towards
customers, shareholders, suppliers, traders, trade unions, media, government and
the people in general.

iv) Advances in behavioural science: Modern management lays great stress on the
theories of behaviuoral sciences like sociology, psychology, philosophy,
anthropology spiritualism and transactional analysis. Their growing importance can be
judged by the tremendous surge in the sale of books on these subjects. The essence of
all the writings is that we change the way of looking at human nature. Improvement in
communication skills can do this effectively.

v) Technological advances: Today’s computer age affects not only the methods of
working, but also the composition of groups. Communication is the only way to meet
the challenge and to strengthen the relationship between superiors and subordinates.
Teleconferencing has become a key link for immediate decision-making and feedback in
large business organizations.

vi) Growth and trade unions: The last century has seen a tremendous increase in the
size of the union of workers. These unions occupy a very important place in an
organizational set-up. Hence, mutual understanding between the management
 and the unions is very important. Communication, therefore, has a vital role to
play.

vii) Consumerism [increase in the demand for consumer goods]: Communication has
become an inevitable cycle since the growth of consumerism. In this era of global
marketplace, the competition is real tough, and companies are under constant
pressure to attract clientele and to perform. The effort to persuade customers to
buy a product is virtually never-ending. This has led to a tremendous growth in
communication. From pamphlets, brochures and advertisements in the print and
electronic media to workshops, demonstrations, contests and attractive schemes,
consumerism has spawned a whole new way of communication.

viii) Distance education: The advent of the Open University system has lead to an
increase in communication. In many countries, a large segment of the population
is gaining distance education.

Importance of communication
Communication can be described as the life blood of the business as no business can develop in
the absence of effective external and internal communication. In addition Communication is a
vital tool of management. One of the major functions of an office is communication. This
involves receiving, recording, processing of information and communicating the information
two various
functions of the organizations.
Importance of communication can be discussed under two points of view.
I. Internal communication (within the business)
II. External communication. ( without the business)

a) Importance of internal communication

Internal communication refers to exchange of information or message between persons of
same organization, e.g. between employer and employee.

i) Better understanding between employer and employees.

If complaints of employees are forwarded to employer on time and in the right way it will
minimize the chances of misunderstanding.
ii) Great efficiency.
The sound communication system enables the management to instruct the supervision
of subordinates on changes of policy which results to the increase in the efficiency of
employees.

iii) Effective co-ordination:

Effective communication leads to effective co-ordination of business/organizational activities
v) Proper communication avoids losses:
If there is a machine breakdown or shortage the management can be informed quickly to
take timely action to avoid any possible losses.

B) External communication.
This refers to exchange of information between an organization and other organizations
or persons outside the organization.
The following facts indicate the importance of external communication.

i) Good reputation
Effective communication with customers and either business enables company establish
good reputation this increases prestige of that company.

ii) Improvement in public relations:

When a company communicates with general public to keep them informed of its
activities more people become interested to deal with that company.

iii) Better business prospects –

Due to good communication the company can attract more customers.

iv) Choice of customers –

A company can get information about the liking and disliking of customers. This
information will help company produce goods according to the choice of customers.
v) Government department –
The business will deal with licensing authorities, foreign trade offices, custom
authorities, banks and other financial institutions. All these institutions require good
communication when negotiating.
vi) Job requirements –
Most jobs require communication skills such as personnel public relations, marketing, editing,
research, advocates, etc. Executives are expected to make speeches they are expected to give
interviews to media.All these require communication skill
NB communication is both for a student and an employee/employer. It is for life

Theories/ Models of Communication

A theory is an explanation, it can however convey the idea of something which is not totally
correct or complete. A good theory provides us with most adequate and effective explanation of
a given area at a given time. Theories provide us with a greater understanding of our
environment and allow us a greater degree of control over it. There are about four theories that
attempt to explain communication.
i) The linear process model
It is also known as transmission view and was modeled by Shannon and Weaver in 1949 as an
extension of information theory.
- It emphasis on the notion of a sender sending information to the receiver.
- It views communication in terms of information transfer and divides it to a number of
stages, which are seen as components in communication process and are also known as
communication variables.
The components of communication in the linear model are
- Sender- The source
- Receiver- destination
- Message-the information
- Code- the form message takes
- Channel-the means /medium
- Noise-Physical interference e. g sound, light etc
It considers communication to occur on a straight line.
Evaluation
- Linear process model provides us with notable key concepts useful to understanding
communication.
- It provides adequate account communication forces such as mass media (radio, T.V),
telegraph, it however falls short of explaining other communication that involves feedback.
- Linear model views communications as one way process
ii) Interactive process model
It is an advancement on the linear model as it attempts to address some of the
inadequacies of the linear model. It notes that communication is not always intentional
as people interpret aspects of our behavior including appearance irrespective of whether
they were intentional behavior or not. It takes communication to be a two-way process
involving information exchange hence feedback. It considers the receiver and the
sender to occupy their own respective and overlapping fields of experience showing
that both the receiver and the sender must have a degree of shared understanding or
knowledge for communication to occur .e.g language. It views meaning to reside not in
the code (word) but residing in the minds of the speaker and receiver. The model
broadens the concepts of noise beyond physical noise to include anything that interferes
with the original intended meaning of a message. A part from the physical noise it
incorporates others forms of noise
Other forms of noise include
a) Psychological noise- individuals features such as emotions, expectations biases etc
b) Sematic noise- the differences in people understanding of the meaning of certain words
(which is influenced by their field of experience including culture).Semantic noise can
occur at the level of denotation (literal or dictionary meaning of a word) or connotative
level (refers to emotional overtones conveyed by words)
NB Senders of messages need to choose words carefully so that the connotative meaning
received does not interfere with the intended meaning e.g a male calling women girls could be
interpreted as derogatory in African context while it may be perceived positively in other
cultures.
iii). Transactional process model
 It presents communications a more dynamic process. It accounts for the way we receive and
send information simultaneously when communicating .Human mind as comparable to a
computer processor involved in multitasking hence sending and receiving information at the
same time incorporating the use of double feedback both sender and receiver as
communicator
Communicating is viewed as an on- going process as opposed to static process consisting of
discrete instances of communications. Communicating to somebody you know takes place
within the context of previous communication exchanges, communication does not always
start on a clean slate all the time but in the context of the previous communication
interactions.
It incorporates the relationship dimensions i.e we have certain kinds of relationships with the
people with whom we communicate ranging from working, intimate to impersonal.
Communication is seen as negotiative –meaning is negotiated. Communication involves
negotiation of image or status within a relationship dynamic e.g way we communicate with a
boss will influence his or her understanding of you and vice versa. Negotiation occurs at a
variety of levels-power credibility trust etc.
Transactional model incorporates a rage of other factors that influence communication
namely context. Context-situation or setting within which communication takes place or the
circumstances that surround a particular piece of communication context may be seen as
i) Situational-communication in football pitch is different from church service
ii) Temporal-relates to immediate time frame e.g the time of day and timing of an event
e.g using good timing for a salary increase request.
iii) Historical-this refers to historical placing in time for example we are living at a time
when discriminatory behavior and language are tolerated less. Sexist or gender biased
language are less tolerated today than they were 30 years ago.
iv) Social /culture context-refers to the kind of society and culture within which
communication is occurring.
Communication Process
All Communications have to be originated, produced, transmitted, received and understood. For
this case an idea has to be encoded, transmitted through media, to the recipient who has to
understand in order to decode the message. The success of every communication is a function of
how well the process was adhered to.
ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
For communication to occur there are key ingredients that must be present which are
i) Sender- this is the source of the information, the origin of the information to be
shared who is responsible of conceiving the idea to be shared, put the idea into a form
that the receiver can understand , chooses the medium and the channel to be used to
communicate.
ii) Receiver- This is the destination of the message,the person(s) to whom the message is
intended who is responsible of receiving and interpreting /assigning meaning to the
message received. The person is also responsible of choosing the time, the
channel,medium through which to send feedback. They also send feedback.
(The roles of the sender and the receiver are interchangeable)
iii) Feedback-This refers to signals passed to sender either in written, spoken or signal. A
possible problem could arise from wrongly interpreted feedback by sender or no
feedback at all.
iv) Context- This refers to the surrounding and circumstances or the environment in
which communication is made.
v) The noise- Noise is used to refer to any factors which prevent proper exchange of
information apart from that from the sender or receiver. Noise can be physical
e.g. typewriters or the telephone bells which interrupt meetings, or it can be
some other form of interference. such as bad telephone connections, poor
handwriting in letter, conflicting messages.
vi) Message- The unit of communication, the idea or information to be shared
vii) Medium- the conduit through which the message is pass through as to get from the
sender and the receiver
viii) Channel-
Factor To Consider When Choosing a Channel of Communication
The channel chosen is very important since it will affect the way the receiver will interpret the
message.
The following factors should be considered when choosing a channel of communication:
 1. Cost
- The cost of choosing the medium should be within the reach of the sender.
- It should be affordable.
2. Urgency
- The medium used should deliver the message within the time required by the sender.
Hence very fast mediums should be used to send urgent messages.
3. Confidentiality
Confidential messages should be sent using confidential means that allow secrecy.
4. Reliability
The means chosen should be relied upon to deliver the message to the required person in
the correct context and form, within the required time.
5. Distance
Distance between the sender and receiver .
The means used should be convenient for the distance.
6. Details of the message
Medium used should accommodate all the details of the message.
7. The receiver
The medium should be chosen with the receiver in mind. Hence written communication
can only be used if the receiver is literate while oral methods can be used if receiver has
speech capability.
Communication process
Communication is a process which is sequential in nature and a key determinant of
successful/effective communication and if not well adhered to it results to communication
breakdown or ineffective communication. It comprises of the following stages

i) Message Conceived: In this stage a decision to send message as results of an impulse

thought process or external stimulus arises. The process problem that could arise here
is a process that is affected by the relationship between the sender and the receiver.
Feedback

ii) Message Encoded: The idea conceived is put into a form that the receiver can
understand through the process known as encoding after which an appropriate
“language/ form” is then chosen: it could either be oral, written word, picture or “non-
 verbal” communication. A possible problem at this stage would be that of encoding
message in a wrong “language” tone inappropriate.
iii) Communication Medium Selected: Here an appropriate medium is selected, which
could be, letter, interview, electronic mail, telex. The possible problem area here is
the choice of wrong medium, time wasted, expense incurred, no written record.

iv) Message Interpretation:- The receiver then assigns the meaning to the message
received through a process known as decoding where the underlying and the explicit
meaning are attached by the recipient. The possible problem in this case is a situation
of wrong interpretation either arising from the relationship between sender and
recipient or from subconsciously sent message.

v) The receiver sends feedback to the sender of the message based on their
understanding/ interpretation of the message received. The feedback may take a
different form from which the message was sent (verbal/ non-verbal, written,
graphical) The step informs the sender if their message was understood and if not the
sender adjusts their message accordingly. It this is this step that completes the
process and cycle may repeat itself.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
It is not every attempt to communicate that achieves the desired results or is effective.
Communication is most effective when it moves speedily and smoothly in an interrupted flow.
The free flow may however breakdown due to various physical or technical hindrances.
Hindrances can occur at the level of sender, transmitter or the medium or the receiver.
1. Mechanical barriers.
A communication may not reach properly if the mechanism that carries it breaks down.
Some possible mechanical failures are:
[a] A weak microphone or poor sound spread [acoustics] of the meeting place.
[b] Defective telephone lines.
[c] Electricity /computer breakdown.
[d] Poor printing quality or paper spread of ink, overlap of colours.
[e] Atmospherics on radio or TV, especially in cloudy weather.
 2. Physical barriers.

These may be due to inadequate staff, faulty procedures, inaccuracy in processing and delivery
of communication, loss of documents, fills, and failures of staff to follow the procedures laid
down etc. These could be classified into two:-
i). Noise:- A part from the ordinary noise from loud vehicles or blaring from loud speakers or
telephones noise also refers to all kind of interface like illegible handwriting emerged copies of
duplicate type receipt or telephone connections.
ii) Time and Distance: The distance between a transmitter and receiver is a barrier.
Sometimes gaps occur in communication between people spreading in different shifts. Seating
arrangement in the room can also become barrier to effective communication. For whichever
position the employees may be occupying they want eye contact with each other. Sometimes
background noise, whether in a face-to-face meeting on either end of the telephone, reduces the
audibility of the spoken words. Also, if the listener is too far from the speaker, he may not be
able to hear him, in which the distance is the barrier. Similarly, the time taken for the message to
reach to its destination can become a barrier, e.g. a telegram delivered too late.

3. Psychological barriers.

[a] A person of weak hearing or eyesight cannot always receive the communication in
full.

[b] The age of the listener puts its own limitations on his ability to receive messages.
One may be too young or too old to understand certain things.

[c] A person’s educational level governs his understanding. Some background

Knowledge is required to understand certain things.

[d] There are gender barriers too. Boys and girls in general have their own areas of
 specialization where they understand faster. Boys are more outdoors oriented while
girls tend to take major interest in house work. A boy who is told to do a “girl’s” job
may put a psychological barriers.

[e] A wandering mind cannot fully gather the inputs given to it. While roving is a
natural tendency of the mind and the attention of a listener is limited, there may be
causes of inattention too. These may be visual or audio distractions- gaudy pictures or
songs in the neighborhood.
[f] Ideological loyalties may form a barrier to communication. One may have a
political party membership, a philosophical principle [like hedonism, i.e devotion to
sensory enjoyment], a religious affiliation that have already bound the
way one thinks. Such a person may not be receptive to the ideas counter to his
ideology.
[g] Loyalty to a brand or organization is also a barrier. One who is loyal to one
brand may not be receptive to a rival product’s ad. One may not be receptive to
the ideas counter to his ideology.

[h] Emotional states of a person can act as barriers. If one is in a fit of anger, he
may not listen to reason. He may also find it difficult to communicate soberly
with a person who has not contributed to his anger. There is a spillover effect- the
emotion generated by one transaction spill over into an unrelated transaction.

[i] One’s prejudices acts as an hindrance to reason. A prejudice is a judgment

formed with out proper information. One may have a radical prejudice, a caste
prejudice and so on. This is the opposite of an open mind. A liberal education is
meant to remove irrational notions which stay on as prejudice.

[j] Personality limitations put a barrier, too. These are similar to ideological
barriers, as some personalities are naturally attracted to certain ideologies.
However, personality variations are far too numerous. One’s aspirations,
viewpoints, analyses make one open or closed to certain messages. One bent into a
 job for livelihood may not listen to the advantages of entrepreneurship.

[k] Fixed images about other people stand as barriers to see them on in a new role.
A comedian in as a hero of a firm may not be acceptable to an audience which
sees him typed in comedy roles.

[l] Poor retention power is a barrier. If one fails to take timely notes when
instructions are given, hoping to remember them all, one has perhaps given away a
part of the communication.
4. Semantic and language barriers
Semantic is the study of how words convey meanings. What happens if the speaker/writer
means one thing and the listener/reader takes it in another meaning? The context changes the
meaning of the word. One has to ask, is the word conveyed in its proper context? Words are
indeed so tricky to use that one can hardly ever convey the same thing to all the receivers in
given words. The words generate different meanings in different minds, according to their
previous associations and language levels. Literary texts, created by master writers and ready
by experts critics, are continually open to reinterpretations. Some of these, conflict with each
other.
5. Information overload
Information passed on especially in the age of information that we are in can be too much such
that it poses difficulties in sieving the important from the mass of information. It therefore
appropriate to communicate precisely and only the needed information at a time
6. Restrictive environment.
The flow of information is sometimes so restricted that it becomes a barrier, this is especially
so in the organization has a tall and in flexible organization structure such that by the time tha
massage moves from the top to the bottom and vice versa it may suffer distortion or be
overtaken by time.

Principles/ qualities of effective communication (the C’s of Communication)

Not everything purported to be communication is effective. For effective communication there
are rules and guidelines which differ from one setting to another. They are otherwise known as
qualities of communication or six C’S of communication.
1. Clarity
This is divided into
a. Clarity of thought
b. Clarity of expression
a.Clarity of thought
- This is important when the idea is being generated in the mind of the sender
- At this point, three points should be checked upon:
i. What is the objective of the communication?
- To warn, educate, congratulate
ii. What is to be communicated?
- Example- a song, play, poem
iii. Which medium is appropriate for the purpose of communication?
Examples- letters, photographs, interviews etc
b. Clarity of expression
The following should be considered
i. Avoid jargon
Jargon is a special language of trade, certain profession or field of study e.g medicine,
business, law and only understood and used by people from such fields. It therefore creates a
scenario of difficult understanding to those who are not from that field.
ii. Avoid ambiguity
An ambiguous message is one that contains words that have more than one meaning. This may
encourage misinterpretation of the words.
Example: The word dispense could mean both i) to prepare medicine
ii) to dismiss someone
iii. Use short sentences
Short sentences area easier to comprehend for they are not complex and so not demand
greater concentration as is the case for long ones
iv. Use of simple words
Simple words tend to be more effective for they are easily understood and are interpreted
correctly
Example: Use of the word ‘before’ instead of ‘prior to’.

v. Use of concrete expression

Concrete expressions create visual images that are easy to register and remember. This can be
achieved by avoiding being too general or vague in your expressions.
Example: you can say, that toy is cheap for it costs Two hundred shillingsh / instead of plainly
saying ‘that toy is cheap’.

2. Conciseness
One should be straight to the point. The words and phrases chosen should give the intended
message in its intended context in the most exact meaning. The flow of words and language
should bring the receiver as close as possible to the meaning and as little room as possible
should be left to the receiver for interpretation
Be as brief as possible but not at the expense of clarity, correctness or courtesy
How to achieve conciseness
i. Avoid repetition
Example: Me, I am thanking you-…………..”
ii. Include only relevant facts and details
iii.Organize you message well e.g it should hold together.
iv. Avoid wordy expressions, figures of speech and ambiguous words.

3. Consideration
In your message, you should always show consideration for the reader or listener. This can be
done in the following ways.
a. Impact integrity to your message.
- Ethical principles of sincerity and fair treatment should be observed.
b. Emphasize positive and pleasant statement
- in case where one has to send a message of regret, use positive and pleasant words.
e.g ‘Thank you for your application for a course in Micro- Finance; you are however advised that
the commencement date is July nest year….”

4. Courtesy
This calls for a considerate and friendly attitude towards the other , the receiver. The following
points may assist in promoting courtesy.
i. Answer the letters promptly or respond to the message promptly.
ii. Omit negative expressions such as ‘ we regret’ instead use friendly statements.
iii.Apologize sincerely for an omission and thank generously for any favour done.
5.Completeness
Complete presentation of facts and details in any business communication.
- Incomplete communication leads to ineffectiveness of the action to be taken,
irrelevancy, misinterpretation and misunderstanding of the message. This is because it
leaves a number of questions unanswered.
- The message should be organized in such a way that the reader/ listener is not in
doubt about the details contained in it.
- Include all relevant details when sending a message
- Check on the 5w.s - why? What? Where? Who? When?
6. Correctness
This simply means:
- Giving correct facts / statement/ arguments etc.
- Sending the message at the correct time.
Send the message in the correct style/ medium/ channel

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Give a brief explanation of the term Communication.
2. With the help of a diagram describe the process of communication.
3. Senders of messages have an intended meaning of their message, however, rarely are the
messages received/interpreted as intended. Justify this assertion
4. Communicate as members of an organization or perish. Discuss
5. Students fail in their exams many times because of their in ability to use the Cs of
communication. Using practical examples in sentences prove the correctness of this
assertion?