- CHAPTER TWO -

Revolution – denotes a drastic change in what is established, believed, and embraced by

society  renewal/rebirth of knowledge — new consciousness of knowledge

In fields of science and technology, people who shared revolutionary ideas were often branded
as heretics or outcasts of society (ostracized, imprisoned, and prevented from publishing their
writings)

Nicolaus Copernicus – astronomer of the Renaissance period who challenged the previous
notion about the cosmos led the so-called SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

Pre-Copernican System

Geocentric Model (or Geocentrism)

– description of the universe with the Earth as the center

– popularized by the thinker Ptolemy in 140 AD

Anaximander

– Greek philosopher who drew the first map of the world with the Earth taking shape of a
cylinder floating in the center of the universe in 16th century BC
– believed that the Sun and Moon were hollow rings of fire and that eclipses were the
result of these rings closing

Pythagoras

– a student of Anaximander
– first to suggest that the Earth was a sphere  came up with this conclusion by studying
the constellations and the Earth’s circular shadow on the moon during a lunar eclipse

Plato

– a famous student of Socrates and a follower of the teachings of Pythagoreans

– believed that the cosmos is made up of matter in geometric shapes
– explained that the multiplicity of the orbits were simple circular paths that keep on
repeating inside each other around the Earth. However, he could not make sense of the
retrograde motion of planets in his theorization of the geocentric model

Aristotle

– studied under Plato

– posited that the Earth was at the center of the universe with all other celestial bodies
arranged in concentric crystalline spheres around it  though incorrect, it inspired great
thinkers to search for the truth
Ptolemy

– his version of the geocentric model was a refined explanation behind the movements of
the planets (since people around that time openly accepted the idea that Earth was
unmoving while the Sun, planets, and stars revolved around it)

Nicolaus Copernicus

– “Father of Modern Astronomy”

– formulated the heliocentric model of the universe that triggered a major shift in
worldview  contested the geocentric model

Copernican Heliocentrism

Copernicus

– attended the University of Krakow and studied astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, &
sciences
– apprentice of Domenico Maria de Novara, who introduced him to studies on Johann
Muller’s Epitoma in Almagestum Ptolemaei (Epitome of Ptolemy’s Almagest), and
Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinatricem (Disputations against Divinatory
Astrology).
– acc. to him, the GC model did not explain the occasional backward movement of the
planets that was regarded as the RETROGRADE MOTION
– laid down the principles of his heliocentric model between 1507 and 1515
– finished his research in 1532 but was hesitant to publish his ideas  as a devout
Catholic, he was afraid of judgment and religious objections because the ancient Greek
and biblical teachings supported the geocentric model
– published the book De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres)

Johann Muller’s Epitoma in Almagestum Ptolemaei (Epitome of Ptolemy’s

Almagest) – discusses the foundation of Ptolemy’s studies in astronomy

Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinatricem (Disputations against Divinatory

Astrology) – about planetary models

Heliocentric model

– Sun is the center of the known universe

– Earth’s rotation causes the rising and setting of the Sun and the seasons, and the
movements of the stars are caused by the Earth’s revolution around it.
– Movement of the Earth thru space is what sometimes causes the retrograde motion of
planets and claimed that planets traveled in perfect circles
– only few took interest in this model and many rejected it because it went against popular
belief and contradicted Aristotelian phsyics (most people subscribed to the idea that
mathematical calculations were the primary means of understanding celestial bodies)
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres) – challenged the perception regarding the universe and detailed the HModel

Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei – scientists who worked to validate
the HModel after almost a hundred years despite the opposition of the church

Tycho Brahe

– although inspired by the Copernican Model, he rejected the idea that the Earth is not the
center of the universe cause it defies the laws of physics that were taught & accepted
– proposed his own model, GEOHELIOCENTRISM or TYCHONIC SYSTEM

Geoheliocentrism (or Tychonic System)

– combined the Copernican and Ptolemaic systems

– geometrically identical to that of Copernicus, but the Earth is the fixed center with Sun
and the Moon orbiting the Earth, and the other planets revolving around the Sun

Johannes Kepler

– argued against Copernicus’ claim that planets moved in a perfect circle

– proposed his LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTIONS in 1609, including the theory that
planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus

Galileo Galilei

– Italian thinker best known for his works in the field of astronomy, cosmology,
philosophy, mathematics, and physics
– published a book that further reinforced the claim that the Earth orbited around the Sun
– Via a telescope, he observed the movements of the Moon, Venus, and Jupiter and its
satellites
– First person to observe the craters of the moon using the telescope, disproving the idea
that it is a perfectly smooth sphere
– Even directed his telescope at the Sun, which led to the discovery of the existence of
sunspots
– Did not provide solid proof for the HModel but they eventually led to its acceptance
– Persecuted and put on trial by the Inquisition in Rome  found guilty of heresy and
compelled to say that all his findings were wrong

Sir Isaac Newton

– First one to provide mathematical equations that could prove what Copernicus, Brahe,
and Kepler tried to explain
– published Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

– Discusses the Laws of Motion and Kepler’s laws of Universal Gravitation, placing
helicentrism as the foundation of his theoretical claims
Key Figures of the Scientific Revolution

1. Giordano Bruno – martyred Italian monk who spread Copernicus’ theory of a

heliocentric and scientific universe
2. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek – “Father of Microbiology” – discovered bacteria
3. Robert Boyle – “Father of Modern Chemistry” for his extensive experiment and use of
the scientific method
4. Francis Bacon – staunch supporter of the empirical method and inductive reasoning
which provide that people understand truths according to their own experience
5. Rene Descartes – French mathematician and philosopher who practiced deductive
reasoning and the scientific method in solving problems whose idea of the human
consciousness dominated until the 20th century

DARWINIAN REVOLUTION

Darwinian Revolution – drew out for biology the notion of nature as an orderly system
governed by natural laws, where the origin of humanity itself could be explained

Pre-Darwinian Belief

Evolution – change in characteristics of a species over several generations, relying on the idea
that all species are related and gradually change over time

Creationism – view that the universe originated from “specific acts of divine creation”

Carolus Linnaeus

— leading botanist of the 18th century whose binomial classification system is still being
used today
— subscribed to the Judeo-Christian version of creationism and saw their work as mere
representation of the unchanging order of life created by God

England and France – places in late 18th century where theorizations on the concept of
evolution quietly came to life

Erasmus Darwin

— grandfather of the well-known 19th century naturalist, Charles Darwin

— physician and a discreet evolutionist (then called a transmutationist) who believed
evolution occurred in living things including humans  he lacked the idea as to what
drove the change
— published Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life

Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life

— contained his theories about evolution and suggested that the Earth could have been
much older than the timeline based on biblical origin
— served as Charles Darwin’s springboard for his theory of evolution
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Charles Darwin

— entered Edinburgh University to study medicine at the age of 16 -> there, he discovered
his inclination toward the natural sciences and worked with the transmutationist,
ROBERT EDMOND GRANT
— accompanied Grant by Darwin in collecting sea slugs and sea pens on seashores
— First one to publish a book with compelling evidence on the concept or theory that
species evolve over time  “Father of Evolution”
— spent the rest of his life researching until his death on April 19, 1882 in his family home
in Down House, London

Robert Edmond Grant

— radical evolutionist and a follower of the French biologist, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

— Darwin’s mentor  taught him the growth and relationships of marine invertebrates

Adam Sedgwick and John Stevens Henslow – prominent individuals in the fields of
natural science who influenced Darwin

Sedgwick and Darwin – traveled to Wales for geological research and mapped the strata in
the area in the summer of 1931

Henslow and Darwin

— December 27, 1831 - went on a voyage to Tierra del Fuego, located in the southern tip of
South America, aboard HMS Beagle with Captain ROBERT FITZROY to survey the world
— Darwin was able to collect various specimens (i.e. birds, plants, and fossils)  able to
study principles of botany, geology, and zoology thru close observation, research, and
experimentation of such specimens

Journal of Researches

— where Darwin wrote his findings upon his return to England in 1836
— late published as part of Robert Fitzroy’s narrative of the voyage entitled Zoology of the
Voyage of the HMS Beagle

The Voyager of the Beagle – Darwin’s account of the voyage published in 1839

Cambridge Network – gave Darwin £1000 treasury grant which he used to employ experts
and publish their descriptions of the many specimens he collected in his travels

Naturalists – believed that living things were created since the beginning of time or over time
-> species did not change and remained the same throughout time

Similarities of different species in different parts of the globe and their variations in specific
areas led Darwin to believe that they evolved from common ancestors
Natural Selection – process where species that adapt to the changing environment survive
whereas those that don’t simply die out

Linnean Society – to whom Darwin presented the concept of evolution in a letter that was
read in a meeting in 1858

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection – published on November 24,

1859

Richard Owen – anatomist who determined that Darwin’s Uruguay River skull came from a
Toxodon and the Pampas fossils were not rhinoceroses and mastodons but extinct armadillos,
anteaters, and sloths

Toxodon – hippopotamus-sized ancestor of the South American capybara

John Gould

— ornithologist who disclosed that the bird specimens that Darwin brought from Galapagos
were all ground finches that adapted differently
— also determined that the Galapagos mockingbirds were composed of 3 species that are
unique to each island

Cambridge clerics – declared Darwin’s theory as bestial heresy that could corrupt mankind
and destroy the spirituality of man

Evolutionary Science and Philosophy

Darwinism (or Darwin’s theory of biological evolution) – paved the way not only for
developments in evolutionary biology but also served as the foundation for the philosophy of
biology

Evolutionary Biology – subdiscipline of biological sciences that has to do with origin of life as
well as diversification and adaption of life forms through time, emerged nearly a century after
Darwinian revolution when several fields of biological research (i.e. genetics, paleontology,
taxonomy, and ecology came to be understood to be related)

Julian Huxley

– leading figure of the mid-2oth century in the field of evolutionary biology

– coined the relationship of evolutionary biology into a term called MODERN SYNTHESIS
(or Neo-Darwinism)

Modern Synthesis (or Neo-Darwinism) – reconciles Darwin’s theory of evolution with

GREGOR MENDEL’s ideas on heredity on a joint framework

Gregor Mendel – did not believe in evolution cause of his strong religious conviction (on the
other hand, Darwin did not read Mendel’s paper on his genetic research)
Mendel’s theory of inheritance – solved the problem of genetic variation which Darwin
failed to address

Philosophy of biology

– branch of philosophy of science that has to do with biology

– makes biology relevant to classic issues in the philosophy of science such as causation
and explanation, progress, reductionism, and chance
– emerged as an independent field of philosophy between the 1960s and 1970s when
scientists increasingly paid attention to biology due to Neo-Darwinism and the discovery
of the DNA structure

FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

Pre-Freudian Psychology

Late 1870s in Germany – psychology as a branch of philosophy emerged and eventually

developed into an independent scientific field

Wilhelm Wundt – founded the first laboratory dedicated to psychological research and
conducted experimental studies

Early figures in the field:

1. Hermann Ebbinghaus (memory)

2. William James (pragmatism)
3. Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning)

Descartes’s Paradigm (or Cartesian Paradigm)

– consists of two components: the MIND-MIND PROBLEM (a view of the mind in relation
to itself), and the MIND-BODY PROBLEM (a view of the mind in relation to the body)
– MIND is a mere non-physical thing that interacts with the physical boy through the brain
as the medium
– psychologists in the early development of psychology as a field of science had to work
within this paradigm
– came under pressure in the 19th century as studies of disorders caused by brain lesions
showed that the mental faculty for language is connected to a region between the ears
that contain a ball of nerve tissue

Rene Descartes – believed that humans are immediately aware of their own cognitive states
and process out of necessity, and such self-aware mind is distinct from the body

Sigismund “Sigmund” Freud

– “all cognitive processes are unconscious”  behavior is determined by unconscious

motivations and biological & instinctive drives  support the idea that human beings
have no real ability to make choices and control life events
 – initially interested in lab work concerning biological and anatomical subjects, but his
interest shifted from microscopic studies to living patients
– rejected the notion that humans are essentially rational animals and should use reason
in controlling their emotions and drives
– “Father of Psychoanalysis”

Psychoanalysis – Freud’s book that detailed the methodology of treating mental illnesses

Drives (or Instincts) – recurring concepts in Freud’s theories

Two conflicting main instincts:

1. Eros – survival instincts involving basic hunger, thirst, and sexual impulses
2. Thanatos – aggressive and self-destructive instincts driven toward death

Through this, he summarized that humans are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain

Human personality – complex as it has more than a single component

Structures of Personality – theory that describes how people act according to different
systems of personality that function as a whole (how they interact affects an individual’s
behavior)

1. Id – unconscious aspect of the personality that includes untamed instincts, impulses,

and drives; present since birth and operates by the pleasure principle that requires
immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs to avoid feeling anything other
than pleasure; does not mature and resides w/in every individual as he or she ages;
dominant personality structure
2. Ego – responsible for dealing w/ reality; “referee” that balances the needs of the id
against the demands and expectations of society; ruled by the reality principle, which
maintains realistic and logical thinking to satisfy one’s needs in a socially acceptable
manner; controls the id’s impulses together with the superego
3. Superego – judicial structure of the personality that holds all the internalized moral
standards and ideals that are acquired from close relationships, environment, and
society (anchored on one’s established moral standards); works regardless of perceived
consequences or benefits, and often does not maintain the idea of “the end justifies the
means”
i. Ego Ideal (or Ideal Self) – includes the rules and standards for good behavior
one has learned from his or her parents and other figures of authority
ii. Conscience Ego – leaves room for self-evaluation and criticism; ruled by a
reward and punishment system; responsible for the sense of guilt one feels when
acting wrongly according to the superego

Evolution of Freud’s Psychoanalysis

Carl Jung

– known for the development of ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY

 – early supporter of Freud because of their shared belief in the unconscious however he
disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on the role of sexuality in personality and introduced
the concept of COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS
– also coined the terms “INTROVERT” and “EXTROVERT”

Analytical Psychology – branch of psychotherapy

Collective Consciousness – refers to shared social norms, as well as archetypes

Alfred Adler

– rejected Freud’s theory on the psychosexual aspect of personality

– used to work with Freud
– developed his own method called INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY using a holistic approach
to study a person’s character

Individual Psychology – considers a person’s environment as well as the people he interacts

with  extremely relevant in 20th-century counseling and psychiatric strategies

Erik Erickson

– accepted Freud’s psychosexual development theory but modified it as a PSYCHOSOCIAL

THEORY
– suggested that personality develops throughout one’s lifespan
– coined the term “IDENTITY CRISIS”

Psychosexual Development Theory – personality only takes shape during childhood

Psychosocial Theory – in each stage of development, there is a psychosocial task that a

person must master to feel a sense of competence

Erich Fromm

– suggested that personality problems can be traced to conflicts between human needs and
societal demands
– his theory’s emphasis is on the social and cultural influence on human personality