DIRE DAWA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING ENGINEERING

CHAPTER I Historical Development of Digital Cartography 2015/2016

Chapter I Historical Development of Digital Cartography

1.1. Introduction of Digital Cartography

Cartography dates back thousands of years to a time before paper or Cartography has a history of
several thousand years , but the main visual display principles were developed during the paper
era and thus many of today’s digital cartographers still use the terminology, conventions, and
techniques from the paper era. With some right it can be claimed to be one of the earliest
branches of science. All the way through its history, cartography has also had an intimate
relationship with geometry. People have created maps since early civilization, but only recently
have digital mapping tools like Google Earth and Maps made it easy to build sophisticated and
interactive maps that can be disseminated to hundreds of millions of people online.
Digital cartography is the product that computers and automatic technology permeated
into the field of cartography. The main task of digital cartography is map-making using digital
technology. Digital cartography has many faces, for some it is the use of automated techniques to
produce a finished map from a digital data base. For others it is the automation of the mapping
process to achieve greater efficiencies of production. It can mean the availability of base
information in digital form that permits the quick and easy preparation of thematic maps. For
those in resource managing agencies, it often means the availability of digital data that enables
the modeling or analysis of complex spatial Problems. Digital Cartography involves the creation
and analyses of maps through the use of computers. As such, Geographical Information Systems
(GIS) are an integral tool for Cartography.
The main purpose of digital cartography based on fundamental geographic information is to
explore the knowledge process from all aspects, and solve various problems that exist in the
mapping process. Therefore, it is required to build digital cartographic systems based on
fundamental geographic information under the constraint of corresponding cartographic rules
and national fundamental scaled topography; provide scientific basis and tools for the
transformation from spatial data to cartographic data, realize the change from data to maps, and
successfully solve a series problems that exist in the process of data-map transformation.
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Traditional maps display a geographical environment on a scale in statically, while digital

cartography took the job forward by creating maps using computers that boasted of many
additional interactive features such as rollover information box, zooming and clickable icons
with hyperlinks. Though the use of compass and other advanced magnetic storage devices
allowed people to create more accurate maps, store and manipulate them digitally in the early
days of map making, it was only in the 20th century that advanced electronic technology brought
a revolution in digital cartography and computer mapping tools. Digital Cartography based on
Geographic Information Systems results in highly flexible, scalable, cost-efficient and adaptive
creation and analyses of maps through the use of computers.

The field of digital cartography is dynamic and challenging at this stage of development. The
user community is steadily expanding and new applications are continually emerging that require
more data and better software. It is an exciting era, and the Survey engineering is proud to play a
leadership role in the field of digital cartography. Digital cartography is providing two distinct
products to satisfy the function of traditional cartography. These are:
a). The digital database is replacing the printed map as the storage medium for geographic
information
b). Cartographic visualization on many different media

Changeover to computer mapping

Personalities were critically important in the 1960s and early 1970s - individual interests
determined the direction and focus of research and development in computer cartography
(Rhind, 1988). Impetus for change began in two communities:

1. Scientists wishing to make maps quickly to see the results of modeling, or to display
data from large archives already in digital form, e.g. census tables

o quality was not a major concern

o SYMAP was the first significant package for this purpose, released by the
Harvard Lab in 1967
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CHAPTER I Historical Development of Digital Cartography 2015/2016

2. Cartographers seeking to reduce the cost and time of map production and editing

o hardware costs limited interest in this technology prior to 1980 to the major
mapping agencies
o the costs of computing have dropped dramatically, by an order of magnitude
every six years
 the development of the microcomputer and the launch of the IBM PC in
1983 have had enormous influence
o an early belief that the entire map-making process could be automated diminished
by 1975 because of difficulties of generalization and design
 Has resurfaced in the context of Expert Systems where the computer
chooses the proper techniques based on characteristics of the data, scale,
map purpose, etc.
 today, far more maps are made by computer than by hand
o now few mapmakers are trained cartographers
 also, it is now clear that once created, digital data can serve purposes other than map-
making, so it has additional value

Like traditional cartography, digital cartography combine science, technical skill, and
aesthetics to display information spatially, but the information they display is radically different,
the map itself is dynamic, thematic, changeable and has become an instrument of discovery.
Quick updates of data, more users creating maps, and an increasingly user-friendly mechanism to
display information graphically are some of the advantages available with digital cartography.
With time, digital cartography has taken strides to become better, thereby offering modern
businesses a lot of benefits as follows:

 Help visitors find your branch office locations: You can easily embed interactive online
maps in your website that would help your customers to know about store locations all
over the world, and help them reach any particular store with ease.
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 Easy marketing in trade shows: If you are participating in a trade show, you can use
digital cartography to help your potential clients locate your booth in the trade show or to
guide them to the venue via an interactive street image.
 Using interactive image maps for offline use: You can easily make your offline
multimedia presentations on the intranet or CDROM more engaging and interesting by
using interactive image maps.
 Make the maps more informative and interactive: With digital cartography at hand, you
can add labels, logos and icons to specific points, show routes with curves or lines, and
add text descriptions in tool tip or info boxes. All these elements make the maps more
easy to follow and interactive in nature.
 Other user-friendly elements of digital cartography: Elements like map legends, map
chart and zoom function in digital maps make them a preferred choice over traditional
paper maps.
 Floor plans for real estate dealers: For those in the real estate business, interactive maps
for floor plans of a building or mouse over boxes showing information related to homes
for sale and their prices can serve a lot.
 Benefits for tourism industry: People looking to book their vacations often search for
information like the best deals, the easiest route to reach a destination, any specials and
discounts on offer, cheap air fares etc. Using digital cartography, you can show all these
information via various interactive features, thereby making it easier for travelers to get
the required data at a glance.
 Advantages for colleges and universities: Showing campus details and sharing
information about various courses and their venues becomes easy with digital maps.
That's how educational institutions can benefit a lot from the use of digital cartography.
1.2. Accumulation of Hard copy maps
Accumulation is summation of something; therefore accumulation of hard copy map is
collection of hard copy (paper) map that used as a source of data for digital mapping. Hard copy
is a type of material suitable for direct use, meaning that the user can read the material directly,
rather than having to process it through a computer or some other technology. The most classic
example of a hard copy is printed material on paper. There are some advantages to a hard copy
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CHAPTER I Historical Development of Digital Cartography 2015/2016

for reproductions hard copies are often preferable to electronic versions. A hard copy can also be
read by anyone at any time, as it requires no assistance from external devices. A hard copy is not
subject to the failure of an electronic system, and while it can be physically lost or damaged, it
cannot be corrupted or lost in the same way that a computer document can. For this reason, many
people generate electronic and hard copy versions of important material such as literary
manuscripts.
For the majority of us, maps represent a useful tool which we often use in daily life be it while
navigating new hiking trails or when we are looking for a specific landmark, shopping centre or
street name in an unfamiliar town or city. Common road atlas is now being replaced with more
sophisticated and interactive digital forms which in some vehicles are now being built in as
standard features. Printed maps are used to portray the whole Earth’s surface or a part of it on a
flat surface. The term “map” actually refers to the mathematical meaning of transferring
information from one form into another. Maps are still the main source of data for GIS systems.
Maps are often out of date because they have to be printed and therefore the date of publication
is the latest date of accuracy. They also show only a situation that is static and is a reflection of
one section in time only. Printed maps have four general roles to play today. Paper (printed)
maps remain in widespread use because of their transportability, their reliability, ease of use, and
the straightforward application of printing technology that they entail. They are also amenable to
conveying straightforward messages and supporting decision making. Yet the increasing detail of
our understanding of the natural environment and the accelerating complexity of society mean
that the messages that mapping can convey are increasingly sophisticated
a. The first role is that of displaying data. Maps display information in a meaningful way, in
other words, maps provide information that is directed for a specific use
b. Maps also useful stores of data in the form of selected information about the map area.
c. maps show boundaries of areas and land uses that cannot be discerned from merely
surveying the landscape and
d. Most importantly, maps can be used to analyse. One of the most useful advantages of
having printed hard copy) maps of the same area over periods of time.
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The purpose of a map is to provide a meaningful picture of reality. A map, therefore, can be a
particularly useful guide in the orientation of terrain, as well as conveying other multi-faceted
information through supplementary annotations. The map is the basic feature for numerous
applications in the Geosciences: Geology, Tectonics, Geophysics, Seismology, Geothermics,
Geomorphology, Geochemistry, Volcanology, Marine Sciences, etc.

Limitations of Paper Maps

 Fixed scale
 Fixed extent
 Static view
 Flat and hence limited for 3D visualization
 Only presents ‘complete’ world view
 Map producer-centric

1.3. Automation of Cartography

This will demonstrate how new technologies in cartographic environment integrate acquisition,
management and representation techniques for georefencing data processing. Moreover, there is
an ever-growing demand for a more “representative” and “world widespread “digital
cartography. A major emphasis of the cartographer has been the development of a digital
cartography program applying automated techniques to the cartographic process. This approach
offers the attractive features of reduced manual effort, quick response, high precision, and the
versatility to generate products of various scales, projections, feature combinations, and output
media. Cartographic production today is undertaken predominantly on computers and most often
by using Geographical Information Systems (GIS). In automated cartography one of the major
interests for the user community is the growing availability of cartographic data in digital form.
Whether the data are to serve as a base for the graphic presentation of other data or to serve as
the principal input for spatial analyses, digital cartographic data are valuable to a wide
community of users. One of significant benefits of using GIS or computer mapping programs for
map production is an iterative mapping improvement.
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Cartography can provide fundamental geographical information for Geographic Information

Systems (GIS). Based upon geographic databases, GIS completely reflects the integration of the
transportation and feedback of information, including the quick acquirement, storage,
transformation, analysis and usage of the information about geographic environment. That is the
most effective way for people’s spatial cognition. There is no doubt that GIS as the development
of cartography in the new era is an important part of cartography. General cartographic software
such as CorelDraw, Freehand, Photoshop etc could only handle some graph or image data, not
geographic information data though exclusive cartographic software such as MapGIS,
AutoCAD, MicroStation etc could be used for mapping. Through the study on the automation of
cartography and the design of professional digital cartographic software, not only the automatic
transformation from spatial data to cartographic database of geographic information is possible,
but also the mapping time for transformation from traditional cartographic rules to expert
knowledge integrated into cartographic system could be shortened effectively, thus more delicate
map products can be produced.
Cartographic Production System (CPS) is a set of automated cartographic tools based on the
Arc Info Geographic Information System (GIS). CPS is an application developed to take care of
every facet of map production from database management to high quality output. When
cartographic publishers turned to GIS-based solutions to produce maps, atlases and other
cartographic documents; they expected to obtain the following:
a). higher productivity through automation,
b).flexibility in deriving new products and
c). more secure storage of the basic production data.
The implementation of automated cartography is aimed not only at the development of digital
products but also it improved efficiencies and economies of operation.
The ready availability of computer peripherals like monitors, printers, scanners, analytic
stereo plotters, accessibility of computer programs for database management, correct image
visualization and processing, as well as proper spatial analysis had made the entire process of
map making much easier. Maps to address the needs of new industries were possible with such
technology by placing spatially located variables on the existing maps to create newer ones with
enhanced features and potentials. No wonder that digital maps serve as useful guides for
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conveying multi-faceted information through various interactive features, which in turn make
them a preferred choice over their traditional counterparts. The recent development of computer
and information processing method has made it possible to make maps directly from airphotoes
by digital processing. This new method for map making is called digital mapping and several
systems for Digital mapping have been developed in the world. A variety of computer-generated
maps was plotted. These maps illustrate the position, areal extent, and class of the features in
each theme. When overlaid, the maps show the interrelationships between the different themes.
Although there are several advantages in the digital mapping the most important point is
utilization of digital map data derived from the digital mapping. Therefore, first of all
considering the utilization of digital map data is the most fundamental principle. The digital map
data should be used for various purposes those are road management, utility facilities,
management, transportation control and so forth. Updating digital maps is generally a lot easier
and a much quicker process. Digital maps became useful tools through the requirements of
scientists who wished to produce quick maps to visualize digital modeling. By creating digital
maps, normal map production time and costs, including editorial costs are drastically reduced,
however, before the development of faster and more efficient computers; the cost of hardware to
produce digital maps was also high.
Computers give us great flexibility in using different projections and coordinate
systems with unconventional orientations and origins. Application of automated cartography in
designing and production of topographic maps, thematic maps and cartographic representation
other than maps has been increased from year to year.

Digital cartographers and geographic information professionals are working behind the scenes to
collect up-to-date information and display them on maps and computers to help a diverse range
of users do an infinite number of things. Through the study and implementation of automation
cartography and the design of professional digital cartographic software, automatic
transformation from spatial data to cartographic database of geographic information is possible,
but also the mapping time for transformation from traditional cartographic rules to expert
knowledge integrated into cartographic system could be shortened effectively, thus more delicate
map products can be produced. The database mainly includes geographic data, cartographic data,
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CHAPTER I Historical Development of Digital Cartography 2015/2016

cartographic rules and cartographic-assisted information. The work in Digital cartographic

features is intended to produce a comprehensive and compatible set of features for the user.
There are three required concepts that must be defined:
a).Feature - a defined entity of interest that is not further subdivided.
b).Attribute - a defined characteristic of a feature. The only mandatory attribute shall be location.
c).Attribute Value - a specific quality or quantity assigned to an attribute.
The primary advantage of digital maps is their comparative cost, cheap to produce and faster
to produce. Digital maps can also be tailored to specific requirements of the user, which includes
ease of perspective change or scale changes.

Advantages of digital maps over paper

• Easier to produce

• Easier to store

• merge data from diverse sources

• change scale and geometry of the feature

• skip costly steps that manual cartographic techniques require

• Easier to distribute

 Dimensional stability
 greater compiling flexibility
 more freedom to try alternative designs,
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Disadvantages of Digital maps

 Are often not practical for many outdoor activities unless pre-loaded into portable devices
which can often be unreliable, or isolated rural settlements.
 difficulty in producing one complete digital world map or full-scale maps because of the
costs involved and the mass of information that would need to be stored and accessed.
1.4 Expensive Nature of Map Making
Map is a graphical representation of the spatial structure of physical and/or cultural
environments. Map is abstractions since they present the real world in a simplified fashion at a
reduced scale.
Maps are used for:
1. the display of spatial data
2. the analysis of spatial data
Mapping process
 Planning stage
 needs assessment
 project specifications are established (cost/time)
 Data acquisition stage
 primary data/secondary data
 Cartographic production stage
 design
 drafting
 proofing
 printing
 Product delivery stage
As it is stated above mapping profession it needs production prossess, so that it could be
expensive due to some reasons. Mainly due to the following conditions map production will have
expensive nature.
 Map projection :it is systematically transferring 3-D earth to a 2-D map without loss any
accuracy
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 Including all elements of map based on the purpose of map

 Variation of maps purpose from time to time
 Arrangement of maps image elements to facilitate communication it needs good map
design
 Difficulty of maps graphic design and costly of aesthetic approach for map development
 Continuously change of features in the earth.
Generally all the above points collectively or individually they will be causative for
costly of map making.
1.5. Needs for Map Revisions
The need of making map revision arises due to the addition or removal of terrain features.
The amount or percentage of features added or disturbed on the surface, plus their rate of change,
may assist in the selection of the method to make revision. Digital map revision begins by
digitizing the source map. New features are added, features that no longer exist are deleted and
changed features are amended to reflect the new situation. The results of the statistical analysis
done show that 95% of the time, features will be less than 8.5 mm from their true positions, and
only 5% of the time they will be more than 8.5 mm from their true positions. It was concluded
that ground survey methods are sufficiently economical compared to other source of data (aerial
or satellite imagery) in the revision of large-scale digital maps. The rapid changes in the map
contents and the need for up-to-date maps have compelled surveyors to focus their attention to
the development of faster and more economical map revision processes.
A map of an area to be revised, it has to be outdated. The information whether the landscape
has undergone changes or not can be obtained from different sources such as:
a).Field check of existing map as compared to the real situation of the landscape
b).The collection of changes reported by other authorities that use the map such as planners,
engineers, travellers, etc.
c).A new set of aerial photograph (in case of large/medium scale maps) and satellite imagery (in
case of small-scale maps), by comparing the information on these with the existing features on
the map.
Categories of Map Revision Systems
There are three categories of map revision. These are:
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I. Continuous revision
Continuous revision is not limited to certain time interval. The frequency of revision is
determined by the amount of changes. For areas where changes in general are infrequent and
minor in nature the continuous revision method becomes less efficient because uneconomic units
of work would be surveyed. The method is applicable particularly for large-scale maps.
II.Cyclic revision
This is carried out in fixed time intervals. The major disadvantages of cyclic revision is in failure
to take into account of variations in the rate of development between different areas or with
different periods of time and inability of the mapping organization to meet users needs once the
map begin to get out of date. This method of revision is applied particularly to maps at medium
and small scales.
III. Periodic revision
This revision system combines some of the advantages of the continuous and cyclic methods but
at the same time provides for a substantial reduction in the cost, which would be incurred if the
continuous revision method were applied throughout areas of relatively slow change. The
revision is related to an order of priority, the priority being determined by the urgency of the
demand or the rate of change and not by fixed period of time.
Methods of Map Revision
There are three main methods applicable for map revision: Photogrammetric method, Satellite
techniques and Ground survey methods.
a).Photogrammetric Techniques:
The situation regarding map revision in Africa including Ethiopia from aerial photographs is
costly and not readily available hence slow down the exercise of map revision.
b). Satellite Techniques:
The advantages of using satellite images for map revisions are:
I. They have a global coverage; fewer images are required to cover an area and hence reduce the
number of control points required.
II.Possibility of getting the data of an area after a short period of time.
The satellite technique has a problem in identification and delineation of minor linear features
e.g. streams, footpaths, bridges, power lines, telecommunication lines etc. Point features such as
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CHAPTER I Historical Development of Digital Cartography 2015/2016

scattered trees and individual buildings cannot be positively identified due to their relatively
small dimensions compared to the resolution of the satellite images. Therefore satellite data can
be used in map revision for small and medium scales only.
c). Ground Survey Method:
The method is more useful and economical for revision of large-scale maps but it is impractical
for small-scale maps. The method has the advantage of enabling the observation of information
directly from the ground measurements instead of an image, but has the disadvantage of being
time consuming and costly in term of manpower required to capture the data. Since the revised
map in this study was a large-scale map, ground survey method was used in collecting data for
the revision. A hand held GPS receiver combined with offsets would be ideal but due to lack of
supply, a combination of bearing and distance method with chain survey method has been used.
Bearing and distance have been used to fix the controls for picking of the new details and also to
pick some of important details e.g. buildings like the library, department of architecture building
etc. Other details e.g. electric and telephone poles were picked by chain survey method. The two
methods have been used because they are easy to carry out and the surveyed area is small enough
to make these techniques suitable.
1.6. Summaries
I. The field of digital cartography is dynamic and challenging at this stage of development. The
user community is steadily expanding and new applications are continually emerging that require
more data and better software. It is an exciting era, and the Geological Survey is proud to play a
leadership role in the field of digital cartography.
II.Both paper and digital maps have an important role to play in many economic, environmental,
and social activities.
III.In order for the digital cartography to be effective, cartographer has established the following
objectives:
a). Create, manage, utilize, and distribute the cartographic and geographic digital data base for
multipurpose needs.
b).Coordinate digital cartographic and geographic activities and provide leadership to the Federal
government in the development and application of spatial data.
3). Implement digital techniques in cartographic and geographic operations.
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Establish a major capability for digital geo graphic and cartographic research and development.
IV). A major function of a map is not simply to marshal and transmit known information about
the world, but also to create or reinforce a particular message
V). huge difference between traditional cartography and modern digital cartography is that a map
is only a cartographic representation data available in an underlying geo-database. A
cartographic representation has great potential for interactive visual analysis, making
symbolization on different attributes of spatial entities a possibility. Different symbolization and
media techniques can be used and the results can be distributed over a network using different
software. Computer and web technologies bring the revolution in cartography in the form of:
_ Digital map production
_ Distributed spatial and cartographic databases
_ Multimedia computer graphic for visualization
_ GIS analysis
_ Internet mapping

1.7. Exercise
1. Discuss with the historical development of digital cartography and explain the triggered factor
for the emergency of digital cartography.

2. Why and how hard copy of map accommodated in paper sheet.

3. Explain the relationship digital mapping Vs automated cartography.

4. Map production is expensive process. Hence as a cartographer what you will do to make cost
of mapping optimal.

5. Discuss with Categories and methods of map revision.

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Reference

1 DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHICAL SYSTEM BASED ON FUNDAMENTAL GEOGRAPHIC

INFORMATION Haihong ZHU , Hong Wang lin Li

2.
A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY R.B. Southard
And K.E. Anderson U.S. Geological Survey National Center Reston, Virginia 22092
3. THE BENEFITS OF COMPUTER ASSISTED CARTOGRAPHY FOR MAP READING Joel
L. Morrison Department of Geography University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin 53706
4. Brewer, Cynthia A. (2008), Designed Maps: A Sourcebook for GIS Users. Redlands,
California:ESRI Press. ISBN: 978 1589481602
5.Slocum,Terry A. etal (2009),Thematic Cartography and Geovisualization. Upper Saddle River,
NJ:Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN:9780132298346