Establishment of the falling

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film evaporation model and
correlation of the overall heat
Research
transfer coefficient
Cite this article: Fang J, Li K, Diao M. 2019 Jing Fang, Kaixuan Li and Mengyu Diao
Establishment of the falling film evaporation
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model and correlation of the overall heat transfer Chemical Engineering Department, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300132,
People’s Republic of China
coefficient. R. Soc. open sci. 6: 190135.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190135 JF, 0000-0002-9327-8735; KL, 0000-0001-6057-5066

In order to study the heat transfer of the falling film evaporator

with phase change on both sides, in this paper we built the
mathematical model and the physical model where the liquid
Received: 13 February 2019
film inside the tube is laminar and turbulent. The film
Accepted: 11 April 2019 thickness of the condensate at different axial positions, total
condensate volume and velocity distribution, and temperature
distribution of condensate outside the tube can be obtained by
calculating the proposed model. Meanwhile, the liquid film
Subject Category: thickness, velocity distribution and temperature distribution
inside the tube were obtained by numerical simulation by
Engineering
considering the influence of the liquid film with different
compositions on the heat transfer during fluid flow. With
Subject Areas: ethanol–water as the system, the overall heat transfer coefficient
chemical engineering/energy and heat transfer quantity of the falling film evaporator were
obtained by the calculation of the model. The accuracy of the
Keywords: proposed model was confirmed by experiments. The model
falling film, model, numerical simulation, and the calculation of heat transfer proposed in this paper have
heat transfer coefficient enormous significance for the basic data and theoretical
guidance of the heat transfer performance prediction and
operational optimization of the evaporator.

Author for correspondence:

Jing Fang
e-mail: ctstfj@163.com 1. Introduction
The falling film evaporation has widely concerned various
scholars for its short residence time, small temperature
difference and high heat transfer coefficient. It has likewise
become a hot topic in the field of heat transfer research. Further
exploring the phenomenon of falling film flow has great
significance for the research of enhanced heat transfer. Thermal
properties are critical for enhanced heat transfer [1 –5]. The
research on the heat transfer of falling film evaporation is
categorized into three: theoretical research, experimental
research and numerical simulation (table 1).

& 2019 The Authors. Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits
unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited.
 Table 1. Nomenclature. 2

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nomenclature greek symbols

cp heat capacity of condensate, J kg21 K21 d liquid film thickness, m

22
G gravity acceleration, m s m condensate viscosity, Pa s
22 21
H heat transfer coefficient, W m K s surface tension, N m21
h0 condensation phase change heat transfer G wetting rate, kg m21 s21
coefficient, W m22 K21
hi evaporation phase change heat transfer t the minimum wetting rate of the evaporation
22 21
coefficient, W m K tube, kg m21 s21
K overall heat transfer coefficient, W m22 K21

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kw thermal conductivity of the tube wall,
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W m22 K21
ko thermal conductivity of the condensate,
W m22 K21
ki thermal conductivity of the raw material,
W m22 K21
m0 imported liquid mass flow rate, kg s21
Pr Prandtl number of condensate
qw interface heat flow rate, W m21
Rel in-tube liquid film Reynolds number
Rec outer tube condensate Reynolds number
Ri the inner radius of the tube, m
R0 the outer radius of the tube, m
R latent heat of condensation, kJ kg21
Ts steam-saturation temperature, 8C
Tw inner wall temperature of the inner tube, 8C
Tow outer wall temperature of the outer tube, 8C
Tsi ethanol– water solution liquid film outer layer
temperature, 8C
Tso condensate outer layer temperature, 8C
ux axial velocity, m s21
um body flow rate, m s21
V radial speed, m s21
W the condensate per unit time on the outer wall
of the tube, kg s21

In 1916, Nusselt [6] revealed the liquid film flow regular pattern and laid the foundation for the heat
transfer research for the smooth vertical tube surface. However, there is a great difference between this
ideal flow process and the actual application. There is a substantial error between the predicted result
and the experimental value. The result and the experimental value are larger than the theoretical value.
Colburn & Hougen [7] proposed the basic theory of heat and mass transfer, pointing out that the
energy conservation equation and the mass transfer equation have similar forms. The heat transfer
correlation can be used to calculate mass transfer and confirm that the performances of heat transfer
and mass transfer are almost in the same order of magnitude. Whitman [8] proposed the two-film
theory, but it did not consider the mass transfer effect, and the phase interface is not strictly
thermodynamic equilibrium.
 Colburn [9] assumes that under the condition of no tangential shear stress at the vapour –liquid 3
interface, the critical Reynolds number Recr of the liquid film flow from the laminar to turbulent flow

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is close to 2000 in the full tube flow, and a semi-empirical relationship is proposed. At present, there
is no uniform standard for the mechanism of the influence of momentum, heat and mass transfer on
the liquid film. Lorentz & Yung [10] and Gambaryan-Roisman & Stephan [11] dealt with the study of
heat transfer enhancement in falling film on the ribbed surface, but there are almost no systematic
data. Struve [12] studied the liquid film in the steam heating tube and obtained the correlation under
the corresponding conditions. Herbert & Sterns [13] experimentally studied the falling film
evaporation on the resistance wire heating inner tube liquid film and obtained the analogous
correlation. Chun & Seban [14] and Fujita & Ueda [15] conducted experimental studies on the liquid
film heated by the electric heating tube and corresponding correlation, respectively. Schnabel &
Schlunder [16] analysed the experimental data of several researchers to obtain the heat transfer
coefficient correlation. Shah [17 –20] analysed the 136 datasets from 67 sources to obtain the scope of
each heat transfer correlation.

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Evaporation occurs at the surface of the liquid film when the multi-component liquid film receives
heat during the falling process. But when the temperature of the tube wall contacted by the liquid
film is higher than its own boiling point, a relatively sharp nuclear boiling occurs on the liquid– solid
surface. Dhir [21,22] performed a numerical simulation study on the nucleate boiling state of the
liquid film. However, since the flow of the liquid film is extremely unstable under boiling conditions
and it is difficult to discuss, research in this field is not sufficient. Hoke & Chen [23] obtained the
mass transfer coefficient of the evaporation process of the binary mixture by the momentum equation
and the composition equation simultaneously. However, the energy equation is not seen in the model,
the influence of temperature is neglected and the obtained mass transfer coefficient is not accurate.
The studies only on a single component ignore the mass transfer of multi-component fluids. Most
studies focus only on unilateral heat transfer of the vertical tube, while the falling film evaporation is
bilateral heat transfer. The error between the obtained heat transfer coefficient and the actual is large.
Therefore, research on the bilateral heat transfer of falling film evaporation needs to be solved, which
will provide theoretical guidance for the design of falling film evaporator.
In this paper, the mathematical model and the physical model were established. The thickness
distribution, velocity distribution and temperature distribution of the liquid film inside and outside
the tube were obtained by numerical simulation. The calculation formula of the overall heat transfer
coefficient of the falling film evaporator was obtained and verified by experiments.

2. Heat transfer model

The saturated water vapour is used to heat the saturated ethanol – water solution which is in the tube.
Different components in ethanol –water will evaporate under different degrees at different tube
lengths. Therefore, the actual evaporation of the solution is complicated. To simplify the model
analysis, some minor factors are ignored, some assumptions are made, and the physical and
mathematical models are set up.
As shown in figure 1, the fluid in the tube is the ethanol – water solution. The fluid outside the tube is
water vapour, and the outer wall surface of the inner tube is water vapour condensate film. This section
is meant for the phase change of the vertical tube. Based on the boundary layer theory, the physical and
mathematical models of the liquid film are established by the Cartesian coordinate system. The liquid
film velocity distribution, temperature distribution, film thickness and heat transfer characteristics on
both sides of the vertical pipe were studied.

2.1. Out-of-tube falling film model

The fluid outside the falling film tube is saturated water vapour, and there is no mass transfer. The
vapour changed to condensation liquid by releasing heat, so the equation is mainly established for the
condensate, and the following assumptions are made for the condensate flow: (1) constant property;
(2) ignore the subcooling and inertial force of the liquid film; (3) ignore the vapour density; (4) the
surface of the liquid film is flat without fluctuation; (5) the gas flow rate is small; ignore its effect on
the liquid film; and (6) the temperature inside the film is linearly distributed, and it is considered that
heat transfer in the liquid film is only heated conduction.
 4
Li
0 r

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Vi
z
Le
di

do

dw
Tw
Tso
Tsi
g

Lc

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Ri

Ro
Rout

wall

Figure 1. Diagram of falling film evaporation.

As shown in figure 2, the shell side saturated water vapour changed to condensation liquid by
releasing heat, and the condensate flows downward along the outer surface of the vertical tube with a
steady laminar liquid film. It is considered that the fluid flow is in the x-direction, the velocity
distribution of the fluid is in the y-direction and the position of the liquid film immediately above the
outer wall of the inner tube is y ¼ 0, the density and viscosity of the fluid are r and m, respectively.

2.1.1. Outer tube condensate velocity distribution

Continuity equation
@u @v
þ ¼ 0: ð2:1Þ
@x @y
The equation of motion
 
@u @u dP @2u
rl u þ v ¼ þ rl g þ m 2 , ð2:2Þ
@x @y dx @y

where the subscript l indicates the liquid phase.

According to hypotheses 3 and 4 (see §2.1) and equation (2.2), it can be reduced to

@2u
rl g þ m ¼ 0: ð2:3Þ
@ y2

Boundary conditions:

(1) y ¼ 0: u ¼ 0:

du
(2) y ¼ d: ¼ 0 (ignore the effect of gas on the liquid film; ignore the shear stress).
d d
The axial velocity distribution of the steady laminar flow falling condensate can be obtained
rg
ux ¼ ð2dy  y2 Þ: ð2:4Þ
2m
The main body flow rate

rgd2
um ¼ : ð2:5Þ
3m
 y 5

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x

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Figure 2. Flow of vapour – liquid multiphase outside the tube.

Then, the amount of condensate per unit time of the outer wall

r2 gd3
w¼ : ð2:6Þ
3m
The condensate liquid film thickness
 
4mko ðTs  Tw Þx 1=4
d¼ : ð2:7Þ
r2 gr

The amount of condensate

 1=4
8 4mko r2 ðTs  Tw Þ
w ¼ pRo x5=4 , ð2:8Þ
5 gr

where ko is the thermal conductivity of the condensate, W m21 K21. According to the numerical solution
of equations (2.4) and (2.8), figure 3 is obtained. When x ¼ 0 and y ¼ 0: u ¼ 0, Ts ¼ 373.15 K, Tw ¼
371.15 K. It can be seen from the figure that in the x-direction, the liquid film speed is getting larger
and larger. The liquid film on the outer wall of the inner tube gradually increases from wall to outer
direction; however, the gradient of the liquid film thickness gradually decreases as x increases.

2.1.2. Outer tube condensate temperature distribution

Energy equation

@T @T @2T
ux þ uy ¼a 2: ð2:9Þ
@x @y @y

The above equation can be simplified according to hypothesis 6 (see §2.1) as

@2T
al ¼ 0: ð2:10Þ
@ y2

Boundary conditions:

(1) y ¼ 0: T ¼ Tow (the film temperature at the wall is considered as the wall temperature).
(2) y ¼ d: T ¼ Tso (liquid film outer layer temperature is regarded as the steam temperature).
 6

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200

u × 1000 (m s–1)
150

100

50

0
4
3 2.0
y× 2 1.5
10 3 1 1.0
(m) 0.5
0 0 x (m)

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Figure 3. Axial velocity distribution of the condensate outside the tube.

The axial temperature distribution of the falling condensate can be obtained when the steady laminar
flow is obtained
y
T ¼ T iw þ ðTso  Tow Þ: ð2:11Þ
d
Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution of the condensate outside the tube. When x ¼ 0 and y ¼ 0,
T ¼ 371.15 K; when y ¼ d, T ¼ 373.15 K. It can be seen from the figure that the liquid film temperature of
the outer wall of the inner tube gradually increases from the wall surface to the outer layer, and the
outermost layer temperature of the liquid film is the highest.

2.2. In-tube falling film model

In order to make the model easy to solve and conform to the engineering practice, some minor factors are
neglected, and the following assumptions are made:

(1) The liquid film flow is considered to be laminar and incompressible, and the maximum Re is less
than 1500. The Reynolds number of the liquid film is calculated by the standard definition
Rel ¼ 4m0 =m  2pr, where m0 is the mass flow rate of liquid phase inlet, kg s21.
(2) When the flow is turbulent, only the laminar inner layer and the turbulent layer are considered.
When the liquid film flow is in the turbulent flow, only the velocity, temperature and
concentration distribution in the inner layer of the laminar flow are considered. Among them, the
relationship between the thickness of the laminar sublayer and the liquid Reynolds number is
d=d ¼ 61:5=Re7=8 , where d is the inner diameter of the tube, in m.
(3) It is assumed that evaporation of the liquid film occurs only at the interface, and phase equilibrium is
reached at the vapour –liquid interface.
(4) Loss of liquid film heat caused by axial temperature is negligible.
(5) Consider the liquid film properties as a constant. The saturation temperature of the liquid film at a
certain pressure is the qualitative temperature.
(6) Assuming that the flash steam is stationary, there is no pressure drop in the tube, and the interface
temperature of the liquid film is approximately considered to be the flash steam temperature.

Figure 5 shows the vapour –liquid multiphase flow in the tube. The vapour– liquid multiphase flow is a
steady flow in the tube and along the x-direction, the velocity distribution changes along the y-direction.

2.2.1. Distribution of liquid film velocity in the tube

In the steady state, the continuity equation of the liquid film in the tube
@u @v
þ ¼ 0: ð2:12Þ
@x @y
 100.0 7
99.5

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T (°C)
99.0
98.5
98.0
4

)
y (m m
2

0 2.0
0.5 1.0 1.5
0
x (m)

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Figure 4. Tube condensate temperature profile.

Figure 5. Flow of vapour – liquid multiphase in the pipe.

The equation of motion
 
@u @u dP @2u
rl u þ v ¼ þ rl g þ m 2 : ð2:13Þ
@x @y dx @y

Simplified

@2u
rl g þ m ¼ 0: ð2:14Þ
@ y2

Boundary conditions:
(1) y ¼ 0: u ¼ v ¼ 0.
 
du du
(2) y ¼ d: ¼ 0 (laminar flow) and y ¼ db : ¼ 0 (laminar sublayer).
dyd dydb
The axial velocity distribution of the fluid in steady laminar flow can be obtained

rg
ux ¼ ð2dy  y2 Þ: ð2:15Þ
2m
 The Reynolds number can be abbreviated as 8
4G

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Re ¼ , ð2:16Þ
m
where G is the wetting rate, kg m21 s21.
According to equations (2.12), (2.15) and the boundary conditions, the radial velocity can be obtained
rg 2 dd
v¼ y : ð2:17Þ
2m dx

2.2.2. Liquid film temperature distribution in the tube

Energy equation
 2 
@T @T @T @T @ T @2T @2T
þ ux þ uy þ uz ¼a þ þ ð2:18Þ

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@u @x @y @z @ x2 @ y2 @ z2
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and
ki
a¼ : ð2:19Þ
rcp

In this study, the temperature change caused by the radial direction is ignored, and the energy
equation can be reduced to

@T ki @ 2 T
ux ¼ : ð2:20Þ
@ x rcp @ y2

Boundary conditions:

(1) x ¼ 0: T ¼ Ti.
@T qw
(2) y ¼ 0: ¼ (only heat conduction between liquid films).
@ ki
(3) y ¼ d: T ¼ T seq ¼ T 00s (the outer layer temperature of the liquid film is equal to the flash steam
temperature).

The temperature distribution in the liquid film in the tube is obtained by assumptions 3 and 6 (see §2.2) and
equations (2.18), (2.19) and (2.20) as shown in figure 6. In order to make the temperature change more clearly,
the y-axis coordinates range from 0.3 to 0. When x ¼ 0 and y ¼ 0, T ¼ 346.15 K; when y ¼ d, T ¼ 342.15 K.
It can be seen from figure 6 that the temperature of the liquid film is related to the film thickness. The
temperature of the innermost layer of the liquid film is the highest, and the temperature gradient is also
the largest at the innermost layer of the liquid film. The temperature fluctuation in the outer layer of the
liquid film is small, and the thickness of the liquid film is not changed much.

3. Heat transfer coefficient correlation

The Nusselt number is a parameter indicating the intensity of convective heat transfer, which is
defined as
hd
Nu ¼ : ð3:1Þ
k

For the liquid film in the laminar flow state, heat is conducted to the pipe wall through the liquid film,
and the condensation (or evaporation) heat transfer quantity is the heat conduction amount of the liquid
film layer of the microelement.
According to the Fourier formula, heat transfer tube inner wall surface temperature Tiw can be obtained
q=kw  ln R0 =Ri
T iw ¼ Tow  : ð3:2Þ
2pL
The heat transfer coefficient is expressed as
Q
h¼ : ð3:3Þ
ADT
 9

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73
72 0

T (°C)
71
70 0.1
0

m)
y (m
0.5 0.2
1.0
x (m) 1.5
2.0 0.3

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Figure 6. Tube temperature distribution.

Local heat transfer coefficient is obtained when the steam condenses (or the film evaporates) outside
the pipe wall according to the Newton cooling law and the heat conduction equation
qw ko
h¼ ¼ : ð3:4Þ
T1  T2 R ln R=ðR þ dÞ

The numerical solution of the local heat transfer coefficient is obtained by the liquid film velocity
distribution, temperature distribution and film thickness. The analytical solution of the heat transfer
coefficient is fitted according to the numerical solution.
The heat transfer amount is obtained by calculating the phase variable, and the heat transfer
coefficient is obtained.

3.1. Correlation of condensation heat transfer coefficient outside the tube

In this paper, the Reynolds number of the condensate outside the tube is in the laminar flow range. The
Nusselt theory holds that the heat transfer coefficient of the condensed phase transition of saturated water
vapour is mainly related to the physical properties and flow rate of the condensate. Therefore, the factors
which affect the condensation heat transfer coefficient of the condensate laminar flow can be expressed as
ho ¼ f ðG, r, m, k, cp Þ: ð3:5Þ

The Reynolds number and the Prandtl number of the condensate can be expressed as
4G
Rec ¼ ð3:6Þ
m
and c p ml v
Pr ¼ ¼ : ð3:7Þ
ko a

Therefore, by applying the dimensional analysis method, the following correlation can be obtained
ho ¼ aRem n
c Pr : ð3:8Þ

Considering the influence of the parameters such as the Reynolds number and the Prandtl number on
the condensation heat transfer coefficient, combining the heat transfer coefficient obtained in the model,
the correlation coefficient between the heat transfer coefficient and the Nusselt number is obtained
ho ¼ 5:32  104 Re0:1418
c Pr3:1975
l ð3:9Þ
and
d0
Nu ¼ 5:32  104 Re0:1418
c Pr3:1975
l : ð3:10Þ
kw

3.2. Correlation of evaporation heat transfer coefficient in the tube

Saturated ethanol–water undergoes phase change by absorbing heat. It is considered that the flash steam has a
downward force on the liquid film flow, which helps to enhance heat transfer. Considering various factors, the
 10
T

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7

T
T1 T1¢

T2 T2¢

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11
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4
T3 T3¢

T4 T4¢ 12
3 10
6 T
14
T

8
5

2 T
1

9
13 15

Figure 7. Falling film evaporation. 1, steam generator; 2, water tank; 4, air cooler; 6, falling film evaporator; 7, preheater; 8,
vapour – liquid separation chamber; 9, raw material tank; 11, condenser; 12, glass rotameter; 13, raw material pump; 3, 5, 10,
holding tank; 14, buffer tank; 15, vacuum pump.

evaporation heat transfer coefficient is related to the Reynolds number of the saturated liquid, the Reynolds
number of the flash steam and the physical properties of the vapour and liquid. Therefore, the factors
affecting the evaporation heat transfer coefficient of the saturated ethanol–water liquid can be expressed as

hi ¼ f ðG, r, m, k, cp Þ: ð3:11Þ

The Reynolds number and the Prandtl number of the saturated liquid can also be expressed by
equations (3.6) and (3.7)
4V
Rev ¼ : ð3:12Þ
pðd  2dÞmv

Therefore, by applying the dimensional analysis method, the following correlation can be obtained

hi ¼ aRem n
l Rev : ð3:13Þ

The heat transfer coefficient, the saturated liquid and the Reynolds number of the flash steam are
fitted to the quasi-correlation coefficient of the heat transfer coefficient. The correlation of the heat
transfer coefficient is divided into the laminar flow and turbulent flow

hi ¼ 62:09Re0:01239
l Re0:3427
v (laminar flow) ð3:14Þ

and
hi ¼ 73:38Re0:0063
l Re0:3113
v ðturbulent flowÞ: ð3:15Þ
 (a) (b) 11
40
40 exp exp

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cal 35 cal
35
30 30
25 25
Q (kW)

20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
liquid flow (l h–1) liquid flow (l h–1)

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(c) 40
exp
35 cal
30
25
Q (kW)

20
15
10
5
0
50 100 150 200 250
liquid flow (l h–1)
Figure 8. Comparison of the heat transfer with the pressure in the tube and the feed flow as variables. (a) P ¼ 50 kPa; (b) P ¼ 60 kPa;
(c) P ¼ 70 kPa.

Table 2. Equipment parameters and manipulated variables.

variable numerical value

feeding flux (l h21) 40 100 160 220

absolute pressure inside the tube (kPa) 50 60 70 80
ethanol content (mass fraction) 10% 20% 30% —
evaporation tube size (mm) outer diameter 81 inner diameter 20 tube length 2000

The corresponding Nusselt number correlation

di
Nu ¼ 62:09Re0:01239
l Re0:3427
v (laminar flow) ð3:16Þ
kw
and
di
Nu ¼ 73:38Re0:0063
l Re0:3113
v ðturbulent flowÞ: ð3:17Þ
kw

3.3. Correlation of overall heat transfer coefficient

1 1 bdi do
¼ þ þ : ð3:18Þ
h h0 kw d0 hi di
According to the phase change heat transfer coefficient, it can be fitted into equation (3.18) to obtain the
overall heat transfer coefficient of the falling film evaporator (figure 7). The results are shown in
equations (3.19) and (3.20).
 (a) (b) 12
50 50
exp exp
45

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cal 45 cal
40 40
35 35
30 30
Q (kW)

25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

10

0. 5

0. 0

0. 5

0. 0

0. 5

0. 0

0. 5
50
1

4
02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02
0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.
saturated steam volume (m3 s–1) saturated steam volume (m3 s–1)

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(c)
50
exp
45 cal
40
35
30
Q (kW)

25
20
15
10
5
0
10

0. 5

0. 0

0. 5

0. 0

0. 5

0. 0

0. 5
50
1

4
02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02
0.

0.

saturated steam volume (m3 s–1)

Figure 9. Comparison of heat transfer quantity with saturated vapour volume and ethanol content as variables. (a) 10% ethanol –
water solution; (b) 20% ethanol – water solution; (c) 30% ethanol– water solution.

When the liquid film in the tube is laminar

1 bdi di
¼ 1:88  103 Re0:1418
c Pr3:1975 þ þ 0:016 Re0:01239 Re0:3427
v : ð3:19Þ
h kw d0 d0 l

When the liquid film in the tube is turbulent

1 bdi di
¼ 1:88  103 Re0:1418
c Pr3:1975 þ þ 0:0136 Re0:0063 Re0:3113
v : ð3:20Þ
h kw d0 d0 l
where Rec is the Reynolds number of condensate outside the tube; Pr is the Prandtl number of condensate
outside the tube; Rel is the Reynolds number of the mixed liquid membrane in the tube; Rev is the
Reynolds number of flash steam in the tube.

4. Model verification
In this experiment, in order to be close to industrial applications, the saturated ethanol –water in the tube
was heated by the saturated water vapour. The heat transfer performance of the vertical tube evaporator
was analysed. The main parameters for measurement are wall temperature of four corresponding
positions inside and outside the evaporator heat exchange tube, liquid feed temperature, vapour and
liquid temperature at the outlet of the inner tube, amount and composition of flash steam, feed
temperature of saturated steam, the amount and temperature of the condensate, and the pressure
inside the tube. The equipment parameters and manipulated variables are shown in table 2.
The effects of feed flow rate, temperature difference between the internal and external pipe, ethanol
content and saturated steam heating on the heat transfer performance are investigated by theoretical
calculation and experimental methods. The overall heat transfer obtained in the two models was
 (a) (b) 13
70 70
65 exp 65 exp

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60 cal 60 cal
55 55
50 50
45 45
W (kg h–1)

40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
20

30

40

20

30

40
15

15
35

35
45

45
25

25
02

02

02

02

02

02
02

02
02

02
02

02
02

02
0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.
0.

0.
0.

0.
0.

0.
0.

0.
saturated steam volume (m3 s–1) saturated steam volume (m3 s–1)

R. Soc. open sci. 6: 190135

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(c)
70
65 exp
60 cal
55
50
W (kg h–1)

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
20

30

40
15

35

45
25
02

02

02
02

02

02
02
0.

0.

0.
0.

0.

0.
0.

saturated steam volume (m3 s–1)

Figure 10. Comparison of condensate volume with saturated water vapour content and ethanol content as variables. (a) 10%
ethanol – water solution; (b) 20% ethanol – water solution; (c) 30% ethanol – water solution.

compared. It can be found from figures 8 and 9 that the calculated values of the theoretical calculation are
slightly larger than the experimental values. This phenomenon is due to the increasing thickness of the
condensate outside the tube during falling, the thermal resistance of thickness hinders the heat transfer.
The effects of the thermal resistance of thickness, the film thickness at different axial positions of the
evaporating tube, the liquid film composition, heat transfer mode and liquid film temperature on the
physico-chemical properties are all related.
It can be seen from figures 8 and 10 that as the feed flow rate increases, the amount of condensing of
the steam outside the tube and the amount of heat transfer increase correspondingly. The main reason is
that as the feed flow rate increases, the fluid turbulence increases and the heat transfer performance
increases. As the pressure inside the heat transfer tube increases, the amount of steam condensation
and heat transfer outside the tube decreases, mainly because the saturation temperature of the raw
material increases with the pressure inside the heat transfer tube. The temperature difference between
the inside and the outside becomes larger, the heat transfer driving force is increased, and the heat
transfer effect is enhanced. It can be seen from figures 9 and 10 that as the concentration of ethanol in
the ethanol mixture in the tube is increased, the amount of condensate collected in the shell is
increased at a certain period of time. However, the change of saturated steam has less influence on
the amount of condensate. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the ethanol content in
the evaporation tube is increased, so that the average concentration of the solution is increased, which
will increase the thermal conductivity of the liquid film, so that the heat transfer effect is enhanced,
and thus, the amount of shell condensate exhibited will be increased. In addition, the effect of the
increase in the liquid film flow is enough to offset the increase in the average temperature of the
liquid film in the tube due to the increase in ethanol content and the heat transfer temperature. The
disadvantages caused by the reduction are that under certain operating conditions, the heat required
for evaporation of the liquid film in the evaporation tube is substantially constant, and the amount of
saturated steam heating is increased without changing the heat transfer effect.
 (a) (b) 14
70 70
exp exp

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60 cal 60 cal
50 50
W (kg h–1)

40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
liquid flow (l h–1) liquid flow (l h–1)

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(c)
70
exp
60 cal
50
W (kg h–1)

40

30

20

10

0
50 100 150 200 250
liquid flow (l h–1)
Figure 11. Comparison of the condensate volume with the pressure in the tube and the feed flow as variables. (a) P ¼ 50 kPa;
(b) P ¼ 60 kPa; (c) P ¼ 70 kPa.

4000
3800 experimental value
3600 Chun
3400 Fujita
3200 cal
3000 Herbert
2800
2600
2400
h (W m–2 K)

2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Re
Figure 12. Comparison between the experimental value and empirical value of falling film evaporation (laminar flow).

However, only the influence of the convective heat transfer coefficient on the overall heat transfer
coefficient of the phase change on both sides of the evaporation tube is considered. Therefore, the
amount of heat transfer obtained from the experimental value will be slightly smaller than the
 3000 15
2900 experimental value
2800

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Chun
2700
Fujita
2600
2500 Shmerler
2400 cal
2300
2200
h (W m–2 K)

2100
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400

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1300
1200
1100
1000
5000 5200 5400 5600 5800 6000 6200 6400 6600 6800
Re
Figure 13. Comparison between the experimental value and empirical value of falling film evaporation (turbulent flow).

theoretically calculated value. It can be seen from the figures that the theoretical calculation value and the
experimental value change trend are basically the same, and the error is below 18%.
The values of the condensate obtained by the theoretical calculation and experiment under various
influencing factors were compared, and the results are shown in figures 10 and 11, respectively. From
the two figures, the change experiment under the different variables is basically the same. But the
theoretical calculation values are slightly larger than the experimental values, the numerical deviation
of the condensate in two forms due to the thermal resistance formed by the condensate during film
formation and falling. Comparing the values obtained under each operating variable, the error is
within 15%. It can be seen from figures 12 and 13 that the results of this work are compared with
those of Chun & Seban [13], Herbert & Sterns [14], Fujita & Ueda [15] and Shmerler & Mudawaar
[24] in the laminar and transition regions. Due to the different experimental systems and experimental
conditions, the error is larger. Therefore, the theoretical model for ethanol –water is closer to the
experimental results than the previous model only for water, so the heat transfer model proposed in
this paper is the effective and feasible model.

5. Conclusion
In this paper, the heat transfer coefficient correlation of the multiphase transformation inside and outside
the tube is fitted by numerical simulation and verified by experiments. In order to facilitate the
engineering application, the phase change between the inside and the outside of the evaporator tube
is brought into the heat transfer calculation equation, and the calculation formula of the overall heat
transfer coefficient of the falling film evaporator is obtained.
Calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer quantity in the evaporation tube, it is
found that the feed flow rate and ethanol content in the evaporation tube increase, and the overall heat
transfer coefficient of the equipment increases obviously. The overall heat transfer coefficient decreases
when the heat transfer temperature difference between the inside and outside of the tube increases.
The overall heat transfer of the equipment gradually increases when the feed flow rate, ethanol
content and the temperature difference between the inside and outside of the tube increase. The
change of saturated steam has no significant effect on the overall heat transfer coefficient and heat
transfer quantity.
The overall heat transfer quantity and the overall heat transfer coefficient are obtained by the
theoretical calculations and experiments. The error between the theoretical calculation and experiment
results is within 18%, so the model proposed in this paper is effective and feasible.
 Data accessibility. Data available from the Dryad Digital Repository at: https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.v4g58s8 [25]. 16
Authors’ contributions. K.L. and M.D. carried out the laboratory work, participated in data analysis, carried out sequence

royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos
alignments, participated in the design of the study and drafted the manuscript; J.F. and M.D. carried out the statistical
analyses; K.L. and M.D collected field data; J.F. and M.D. conceived of the study, designed the study and coordinated
the study. K.L. drafted the manuscript. All authors gave final approval for publication.
Competing interests. We declare we have no competing interests.
Funding. We received no funding for this study.
Acknowledgements. We are grateful for the support of the Hebei University of Technology.

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