WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION

Objectives:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define the term communication .
2. State and explain the elements of communication.
3. Discuss the barriers to effective communication.
4. Suggest ways to overcome barriers to communication.
5. Relate the models of communication to various communications setting.
Meaning and definition of communication
The word communication has been derived from the Latin word communis, which means
share or to participate. Thus, communication stands for sharing or transmission of
information, idea, an option, an emotion, a fact or an attitude. It includes both, the act of
communicating as well as the message to be communicated. Communication is the
process of passing information and understanding from one person to another. It is also
the “the act of any natural or artificial means of conveying information or giving
instruction.” Thus communication is the process of passing information and
understanding from one person to another with three sides to it:
-Transmission of subject-matter or message
- Involvement of two parties to complete the process of communication
- The person to whom the message is transmitted understands it in the same sense
in which the sender of the message wants him to understand it.

Attempts have been made by different authors to define communication. A few are
enumerated below:
Alder and Towne (1996)- Communication is an on -going process involving a
relationship between participants who occupy individual but overlapping fields of
experience who are involved in the simultaneously sending and receiving of messages
which are subject to distortion from various forms of noise
W. H. Newman and C.F. Summer Jr. -Communication means to share in, to give to
another, or to interchange thoughts, opinions or an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions,
or emotions by two or more persons.
Hudson - Communication in its simplest form is conveying of information from one
person to another..

Keith Davis - Communication is the process of passing information and understanding

from one person to another.”.
George R. Terry -Communication is a continuing and thinking process dealing with the
transmission and interchange with understanding of ideas, facts and courses of action.”

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Berelso and Steiner -Communication is the transmission of information, ideas, emotions,
skills, e.t.c. by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs, e.t.c. It is the act or
process of transformation that is usually called communication.”
Peter little- Communication is a process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and or organizations that an understanding response results.
William Scott - Administrative Communication which involves the transmission and
accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions
which will accomplish organizational goal.
Whatever the definition there are key emphasis of these definitions namely
i) That there has to be something to be communicated
ii) That communication is about accurate replication in the receivers mind.
iii) That there should be feedback from the recipient.
iv) There has to be parties involved in communication

Main aspect of communication

 Communication must have a source (sender)
 Communication must have content (message)
 Communication must have a media
 Communication must have a destination: i.e. recipient
 Communication must have a feedback
Characteristics of communication
i) Communication maintains and animates life. It creates a common pool of ideas,
strengthens the feeling of togetherness through exchange of messages and
translates thought into action.
ii) Interchange of information: The basic characteristics of human
communication is that it aims at the exchanging of information. It is a two-way
process. The exchange can be between two or more persons. It may be at the
individual or the organizational level.
iii) Continuous process: communication is a continuous process. It is not static. It
is
constantly subject to change and is dynamic. The people with whom communication is
held, its content and nature, and the situation in which communication is held-all keep
changing.
iv) Mutual understanding: The main purpose of communication is to bring about
mutual understanding. The receiver should receive and understand the
message in the manner that the sender intended him to.

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 v) Response or reaction: Communication always leads to some response or
reaction. A message becomes communication only when the receiving party
understands and acknowledges it, and also reacts and responds to it.

vi) Universal function: Communication is a universal function, which covers all

levels of authority.
vii) Social activity: Communication is a social activity, too. The components of a
society are into a relationship of sharing, be it information, feelings or
emotions. The same holds true for business communication. It involves the
effort of the people to get in touch with one another and to make themselves
understood. The process by which people attempt to share meaning and relate
to one another is, thus, a social `activity

Why has communication become so important?

Communication has become increasingly more important compared to the yester years
particularly in this era of globalization dominated by modern management education.,
Society and businesses have become more complex and more global. The following
factors have added to the importance of communication.

i) Big size of organizations: Modern organizations are gigantic as compared

to those of yesteryears. Moreover, they are in a continuous process of
expansion. Communication is the only link among the large number of
people in the set-up.

ii) Growing importance of human relations: Modern management has

brought in the concept of human resource management. Its importance
cannot be ignored. The style of working has changed considerably over
the years. It is no longer the management- decides-and-workers-follow
kind of working pattern. Participative management has become the
watchword. Men will not cooperate unless they are treated humanely. This
has only increased the importance of communication in business
organizations.

iii) Public relations: Just like the human beings, organizations cannot function
in isolation. Every organization has certain social responsibilities. It also
has to interact with different segments of the society. The responsibilities

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 are towards customers, shareholders, suppliers, traders, trade unions,
media, government and the people in general.

iv) Advances in behavioural science: Modern management lays great stress

on the
theories of behaviuoral sciences like sociology, psychology, philosophy,
anthropology spiritualism and transactional analysis. Their growing importance
can be judged by the tremendous surge in the sale of books on these subjects. The
essence of all the writings is that we change the way of looking at human nature.
Improvement in communication skills can do this effectively.

v) Technological advances: Today’s computer age affects not only the

methods of
working, but also the composition of groups. Communication is the only way
to meet the challenge and to strengthen the relationship between superiors and
subordinates. Teleconferencing has become a key link for immediate decision-
making and feedback in large business organizations.

vi) Growth and trade unions: The last century has seen a tremendous increase
in the size of the union of workers. These unions occupy a very important
place in an organizational set-up. Hence, mutual understanding between
the management and the unions is very important. Communication,
therefore, has a vital role to play.

vii) Consumerism [increase in the demand for consumer goods]:

Communication has become an inevitable cycle since the growth of
consumerism. In this era of global marketplace, the competition is real
tough, and companies are under constant pressure to attract clientele and
to perform. The effort to persuade customers to buy a product is virtually
never-ending. This has led to a tremendous growth in communication.
From pamphlets, brochures and advertisements in the print and electronic
media to workshops, demonstrations, contests and attractive schemes,
consumerism has spawned a whole new way of communication.

viii) Distance education: The advent of the Open University system has lead to
an increase in communication. In many countries, a large segment of the
population is gaining distance education.

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Importance of communication
Communication can be described as the life blood of the business as no business can
develop in the absence of effective external and internal communication. In addition
Communication is a vital tool of management. One of the major functions of an office
is communication. This involves receiving, recording, processing of information and
communicating the information two various
functions of the organizations.
Importance of communication can be discussed under two points of view.
I. Internal communication (within the business)
II. External communication. ( without the business)
a) Importance of internal communication
Internal communication refers to exchange of information or message between persons
of
same organization, e.g. between employer and employee.
i) Better understanding between employer and employees.
If complaints of employees are forwarded to employer on time and in the right way it
will minimize the chances of misunderstanding.
ii) Great efficiency.
The sound communication system enables the management to instruct the supervision
of subordinates on changes of policy which results to the increase in the efficiency
of
employees.
iii) Effective co-ordination:
Effective communication leads to effective co-ordination of business/organizational
activities
v) Proper communication avoids losses:
If there is a machine breakdown or shortage the management can be informed quickly
to
take timely action to avoid any possible losses.

B) External communication.
This refers to exchange of information between an organization and other organizations
or persons outside the organization.
The following facts indicate the importance of external communication.
i) Good reputation
Effective communication with customers and either business enables company
establish

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good reputation this increases prestige of that company.
ii) Improvement in public relations:
When a company communicates with general public to keep them informed of
its
activities more people become interested to deal with that company.
iii) Better business prospects –
Due to good communication the company can attract more customers.
iv) Choice of customers –
A company can get information about the liking and disliking of customers. This
information will help company produce goods according to the choice of customers.
v) Government department –
The business will deal with licensing authorities, foreign trade offices, custom
authorities, banks and other financial institutions. All these institutions require good
communication when negotiating.
vi) Job requirements –
Most jobs require communication skills such as personnel public relations, marketing,
editing, research, advocates, etc. Executives are expected to make speeches they are
expected to give interviews to media.All these require communication skill
NB communication is both for a student and an employee/employer. It is for life

Theories/ Models of Communication

A theory is an explanation, it can however convey the idea of something which is not
totally correct or complete. A good theory provides us with most adequate and effective
explanation of a given area at a given time. Theories provide us with a greater
understanding of our environment and allow us a greater degree of control over it. There
are about four theories that attempt to explain communication.
i) The linear process model
It is also known as transmission view and was modeled by Shannon and Weaver in 1949
as an extension of information theory.
- It emphasis on the notion of a sender sending information to the receiver.
- It views communication in terms of information transfer and divides it to a
number of stages, which are seen as components in communication process and
are also known as communication variables.
The components of communication in the linear model are
- Sender- The source
- Receiver- destination
- Message-the information

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 - Code- the form message takes
- Channel-the means /medium
- Noise-Physical interference e. g sound, light etc
It considers communication to occur on a straight line.
Evaluation
- Linear process model provides us with notable key concepts useful to understanding
communication.
- It provides adequate account communication forces such as mass media (radio, T.V),
telegraph, it however falls short of explaining other communication that involves
feedback.
- Linear model views communications as one way process
ii) Interactive process model
It is an advancement on the linear model as it attempts to address some of the
inadequacies of the linear model. It notes that communication is not always
intentional as people interpret aspects of our behavior including appearance
irrespective of whether they were intentional behavior or not. It takes
communication to be a two-way process involving information exchange hence
feedback. It considers the receiver and the sender to occupy their own respective
and overlapping fields of experience showing that both the receiver and the
sender must have a degree of shared understanding or knowledge for
communication to occur .e.g language. It views meaning to reside not in the code
(word) but residing in the minds of the speaker and receiver. The model
broadens the concepts of noise beyond physical noise to include anything that
interferes with the original intended meaning of a message. A part from the
physical noise it incorporates others forms of noise
Other forms of noise include
a) Psychological noise- individuals features such as emotions, expectations biases etc
b) Sematic noise- the differences in people understanding of the meaning of certain
words (which is influenced by their field of experience including culture).Semantic
noise can occur at the level of denotation (literal or dictionary meaning of a word)
or connotative level (refers to emotional overtones conveyed by words)
NB Senders of messages need to choose words carefully so that the connotative meaning
received does not interfere with the intended meaning e.g a male calling women girls
could be interpreted as derogatory in African context while it may be perceived positively
in other cultures.
iii). Transactional process model

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 It presents communications a more dynamic process. It accounts for the way we
receive and send information simultaneously when communicating .Human mind as
comparable to a computer processor involved in multitasking hence sending and
receiving information at the same time incorporating the use of double feedback both
sender and receiver as communicator
Communicating is viewed as an on- going process as opposed to static process
consisting of discrete instances of communications. Communicating to somebody you
know takes place within the context of previous communication exchanges,
communication does not always start on a clean slate all the time but in the context of
the previous communication interactions.
It incorporates the relationship dimensions i.e we have certain kinds of relationships
with the people with whom we communicate ranging from working, intimate to
impersonal.
Communication is seen as negotiative –meaning is negotiated. Communication
involves negotiation of image or status within a relationship dynamic e.g way we
communicate with a boss will influence his or her understanding of you and vice
versa. Negotiation occurs at a variety of levels-power credibility trust etc.
Transactional model incorporates a rage of other factors that influence
communication namely context. Context-situation or setting within which
communication takes place or the circumstances that surround a particular piece of
communication context may be seen as
i) Situational-communication in football pitch is different from church service
ii) Temporal-relates to immediate time frame e.g the time of day and timing of an
event e.g using good timing for a salary increase request.
iii) Historical-this refers to historical placing in time for example we are living at a
time when discriminatory behavior and language are tolerated less. Sexist or
gender biased language are less tolerated today than they were 30 years ago.
iv) Social /culture context-refers to the kind of society and culture within which
communication is occurring.
Communication Process
All Communications have to be originated, produced, transmitted, received and
understood. For this case an idea has to be encoded, transmitted through media, to the
recipient who has to understand in order to decode the message. The success of every
communication is a function of how well the process was adhered to.
ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
For communication to occur there are key ingredients that must be present which are

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 i) Sender- this is the source of the information, the origin of the information to be
shared who is responsible of conceiving the idea to be shared, put the idea into
a form that the receiver can understand , chooses the medium and the channel
to be used to communicate.
ii) Receiver- This is the destination of the message,the person(s) to whom the
message is intended who is responsible of receiving and interpreting
/assigning meaning to the message received. The person is also responsible of
choosing the time, the channel,medium through which to send feedback. They
also send feedback.
(The roles of the sender and the receiver are interchangeable)
iii) Feedback-This refers to signals passed to sender either in written, spoken or
signal. A possible problem could arise from wrongly interpreted feedback by
sender or no feedback at all.
iv) Context- This refers to the surrounding and circumstances or the environment
in which communication is made.
v) The noise- Noise is used to refer to any factors which prevent proper exchange
of information apart from that from the sender or receiver. Noise can be
physical e.g. typewriters or the telephone bells which interrupt meetings,
or it can be some other form of interference. such as bad telephone
connections, poor handwriting in letter, conflicting messages.
vi) Message- The unit of communication, the idea or information to be shared
vii) Medium- the conduit through which the message is pass through as to get from
the sender and the receiver
viii) Channel-
Factor To Consider When Choosing a Channel of Communication
The channel chosen is very important since it will affect the way the receiver will interpret
the message.
The following factors should be considered when choosing a channel of communication:
1. Cost
- The cost of choosing the medium should be within the reach of the sender.
- It should be affordable.
2. Urgency
- The medium used should deliver the message within the time required by the
sender. Hence very fast mediums should be used to send urgent messages.
3. Confidentiality
Confidential messages should be sent using confidential means that allow secrecy.
4. Reliability

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 The means chosen should be relied upon to deliver the message to the required
person in the correct context and form, within the required time.
5. Distance
Distance between the sender and receiver .
The means used should be convenient for the distance.
6. Details of the message
Medium used should accommodate all the details of the message.
7. The receiver
The medium should be chosen with the receiver in mind. Hence written
communication can only be used if the receiver is literate while oral methods can
be used if receiver has speech capability.
Communication process
Communication is a process which is sequential in nature and a key determinant of
successful/effective communication and if not well adhered to it results to
communication breakdown or ineffective communication. It comprises of the following
stages

i) Message Conceived: In this stage a decision to send message as results of an

impulse thought process or external stimulus arises. The process problem that
could arise here is a process that is affected by the relationship between the
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sender and the receiver.

ii) Message Encoded: The idea conceived is put into a form that the receiver can
understand through the process known as encoding after which an appropriate
“language/ form” is then chosen: it could either be oral, written word, picture
or “non-verbal” communication. A possible problem at this stage would be
that of encoding message in a wrong “language” tone inappropriate.
iii) Communication Medium Selected: Here an appropriate medium is selected,
which could be, letter, interview, electronic mail, telex. The possible problem
area here is the choice of wrong medium, time wasted, expense incurred, no
written record.

iv) Message Interpretation:- The receiver then assigns the meaning to the message
received through a process known as decoding where the underlying and the
explicit meaning are attached by the recipient. The possible problem in this
case is a situation of wrong interpretation either arising from the relationship
between sender and recipient or from subconsciously sent message.

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 v) The receiver sends feedback to the sender of the message based on their
understanding/ interpretation of the message received. The feedback may take
a different form from which the message was sent (verbal/ non-verbal, written,
graphical) The step informs the sender if their message was understood and if
not the sender adjusts their message accordingly. It this is this step that
completes the process and cycle may repeat itself.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
It is not every attempt to communicate that achieves the desired results or is effective.
Communication is most effective when it moves speedily and smoothly in an interrupted
flow. The free flow may however breakdown due to various physical or technical
hindrances. Hindrances can occur at the level of sender, transmitter or the medium or the
receiver.
1. Mechanical barriers.
A communication may not reach properly if the mechanism that carries it breaks down.
Some possible mechanical failures are:
[a] A weak microphone or poor sound spread [acoustics] of the meeting
place.
[b] Defective telephone lines.
[c] Electricity /computer breakdown.
[d] Poor printing quality or paper spread of ink, overlap of colours.
[e] Atmospherics on radio or TV, especially in cloudy weather.

2. Physical barriers.

These may be due to inadequate staff, faulty procedures, inaccuracy in processing and
delivery of communication, loss of documents, fills, and failures of staff to follow the
procedures laid down etc. These could be classified into two:-
i). Noise:- A part from the ordinary noise from loud vehicles or blaring from loud
speakers or telephones noise also refers to all kind of interface like illegible handwriting
emerged copies of duplicate type receipt or telephone connections.
ii) Time and Distance: The distance between a transmitter and receiver is a barrier.
Sometimes gaps occur in communication between people spreading in different shifts.
Seating arrangement in the room can also become barrier to effective communication. For
whichever position the employees may be occupying they want eye contact with each
other. Sometimes background noise, whether in a face-to-face meeting on either end of
the telephone, reduces the audibility of the spoken words. Also, if the listener is too far
from the speaker, he may not be able to hear him, in which the distance is the barrier.

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Similarly, the time taken for the message to reach to its destination can become a barrier,
e.g. a telegram delivered too late.

3. Psychological barriers.

[a] A person of weak hearing or eyesight cannot always receive the communication
in
full.

[b] The age of the listener puts its own limitations on his ability to receive messages.
One may be too young or too old to understand certain things.

[c] A person’s educational level governs his understanding. Some background

Knowledge is required to understand certain things.

[d] There are gender barriers too. Boys and girls in general have their own areas of
specialization where they understand faster. Boys are more outdoors oriented
while girls tend to take major interest in house work. A boy who is told to do
a “girl’s” job may put a psychological barriers.

[e] A wandering mind cannot fully gather the inputs given to it. While roving is
a natural tendency of the mind and the attention of a listener is limited, there
may be causes of inattention too. These may be visual or audio distractions-
gaudy pictures or songs in the neighborhood.
[f] Ideological loyalties may form a barrier to communication. One may have a
political party membership, a philosophical principle [like hedonism, i.e
devotion to sensory enjoyment], a religious affiliation that have already bound
the
way one thinks. Such a person may not be receptive to the ideas counter to his
ideology.
[g] Loyalty to a brand or organization is also a barrier. One who is loyal to one
brand may not be receptive to a rival product’s ad. One may not be receptive
to
the ideas counter to his ideology.

[h] Emotional states of a person can act as barriers. If one is in a fit of anger, he
may not listen to reason. He may also find it difficult to communicate soberly

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 with a person who has not contributed to his anger. There is a spillover effect-
the
emotion generated by one transaction spill over into an unrelated transaction.

[i] One’s prejudices acts as an hindrance to reason. A prejudice is a judgment

formed with out proper information. One may have a radical prejudice, a caste
prejudice and so on. This is the opposite of an open mind. A liberal education
is
meant to remove irrational notions which stay on as prejudice.

[j] Personality limitations put a barrier, too. These are similar to ideological
barriers, as some personalities are naturally attracted to certain ideologies.
However, personality variations are far too numerous. One’s aspirations,
viewpoints, analyses make one open or closed to certain messages. One bent
into a
job for livelihood may not listen to the advantages of entrepreneurship.

[k] Fixed images about other people stand as barriers to see them on in a new
role.
A comedian in as a hero of a firm may not be acceptable to an audience which
sees him typed in comedy roles.

[l] Poor retention power is a barrier. If one fails to take timely notes when
instructions are given, hoping to remember them all, one has perhaps given
away a
part of the communication.
4. Semantic and language barriers
Semantic is the study of how words convey meanings. What happens if the
speaker/writer means one thing and the listener/reader takes it in another meaning?
The context changes the meaning of the word. One has to ask, is the word conveyed in
its proper context? Words are indeed so tricky to use that one can hardly ever convey
the same thing to all the receivers in given words. The words generate different
meanings in different minds, according to their previous associations and language
levels. Literary texts, created by master writers and ready by experts critics, are
continually open to reinterpretations. Some of these, conflict with each other.
5. Information overload

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 Information passed on especially in the age of information that we are in can be too
much such that it poses difficulties in sieving the important from the mass of
information. It therefore appropriate to communicate precisely and only the needed
information at a time
6. Restrictive environment.
The flow of information is sometimes so restricted that it becomes a barrier, this is
especially so in the organization has a tall and in flexible organization structure such
that by the time tha massage moves from the top to the bottom and vice versa it may
suffer distortion or be overtaken by time.

Principles/ qualities of effective communication (the C’s of Communication)

Not everything purported to be communication is effective. For effective communication

there are rules and guidelines which differ from one setting to another. They are
otherwise known as qualities of communication or six C’S of communication.
1. Clarity
This is divided into
a. Clarity of thought
b. Clarity of expression
a.Clarity of thought
- This is important when the idea is being generated in the mind of the sender
- At this point, three points should be checked upon:
i. What is the objective of the communication?
- To warn, educate, congratulate
ii. What is to be communicated?
- Example- a song, play, poem
iii. Which medium is appropriate for the purpose of communication?
Examples- letters, photographs, interviews etc
b. Clarity of expression
The following should be considered
i. Avoid jargon
Jargon is a special language of trade, certain profession or field of study e.g medicine,
business, law and only understood and used by people from such fields. It therefore
creates a scenario of difficult understanding to those who are not from that field.
ii. Avoid ambiguity
An ambiguous message is one that contains words that have more than one meaning.
This may encourage misinterpretation of the words.
Example: The word dispense could mean both i) to prepare medicine

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 ii) to dismiss someone
iii. Use short sentences
Short sentences area easier to comprehend for they are not complex and so not
demand greater concentration as is the case for long ones
iv. Use of simple words
Simple words tend to be more effective for they are easily understood and are interpreted
correctly
Example: Use of the word ‘before’ instead of ‘prior to’.

v. Use of concrete expression

Concrete expressions create visual images that are easy to register and remember. This
can be achieved by avoiding being too general or vague in your expressions.
Example: you can say, that toy is cheap for it costs Two hundred shillingsh / instead of
plainly saying ‘that toy is cheap’.

2. Conciseness
One should be straight to the point. The words and phrases chosen should give the
intended message in its intended context in the most exact meaning. The flow of
words and language should bring the receiver as close as possible to the meaning and
as little room as possible should be left to the receiver for interpretation
Be as brief as possible but not at the expense of clarity, correctness or courtesy
How to achieve conciseness
i. Avoid repetition
Example: Me, I am thanking you-…………..”
ii. Include only relevant facts and details
iii.Organize you message well e.g it should hold together.
iv.Avoid wordy expressions, figures of speech and ambiguous words.

3. Consideration
In your message, you should always show consideration for the reader or listener. This
can be done in the following ways.
a. Impact integrity to your message.
- Ethical principles of sincerity and fair treatment should be observed.
b. Emphasize positive and pleasant statement
- in case where one has to send a message of regret, use positive and pleasant words.
e.g ‘Thank you for your application for a course in Micro- Finance; you are however
advised that the commencement date is July nest year….”

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4. Courtesy
This calls for a considerate and friendly attitude towards the other , the receiver. The
following points may assist in promoting courtesy.
i. Answer the letters promptly or respond to the message promptly.
ii. Omit negative expressions such as ‘ we regret’ instead use friendly statements.
iii.Apologize sincerely for an omission and thank generously for any favour
done.
5.Completeness
Complete presentation of facts and details in any business communication.
- Incomplete communication leads to ineffectiveness of the action to be taken,
irrelevancy, misinterpretation and misunderstanding of the message. This is
because it leaves a number of questions unanswered.
- The message should be organized in such a way that the reader/ listener is not
in doubt about the details contained in it.
- Include all relevant details when sending a message
- Check on the 5w.s - why? What? Where? Who? When?
6. Correctness
This simply means:
- Giving correct facts / statement/ arguments etc.
- Sending the message at the correct time.
Send the message in the correct style/ medium/ channel

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Give a brief explanation of the term Communication.
2. With the help of a diagram describe the process of communication.
3. Senders of messages have an intended meaning of their message, however, rarely
are the messages received/interpreted as intended. Justify this assertion
4. Communicate as members of an organization or perish. Discuss
5. Students fail in their exams many times because of their in ability to use the Cs of
communication. Using practical examples in sentences prove the correctness of
this assertion?

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