TOPIC 1: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

Introduction
The word communication has it origin in the Latin word 'communis' that means 'to make
common'. Communication facilitates sharing of common experiences with others. It
involves sharing of an idea, thought, feeling or information with others, which includes
thinking, dreaming, speaking, arguing and so on. Thus the scope of communication is
very wide. Communication is part skill, part art and part science. It is a skill as it involves
certain fundamental techniques, it is an art as it involves creative challenges, and it is
science because certain verifiable principles are involved in making communication more
effective. All this makes communication a complex process.

Definitions
Different scholars have defined communication in various ways. Some of them describe
it as 'the transfer of meaning', 'transmission of stimuli', 'one mind affecting other' or
'sharing of experiences on the basis of commonness'.

Communication is not a static act but a dynamic process, which is continuous in nature
and vital for teaching and learning. It involves the usage of a channel. This channel could
be signs, symbols or verbal/written language. For communication to be complete and
effective it has to achieve the desired objectives as intended by the communicator. For
example, in a classroom situation, the teacher has to make special efforts to convey the
message to the learners. S/he has to clearly define the objectives of the lesson and the
message has to be conveyed with the help of appropriate oral and written signs, symbols
and body language. Only when the meaning has been understood by the learners and in
the same idiom as intended by the teacher, we can say that the communication has been
successful. Thus, communication can be defined as a process of sharing or exchange of
ideas, information, knowledge, attitudes or feelings among two or more persons through
certain signs and symbols leading to a desired response as intended by the communicator.

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Even our behaviour can communicate messages. For instance warmth towards some one
or indifference can be conveyed even without speech or written messages just through
gestures, facial expressions and body language.
Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which
participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share
meaning. Communication is a key element involved in teaching process.

In the classroom context:

Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and nonverbal messages in classroom
by teacher to student and vice versa.

It is also the transmission of a message from a sender (teacher) to a receiver (student) in

an understandable manner.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication performs many functions, such as informing and generating awareness,
educating, persuading, motivating, entertaining, etc. Let us examine some of these
functions:
1. Sharing of Information: Information is key to progress in any society.
Communication plays an important role in information dissemination related to any form
of human activity, such as social, political, economic, educational and developmental.
Regular exposure to information over a period of time generates awareness on a given
issue, problem or matter of concern.
2. Education and Training: Communication results in sharing of information, which in
turn makes people knowledgeable and thus productive members of the society. Right
from our childhood we are taught by our teachers in the school and elders at home and
we thus gain various new concepts and skills as we grow up. However, we do not cease
to learn when we grow up as we continue to learn throughout our lives. In the modern
educational scenario, training of personnel is an ongoing process and communication
plays an important role in orientation and training of teachers and learners. The degree of
learning depends to a great extent not only on the contents of training but also how
effectively the information and skills are shared.
3. Socialization: For the well being of the society, nation and culture it is crucial that we
are exposed to different view points so that we understand and appreciate the need for

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plurality of ideas and diversity of views. Communication fosters the feeling of oneness in
a society by exposing the various social groups to different views. It develops the need to
share and understand the feelings, emotions, hopes, aspirations and expectations of varied
groups in a social system.
4. Entertainment: To break the monotony of human life, we need to be exposed to art,
literature, music, films, dance, drama, sports and other modes of entertainment.
Communication provides us with this necessary diversion. Thus entertainment is an
equally important function of communication.
5. Motivation: A motivated individual plays a useful and active role in a society.
Communication motivates and persuades individuals to meet the mutually agreed upon
goals.
6. Persuasion: Yet another important function of communication is to persuade. This
may be to influence us towards a new idea, technique or a product and also to persuade us
to buy these products.
7. Preservation of culture: Communication helps to preserve the culture and heritage of
a nation and society. Through communication, stories from the epics, Bible, Koran, etc.
are shared with the younger generation. The transmission of values from one generation
to another has been taking place orally as well as through written texts, over the ages. In
the modern world different mass communication media have taken up this function.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication has been broadly categorized into the following four types:

● Intrapersonal communication

● Interpersonal communication

● Group communication

● Mass communication.

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a) Intrapersonal Communication

The word 'intra' denotes 'within'. When we communicate within ourselves, it is

intrapersonal communication. This can take the form of thinking, analyzing, dreaming or
introspecting. Day dreaming self-talk and memories are all facets of intrapersonal
communication.

Intrapersonal communication is a kind of internal dialogue that takes place within an

individual while contemplating, conceptualizing and formulating our thoughts or ideas
before we actually express them. Due to individual differences, the levels of intrapersonal
communication may vary from one person to another. Writers, thinkers and philosophers
generally devote more time to intrapersonal communication.

b) Interpersonal Communication
When two persons communicate with each other, the communication is interpersonal.
Our everyday exchanges, formal or informal, which may take place anywhere, come
under this type of communication. There is certain amount of proximity between the
sender and the receiver who may be able to see each other closely, watch the facial
expressions, postures, gestures, body language etc. or may make them out from the tone
and expressions when they communicate without seeing each other, for instance over
telephone. In interpersonal communication, the roles of the sender and receiver become
interchangeable. There are many sensory channels used and feedback is immediate. It
allows you to clarify your views, persuade or motivate another person more effectively
than any other mode of communication.

c) Group Communication
As the name suggests, when people communicate in group situations, this is known as
group communication. This is an extension of interpersonal communication where more
than two individuals are involved in the process of communication. The groups can be
both formal as well as informal depending on the type and objectives of communication
but generally they have common interests and goals.

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Group communication is useful in taking collective decision on a problem, an issue or a
matter of common interest. Depending on the quality of group members and leaders,
effective decisions can be made incorporating divergent point of views. However, this is
not free from limitations. All members of a group may not be able to freely participate in
deliberations, as some may be dominant speakers while others too shy or reluctant to
express themselves thus affecting a free flow of communication. All these factors have
greater implications in group communication. Classroom communication also falls under
group communication in which these factors play an important role

d) Mass Communication
This type of communication is different from all the three types discussed so far. In mass
communication, the communicator is separated from the audience in terms of time and
place. Communication takes place simultaneously with the help of an electronic device,
in which an institution is involved. These electronic devices are known as mass media
such as print, radio, television, the internet, etc. The audience is 'mass' i.e. it has a
heterogeneous profile, are unknown to each other and located in widespread locations.
Feedback in mass communication is considered to be weak and delayed as compared to
group and interpersonal communication.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

The common process of communication is made up of 4 key components:

a) Sender
b) Message/content
c) Receiver
d) Feedback
Also
e) Medium
f) Context

The communication process is a guide towards realizing effective communication.

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The Main Components of the Communication Process

Sender/ Encoder
The source of communication is the sender who has a message to impart. This is the
person who sends out a message in a communication process. The message may be
inform of symbols, words, graphics, visual aids etc. The sender has to decide how to
communicate a message, which channel is to be selected for the message and what type
of strategies should be planned so that the message makes the desired response. The
sender provides verbal or non-verbal cues that can be received, interpreted and responded
to by the receiver.

Message
Message is a set of signs and symbols which are given by the source to create meanings
for the receiver. Message is the content which is shared between the participants in the
communication process. To make the message effective, the sender has to understand the
nature and profile of the receiver of the message, his/her needs and expectations and
possible response to the message. This is important in both face-to-face as well as
mediated situations.

Channel
Channel is the medium used to communicate a message from the sender to receiver. The
channel could be spoken word, printed word, electronic media, or even non-verbal cues
such as signs, gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc. In modern communication
parlance, the word 'channel' mostly refers to mass communication media such as
newspapers, radio, television, telephone, computers, internet etc. The selection of an
appropriate channel is crucial for the success of communication.

● The sender must choose an appropriate media for transmitting the message

otherwise the message may not be conveyed effectively.

● The choice of the message media appropriately is essential for making the

message effective and allows the recipients to correctly interpret the message.

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 ● The choice of a media depends on the features of the message being

communicated. i.e
- The written medium is best to convey messages to literate people.
- A visual medium is best choice to communicate to an illiterate population.
- Oral medium is best used when spontaneous feedback is required from the
recipients.

Receiver
Communication cannot take place without a receiver for whom the message is meant. We
receive a message, interpret it and derive meaning from it. For successful
communication, the receiver should receive the message in the same way it was meant by
the sender. In interpersonal communication, the receiver shares a close relationship with
the sender which gradually gets diluted in group and mass communication.

The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent on a number of
factors:
- Psychological state of the decoder.
- Previous knowledge the recipient had about the message at hand.
- Responsiveness of the receiver to the medium used to convey the message.
- Relationship the recipient has with the sender.

Feedback
The response given by the receiver to the message of the sender is known as feedback.
Communication being a two-way process, without the element of feedback any
discussion on the process of communication is incomplete. The element of feedback gets
gradually diluted when the number of participants in communication activity increases.

Noise
Noise is distortion in a message which affects the flow of communication. Noise could be
due to internal as well as external sources. Noise creates barriers in communication and it
could be of many types.

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Context
Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. The context may be
physical, social, cultural etc. The sender chooses messages within a given context.

TOPIC 2: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Effective communication depends on media and mode of communication used.
When teachers communicate effectively, they use a variety of media to stimulate pupils
to achieve the lesson objectives.
There are 2 skills that a teacher should nurture to communicate effectively:

● The skill of transmission

Ensure that your transmission channel is clear.

Understand your audience i.e learners, colleagues, parents.

● The skill of reception

This calls for the teacher to reflect on their teaching.

How is the message received?
Listen to yourself as you communicate, are you making sense to yourself?
Occasionally, invite a partner to listen to you as you communicate, they will give you
useful feedback on how your message was received.

Strategies/Principles for Effective Communication

Clarity of message
In any type of communication, it is important that the objective of communication is well
defined; the level of language is kept simple, brief and clear. It has been found that most
of the complex ideas can be presented simply. Short and simple sentences can express an
idea completely, coherently and cogently. Too many conjunctions make a sentence
complex and difficult to understand. Proper phrasing, punctuation, emphasis, voice
modulation facilitates clarity of message and increases the impact of communication.

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Reinforcement of ideas
For clarity of the message, an element of redundancy needs to be introduced. Difficult or
technical words and expressions need to be substituted with simpler expressions and
words of everyday usage. However, care needs to be taken to see that the message does
not become repetitive and boring. The level of audience needs to be constantly kept in
mind.

Appropriate channel
Depending upon the type and objective of communication, selection of appropriate
channel is crucial for the success of communication. The use of technology also helps to
overcome geographical barriers. However, for selecting a particular channel, especially
the more expensive one, some questions need to be constantly asked such as why this
channel? Is there any specific need? Will it help to meet the objective of
communication? Is it possible to avoid unnecessary investment? and so on. Many a time,
a simple channel may convey a message more effectively as compared to the more
glamorous ones.

Motivation
Motivation also helps to remove some of the barriers, especially psychological and socio-
cultural barriers. The receivers in the communication process need to be encouraged to
express their views, opinions and doubts. They need to be drawn into the interactive
process by persuading them to pose questions. Appreciation of their (receivers) views
increases their self-esteem and builds confidence.

Proper environment
Proper seating arrangements, visibility of the source and relatively comfortable
environment facilitate communication. This is especially conducive in overcoming some
of the physical barriers discussed above.

Feedback

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Feedback is an integral component of any communication activity. Regular feedback at
appropriate levels facilitates understanding of the needs and views of the receiver/s. It
helps to bridge the gaps, if any, in the communication approach and improves the process
of communication.
Completeness
The message should be delivered completely for it to be understood.
Objectiveness
An effective communication targets specific skills of message.
Understanding of the recipient
Communication is effective when the sender understands the recipient and puts himself in
their perspective.
Consistency- effective communication is consistent.
Time- should be time conscious.

BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION

We have referred to the term 'Noise' while discussing the models and elements of
communication in the previous sections. Barrier or Noise is a term used to express any
interference in communication between source and receiver. A successful communication
is the one in which the message is conveyed undiminished with least distortion. However,
it is not always possible as a number of barriers make the process of communication
complex. Some of these barriers could be physical, psychological, cultural, linguistic
(semantic), technical or due to information overload.

Physical barriers: If the source is not visible to the receiver and s/he is not comfortable
in the environment, it may create barriers in communication. Geographical distance may
also create barriers, as people may like to communicate with one another but due to
physical distances may not be able to do so. For example, people may be interested to
communicate with an expert in a particular area who is not available in other
areas/regions as there is physical barrier.
- Voice projection etc

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Psychological barriers: Due to individual differences, attitudes, interest and motivation
levels, we perceive things and situations differently. Apart from this, the varied levels of
anxiety, inherent prejudices and previous experiences also create barriers in
communication. Studies have revealed that due to the process of selective perception,
selective recall and selective retention, we perceive, retain as well as recall a message
selectively thus creating barriers in communication.

In the classroom, a student with personal problems or stressed may be pre-occupied with
their personal concerns and thus may not receive the message.

An angry learner or one who is greatly intimidated may not be receptive to the message
being passed.

Physiological barriers
Physiology of the body i.e physically unwell hence not able to learn, hearing or sight
impairment, physical challenges hence unable to take part in processes involving physical
movements.

Socio-cultural barriers: In communication process, socio-cultural barriers also operate.

Some issues may be perceived as personal and not fit for discussion outside the realm of
family, thus creating barriers. Some societies are less vocal which may affect their level
of communication with those from other cultures who are more vocal or aggressive in
behaviour.

Linguistic barriers: During the process of communication, faulty expressions, poor

translation, verbosity, ambiguous words and inappropriate vocabulary create barriers.
Moreover, words and symbols used to communicate facts and information may mean
different things to different persons. This is due to the fact that meanings are in the minds
of people who perceive and interpret meanings in different ways according to their
individual frame of mind.

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Technical barriers: While using technology, technical barriers also make the process of
communication complex. When audio quality is poor or video signals are weak, the
message may not clearly reach the target group. Erratic power supply also creates barriers
in communication.

Barriers due to information load: At times too much information is imparted which we
may not able to comprehend and assimilate, thus creating a barrier in communication.
Hence, great care needs to be taken while deciding the amount of information in a
communication transaction.

Systematic barriers
They exist in the structures and organization of an institution. i.e inefficient and
inappropriate channels of communication thus total communication breakdown.
- Lack of the understanding of the roles and responsibilities of the people
communicating.

Attitudinal barriers
Are perceptions or behaviors that prevent people from communicating effectively. i.e due
to:
- personality conflict
- poor management of learners
- learners resisting change
- lack of motivation of learners
- tribal conflicts in the communication

Environmental barriers
Lack of comfortable learning environment e.g
Lighting (too bright, dim)
Mode of dressing
Environment

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Noise

Wrong choice of media

When wrong channel is chosen, communication is hindered.

TOPIC 3: VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication
It is a process of sending out a message by spoken words. In the class situation, it is an
exchange of information through spoken words between you and student or other
members you are in contact with.

Non-verbal communication
It is a process where we communicate through signs, gestures, posture and body
movements.

Verbal and non-verbal modes of communication are used concurrently when you teach
your students.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

● Speaking is a procedural aspect of transmitting information from a source like a

teacher or any speaker and its reception and interpretation by the person receiving
the message.

● This kind of communication is called inter-personal communication process.

● Today this mode of communication is supplemented by the media system of

teaching and learning i.e. Tv, Radio, Tape recorder etc.

● Non-verbal communication both supports both interpersonal and mediated

communication.

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Verbal communication falls into the following features
a) The Process Feature
Communication is an unending process. Communication between people keeps on
changing. It may have no touchable beginning, middle or end.
- In class situation, as soon as you enter even before saying a word your:

● Facial expression say something

● Your mode of dressing speaks for you

● Your attitude towards your class

● Your attitude of the subject

b) Transactional Feature
This is where individuals modify their behaviour according to the kinds of
messages they receive.
- When you get annoyed you naturally modify your behavior and so the way you
laugh, when you become aggrieved or when you are discouraged tells a lot about
you.
- The content information you impart to your class depends on:

● The way you deliver

● Resources used

● Tone of delivery; may enhance the way the content is understood.

- The feedback you receive from your students/audience helps you to adjust and
accommodate yourself with ongoing teaching process.

c) Symbolic Feature

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This is the use of words as symbols representing people, places and feelings. The
teacher's ability to abstract and symbolize knowledge makes the teacher attain tangible
means of relating to the learners. And using the same kind of symbol, the students are
able to tell their teacher how much they have learnt from a given lesson.

d) Multi-dimensional Features

This entails of three aspects namely:

(i) Cultural level- all cultures have different ways of communicating whether it
be language change or social norms. The teacher should be aware of the
cultural background of the learners.

(ii) Sociological level- This are the organizations in the communities such as
religious groups, economic development groups and peer groups. The teacher
should know the groups and organizations that the learners identify with.

(iii) Psychological dimension-The teacher should consider each learner as a

unique identity although they may be in a group and know how to deal with
each learner.

Verbal language enables the teacher to monitor and control the flow of information in the
classroom. It also enables the teacher to define to his learners the relevance and
importance of the information, what the information contains and for this matter it is
therefore important for the teachers language to be related to the students’ experiences
and their level.

The teacher should make every effort to make his/her language clear all the time,
precisely when new ideas and concepts are being studied.

To the learners, oral language is the tool for learning. It enables them to listen actively
and passively and understand their teacher and the topic under discussion. It also enables
them to learn by verbalizing, talking, discussing and arguing because language is the
means of expressing their experiences and feelings.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

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People use body language, postures, facial expressions, eye contacts and boy gestures to
send and receive messages.

Non-verbal communication may include:

- Body odor
- Body motions
- Characteristics of appearances
- Use of space and distance
- Characteristics of voice etc

Some authorities consider nonverbal signals to be even more important than words. In
experiments testing the communication of feelings (such as approval or disapproval of
another individual), psychologist Albert Mehrabian found that body movements and
tone of voice conveyed 93 percent of a message. The actual words conveyed only 7
percent.

Birdwhistell (1972) observed that in communication situation, 35% of the message is

carried verbally while 65% is conveyed non-verbally.

Forms of Non-verbal Communication

Paralanguage- The way in which a message is spoken is often as important as what is

said. Paralanguage describes the vocal qualities, such as tone, inflection, volume,
emphasis, and pitch, of a spoken message. Although the words are the same, the
receiver perceives different messages when voice emphasis changes. Paralanguage
often reveals the emotions, conscious and unconscious, underlying our words. Dynamic
speakers and successful business leaders capitalize on paralanguage to reinforce their
words. Because their voice patterns complement their words, they avoid sending
conflicting messages.

Kinesics— How the Body Communicates. Body Language, the bestselling book by
Julius Fast, popularized the concept of nonverbal communication. It would be

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inaccurate, however, to suggest that specific positions and movements are infallible
indicators of underlying motivation. Such simplicity, of course, belies reality. Although
we may not be able to catalog every body movement and indicate its hidden meaning,
we should be aware that facial expression, eye contact, posture, and gestures exert a
significant effect on viewer perception.

Facial Expression- Experts estimate that we can make and recognize nearly 250,000
distinct facial expressions. The most common expressions are interest, enjoyment,
surprise, distress, shame, contempt, anger, and fear. In conversations, facial expressions
are a principal source of feedback. Alert communicators display and interpret facial
expressions accurately; they modify their messages to produce the effect they intend.
For example, the appearance of frowns, yawns, or smirks on the faces of listeners in the
audience should signal one to alter his presentation because he's not obtaining his
desired result.

Eye Contact- Often described as the "windows of the soul," eyes are the most
expressive element in face-to-face communication. Among North Americans,
individuals who maintain direct eye contact are usually considered to be open, honest,
and trustworthy. "Shifty" eyes suggest dishonesty; and a downward gaze may be
interpreted as a sign of submission, inferiority, or humility. In this culture it's difficult
to have confidence in a speaker who is unable to "look you in the eye." It must be
remembered, of course, that the interpretation of much nonverbal communication is
culture dependent.

Posture - The way you stand and hold your body also sends messages about your self
confidence. Stooped or bowed shoulders may signal that you are burdened, self
conscious, lacking confidence, submissive, beaten, guilty, or afraid. A straight back
with squared shoulders typifies strength and responsibility. Hunched shoulders suggest
anxiety or weariness.

Gestures- Some hand gestures are recognized and easily interpreted. For most North
Americans a circle formed with the index finger and thumb signals satisfaction, shaking

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the index finger indicates a warning, and showing the palm symbolizes a peaceful
greeting. Other gestures are not so easily translated. Do crossed arms mean "I will not
let you in"? Does rubbing the nose with a finger represent disapproval? Does patting
the hair mean approval? Does forming a "steeple" with the fingertips indicate
superiority? The interpretation of these gestures and others depends greatly on the
situation and also on the culture.

Image—How Appearances Influence Communication. The image an individual

projects and the objects surrounding that person can communicate nonverbally.
Clothing, for example, tells a great deal about an individual's status, occupation,
selfimage, and aspirations. Appearances definitely affect perceptions. In addition to
clothing, a person's possessions and ornaments send messages.

Proxemics—How Space Influences Communication. Proxemics refers to the amount

of space that individuals naturally maintain between each other. Sociologists report
four territorial zones: intimate space, personal space, social space, and public space.
When our territorial space is invaded, we resent and resist the intrusion. Business
conversations may take place in personal or social space, but never in intimate space.
Meetings are usually conducted in public space. Although effective communicators
probably could not name these four zones, they instinctively understand and observe
spatial requirements.

Manipulation of space illustrates another form of nonverbal communication. The

arrangement of furniture in an office, for example, communicates a variety of
information about the occupant. Richard Snyder, human resources director, places a
visitor's chair close to his desk, suggesting that he is open, approachable, and genuinely
interested in getting to know his visitors personally. On the other hand, Victoria Santos,
branch manager, places visitors' chairs across the room from her desk and keeps a
coffee table in front of the chairs. The nonverbal message is that she is distant, aloof,
and uninterested in visitors.

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Haptics- Think of how touch has the power to comfort someone in moment of sorrow
when words alone cannot. This positive power of touch is countered by the potential
for touch to be threatening because of its connection to sex and violence. To learn
about the power of touch, we turn to haptics, which refers to the study of
communication by touch. We probably get more explicit advice and instruction on how
to use touch than any other form of nonverbal communication. A lack of nonverbal
communication competence related to touch could have negative interpersonal
consequences; for example, if we don’t follow the advice we’ve been given about the
importance of a firm handshake, a person might make negative judgments about our
confidence or credibility. A lack of competence could have more dire negative
consequences, including legal punishment, if we touch someone inappropriately
(intentionally or unintentionally). Touch is necessary for human social development,
and it can be welcoming, threatening, or persuasive.

There are several types of touch, including functional-professional, social-polite,

friendship-warmth, love-intimacy, and sexual-arousal touch. A handshake, a pat on the
arm, and a pat on the shoulder are examples of social-polite touching. A handshake is
actually an abbreviated hand-holding gesture, but we know that prolonged hand-
holding would be considered too intimate and therefore inappropriate at the functional-
professional or social-polite level. At the functional-professional and social-polite
levels, touch still has interpersonal implications. The touch, although professional and
not intimate, between hair stylist and client, or between nurse and patient, has the
potential to be therapeutic and comforting. In addition, a social-polite touch exchange
plays into initial impression formation, which can have important implications for how
an interaction and a relationship unfold.

Vocalics- We learned earlier that paralanguage refers to the vocalized but nonverbal
parts of a message. Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal
qualities that go along with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality,
and verbal.

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Pitch helps convey meaning, regulate conversational flow, and communicate the intensity
of a message. Even babies recognize a sentence with a higher pitched ending as a
question. We also learn that greetings have a rising emphasis and farewells have falling
emphasis. Of course, no one ever tells us these things explicitly; we learn them through
observation and practice. We do not pick up on some more subtle and/or complex
patterns of paralanguage involving pitch until we are older. Children, for example, have a
difficult time perceiving sarcasm, which is usually conveyed through paralinguistic
characteristics like pitch and tone rather than the actual words being spoken. Adults with
lower than average intelligence and children have difficulty reading sarcasm in another
person’s voice and instead may interpret literally what they say.

PROXEMICS

There are at least four main distances that are used during educational and social
relationships. They include:

Intimate Distance (0 to 18 inches)

This is a distance where a person is kept at an arm’s distance during a conversation

Personal Distance (18 inches to 4feet)

This is the normal distance between acquaintances or business relations. This is a person
known slightly but not a close friend. This is used by people who trust each other e.g.
family and friends. Making of faces, gesturing, shaking hands can easily be done in this
zone.

Social Distance (4 to 10 feet)

This provides the most comfortable distance to begin a conversation for people who are
not very familiar with each other e.g. strangers. Newly enrolled students would use this
zone when interacting with a teacher. After knowing the teacher more, they become more
confiding with him/her. It is a recommended distance zone during teaching learning

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process or situation which can involve sitting/ standing positions. The teacher may be
standing as he/she teaches or the reverse can also happen.

Public Distance (10 feet to infinity)

This is the distance used by teachers or public figures to establish space or barrier
between themselves and the audience. e.g A teacher in a lecture hall. Sometimes the
students might feel one is aloof or cold most especially when there are many students.
This is because the teacher stands in a podium indicating dominance. The audience also
doesn’t feel intimidated by the speaker. People don’t feel jittery when observed from this
distance. Shy students are usually more relaxed when they are amidst the general school
population in a school hall.

VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL RELATIONSHIPS

There are various dimensions in the verbal and non-verbal relationship

a) Substitution relationship

This is where a nonverbal cue is used in place of worded statements. i.e when I am
busy working on something, a student might approach me and ask for permission to
go to the bathrooms so I just nod to signify ‘permission granted’. I find it an efficient
and quick way of multi-tasking and handling distractions.

b) Complementing relationship

This is where nonverbal is used to elaborate or reinforce the verbal message being
sent. Asking students to give a clap for one their mate who has given a good answer
to a particularly tough question would fall in this relationship. Body language can
also repeat what is said verbally i.e. when you point in the direction/when instructing
on the direction one has to take.

c) Conflict relationship

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 The physical movement may sometimes conflict the verbal message. For instance, a
student may approach a teacher to ask a question but the teacher just look at the watch
and walks away. Or the teacher may oblige with a yes, but instead of paying attention,
he may go ahead putting away his teaching resources and packing his bags.

When actions conflict with verbal messages, people tend to rely on non-verbal
messages.

d) Accenting relationship

This is where non-verbal activities lay emphasis or stress parts of the verbal message.
For example, a teacher may instruct students to run and at the same time tell them to
keep quiet by showing a ‘shss’ sound with one finger on his mouth.

TOPIC 3: COMMUNICATION THEORIES AND MODELS

So far we have discussed the concept and different types of communication. Now let us
examine some popular models of communication which help us in understanding the
process of communication. Like the nature and concept of communication, models of
communication have also been the subject of a vast amount of research. No single theory
or model has found a general acceptance.

Before discussing the models of communication, let us first understand what the term
'model' means. A model is a graphic representation designed to explain the way a variable
works. It is a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show the structure
or workings of an object, system, or concept. A model of communication offers a
convenient way to think about it by providing a graphical checklist of its various
elements. Some of the important models discussed in this section highlight the
complexities of the process of communication.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle looked at communication from the rhetorical perspective
i.e. speaking to the masses to influence them and thus persuade them. Aristotle
constructed a model with three elements: Speaker-Speech-Audience in which the basic

22
function of communication was to persuade the other party. This is accepted by many as
the first model of communication. Thereafter in the twentieth century many more models
came up. In the latter part of the century, the concept of communication changed due to
the advent of various mass communication media such as newspapers, radio, and
television. During the First and Second World Wars, communication was also used for
propaganda and it was perceived as a magic bullet that transferred ideas and knowledge
automatically from one mind to another. However, this was later found to be a very
simplistic model which showed communication as a linear one-way flow of
communication. Sociologists, political scientists and psychologists who joined the debate
around this time argued that communication was a complex process which was dynamic
and two-way in nature.

Some important models of communication are Lasswell Model, Shanon and Weaver
Model, Osgoods Model and Schramm Model. Let us now discuss these models.

Lasswell Model (1948) : One of the early models of communication was developed by
the political scientist Harold D. Lasswell who looked at communication in the form of a
question:
Who
Says What
In Which Channel
To Whom
With What Effect

This verbal model focussed attention on the essential elements of communication and
identified the areas of communication research. 'Who' raises the question of
identification of the source of the message. 'Says what ' is the subject of analysis of the
message. Communication channel is the medium through which the message has
traveled. 'To whom’ deals with the characteristics of the receivers and audience and 'what
effect' can be seen as evaluation of the effect of the message. These essentially comprise
the basic components of communication. This model implied that more than one channel

23
could carry a message. It was considered an oversimplified model which implied the
presence of a communicator and a purposive message.

Shannon and Weaver Model (1949): This model (Figure 1) of Claude Shannon and
Warren Weaver has been considered as one of the most important models of
communication and it has led to the development of many other models. It is referred to
as the transmission model of communication as it involves signal transmission for
communication.

Infor Transmitte Receiver Destinati

matio r
Channel on
Message Tr Transmitted signal Received Message
n
Sour Signal
Nois
e
Figure1 Shannon and Weaver Model Sour

In this model, the information source produces a message to be communicated out of a

set of possible messages. The message may consist of spoken or written word. The
transmitter converts the message into a signal suitable for the channel to be used. The
channel is the medium that transmits the signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The
receiver performs the inverse operation of the transmitter by reconstructing the message
from the signal. The destination is the person or thing for whom/which the message is
intended.
This model introduced the concepts like 'noise' i.e. disturbances or errors in
transmission, problems in accepting the signal (message), etc. and the need for
maintaining necessary balance between 'entropy', which means the degree of uncertainty
and 'redundancy', which refers to the uniqueness of the information. This implied that for
effective communication the greater the noise in communication, the greater is the need
for building redundancy i.e. repetition of the message which reduces the relative entropy
or in other words, the uncertainty about the message. This model was criticised for
being based on the hardware aspect developed for engineering problems and not for

24
human communication. Another criticism was that it did not take the element of feedback
into account.

Charles Osgood's Model (1954)

Osgood in his model (Figure 2) showed communication, as a dynamic process in which
there is an interactive relationship between the source and the receiver of the message
(M). An individual engaged in the communication process sends as well as receives
messages and as such encodes, decodes and interprets messages through a number of
feedback mechanisms.

Encode
r
M Decode
Interpre e r
ter Source Receiver
Interpre
ter

M-message

Figure 2 Charles Osgood's Model

Osgood stressed the social nature of communication. This model was found more
applicable in interpersonal communication in which the source and receiver were
physically present. For example when a teacher teaches, the learners interact by raising
queries, answering questions, etc. The role of interpretation of the message has also been
highlighted in this model for decoding a message .

Schramm Model (1954): Wilbur Schramm, a well-known communication expert did not
make a sharp distinction between technical and non-technical communication. But
drawing upon the ideas of Shannon and Osgoods, Schramm proceeded from a simple

25
human communication model to a more complicated one (Figure 3). His first model has a
lot of similarity with Shannon and Weaver Model.

Source
Encoder Sign Decoder
Destination
al

Figure 3 Schramm Model

In the second model (Figure, 4, Schramm visualized the process of communication as a

process of sharing of experience and commonality of experience of those communicating.
It introduced the concept of shared orientation between sender and receiver.
The circles in this model indicate the accumulated experience of two individuals engaged
in communication. The source can encode and the destination can decode in terms of the
experience.

Figure 4 Schramm Model

In this model the accumulated experience of two individuals engaged .in communication
is emphasized unlike in the linear models discussed earlier in which interaction, feedback
and sharing of experiences find no place. . The source can encode and the destination can
decode in terms of the experience/s each has had. Communication becomes easy as both
the participants have a common field of experience. If the circles do not meet there is an
absence of such common experience which makes the process of communication
difficult.

Schramm further elaborated his model by highlighting the frames of reference of the
persons engaged in communication. He took into account the wider social situations and
the relationships of both source and destination. He maintained that when both have the
same kind of situations, the message is selected, received, and interpreted according to
the frames of references in which noise and feedback play important roles. He also
included the idea of feedback by expressing that communication is reciprocal, two-way,

26
even though the feedback may be delayed. The weakness of this model is that it is a less
linear model, but it still holds good for bilateral communication. The complex, multiple
levels of communication among several sources that may take place simultaneously, say
in a group discussion, is not accounted for.

The linear models of communication held that a message flows only from the sources to
the recipient as for instance from a radio to a listener. Later on the interactive model was
developed which takes into account bilateral communication. Then the transactional
model of communication was developed. It includes the components of linear model as
well as the interactive ones. It emphasizes both the content, i.e. what is being
communicated and also includes the component of relationship of the source and the
recipient.
Example: A teacher and learners will interact more if the content taught is based upon
the experience of the learners and also if the teacher is friendly and has a good
relationship with the learners, there will be more interactions.

TOPIC 4: INTRODUCTION TO A WIDE RANGE OF MEDIA FOR TEACHING

AND LEARNING

Educational Technology

It is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of
teaching and learning in terms of specific objectives (instructional objectives). At the
same time it can employ a combination of human and technical resources to bring about
more effective instruction.

According to specialists, educational technology can be explained by looking at the two

major components of the concept “technology in education” and “technology of
education”.

Technology in Education
By the term “technology in education” is meant application of machines, gadgets or
equipment to improve the quality of education. This aspect is described as the “hardware”
approach to educational technology. It involves the use of pieces of instructional

27
materials (media) such as audio media, visual media, projected media, graphics,
computers and other teaching machines. It is important to note that hardware/machines
are means through which information are extracted from their corresponding software.

Technology of Education
The term “technology of education” refers to application of theories and laws/rules in
education and related disciplines for the purpose of improving the quality of education.
Such related disciplines include: sociology/sociology of education,
philosophy/philosophy of education, psychology/psychology of education,
communication, technology, etc. Technology of education is a component of educational
technology that is involved in the use of systems approach to promote high quality
education. Furthermore, this aspect of educational technology is concerned with the use
of systematic and scientific procedures in educational practice. Simply put, technology of
education refers to the application of the systems approach to educational enterprise. Its
main concerns include issues bothering on identification of educational problem,
analyzing the problem, setting objectives, suggesting solution strategies, synthesizing the
processes, embarking on evaluation and providing feedback.

At this junction, it is to be noted that a combination of the meaning of technology in

education and technology of education will provide a fairly acceptable/description of
educational technology.

MEDIA
The term media merely refers to a collection of materials and equipment that can be used
effectively for communication. They include non-projected and projected; hardware and
software; print and non-print. Also, media can be seen as channels through which
messages, information, ideas and knowledge are disseminated (Abimbade, 1997).

A medium is any person, material, equipment or an event that establishes conditions

which enable learners acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes.

28
Instructional media deals with all equipment and material used in the teaching and
learning process.

Justification of Using Instructional Media

Educational psychologists may take that every person learns by receiving information
through the sense organs and there is a relationship between the quantity of information
one remembers and the sense organs used.

Learning theorists agree that learning takes place but differs on how it takes place.

Advantages of Instructional Media

● Compensate for lack of learners’ actual experiences. Learners have different

backgrounds.

● Compensates where realia are unavailable i.e too small or too big. Eg use of

microscope to see bacteria, virus etc.

● Creates direct interaction between the learners and their environment.

● Enhances observational skills.

● Makes concrete concepts real in teaching.

● Learners’ motivation is aroused by use of media in learning.

● Provides access to complicated techniques i.e laboratory

● Provides a common framework of experience to larger number of learners.

● Can be used to highlight main points i.e chart

● Facilitates understanding of abstract concepts.

29
Disadvantages of Instructional Media

● Some equipment is expensive

● Time consuming

● There is need of technical knowledge to produce or operate the equipment.

● Difficult to use with large numbers of students.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

There are 3 main classes of instructional media:
Audio Media
These are teaching-learning devices that appeal to the auditory sense. They consist of
radio sets; audio recording machines such as audiotapes, disc machines, telephone and
walkie-talkie.

Visual Media
These are instructional media that appeal to the sense of seeing (eyes). Most graphics are
in this family of instructional media. They include: pictures, photographs, diagrams,
charts and cartoons, still pictures such as slides, filmstrips and transparencies.

Audio-visual Media
These are instructional materials that have the capacity to provide issues in form of
pictures and audio effect, in form of commentaries on the pictures simultaneously.
Examples of media in this category are: the television, videotape player, filmstrip/slides
with in-built or synchronized sound.

Issues related with the use of various media

● Lack of knowledge or skill on the side of teachers.

● For educational broadcasts, time may not tally with the school timetable.

30
 ● Infrastructure and network in a given area may interfere.

● Attitude of the user may affect the use of the equipment.

● School management may not be willing to buy the equipment.

● Lack of appropriate storage facilities.

TOPIC 5: VARIETY OF COMMUNITY RESOURCES FOR TEACHING AND

LEARNING
Community resources
Includes all those resources found within a community that can be used in instructional
process by a teacher.

They may not exist solely for the purpose of teaching and learning, but are available in
the community i.e. lakes, rocks, factories, tea etc And creatively teacher use or integrate
them in their class.

The Following Recommendations Could be Used by a School to Effectively Integrate

the Use of Community Resources in the Class
a) School subject panel could undertake a detailed catalogue of resources within the
community for the sake of reference by other teacher.
b) Schools should develop guidelines and criteria for selection of suitable resources of the
community.
c) The Ministry of Education should come up with a policy encouraging the utilization of
community resources in schools.
d) There is need for teachers within the same department to identify and sensitize each
other on how to identify and integrate the existing community resources in their lessons.

Advantages of Using Community Resources in Teaching and Learning

- Readily available and do not cost the school anything to use them.

31
- Provides the learner with hands on experiences as they connect the classroom and real
life experiences.
- Provide meaningful interaction between the learner and the community around them.
- They motivate and capture learners’ interests by making specific subjects interesting
and real.
- They reinforce theory by providing practical experiences of the concepts being taught.
- Provide learners with the opportunities to reflect on their learning.
- Facilitates interaction between the teacher, learners and the community.
- Helps build understanding and use of existing community resources.
- Instills the spirit/attitude of active participation and co-operation among learners.
- Enhances learners’ development of ethical dimension of knowledge like:
Objectivity
Curiosity
Humility
Tolerance
Open mindedness
Careful observation
Persistence

Constraints/Demerits in Using Community Resources

There is lack of policy articulating the need for utilization of community resources in
educational policies in the nation.
There is a tendency of using expository methods like lectures, which do not expose the
practical aspects of learning.
There is pressure from the exam oriented system that demand covering of syllabus
instead of understanding of concepts.
Reluctance by parents to support outdoor learning activities that are not directly involving
examinations.
Inadequate training of teachers in the utilization of community resources.
Inflexibility of teaching timetable where time allocated may be too short to incorporate
communication oriented or learning methods like- surveys, nature walks, fieldtrips etc

32
Examples of Communication Resources Available for Teaching and Learning
Resource people- anyone who has knowledge, relevant skills, competence and expertise
to give a talk, guidance or first hand information on an area.
Physical features in the environment- things like mountains, hills, lakes, vegetation,
forests, rocks etc.
Cultural artifacts/ community artifacts- includes tools, weapons, ornaments, archeological
findings from the communication.
May also include:
Cultural dresses
Cultural practices
Traditional houses etc.

Materials from business and industry in the community- farm produce and equipment,
market produce and industrial products.
Community multi-media recordings of cultural heritage i.e. films, videotapes, cassettes
etc
Work education programmes
Purposeful exposure of learners to organized work experiences within a community for
example- manual cleaning of markets, manual cleaning of hospitals, homes of disabled
etc
Also attachment of learners to work experiences in relevant occupations within the
community. This would help them develop knowledge, skills and values that will help
them in school and later on in life.
Community economic activities:
Which include: fishing, farming activities, mining, trade etc

TOPIC 6: ELECTRONIC MEDIA IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

ELECTRONIC MEDIA
Are devices and aids that need electrical energy to operate.
Are divided into:

33
Reprographic equipment
Photographic equipment
Programmed instruction equipment
Projection equipment

Reprographic Equipment
Photocopier- a machine that uses heat, light and chemicals to produce identical copies
from an original picture or piece of written material.
Advantages
Material can be enlarged or reduced to the size required.
Are quick and easy to use rather than reproducing diagrams or text by hand.
Can be stored and used over and over again.

Disadvantages
Since most photocopiers produce black and white copies, they may not fully
represent reality.
Rely on electricity to run.
Photocopy equipment is expensive to buy and maintain.

Duplicating machine- a hand operated machine that makes copies from stencils.
Advantages
May be used where there is no electricity.
Cheaper than photocopying.
Disadvantages
Messy, due to the ink used.
Slow process since all material must first be drawn, written or typed on to the
stencil.

Copy printer- a bulk printer that produces over 100 copies in a short time and that can
take larger sheets of paper.

34
Electronic scanner- an input device that scans documents such as photographs and pages
of text. When a document is scanned, it is converted into a digital format.

Advantage- document can be viewed and edited on a computer.

Disadvantage- is expensive to purchase.
Require electricity to operate.

Photographic Equipment
Camera- a light tied box containing film. Photographs are images taken using a still
camera. They are representation of reality and may be black and white or colored.

Advantages of photographs
Easier to produce than drawings or paintings.
A logical sequence of photographs may be combined into a story.
Facilitate observation and self instruction skills.
They are easy to store.

Disadvantages
Purchase of photographic equipment and processing pictures is expensive.
They are easily damaged by moisture and poor handling.
Since photographs are two dimensional they can not be manipulated and may distort
perception.

Programmed instruction equipment

Radio- radio is a useful tool in teaching and learning because the teacher can record and
play back specific topics in an interesting and innovative way. Alternatively the teacher
can tune in to one of the programmes broadcast by the Kenya Institute of Education or
any program considered relevant to the topic being taught.

Advantages
Radio is a less expensive broadcast medium.

35
 It can reach a large, geographically dispersed population with a single message.
Radio as an audio medium encourages listeners to use their imaginations to create
image.
Radio broadcasts trains the audience to be good listeners.

Disadvantages
Broadcast radio compels students to broadcast time / periods. However, students could
record such broadcasts and listen to them at their own convenient time.

Television
The television is a powerful mode of instructional delivery with audio and video effects
provided together.
Advantage - Increase motivation and interest in students.

Limitation
Compared to some other media, in particular, the video, the television broadcasting is
very weak with regard to student control. Broadcasts, according to Bates (1984) cannot
be reviewed, are uninterruptible; and are presented at the same pace for all students

Video- incorporates the use of film, resulting in simultaneous display of sound and
motion. Thus students are both able to see and hear, leading to higher retention of the
content being learnt.

Advantages of video tapes

Students can watch or view the recorded video lessons when they want and as often as
they like.
It allows for flexibility in terms of control. Students can adjust the pace of the learning
material to an individually appropriate level. Students can replay sections that move too
quick or by skimming forward over sections that are too slow.

Projection equipment

36
1. Over Head Projector- a simple widely used electronic device which operates on
principle reflection and transmission of light.
Transparencies are displayed on a screen using an OHP. Transparencies are acetate or
plastic sheets on which information can be typed, written or drawn.

Advantages
Teacher may add information on transparency as the lesson progresses. Conversely he
may hide unnecessary information using a blank sheet of paper and reveal as the lesson
progresses.
Transparencies do not have to be used in a darkened room.
The teacher can face the class and move away from the projector during presentation
since the image is static.
Disadvantages
Transparencies are easily erased.
Require electricity to operate.
OHP is expensive and transparency sheets are not available in many stationary shops.
2. Film and slide projector- equipment used to project slides onto a screen or wall.
Slides are individual pictures cut out from 35mm film and mounted on 5cm2 frames.

Advantages
Images are enlarged as they are projected; therefore all students are able to see clearly.
The teacher controls the pace of presentation since the slide projector is manual.
The slides can be stored and used over and over again.
Disadvantages
Slides are delicate and have to be stored carefully to prevent damage by moisture and
scratches.
Projection can only be carried out in a darkened room and this may be a challenge in
large classrooms with many windows.
Slide projectors rely on electricity.

37
LCD Projector- LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. Is similar to OHP. It must be
connected to computer to display teaching materials to learners.
Advantages
Are less bulky than OHP.
Are easy to operate ie rewinding slides, enlarging and reducing of slides.

Disadvantages
Are expensive to buy.
Need electricity to operate.

New media
Computers- computers can be used to produce teaching and learning materials using
desktop publishing programs such as publisher and Photoshop. If there is internet
connectivity the teacher is able to use the computer to research on new information on a
topic, obtain teaching resources and ideas and conduct online discussions with other
teachers and resource persons. Computers can also be used for simulations, programmed
instruction and e-learning.

Advantages
Provides up to date information.
Interactive.
Disadvantages
Expensive to acquire
Relies on electricity
Internet connectivity may not be reliable

Programmed and computer assisted instruction.

Computer-assisted instruction involves sequences of information designed to elicit
predetermined responses. The most common examples are e-books or instructional soft
wares prepared for computers.

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TOPIC 7: DESIGN AND PRODUCTION OF TEACHING LEARNING
MATERIALS
PRODUCTION OF VISUAL AND AUDIO VISUAL MEDIA
Forms of Visual Media
Visual media are materials that appeal to the sense of sight and are subdivided into two
namely: projected and non-projected visuals. Projected visuals require light source for
projection. Examples are Cine (film) projector, episcope, overhead projector, slides
projector, micro projection, etc. The non-projected visuals do not require light source.
They include two and three dimensional object like chalkboard, display boards, marker
boards, models, diorama, realia, puppets, etc. 2 – dimensional objects have length and
breadth while 3 – dimensional objects have length, breadth and height. They are regarded
as object in the ‘round’.

General Principles of Visual Media Production

(i) Select specific instructional objectives
The objectives of the instruction for which material will be used may be learners’
acquisition of skills, knowledge, competencies or desirable behaviors in learning tasks
like rhyme and rhythm in poetry, reading techniques in language arts, etc.
If a teacher wants to produce a chart, he must have it in mind as to what skills, knowledge
or even attitude the charts will be used to evoke so that the learners will be able to
achieve. Similarly, the kind of chart to produce must be clearly stated.
(ii) Identify the characteristics of the learners with or for whom the materials will be
used
The producer collects vital information about the need, interest, background, experiences,
instructional strength and weakness of the learners. This information will guide the
producer in the selection of the content of the message, the method of presentation, the
amount of information to be presented, and the media needed to carry the message.
(iii) Select the content of the message that the materials will carry
The content should challenge and interest learners, but should also be easy to understand.
(iv) Select the medium for presenting the message

39
The visual media which the producer chooses should be the most suitable for the message
and for the achievement of the learning objectives already stated.
(v) Determine the cost
The cost of producing visual materials like textbooks, workbooks, films, teachers’
manual will be substantial. However, the cost of producing the simple materials like
posters, charts, boards, etc. may be minimal.
(vi) Produce the materials in conformity with the rules
Produce the materials by observing the rule of clarity, legibility, simplicity, accuracy,
durability and portability.
(vii) Test the materials for effectiveness
A producer needs to try out the materials to determine the instructional effectiveness of
such materials. Feedback is also very necessary in any meaningful production so that
adjustment can be made if necessary.

Samples of Visual Media Production (Graphics)

Visual media, as said earlier, are materials that appeal to the sense of sight only. The
examples of visual media (graphics) are diagrams, charts, graphs, pictures, posters, maps,
globes, displays, educational boards, etc.
Types of Charts
There are many types of charts, namely: text charts, pie chart, bar chart, flip chart etc.
Text Charts – These are used primarily to display word, and can also display numbers
and other characters. They are title, bullet, table and organization.
Pie chart – also used to represent data and information for comparative purpose.
Bar chart – are used to represent data.
Flip chart – etc.

Utilization of Visual Media

The general basic principles for utilizing visual media are as follows:
(i) Prepare yourself as teacher – You must prepare yourself for the use of visual media
in case of unexpected challenges that may come up in the course of utilization. It is

40
important that you preview, sort through and examine closely the visual media. Plan what
you and the students will do with it during and after using it.
(ii) Check the environment – Teacher must ensure that the environment is conducive for
learning before using the media. Check the sitting arrangement, ventilation and other
extraneous factors before using it.
(iii) Prepare the class – The material should be introduced and objective for its use
should be made clear to learners. Describe what it covers and what to be learnt from it.
Tell the learners what they will do after the lesson.
(iv) Use the media – You must ensure effective and judicious use of visual media by
displaying them properly as at when due. The visual media can be used at the beginning
of the lesson for introducing a topic. It can be used at the middle to illustrate the topic and
it can also be used at the end of the lesson to summarize the topic. It is advisable to keep
the media aside to avoid destruction when they are not in use.
(v) Follow-up – After using the visual media, ask questions from the learners to ensure
achievement of the stated objectives. You must give room for learners’ discussion and
give assignment and test for feedback on the success or failure of the lesson.

Steps in the Production of Audio-Visual Media (Tele-Scriptwriting)

Television is considered the most powerful audio-visual media, and it has revolutionized
lives of many people in the world. It also has potential to remarkably affect lives.
Consequently, tele-scriptwriting is one of the factors responsible for success or failure of
television. Besides, the attributes of electronic motion, picture sound effect and script
provide the basic structure of the whole programme. It is a kind of map, a blueprint of
what is going to be in the TV programme. Writing a script on a given topic differs from
one to another and treatment of the topic varies from person to person.

Basic features in all Scripts

(1) Kind of audience: The script writer must know the age group, socio-cultural
background and psychological profile of audience to whom the programme is going to be
addressed. The interest, attitudes and inclinations are to be taken into account.

41
Homogeneity or heterogeneity, rural or urban nature, industrial or agricultural culture of
audience are very important consideration to be made.
(2) Objectives of the programme: Besides the general objectives of its use like
entertainment, specific objectives have to be determined. For example, an educational TV
programme is spelt out in terms of learning outcomes and an adult programme is
expected to achieve objectives centred around citizenship or family planning.
(3) Genuineness of information of facts: The scriptwriter is required to make use of
various resources like books, charts, graphs, pictures, film clips etc. in order to prepare
scripts on different topics. The collected data should be systematically arranged.
(4) Treatment of topics: After collecting and arranging data, the scriptwriter has to make
all attempts for presentation of the topic in an attractive and effective manner. She/he
must think of such audio-visual aids as are available and suitable for the job.
(5) Format of the programme: A programme may be prepared in various formats –
drama, feature, discussion using graphics, animation, and so on. Limitations are imposed
by the needs of the TV studio, funds available and personnel. The scriptwriter should
therefore use available resources in the most effective way.
(6) Script as visual medium: Scriptwriter should not forget that TV is a visual medium;
its importance lies in visuals and not only in words. Vision and sound should go together
and in a very balanced manner, complementing each other. The writer of TV script
should think of his topic in terms of telling a story in series of pictures.

Writing TV Script
The writer of TV scripts having considered his audience with their various background,
his objectives and peculiarities of the medium, should arrange his content along with
visuals in order to make the programme effective as well as interesting. He should
visualize the sequences of the entire programme with the help of a storyboard and a series
of drawings with accompanying notes as to the proposed commentary.
Guidelines for TV Scriptwriting
(1) The script must be simple, direct and personal.
(2) It must be written with a full knowledge and involvement of programme visuals.
(3) The presenter’s style and personality should be taken into account.

42
(4) It must stress and recapitulate its salient points.
(5) It should involve and address the audience directly.
(6) It should have variety of pace and rhythm and give occasional “breathing space”,
especially in the middle of the programme.
(7) It should not attempt to say too much in the time available.
(8) It should suggest the suitable visuals, sound effects, etc. along with the commentary.
(9) It must note the demands of the electronic studio with its facilities as well as
limitations.

TOPIC 8: SELECTION AND USE OF MEDIA IN SCHOOLS

Reasons for using Educational Media
According to Ajelabi (2005), the under listed are some of the reasons for using media in
teaching and learning:
(i) Educational media make learning to become real and concrete.
(ii) By using educational media, learning effectiveness is increased as learners are more
likely to retain and recall with ease a greater percentage of what they hear, see and
manipulate.
(iii) They help in focusing attention and motivating learners, when appropriate
educational media are used to introduce, develop or conclude a teaching-learning session.
Learner‘s interest is aroused and developed through the lesson.
(iv) Educational media give learners the opportunity to learn at their own pace, rate and
convenience – media caters for individual differences.
(v) Educational media help in magnifying or reducing objects for classroom use.
(vi) They provide experiences that may not otherwise be available to learners.
(vii) Educational media gives chance for teacher participation in the design and
development of meaningful curriculum.

Criteria for Selecting Educational Media

Factors to consider:
Instructional Objectives – This is one of the major determinants of selection. This is
usually based on the topic to be taught. The instructional objectives are to be stated in
behavioral, specific and measurable terms.
43
Availability – Before selecting any educational media, one must be sure that such
material or equipment is available and easy to purchase, borrow or produce.
Cost – The financial implication of the educational media that the teacher wants to select
is of topmost importance.
Content Accuracy – The educational media must present authentic, valid and current
information or latest ideas.
Suitability – The age, ability and character of the learners must be taken into
consideration when selecting media for classroom use.
Size of the Class – If learners are large in number, bold visuals should be used. This
would lead to consideration of the size/dimension of the media to be selected. It may also
make a teacher to provide for more of the media selected. This is because, in a situation
whereby the class is large, visibility factor has to be given consideration. Thus, the
question of quantity and quality set in.
As for the quantity, the teacher may need to provide for media that will go round each of
the learners in the class. As regards quality, it involves preparation of bold media to allow
for all the learners in the class to have a proper view.
Operating Facilities – The facilities for operating the equipment should be functional
and available. Also, the teacher should be able to manipulate effectively the material or
equipment for teaching and learning.
Interactivity – Learner-learner, Learner-media, Learner-teacher, teacher-media
interactions should be promoted as a result of using the educational media.

Selecting appropriate instructional media in the classroom

Basic steps in choosing and applying the appropriate media:
1. Review instructional goals, objectives, audience and instructional strategies.
2. Determine the best medium for your lesson components.
3. Search for and review existing media/materials.
4. Adapt existing media/materials if necessary.
5. If new media/materials need to be developed:

● Determine format, script, visuals etc

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 ● Draft materials and media

● Check for clarity and flow of ideas

● Conduct formative evaluation

● Implement/apply

● Evaluate/revise

Reiser and Dick (1996) distill these factors down to three major criteria for selecting
instructional media:

● Practicality: is the intended media practical in that the media is available, cost

efficient, time efficient and understood by instructor (teacher’s experience on

its use)?

● Student appropriateness: is the intended media appropriate for the developmental

and experiential levels of the students?

● Instructional appropriateness: is the intended media appropriate for the planned

instructional strategy? Will the media allow for the presentation of the proposed
lesson in an efficient and effective manner? Will the media facilitate the students’
acquisition of the specific learning objectives?

Other factors to consider are: class size, special characteristics of students, learning task.

ASSURE model for selection of media;

A- Analyse learner characteristics.
S- State objectives to highlight relevance.
S- Select, modify and design model.
U- Utilize the model effectively.
R- Require learner response.

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 E- Evaluate effectiveness of the model.

TOPIC 9: EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTS FOR SCHOOLS (RADIO,

CASSETTES, CDS, TV & VIDEO)

Educational broadcasting is the production of programmes to be used in schools to

enhance teaching and learning i.e. (TV and radio broad casts)

Characteristics of Educational Broadcasts

- They are arranged in series to assist stimulate learning.

- They are explicitly planned in consultations with external educational advisors.
- Are commonly accompanied by other kinds of learning materials such as
textbooks and study guides.

Advantages of Educational Programmes

- They have the capacity to add variety in teaching and learning by offering
students views other than those of the teacher.
- Have an emotional impact.
- Offer great depth and enrich learning.
- They give students a sense of reality and participation.
- Since they are prepared by subject/content experts, listeners have a chance of
getting the best.
- They can be used to initiate curriculum change and innovations.
- TV and radio overcomes space and time such that the same programme can be
watched and heard across the country at the same time.
- Broadcasts can be used to give in-service training courses for teachers.
- They can also be used to entertain i.e music, drama and concerts.

Problems of using Broadcasts in Teaching and Learning

- They are not flexible.

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 - They do not cater for individual differences.
- They lack immediate feedback.
- They have administration problems i.e. school timetable does not tally with the
broadcast time.

TOPIC 10: MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL MULTI-MEDIA

CENTRES

A School Multi-media Centre

- Is a resource centre that brings together multiple media that is used in teaching and
learning.

- It brings together a group of resources within one building where both the teacher and
the learners can find useful resources for teaching and learning.

- The centre is organized into rooms that serve different purposes.

- A multi-media centre is beneficial to both the teacher and the learner in a school.

- The number of rooms and resources in any multimedia centre depends on the:

● Category of school

● Level of learner

● Money available for resources

Benefits of a School Multi-Media Center

a) It improves quality of education in the school.

b) It helps to breech the divide between theory and practice.
c) It is a place where learners get an opportunity to learn with technology which
builds confidence and provides exposure to the rest of the world.
d) It helps the learner in retention of content they had learnt in class.

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 e) It helps in retaining learners in the school, since it also provides different
entertainment avenues.
f) It improves and stimulates multi-media literacy in the learners.
g) Influences learners’ multi-media literacy towards world exploration.
h) Has the potential of supporting the learners’ personal development and talent.
i) Reduces technological fear (technophobia) experienced by both the learners and
the teacher.
j) Provides creative development of talents which is achievable by the youths of
multimedia settings and equipments.

● Research has shown that children who are exposed early to technology are better

communicators and better users of the same technology.

Rooms of Multimedia Centre

i) Library

- Is a resource centre that provides access to reference materials which learners can
borrow, use and return.

- It may be a physical room or a virtual space or both.

- A library collection normally includes:

● Books, periodicals, newspapers, maps, manuscripts, other print materials.

● Collections of CD, video tapes, e-books, audio books, DVDs.

● A full range of databases.

- A good library should have physical reference materials and online reference
materials, a reading space, with tables that one can use for serious studies.
- It should also have computers that learners can use to access online materials.

ii) Display Room

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 - Contains different resource materials that are available to both teacher and
learners for use in a class.
- It is a room that teachers can keep or display resources they have used in
classroom teaching to make them available for the future.
- It is also a room where teachers can take learners to show them various learning
materials relevant for the specific materials.
- The display room normally has so many resources so that its walls can be called
talking walls.
- Display rooms assists teachers to preserve teaching and learning materials without
fear of loosing it.

iii) Presentation Hall (room)

- In modern schools, there is need for halls for use i.e. conferencing of video,
transmission of video through internet.
- It should be designed to allow projection of audio-visual materials.
- The room can also be used for dramatized presentations and school entertainment
programmes.
- Schools should have wholesome programmes that can allow educational
entertainment to be part and parcel of learning programmes.

iv) Storage room

This is a room with media storage centres where equipment is kept safely to avoid
breakage or destruction or theft of materials stored. The furniture in the storage room
should be carefully chosen to provide fixtures that are suited to different multi-media
equipment available in school.

v) Multi-media laboratory

This is a room fitted with computers and other presentation equipment to allow for a
variety of multi-media projects. The multi-media lab should be open to both staff and

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students over a given period of time. It should have a technology assistant to assist with
equipment and software required.

vi) Multi-media learning spaces

Are rooms where students and staff can discuss as they watch multi-media projection
without disturbing other users. The room is fitted with movable furniture to easily
accommodate re-arrangement. The rooms should be fitted with white boards and should
have wireless connectivity to allow access to the internet.

vii) Multi-media service rooms

They are rooms where students and staff can get facilities for photocopying, printing,
scanning etc required at a very short notice. These rooms are thus equipped with printers,
scanners, photocopiers etc.

TOPIC 11: NEW INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

ICT- abbreviation for the concepts, Information Communication Technology.

Information

Derived from a Latin word ‘informare’ meaning to put into form. It refers to any stimulus
that alters the cognitive structure of the recipient. It varies in quality depending on the
relevance.

Communication

Refers to the process by which information is exchanged between individuals. It

describes the process of creating meaning.

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Technology

Refers to the process by which human beings modify nature to meet their needs.

ICT- Is a scientific technological and engineering discipline. It is a management

technique used in information handling and processing.

IT- Is the design, development, implementation, support and management of computer

based systems particularly software applications and computer hardware.

Distinction between New ICT and Old ICT

Old ICT- refers to equipment or machines that depend largely on mechanical

components comprising of moving parts which are prone to wear and tear e.g the old type
writer, old calculators etc.

New ICT- comprise of machines or equipment in which the moving parts have been
replaced by flows of electrons thereby minimizing wear and tear. New ICT is therefore
more efficient i.e. computers, digital calculators etc.

RATIONALE FOR INTRUSION OF COMPUTERS IN LEARNING

Reflecting on Field of experience

the requirements Field of
and limitations of learning experience
situations, a computer can aid
learning by performing the following functions.
Source
Encod limited working memory Decoder
a) Supplementing by making large amount of
er
information immediately available to learners.
b) Making relevant previously learnt information available simultaneously
with the acquisition of new ideas.
c) Provides for self-testing and practices e.g. drills and tutorials.
d) It enables the learner to represent and comprehend ideas both verbally and
pictorially.
e) Provides a platform for instant feedback.

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 f) The software can adjust according to many variables for instance, the rate
of progression of learners’ abilities.
g) It can help reduce the cost on substituting teachers as well as textbooks.

COMPUTER APPLICATION IN TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATIONAL SIMULATION

Assimilation- it is a stage management replication of an event or concept through the

manipulation of the setting in order to enhance students’ understanding of nature of the
concepts or events.

Simulation- Computer simulation is a form of learning with computers in which the user
may experiment with a simulated situation. This situation strongly resembles reality or is
a deliberate simplification.

Educational benefits of simulations

- They allow students to experience issues in a more personal and dynamic way.
- They help make clear complexities involved in issues.
- Simulations put students in roles they otherwise read or hear about. In a real time
situation, students are forced to make decisions and they see much more directly
the consequences of what they propose.
- Simulations motivate students to get involved and do well because the simulation
feels like a ‘real’ world situation.
- Simulations and games provide multi-sensory interaction, visualization, and
symbols. Visualizations and symbols augment human cognitive capacities and
help to convey concepts and information.
- They offer students with certain learning styles i.e. those who learn best when
they see processes in motion.
- Provides access to difficult or hazardous environment.
- Are important where students are unable to see long term process or effect of a
process i.e. embryonic development.

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Disadvantages

- Involves complicated mechanisms difficult for naïve/inexperienced students.

- Difficult to ascertain the level of attainment of objectives i.e they may be carried
away by fun at the expense of concepts required of them.
- May not be applicable in all subjects or topics of the curriculum.
- It requires an overall preparation and innovation on the side of the teacher.

Computer animation is the creation of moving images (animation) using computer

technology.

Computer animation is a very useful tool in education and training. Instructors can also
use computer animation to demonstrate things visually. It can be used to show how things
come together and work together i.e. parts of a computer, designing a brochure.

Computer animation also allows instructors to do things that would be extremely hard to
do in real life.

Generally, the common benefits and advantages of the animation in education and
training can be cited in the following items:

1. Skill and ability improvement

The interactive animation takes less time for students to learn complex things and makes
them enjoy more to learn difficult things. Learning is more effective when information
presented via computer animation systems than traditional classroom lectures.

2. Interactivity

Interactivity is a mutual action between the learner, learning system, and learning
material. Learners will learn faster, and have better attitudes toward learning when using
interactive animation especially if the other techniques like audio and video are used.

3. Engagement

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Interactive learning with live-action animation, simulation, video, audio, graphics,
feedback, expert advice, and questions and answers keep learners interested and reinforce
skills. Because it is exciting, challenging, and fun to use, it encourages learners to review
the program again and again. Through continual practice, learning is absorbed and
integrated into daily performance.

4. Flexibility and safety

A lot of things are dangerous to be carried out in the real-life learning such as
experiments in physics and chemistry. Computer animation can offer safe
demonstrations.

5. Motivation

Since the animation is inspired and interactive way for flexible education and training,
learners will be more motivated to learn more and more. Learners will get more skills,
which is the main reason to make them more motivated.

6. Practicality

Computer animation is capable of presenting true-to-life situations that learners face

every day. Computer animation allows learners to learn-by-viewing, learn-by-doing or
learn-by-coaching. All are effective methods for developing practical skill and increasing
information retention.

7. Consistent

All learners learn the same principles and skills. Computer-Based Animation typically
forces instructional designers to better organize and structure learning materials, and this
alone can result in learning advantages.

8. Immediate Feedback

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Learners will get an immediate feedback from the animation system that will enhance
their skills and abilities. During the process of the animation, instructors can open free-
discussion among learners, which will effect positively over the entire classroom. It’s
important to note that the learners’ feedback could be useful to improve the animation
system itself!

9. Attracting and holding attention

Animation is useful in getting and holding an audience's attention.

10. Showing processes or relationships not usually visible. Since animation can show
imagined objects in motion, it is ideal for demonstrating processes and relationships that
are impossible to observe in reality.

11. Isolating specific actions in a complex sequence. Animation can show motion for part
of a complex operation, thus clarifying functions that would otherwise be impossible to
isolate and view independently. For example, blood circulating through the body.

Limitations

- Some information of real-life learning will be lost in the animation program.

- Not adapted to take into account different student levels within a group or class.
- To implement this computer animation programs, teachers must have certain
programming technology and experiences. So it is not easy for every subject
teachers.
- Requires extensive memory and storage space: Since the animation consists of a
series of graphic objects, it uses more system processing and storage resources
than text.
- Requires special equipment for a quality presentation: While some good
animation can be created using a basic graphics package, producing quality
animation requires specialized software and programming and educational
knowledge.
- Cannot depict actuality like video: Since animation is an artist's re-creation, it

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 does not depict actual events or reality as and video does. Therefore, it cannot
show specific people, places, or things.

Problems affecting ICT integration in teaching and learning

- Increase in eliticism- widens the gap between the rich and the poor.
- Cultural skepticism.
- School policies and politics.
- Security of the equipment.
- Lack of quality and relevant soft wares.
- Fear of change
- New soft ware and hard ware are developed at high provision making
standardization difficult or impossible.
- High costs.
- Infrastructural problems.
- Lack of qualified and trained personnel.

COMPUTER LITERACY

Entails the following aspects:

a) The ability to completely use computer based tools for day to day problem
solving e.g data processing or running simple programmes.
b) The ability to correctly use computer based terminologies.
c) Ability to evaluate personal, social and economic consequences of computer
technologies.
d) Ability to have basic understanding of the components of a computer system and
their uses.

ELECTRONIC LEARNING

Refers to learning that uses an Information network and that is the internet, intranet and
extranet (wide area network)

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WEB BASED LEARNING

Is a subject of e-learning and refers to learning by use of internet browser e.g explorer,
google chrome, mozilla firefox etc.

BLENDED LEARNING

Learning modes that combine traditional classroom practices with electronic solutions of
learning.

Teleconferencing

Is an interactive electronic communication among people at two or more places. Types of

teleconferencing depend on nature of interactivity and sophistication. i.e.

Audio conferencing- transmits voice messages only.

Audio-graphic conferencing- combines voice message and base skills on graphic.

Video conferencing- text, voice message together with sound picture.

Web based conferencing- combination of text, visual, media, audio media and graphic via
internet.

TOPIC 12: FUTURE DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATIONAL MEDIA

RESOURCES

World Wide Web and Computer Education in the Classroom

The web is a wonderful tool for students in the classroom.

Students can use the internet to find information for a project or paper.

The web also provides a place for students to create documents and files to store those
files.

Online games help students learn in a fun and engaging manner.

Learning with PowerPoint Presentations

PowerPoint presentations let students visualize a teacher’s lecture.

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Adding sounds or animation to a slide show keeps students’ attention.

The slideshow can help them to take notes.

PowerPoint presentations are great tools for students to use when presenting projects to
the class.

Internet Resources for all Subjects

The internet if full of resources for any subject.

Students can find games and tutorials that will help them better understand classroom
lessons.

Teachers can use these games to keep students engaged during a lecture.

The internet also allows students to communicate with and share information from other
states and countries.

Email

For this to be effective:

Establish rules for using email for class communication.

Keep specific subject lines.

Establish convention for naming message titles and sub-titles.

Clarify wait time for the instructor’s response.

Ask students to use consistent attachment formats.

Keep a copy of important correspondence yourself.

Advances in hardware and software have the potential to bring about fundamental
changes in how technology is integrated and even in education itself. Computers formerly
tethered to desktops by cables are being rapidly replaced by wireless laptop and palmtop
models that free students to move about the school; collect, share, and graph data on field
trips; and communicate their whereabouts and progress to teachers and parents.

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Social media- there is a growing body of scholarly research suggesting that when used
properly, social media can boost both learning outcomes and student engagement.
Students are now using social media networks to share their thoughts and to support each
other.

Mobile technologies- netbooks, ipads, cell phones, ipods etc are increasingly becoming
the tools of choice for educators today because of their portability.

Blogs- the education blog can be a powerful and effective technology tool for students
and teachers alike.

E- learning- Using technology for collaboration and distance education. There are
many opportunities for individual students to use technology to enhance their learning.
These include online courses that provide students in remote locations with opportunities
for customized curriculum and advanced placement courses. These courses are conducted
entirely online and offer asynchronous interaction among faculty and students. Because
they allow students to participate anytime and from anywhere, online courses are
becoming increasingly popular among postsecondary students whose job and personal
commitments do not allow them to meet a regular class schedule.

Video conferencing- Internet and videoconferencing technology allow students to

participate in projects sponsored by researchers around the world.

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